Solar trackerFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search A backyard installation of passive single axis trackers

in winter midday position, tilted toward the south. The tall poles allow walk-under and use of the ground space underneath the panels for plantings that thrive on protection from the int ense midday summer sun at this locationFor solar tracking in plants, see Heliotr opism. For solar telescope tracking, see Telescope. A solar tracker is a generic term used to describe devices that orient various p ayloads toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices. In flat-panel photovoltaic (PV) applications trackers are used to minimize the a ngle of incidence between the incoming light and a photovoltaic panel. This incr eases the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power gener ating capacity. In standard photovoltaic applications, it is estimated that trac kers are used in at least 85% of commercial installations greater than 1MW from 2009 to 2012.[1][2] In concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar thermal (CSP) applicat ions trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP syste ms. The optics in concentrated solar applications accept the direct component of sunlight light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect energy. Tracking systems are found in all concentrator applications because such systems do not produce energy unless oriented closely toward the sun. Contents [hide] 1 Types of solar collector 1.1 Fixed mount 1.2 Trackers 1.2.1 Fixed collector / moving mirror 1.2.2 Moving collector 2 Non-concentrating photovoltaic (PV) trackers 2.1 Accuracy requirements 2.2 Technologies supported 3 Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) trackers 3.1 Accuracy requirements 3.2 Technologies supported 4 Single axis trackers 4.1 Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT) 4.2 Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT) 4.3 Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT) 4.4 Polar aligned single axis trackers (PASAT) 5 Dual axis trackers 5.1 Tip tilt dual axis tracker (TTDAT) 5.2 Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT) 6 Tracker type selection 7 Multi-mirror concentrating PV 8 Drive types 8.1 Active tracker 8.2 Passive tracker 8.3 Chronological tracker 8.4 Manual Tracking 9 Rotating buildings 10 See also 11 Notes and references [edit] Types of solar collectorDifferent types of solar collector and their loca tion (latitude) require different types of tracking mechanism. Solar collectors may be:

non-concentrating flat-panels, usually photovoltaic or hot-water, concentrating systems, of a variety of types. Solar collector mounting systems may be fixed (manually aligned) or tracking. Tr acking systems may be configured as: Fixed collector / moving mirror - i.e. Heliostat Moving collector [edit] Fixed mountDomestic and small-scale commercial photovoltaic and hot-water panels are usually fixed, often flush-mounted on an appropriately facing pitche d roof. Advantages of fixed mount systems (i.e. factors tending to indicate agai nst trackers) include the following: Mechanical simplicity, and hence lower installation and ongoing maintenance cost s. Wind-loading: it is easier and cheaper to provision a sturdy mount; all mounts o ther than fixed flush-mounted panels must be carefully designed having regard to their wind loading due to their greater exposure. Indirect light: approximately 10%[3] of the incident solar radiation is diffuse light, available at any angle of misalignment with the direct sun. Tolerance to misalignment: effective collection area for a flat-panel is relativ ely insensitive to quite high levels of misalignment with the sun see table and diagram at Accuracy Requirements section below for example even a 25 misalignment reduces the direct solar energy collected by less than 10%. Fixed mounts are usually used in conjunction with non-concentrating systems, how ever an important class of non-tracking concentrating collectors, of particular value in the 3rd world, are portable solar cookers. These utilize relatively low levels of concentration, typically around 2 to 8 Suns and are manually aligned. [edit] TrackersEven though a fixed flat-panel can be set to collect a high propo rtion of available noon-time energy, significant power is also available in the early mornings and late afternoons[4] when the misalignment with a fixed panel b ecomes excessive to collect a reasonable proportion of the available energy. For example, even when the Sun is only 10 above the horizon the available energy can already be around half the noon-time energy levels (or even greater depending o n latitude, season, and atmospheric conditions). Thus the primary benefit of a tracking system is to collect solar energy for the longest period of the day, and with the most accurate alignment as the Sun's po sition shifts with the seasons. In addition, the greater the level of concentration employed the more important accurate tracking becomes, because the proportion of energy derived from direct radiation is higher, and the region where that concentrated energy is focused be comes smaller. [edit] Fixed collector / moving mirrorMain article: Heliostat Many collectors cannot be moved, for example high-temperature collectors where t he energy is recovered as hot liquid or gas (e.g. steam). Other examples include direct heating and lighting of buildings and fixed in-built solar cookers, such as Scheffler reflectors. In such cases it is necessary to employ a moving mirro r so that, regardless of where the Sun is positioned in the sky, the Sun's rays are redirected onto the collector. Due to the complicated motion of the Sun across the sky, and the level of precis ion required to correctly aim the Sun's rays onto the target, a heliostat mirror generally employs a dual axis tracking system, with at least one axis mechanize d. In different applications, mirrors may be flat or concave. [edit] Moving collectorTrackers can be grouped into classes by the number and or

ientation of the tracker's axes. Compared to a fixed mount, a single axis tracke r increases annual output by approximately 30%, and a dual axis tracker an addit ional 6%.[5][6] Photovoltaic trackers can be classified into two types: Standard Photovoltaic (P V) Trackers and Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) Trackers. Each of these tracker types can be further categorized by the number and orientation of their axes, th eir actuation architecture and drive type, their intended applications, their ve rtical supports and foundation type. [edit] Non-concentrating photovoltaic (PV) trackersPhotovoltaic panels accept bo th direct and diffuse light from the sky. The panels on a Standard Photovoltaic Trackers always gather the available direct light. The tracking functionality in Standard Photovoltaic Trackers is used to minimize the angle of incidence betwe en incoming light and the photovoltaic panel. This increases the amount of energ y gathered from the direct component of the incoming light. [edit] Accuracy requirements The effective collection area of a flat-panel solar collector varies with the co sine of the misalignment of the panel with the Sun.In non-concentrating flat-pan el systems, the energy contributed by the direct beam drops off with the cosine of the angle between the incoming light and the panel. In addition, the reflecta nce (averaged across all polarizations) is approximately constant for angles of incidence up to around 50, beyond which reflectance degrades rapidly.[7] Direct power lost (%) due to misalignment (angle i ) i Lost i hours[8] Lost 0 0% 15 1 3.4% 1 0.015% 30 2 13.4% 3 0.14% 45 3 30% 8 1% 60 4 >50%[9] 23.4[10] 8.3% 75 5 >75%[9] For example trackers that have accuracies of 5 can deliver greater than 99.6% of the energy delivered by the direct beam plus 100% of the diffuse light. As a res ult, high accuracy tracking is not typically used in non-concentrating PV applic ations. [edit] Technologies supportedThe physics behind standard photovoltaic (PV) track ers works with all standard photovoltaic module technologies. These include all types of crystalline silicon panels (monocrystalline, multicrystalline, polycrys talline) and all types of thin film panels (amorphous silicon, CdTe, CIGS, micro crystalline). [edit] Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) trackersThe optics in CPV modules accept the direct component of the incoming light and therefore must be oriented approp riately to maximize the energy collected. In low concentration applications a po rtion of the diffuse light from the sky can also be captured. The tracking funct ionality in CPV modules is used to orient the optics such that the incoming ligh t is focused to a photovoltaic collector. CPV modules that concentrate in one dimension must be tracked normal to the sun in one axis. CPV modules that concentrate in two dimensions must be tracked norm al to the sun in two axes. [edit] Accuracy requirementsThe physics behind CPV optics requires that tracking accuracy increase as the systems concentration ratio increases. However, for a given concentration, nonimaging optics[11][12] provide the widest possible accep tance angles, which may be used to reduce tracking accuracy. In typical high concentration systems tracking accuracy must be in the 0.1 range

to deliver approximately 90% of the rated power output. In low concentration sys tems, tracking accuracy must be in the 2.0 range to deliver 90% of the rated powe r output. As a result, high accuracy tracking systems are typically used. [edit] Technologies supportedConcentrated Photovoltaic Trackers are used with re fractive and reflective based concentrator systems. There are a range of emergin g photovoltaic cell technologies used in these systems. These range from crystal line silicon based photovoltaic receivers to germanium based triple junction rec eivers. [edit] Single axis trackersSingle axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation. The axis of rotation of single axis trackers is typ ically aligned along a true North meridian. It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms. There are several common implementations of single axis trackers. These include horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), vertical single axis trackers (VSAT), ti lted single axis trackers (TSAT) and polar aligned single axis trackers (PSAT). The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance. [edit] Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT) Horizontal single axis tracker in California Linear horizontal axis tracker in South Korea.The axis of rotation for horizonta l single axis tracker is horizontal with respect to the ground. The posts at eit her end of the axis of rotation of a horizontal single axis tracker can be share d between trackers to lower the installation cost. Field layouts with horizontal single axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that keeping all of the axis of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Appropriate spacing can maximize the ratio of energy production to cost, this be ing dependent upon local terrain and shading conditions and the time-of-day valu e of the energy produced. Backtracking is one means of computing the disposition of panels. Horizontal Trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to t he axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotational ly symmetric around the axis of rotation. Several manufacturers can deliver single axis horizontal trackers. In these, a l ong horizontal tube is supported on bearings mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a North-South line. Panels are mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the sun throug h the day. Manufacturers include Array Technologies, Patriot Solar Group, RayTracker, SunPo wer, ViaSol Energy Solutions, and Zomeworks. [edit] Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT)The axis of rotation for vertical sing le axis trackers is vertical with respect to the ground. These trackers rotate f rom East to West over the course of the day. Such trackers are more effective at high latitudes than are horizontal axis trackers. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to op timize land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to t he nature of the shading over the course of a year.

Vertical single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented at an angle with respect to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a c one that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation. Manufacturers include Ideematec and Meca Solar. [edit] Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT) Single axis trackers with roughly 20 degree tilt at Nellis Air Force Base in Nev ada, USA. The arrays form part of the Nellis Solar Power Plant. Credit: U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Larry E. Reid Jr.All trackers with axes of rotatio n between horizontal and vertical are considered tilted single axis trackers. Tr acker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind profile and decrease the elevated end s height off the ground. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary losses and to optimize land utilization. With backtracking, they can be packed without shading perpendicular to their axi s of rotation at any density. However, the packing parallel to their axis of rot ation is limited by the tilt angle and the latitude. Tilted single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented paral lel to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is ro tationally symmetric around the axis of rotation. [edit] Polar aligned single axis trackers (PASAT)One scientifically interesting variation of a tilted single axis tracker is a polar aligned single axis tracker s (PASAT). In this particular implementation of a Tilted Single Axis Tracker the tilt angle is equal to the latitude of the installation. This aligns the tracke r axis of rotation with the earth s axis of rotation. These are rarely deployed be cause of their high wind profile. [edit] Dual axis trackersDual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes are typically normal to one another. The axis t hat is fixed with respect to the ground can be considered a primary axis. The ax is that is referenced to the primary axis can be considered a secondary axis. There are several common implementations of dual axis trackers. They are classif ied by the orientation of their primary axes with respect to the ground. Two com mon implementations are tip-tilt dual axis trackers (TTDAT) and azimuth-altitude dual axis trackers (AADAT). The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance. Dual axis trackers typically have modules oriented parall el to the secondary axis of rotation. Dual axis trackers allow for optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow the sun vertically and horizontally. No matter where the sun is in the s ky, dual axis trackers are able to angle themselves to be in direct contact with the sun. [edit] Tip tilt dual axis tracker (TTDAT)A tip tilt dual axis tracker has its primar y axis horizontal to the ground. The secondary axis is then typically normal to the primary axis. The posts at either end of the primary axis of rotation of a t ip tilt dual axis tracker can be shared between trackers to lower installation cos ts. Field layouts with tip tilt dual axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geome try means that keeping the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one anoth

er. In addition, with backtracking, they can be packed without shading at any densit y.[clarification needed] The axes of rotation of tip tilt dual axis trackers are typically aligned either a long a true North meridian or an east west line of latitude. It is possible to a lign them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms. Manufactu rers include Patriot Solar Group. Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker - 2 axis solar tracker, Toledo, Spain. Point focus parabolic dish with Stirling system. The horizontally rotating azimu th table mounts the vertical frames on each side which hold the elevation trunni ons for the dish and its integral engine/generator mount.[edit] Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT)An azimuth altitude dual axis tracker has its primary ax is vertical to the ground. The secondary axis is then typically normal to the pr imary axis. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to op timize land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to t he nature of the shading over the course of a year. This mount is used as a large telescope mount owing to its structure and dimensi ons. One axis is a vertical pivot shaft or horizontal ring mount, that allows th e device to be swung to a compass point. The second axis is a horizontal elevati on pivot mounted upon the azimuth platform. By using combinations of the two axi s, any location in the upward hemisphere may be pointed. Such systems may be ope rated under computer control according to the expected solar orientation, or may use a tracking sensor to control motor drives that orient the panels toward the sun. This type of mount is also used to orient parabolic reflectors that mount a Stirling engine to produce electricity at the device.[13] [edit] Tracker type selectionThe selection of tracker type is dependent on many factors including installation size, electric rates, government incentives, land constraints, latitude, and local weather. Horizontal single axis trackers are typically used for large distributed generat ion projects and utility scale projects. The combination of energy improvement a nd lower product cost and lower installation complexity results in compelling ec onomics in large deployments. In addition the strong afternoon performance is pa rticularly desirable for large grid-tied photovoltaic systems so that production will match the peak demand time. Horizontal single axis trackers also add a sub stantial amount of productivity during the spring and summer seasons when the su n is high in the sky. The inherent robustness of their supporting structure and the simplicity of the mechanism also result in high reliability which keeps main tenance costs low. Since the panels are horizontal, they can be compactly placed on the axle tube without danger of self-shading and are also readily accessible for cleaning. A vertical axis trackers pivots only about a vertical axle, with the panels eith er vertical, at a fixed, adjustable, or tracked elevation angle. Such trackers w ith fixed or (seasonably) adjustable angles are suitable for high latitudes, whe re the apparent solar path is not especially high, but which leads to long days in summer, with the sun travelling through a long arc. Dual axis trackers are typically used in smaller residential installations and l ocations with very high government Feed In Tariffs. [edit] Multi-mirror concentrating PV

Reflective mirror concentrator unitsThis device uses multiple mirrors in a horiz ontal plane to reflect sunlight upward to a high temperature photovoltaic or oth er system requiring concentrated solar power. Structural problems and expense ar e greatly reduced since the mirrors are not significantly exposed to wind loads. Through the employment of a patented mechanism, only two drive systems are requ ired for each device. Because of the configuration of the device it is especiall y suited for use on flat roofs and at lower latitudes. The units illustrated eac h produce approximately 200 peak DC watts. A multiple mirror reflective system combined with a central power tower is emplo yed at the Sierra SunTower, located in Lancaster, California. This generation pl ant operated by eSolar is scheduled to begin operations on August 5, 2009. This system, which uses multiple heliostats in a north-south alignment, uses pre-fabr icated parts and construction as a way of decreasing startup and operating costs . [edit] Drive types[edit] Active tracker Slewing driveActive trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a controller responding to the solar direction. In order to control and manage the movement of these massive structures special slewing drives are designed and rigorously tested. Counter rotating slewing drives sandwiching a fixed angle support can be applied to create a "multi-axis" tracking method which eliminates rotation relative to longitudinal alignment. This method if placed on a column or pillar it will gene rate more electricity than fixed PV and its PV array will never rotate into a pa rking lot drive lane. It will also allow for maximum solar generation in virtual ly any parking lot lane/row orientation, including circular or curvilinear. Active two-axis trackers are also used to orient heliostats - movable mirrors th at reflect sunlight toward the absorber of a central power station. As each mirr or in a large field will have an individual orientation these are controlled pro grammatically through a central computer system, which also allows the system to be shut down when necessary. Light-sensing trackers typically have two photosensors, such as photodiodes, con figured differentially so that they output a null when receiving the same light flux. Mechanically, they should be omnidirectional (i.e. flat) and are aimed 90 degrees apart. This will cause the steepest part of their cosine transfer functi ons to balance at the steepest part, which translates into maximum sensitivity. For more information about controllers see active daylighting. Since the motors consume energy, one wants to use them only as necessary. So ins tead of a continuous motion, the heliostat is moved in discrete steps. Also, if the light is below some threshold there would not be enough power generated to w arrant reorientation. This is also true when there is not enough difference in l ight level from one direction to another, such as when clouds are passing overhe ad. Consideration must be made to keep the tracker from wasting energy during cl oudy periods. [edit] Passive tracker Passive tracker head in Spring/Summer tilt position with panels on light blue ra ck pivoted to morning position against stop. Dark blue objects are hydraulic dam pers.Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is drive n to one side or the other (by solar heat creating gas pressure) to cause the tr acker to move in response to an imbalance. As this is a non-precision orientatio n it is unsuitable for certain types of concentrating photovoltaic collectors bu t works fine for common PV panel types. These will have viscous dampers to preve

nt excessive motion in response to wind gusts. Shader/reflectors are used to ref lect early morning sunlight to "wake up" the panel and tilt it toward the sun, w hich can take nearly an hour. The time to do this can be greatly reduced by addi ng a self-releasing tiedown that positions the panel slightly past the zenith (s o that the fluid does not have to overcome gravity) and using the tiedown in the evening. (A slack-pulling spring will prevent release in windy overnight condit ions.) The term "passive tracker" is also used for photovoltaic modules that include a hologram behind stripes of photovoltaic cells. That way, sunlight passes through the transparent part of the module and reflects on the hologram. This allows su nlight to hit the cell from behind, thereby increasing the module's efficiency. Also, the module does not have to move since the hologram always reflects sunlig ht from the correct angle towards the cells. [edit] Chronological trackerA chronological tracker counteracts the Earth's rota tion by turning at an equal rate as the earth, but in the opposite direction. Ac tually the rates aren't quite equal, because as the earth goes around the sun, t he position of the sun changes with respect to the earth by 360 every year or 365 .24 days. A chronological tracker is a very simple yet potentially a very accura te solar tracker specifically for use with a polar mount (see above). The drive method may be as simple as a gear motor that rotates at a very slow average rate of one revolution per day (15 degrees per hour). In theory the tracker may rota te completely, assuming there is enough clearance for a complete rotation, and a ssuming that twisting wires are not an issue. [edit] Manual TrackingIn some developing nations, drives have been replaced by o perators who adjust the trackers. This has the benefits of robustness, having st aff available for maintenance and creating employment for the population in the vicinity of the site. [edit] Rotating buildings Gemini House rotates in its entirety and the solar panels rotate independently, allowing control of the natural heating from the sun. ReVolt House, TU Delft's entry to Solar Decathlon Europe 2012.This cylindrical h ouse in Austria (latitude above 45 degrees north) rotates in its entirety to tra ck the sun, with vertical panels mounted on one side of the building. This Gemin i House is a unique example of a vertical axis tracker. ReVolt House is a rotating, floating house designed by TU Delft students for the Solar Decathlon Europe competition in Madrid. The house would be realized in Se ptember 2012. A closed faade turns itself towards the sun in summer to prevent th e interior space from direct heat gains. In winter, the glass faade faces the sun to get direct sunlight in the house. [edit] See also Renewable energy portal Energy portal Sustainable development portal Air mass coefficient Concentrated photovoltaics Heliostat Photovoltaics Solar energy Sun path [edit] Notes and references1.^ http://www.redorbit.com/news/business/1580656/cus tomers_recognize_the_power_of_solar_tracking_by_selecting_raytracker/index.html 2.^ http://solar.coolerplanet.com/News/4080902-tracking-systems-vital-to-solar-s uccess.aspx 3.^ 900 W/m2 direct out of 1000 W/m2 total as per Reference Solar Spectral Irrad iance: Air Mass 1.5 NREL, retrieved 1 May 2011

4.^ Table at Air mass coefficient 5.^ Gay, CF and Wilson, JH and Yerkes, JW (1982). "Performance advantages of two -axis tracking for large flat-plate photovoltaic energy systems". Conf. Rec. IEE E Photovoltaic Spec. Conf 16: 1368. Bibcode 1982pvsp.conf.1368G. 6.^ King, D.L. and Boyson, W.E. and Kratochvil, J.A. (May 2002). "Analysis of fa ctors influencing the annual energy production of photovoltaic systems". Photovo ltaic Specialists Conference, 2002. Conference Record of the Twenty-Ninth IEEE: 1356 1361. doi:10.1109/PVSC.2002.1190861. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all. jsp?arnumber=1190861. 7.^ For example Figure 6 (Si+SiO2 SLAR) at Bio-mimetic nanostructured surfaces f or near-zero reflection sunrise to sunset, Stuart A. Boden, Darren M. Bagnall, U niversity of Southampton, retrieved 5-June-2011 8.^ Hours of rotation away from a time (e.g. noon) when the collector is accurat ely aligned. 9.^ a b Greater due to higher reflectance at high angles of incidence. 10.^ Maximum seasonal variation (at summer or winter solstice), as compared with accurate alignment at equinox. 11.^ Julio Chaves, Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, CRC Press, 2008 [ISBN 9781420054293] 12.^ Roland Winston et al.,, Nonimaging Optics, Academic Press, 2004 [ISBN 978-0 127597515] 13.^ http://www.sandia.gov/news/resources/releases/2004/renew-energy-batt/Stirli ng.html

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