Linear algebra homework guide for systems of equations

Linear Algebra Homework and Study Guide
Phil R. Smith, Ph.D.

August 22, 2011
Homework Problem Sets Organized by Learning Outcomes
Test I: Systems of Linear Equations; Matrices
Lesson 1
An equation of n variables x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
is said to be linear if it is in the form
a
1
x
1
+ a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
= b where
a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
and b are real number
constants.
1. Give examples of linear equations using the denition.
Generate at least three examples of linear equations on your own
and write them down in a list.
2. Distinguish linear equations from nonlinear equations. A linear combination of unknowns
(or variables) is the weighted sum of
the unknowns, each term of which is
the product of one real number and
one unknown. For example, 3x + 5y,
2x
1
3x
2
+5x
3
, and ax + by + cz (with
a, b, c real-valued constants) are linear
combinations of x, y, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
,
and x, y, z respectively. A linear
combination of unknowns set equal
to a constant is said to be a linear
equation. Thus, the following are linear
equations: 3x + 5y = 11, 2x
1
3x
2
+
5x
3
= 3, and ax + by + cz + d = 0
(a) Which of the following are linear equations in x, y, and z?
i. x
2
3y +5z = 31
ii. xyz = 12
iii. 2x 3z = 2
(b) Which of the following are linear equations in x
1
, x
2
, and x
3
?
i. 2x
1
1
3
x
2
+
5x
3
= 1
ii. x
1
= 5x
2
+7x
3
iii. x
1
+ x
1
2
+12x
3
= 4
iv. x
1
+5x
2
+ x
1
x
3
= 8
v. x
3/5
1
+2x
2
4x
3
= 11
vi. x
1
+
2x
2
+
2
3
x
3
= 5
1/3
(c) If k is a real-valued constant, which of the following are linear
equations?
i. x
1
x
2
+ x
3
= sin k
ii. kx
1
1
k
x
2
= 10
iii. 2
k
x
1
+7x
2
x
3
= 0
3. Write solutions sets to linear equations using standard mathe-
matical notation, including parametric notation for linear equa-
tions with an innite number of solutions. The solution set of a linear equation is
a list or description of the numbers that
make the linear equation true. (a) Find the solution set of the following linear equations.
i. 5x 7y = 4
ii. 3x
1
5x
2
+4x
3
= 7
iii. 3x
1
8x
2
+2x
3
x
4
+4x
5
= 0
(b) Find a linear equation in x and y that has the general solution
x = 5 +2t, y = t.
linear algebra homework and study guide 2
(c) Show that x = s, y =
1
2
s
5
2
is also a general solution of the
equation found in problem 3(b) above.
4. Explain the interconnections between the terms linear combina-
tion, linear equation, variable, unknown, and solution set.
Create a diagram showing the relationships among the following
concepts: linear combination, linear equation, variable, unknown, and
solution set.
Figure 1: Example concept map. Major
concepts are represented by squares,
rectangles, circles, or ovals. Connections
between concepts are represented with
labeled line segments or labeled arrows.
Lesson 2
1. Give examples of systems of linear equations based on the de-
nition.
Generate several examples of linear systems and write them down
in a list.
2. Recognize and translate among notations for list, column, and
row vectors.
Complete the table of equivalent vectors below with the appropri-
ate list, column, or row vectors.
(a) u = (5, 3, 2) = = .
(b) v = =
_
_
2
8
16
_
_ = .
(c) w = = =
_
7 13 19
_
.
(d) r = (a, b, c, d, e) = = .
(e) x = = =
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
6
x
7
_
.
3. Recognize and translate among formats for writing linear sys-
tems. A system of linear equations:
_
2x +3y = 6
x + y = 1
A matrix equation Ax = b:
_
2 3
1 1
_ _
x
y
_
=
_
6
1
_
A column vector equation
xc
1
+ yc
2
= b:
x
_
2
1
_
+ y
_
3
1
_
=
_
6
1
_
An augmented matrix
_
A[b
:
_
2 3 6
1 1 1
_
In the problems below, a linear system has been described as either
a system of linear equations, a matrix equation, a column vector
equation, or an augmented matrix. Rewrite the each system below
in each of the remaining three formats.
(a)
_
_
2 0 2 1
3 0 7 3
6 1 1 0
_
_
(b)
_
_
1 1 0
2 1 8
7 2 3
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_ =
_
_
9
10
3
_
_
(c) m
_
_
1
2
6
_
_ + n
_
_
2
5
3
_
_ + p
_
_
3
2
1
_
_ =
_
_
6
4
2
_
_
(d)
2y
1
+ 3y
2
+ 5y
3
+ 7y
4
= 5
y
1
+ 5y
3
= 11
y
1
+ 5y
2
+ 2y
3
y
4
=
1
2
24y
2
+ 21y
4
= 15
4. State the denitions of inconsistent and consistent linear sys-
tems.
Write the denitions in your own words from memory. Be precise.
5. Illustrate using two-dimensional graphs linear systems with no
solutions, one solution, and an innite number of solutions.
Draw three 2-D graphs, one for each case.
6. Identify the effects that coefcients have on solutions to lin-
ear systems, specically how they can determine whether the
system has no solutions, one solution, or an innite number of
solutions.
(a) For which value(s) of the constant k does the system
x y = 5
2x 2y = k
have no solutions? Exactly one solution? Innitely many solu-
tions? Explain your reasoning.
(b) Consider the system of equations
x + y + 2z = a
x + z = b
2x + y + 3z = c
Show that for this system to be consistent, the constants a, b,
and c must satisfy c = a + b.
(c) For which value(s) of the constant a does the system
x + 2y 3z = 4
3x y + 5z = 2
4x + y + (a
2
14)z = a +2
have no solutions? Exactly one solution? Innitely many solu-
tions? Explain your reasoning.
Lesson 3
1. Write an arbitrary system of equations in general form. An arbitrary system of 3 lin-
ear equations in 4 unknowns:
_
_
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ a
13
x
3
+ a
14
x
4
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ a
23
x
3
+ a
24
x
4
= b
2
a
31
x
1
+ a
32
x
2
+ a
33
x
3
+ a
34
x
4
= b
3
An arbitrary system of m lin-
ear equations in n unknowns:
_
_
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
An arbitrary augmented matrix of
m linear equations in n unknowns:
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
b
1
a
21
a
22
a
2n
b
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
a
mn
b
m
_
_
Write the system for r linear equations in s unknowns. Let the
constant c be the coefcient of the unknowns and let d be the
constant that follows the = sign.
2. Write an arbitrary augmented matrix in general form.
Write the augmented matrix for r linear equations in s unknowns.
Let the constant c be the coefcient of the unknowns and let d be
the constant that follows the = sign.
3. State the three elementary row operations.
Write a description of the row operations in your own words from
memory.
4. Review: Solve a 3-equation in 3-unknowns linear system using
intermediate algebra methods.
Solve the following system using the methods you learned in
intermediate algebra:
_
_
x y z = 1
3x y + z = 1
x 2y z = 2
5. Gauss-Jordan by hand: Solve a 3-equation in 3-unknowns linear
system using elementary row operations and the Gauss-Jordan
elimination algorithm.
Solve the following system using elementary row operations and
the Gauss-Jordan elimination algorithm:
_
_
x y z = 1
3x y + z = 1
x 2y z = 2
6. Technology - RREF command: Use technology to solve a 3-
equation in 3-unknowns linear system.
Solve the following system using a graphing calculator or other
technology:
_
_
x y z = 1
3x y + z = 1
x 2y z = 2
7. Determine whether a row of an augmented matrix has a leading
1 or not. A zero row is a row of a matrix in
which all the entries are zero.
A nonzero row is matrix row that
contains at least one nonzero entry.
The rst nonzero element of a matrix
row is called a leading coefcient.
If the leading coefcient is a 1, then it is
called a leading 1 or pivot.
Give three examples of row vectors with leading 1s and three rows
without.
8. State the three requirements for an augmented matrix to be
considered in row-echelon form (REF).
A matrix is said to be in row echelon
format (REF) if the rst three of the
following conditions are met and in
reduced row echelon format (RREF) if
all four of the following conditions are
met:
(a) If there are zero rows in the matrix,
they are grouped at the bottom of
the matrix.
(b) If a matrix row is nonzero, then its
rst nonzero entry is a 1.
(c) After the rst, the leading 1 of each
nonzero row occurs to the right of
the leading entry of the previous
row.
(d) In each column that contains a
leading 1, all entries in the column
above and below the leading 1 are
zeros.
In your own words and from memory, write the three require-
ments for an REF matrix.
9. State the four requirements for a matrix to be considered in
reduced row-echelon form (RREF).
In your own words and from memory, write the four requirements
for an RREF matrix.
10. Determine whether a matrix is in row-echelon form only (REF
only), reduced row-echelon form (RREF), or neither.
(a)
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
(b)
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
(c)
_
_
1 2 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
(d)
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
(e)
_
_
1 5 2
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
(f)
_
_
1 3 4
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
(g)
_
_
1 4 3
0 1 1
0 0 0
_
_
(h)
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
(i)
_
_
1 0 3 1
0 1 2 4
_
_
(j)
_
_
1 7 5 5
0 1 3 2
_
_
(k)
_
_
1 0 0 5
0 0 1 3
0 1 0 4
_
_
(l)
_
_
1 2 0 3 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
(m)
_
_
1 3 0 2 0
1 0 2 2 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
11. Given the RREF matrix for a system of linear equations, solve
(read off) the solutions and write them in standard solution
notation.
The augmented matrices shown below have reduced by row oper-
ations to RREF. Solve each system.
(a)
_
_
1 0 0 3
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 7
_
_
(b)
_
_
1 0 0 7 8
0 1 0 3 2
0 0 1 1 5
_
_
(c)
_
_
1 3 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
(d)
_
_
1 6 0 0 3 2
0 0 1 0 4 7
0 0 0 1 5 8
0 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
(e)
_
_
1 0 0 9
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0
_
_
12. Compare and contrast equivalent mathematical denitions.
Consider the following alternative denition of REF: A matrix is
said to be in row echelon form if each of its nonzero rows has more
leading zeros than the previous row. Is this denition of row echelon
form that same as the one you were given in class? If not, modify
this denition so that it is the same.
Lesson 4
1. Apply the Gauss-Jordan elimination algorithm.
(a) The linear system
_
_
x + y + z = 2
2x 2y z = 2
3x + y 2z = 2
is being solved with the
Gauss-Jordan algorithm. For each step of the algorithm, state
the elementary row operation(s) that generated the step. Use
codes like R
1
R
3
,
1
2
R
3
R
3
, and 12R
1
+ R
4
R
4
to
represent elementary row operations.
i.
_
_
1 1 1 2
2 2 1 2
3 1 2 2
_
_
ii.
_
_
1 1 1 2
0 4 3 2
0 2 5 8
_
_
iii.
_
_
1 1 1 2
0 1
3
4
1
2
0 2 5 8
_
_
iv.
_
_
1 1 1 2
0 1
3
4
1
2
0 0
7
2
7
_
_
v.
_
_
1 1 1 2
0 1
3
4
1
2
0 0 1 2
_
_
vi.
_
_
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2
_
_
vii.
_
_
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2
_
_
(b) The augmented matrix below is in the middle of the Gauss-
Jordan elimination algorithm. Describe the next three row oper-
ations. Theres no need to actually perform the row operations;
just describe them using elementary row operation codes like
2R
1
+ R
3
R
3
.
_
_
1 2 1 2 4 3 11
0 3 5 1 2 4 6
0 0 1 4 4 4 5
0 0 0 4 3 1 4
_
_
(c) Solve each system with the Gauss-Jordan elimination algorithm.
Document your transformations from one matrix to another
with elementary row operation codes like
3
4
R
2
R
2
.
i.
x
1
+ x
2
+2x
3
= 8
x
1
2x
2
+3x
3
= 1
3x
1
7x
2
+4x
3
= 10
ii.
2b +3c = 1
3a +6b 3c = 2
6a +6b +3c = 5
iii.
2x
1
3x
2
= 2
2x
1
+ x
2
= 1
3x
1
+2x
2
= 1
iv.
5x
1
2x
2
+6x
3
= 0
2x
1
+ x
2
+3x
3
= 1
2. Solve a linear system by learning the appropriate keystrokes on
a graphing/symbolic calculator.
To solve
_
1 1 1
1 1 3
_
using a TI-89
calculator, enter rref([1, 1, 1; 1, -1, 3]).
Enter the rref function by selecting
Matrix from the menu (by pressing 2nd
MATH 4), followed by selection of rref
from the menu (by pressing 4). Then
enter the matrix. Note that entries in
each row are separated by commas, and
each row is separated by a semicolon.
Solve each system with a graphing/symbolic calculator. Write
the augmented matrix that was entered in the calculator, then
transcribe the resulting RREF matrix from your calculator screen,
followed by a statement of the solution in usual mathematical
form.
(a)
x y +2z w = 1
2x + y 2z 2w = 2
x +2y 4z + w = 1
3x 3w = 3
(b)
3x
1
+2x
2
x
3
= 15
5x
1
+3x
2
+2x
3
= 0
3x
1
+ x
2
+3x
3
= 11
6x
1
4x
2
+2x
3
= 30
(c)
x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
4x
4
= 1
x
1
+3x
2
+7x
3
+2x
4
= 2
x
1
12x
2
11x
3
16x
4
= 5
3. Generate and solve systems of linear equations from a variety of
mathematical contexts.
(a) Solve the following system for x, y, and z.
1
x
+
2
y

4
z
= 1
2
x
+
3
y
+
8
z
= 0
1
x
+
9
y

10
z
= 5
(b) The following points lie on the cubic equation y = ax
3
+ bx
2
+
cx + d: (0, 10), (1, 7), (3, 11), (4, 14). Find the coefcients a,
b, c, and d and write the equation for the curve.
(c) The following points lie on the circle ax
2
+ay
2
+bx +cy +d = 0:
(2, 7), (4, 5), and (4, 3). Find the coefcients a, b, c, and d
and write the equation for the circle.
Lesson 5
1. Dene a trivial solution to a system of linear equations. In mathematics, the word trivial is
used to describe a solution or an
example of mathematical structure
that is ridiculously simple and/or
immediately obvious. For example,
it takes no virtually no effort to see
that x = 0, y = 0 is a solution to
3x +2y = 0 but more effort is required
for nontrivial solutions like x = 2, y =
3 and x =
1
3
, y =
1
2
.
From memory and in your own words, state the denition of a
trivial solution to a linear system of equations.
2. Dene a nontrivial solution to a system of linear equations.
From memory and in your own words, state the denition of a
nontrivial solution to a linear system of equations
3. Give an example of a trivial solution.
Write a trivial solution for a system with 8 unknowns.
4. Give an example of a nontrivial solution.
Write a nontrivial solution for a system with 7 unknowns.
5. Give an example of a homogeneous system of linear equations.
Write a specic homogeneous system of 3 equations in 4 un-
knowns.
6. Determine whether a homogeneous system has innitely many
solutions using the Number of Solutions to a Homogeneous
System of Equations Theorem. Number of Solutions to a Homoge-
neous System of Equations Theorem.
A homogeneous system of linear
equations with more unknowns than
equations has innitely many solutions.
(a) Determine by inspection (i.e., no calculations with paper and
pencil, or calculator) which of the following homogeneous
systems have nontrivial solutions.
i.
2x
1
3x
2
+ 4x
3
x
4
= 0
7x
1
+ x
2
8x
3
+ 9x
4
= 0
2x
1
+ 8x
2
+ x
3
x
4
= 0
ii.
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
= 0
x
2
8x
3
= 0
4x
3
= 0
iii.
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ a
13
x
3
= 0
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ a
23
x
3
= 0
iv.
3x
1
2x
2
= 0
6x
1
4x
2
= 0
(b) Solve the following homogeneous systems of linear equations
by any method.
i.
2x
1
+ x
2
+ 3x
3
= 0
x
1
+ 2x
2
= 0
x
2
+ x
3
= 0
ii.
3x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 0
5x
1
x
2
+ x
3
x
4
= 0
iii.
2x y 3z = 0
x +2y 3z = 0
x + y +4z = 0
iv.
v +3w 2x = 0
2u + v 4w +3x = 0
2u +3v +2w x = 0
4u 3v +5w 4x = 0
7. Compare and contrast homogeneous and nonhomogeneous sys-
tems of linear equations with more unknowns than equations.
The Number of Solutions to a Homogeneous System of Equations
Theorem only applies only to homogeneous systems of equations.
So, although it is true that every homogeneous linear system with
more unknowns than equations will have innitely many solu-
tions, it is not necessarily the case for nonhomogeneous linear sys-
tems. Find a nonhomogeneous linear system with more unknowns
than equations but does not have innitely many solutions.
Lesson 6
1. Give the size of a matrix using the standard mathematical con-
vention.
Generate specic example matrices of size 2 3, 4 2, and 3 3.
2. Give examples of square, column, and row matrices. (Note that
column matrices are sometimes called column vectors, and row
matrices are sometimes called row vectors.)
Generate specic examples of a square matrix, a column matrix,
and a row matrix.
3. For a specic square matrix, identify the main diagonal and trace
of the matrix.
(a) if A =
_
_
6 1 3
2 4 5
7 9 37
_
_, then compute tr(A).

(b) if B =
_
_
7 3
4 8
9 2
_
_, then compute tr(B).

(c) Solve the following equation tr(C) = 0 where C =
_
_
2
2
1 0
3 3 4
1 2 7
_
_.
4. Determine if two matrices are equal. Matrix Arithmetic Properties Theorem.
If the sizes of the matrices A, B, and C
are such that the stated operations can
be performed and k and l are any two
real number constants, then
(a) Commutative Property of Addition:
A + B = B + A
(b) Associative Property of Addition
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
(c) Associative Property of Multiplica-
tion A(BC) = (AB)C
(d) Left Distributive Property:
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(e) Right Distributive Property:
(A + B)C = AC + BC
(f) (k + l)A = kA + l A
(g) k(l A) = (kl)A
(h) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
(a) Use the denition of equal matrices to solve the following equa-
tion for a, b, c, and d:
_
a b b + c
3d + c 2a 4d
_
=
_
8 1
7 6
_
(b) Are the matrices A and B equal? Why or why not?
A =
_
1 2
5 7
_
, B =
_
1 2 0
5 7 0
_
5. Calculate scalar multiples of a matrix, add two matrices, and
form linear combinations of matrices.
Denition of Matrix Subtraction.
For any two matrices A and B of the
same size, the difference of A and B is
dened as: A B = A + (B)
(a) Compute
2
3
A if A =
_
_
18 6 3
9 7 36
12 6 5
_
_.
(b) Compute k
2
B if B =
_
0 1
1 3
_
.
(c) Compute C + D if C =
_
3 5
2 1
_
and D =
_
1 8
3 7
_
.
(d) Compute E + F if E =
_
2 4
3 2
_
and F =
_
1 3 1
3 4 1
_
.
(e) Compute 2G3H if G =
_
_
1 0 2
1 1 1
2
3
2
5
_
_ and H =
_
_
3 1 1
1 4 0
3 0
2
3
_
_.
6. Generate the transpose of a matrix. Transpose Properties Theorem. If the
sizes of the matrices are such that the
stated operations can be performed,
then
(a) (A
T
)
T
= A
(b) (A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T
(c) (kA)
T
= kA
T
, where k is any scalar
(d) (AB)
T
= B
T
A
T
Give the transpose of the following matrices A =
_
2 3 5
1 0 2
_
,
B =
_
_
2
1
7
8.5
_
_
, and C =
_
_
1 5 a
1 b 9
3 3 c
_
_.
7. Determine when two matrices may be multiplied.
(a) Let A be of size 3 4; B be size 3 4; C, 4 2; D, 3 2; and E,
4 3. Determine which of the following products are dened.
For those that are dened, give the size of the resulting matrix.
i. AC
ii. BA
iii. CD
iv. A
T
B
(b) Prove the following: If the matrix multiplications AB and BA
are dened, then AB and BA are both square matrices.
8. If it is possible to multiply two matrices, perform the calcula-
tions by hand.
(a)
_
0 1
1 2
_ _
3 2
1 0
_
(b)
_
x m
2 1
_ _
4 p
q 1
_
(c)
_
_
2 1 x
y 1 3
2 z 1
_
_
_
2
3
_
(d)
_
_
8 1 a
4 2 0
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
0
b
c
_
_
9. If it is possible to multiply two matrices, perform the calcula-
tions by graphing/symbolic calculator.
(a)
_
_
1 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
_
_
_
_
1 2 3
2 3 4
2 4 6
_
_
(b)
_
_
7 3
2 5
6 8
9 0
_
_
_
7 4 9
8 1 5
_
(c)
_
1 4 6 10
2 7 5 3
_
_
_
1 4 6 10
2 7 5 3
9 0 11 8
_
_
10. Determine the size of a matrix that is the result of some combi-
nation of matrix operations.
Let A be a p q matrix and let B be an s t matrix. Complete the
following statements in terms of the variables p, q, s, and t.
(a) AB is dened provided that .
(b) A + B
2
is dened provided that .
(c) A
3
is dened provided that .
(d) If BA is dened, then (BA)
T
is a(n) matrix.
(e) If B = B
T
, then .
11. Generate a matrix from a formula for an arbitrary entry a
ij
.
(a) Find the 4 4 matrix A = a
ij
such that every arbitrary entry
satises the formula below:
i. a
ij
= i
2
+ j
ii. a
ij
= j
i1
iii. a
ij
=
_
_
_
1, if [i j[ > 1
1, if [i j[ 1
(b) An identity matrix I is a matrix in which the diagonal entries
(top,leftmost corner to bottom, rightmost corner) are all ones
and all other matrix entries are zero. Write a formula for a
ij
that
generates all n n identity matrices I.
Lesson 7
1. Explain why matrix multiplication is not commutative. An identity matrix, designated I, is the
matrix that when multiplied by any
other matrix returns the matrix. That is,
AI = I A = A for all A.
The inverse of matrix A, designated
A
1
, is the matrix that when multiplied
by the original matrix returns the
identity. That is, AA
1
= A
1
A = I for
all A.
Explain mathematically why the matrix products AB and BA need
not be equal.
2. Describe in symbolic form the following laws of matrix arith-
metic: a) commutative law for addition, b) associative law for
addition, c) associative law for multiplication, d) left distributive
law, and e) right distributive law.
List the properties above from memory.
3. Dene the zero matrix and describe its associated properties. A matrix A that has an inverse is said
to invertible. A matrix B without an
inverse is said to be not invertible or
noninvertible. There is an alternate
terminology that emphasizes the
reverse. A matrix without an inverse
is also said to be singular and a matrix
with an inverse would then be said to
be nonsingular. In general, I tend to
use use invertible and not invertible to
describe matrices, but you should be
familiar with both sets of terminology.
Give specic examples of zero matrices at the following sizes:
2 2, 3 1, 1 4, and 2 3.
4. Dene the identity matrix and give examples at various sizes.
From memory, state the denition of the identity matrix. Write the
3 3 identity matrix and the 5 5 identity matrix.
5. Dene the inverse of a matrix.
From memory, state the denition of the inverse of a matrix.
6. Compute the inverse of a 2 2 matrix. The formula for computing the in-
verse of 2 2 matrix is
_
a b
c d
_
1
=
1
ad bc
_
d b
c a
_
.
(a)
_
3 5
1 2
_
(b)
_
2 3
4 4
_
(c)
_
3 0
0 2
_
(d)
_
3 6
1 2
_
7. Describe the circumstances in which a matrix would not have an
inverse. In other words, we multiply the corners
of the orginal matrix and subtract to
nd the determinant. Then the inverse
is the reciprocal of the determinant
times a new matrix in which a and
d have exchanged places and we are
taking the opposite of the b and c
entries.
Give all the possible types of 2 2 non-invertible matrices.
8. Use properties of matrix operations, transpose, and inverse to
solve matrix equations.
(a) A
1
=
_
2 3
1 5
_
(b) (5A)
1
=
_
1 2
3 7
_
(c) (7A
T
)
1
=
_
5 2
3 1
_
(d) (I +3A)
1
=
_
4 5
1 2
_
9. Evaluate functions in which matrices are taken as the inputs.
If A =
_
2 1
3 1
_
, nd the value of f (A) if f (x) = x
2
+3x 2.
10. Describe how the inverse of a matrix product is related to the
individual inverses of each matrix. Inverse-Product Theorem. If A and
B are invertible matrices of the same
size, the product of AB is invertible
and the inverse of the product is given by:
(AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
. In other words, the
inverse of the product is equal to the
reverse product of the inverses.
Inverse Matrix Properties Theorem. If
A is invertible and n is an integer such
that n 0, then
(a) A
1
is invertible and
(A
1
)
1
= A
(b) A
n
is invertible and
(A
n
)
1
= A
n
= (A
1
)
n
.
(c) kA is invertible for any scalar k ,= 0
and
(kA)
1
=
1
k
A
1
(a) The Inverse-Product Theorem states that (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
provided A and B are invertible and of the same size. Extend
this result to three matrices:
Prove: If A, B, and C are invertible matrices of the same size,
then (ABC)
1
= C
1
B
1
A
1
.
(b) In the problem below, assume that all matrices are the same size
and invertible. Solve for the X matrix.
BCA
T
XCB
T
A = AC
T
Lesson 8
1. Explain the components of a deductive system of inquiry.
Make a list of the components with a brief description of each.
2. Compare and contrast a deductive system of inquiry like mathe-
matics with an inductive system like chemistry or physics.
Make a side-by-side chart comparing/contrasting the two systems
of inquiry.
3. Describe the basic components of an If-Then proof.
(a) Prove: The square of an even number is also even.
(b) Prove: If A and B are n n matrices, then tr (A + B) = tr (A) +
tr (B).
4. Identify symmetric matrices. A square matrix A is said to be
symmetric if A
T
= A.
(a) Which of the following matrices are symmetric?
i.
_
3 1
1 2
_
ii.
_
7 3
3 0
_
iii.
_
_
5 1 8
1 2 0
8 0 11
_
_
iv.
_
_
0 1 8
7 0 4
5 3 0
_
_
v.
_
_
0 0 3
0 7 0
5 0 0
_
_
(b) Find all values a, b, and c for which A is symmetric.
_
_
2 a 2b +2c 2a + b + c
3 5 a + c
0 2 7
_
_
(c) Using as many variables a, b, c, ..., z as necessary, write formu-
las for symmetric 2 2, 3 3, and 4 4 matrices.
(d) Let A = [a
ij
], B = [b
ij
], C = [c
ij
], and D = [d
ij
] be n n matrices.
Determine whether the matrices A, B, C, and D are symmetric.
i. a
ij
= i
2
+ j
2
ii. b
ij
= ij
iii. c
ij
= i
2
j
2
iv. d
ij
= i
j
5. Establish properties of symmetric matrices through mathemati-
cal proof.
(a) Prove: If A is a square matrix, then A + A
T
is symmetric.
(b) Prove: If B is a square matrix, then BB
T
is symmetric.
(c) Prove: If A is a symmetric matrix, then A
2
is also a symmetric
matrix.
i. Proof. Assume A is a symmetric matrix.
ii. It follows that A = A
T
.
iii. In order to demonstrate that A
2
is symmetric, it sufces to
show that .
iv. (A
2
)
T
= (AA)
T
v. = A
T
A
T
vi. = AA
vii. = A
2
viii. Therefore, A
2
is symmetric by denition. Q.E.D.
(d) Prove: If A
T
A = A, then A is a symmetric matrix.
(e) Prove: If A
T
A = A, then A = A
2
.
6. Establish properties of skew-symmetric matrices through mathe-
matical proof. A square matrix A is said to be
skew-symmetric if A
T
= A.
(a) Prove: If A is an invertible, skew-symmetric matrix, then A
1
is
also a skew-symmetric matrix.
(b) Prove: If A is skew-symmetric, then so is A
T
.
(c) Prove: If A and B are skew-symmetric matrices, then so is A+B.
(d) Prove: If C is a square matrix, then C C
T
is skew-symmetric.
i. Proof. (write the 1st step of an if-then proof)
ii. In order to demonstrate that C C
T
is skew-symmetric, it
sufces to show that (C C
T
)
T
= (C C
T
).
iii. (C C
T
)
T
= C
T
(C
T
)
T
iv. = C
T
C
v. = C + C
T
vi. = (C C
T
)
vii. Therefore, C C
T
is skew-symmetric . Q.E.D.
7. Describe how the inverse of the transpose of a matrix is related
to the transpose of the inverse of a matrix. Inverse-Transpose Theorem. If A is
an invertible matrix, then A
T
is also
invertible and (A
T
)
1
= (A
1
)
T
.
Prove: If A is an invertible symmetric matrix, then A
1
is also
symmetric.
(a) Proof. Assume A is both invertible and symmetric.
(b) It follows that A = A
T
.
(c) In order to demonstrate that A
1
is symmetric, it sufces to
show that (A
1
)
T
= A
1
.
(d) (A
1
)
T
= (A
T
)
1
(e) = A
1
(f) Therefore, A
1
is symmetric by denition of symmetric matri-
ces. Q.E.D.
Lesson 9
1. Given an elementary matrix, state the associated elementary row
operation. An elementary matrix, E, is simply
an identity matrix that has had one
elementary row operation applied
to it. Left-multiplying a matrix by
an elementary matrix is the same as
applying the elementary row operation
to it.
Below is a specialized notation for the
three types of elementary matrices:
(a) E
ij
represents an elementary trans-
position matrix in which row i
was swapped with row j, e.g.,
E
23
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
will cause row 2
and 3 to be swapped.
(b) E
i
(k) represents an elementary
diagonal matrix in which the lead-
ing 1 in the ith row is multiplied
by the constant k. This has the
effect of multiplying the ith row
by the given scalar. For example,
E
2
(
1
2
) =
_
_
1 0 0
0
1
2
0
0 0 1
_
_
has the effect
of multiplying the 2nd row by
1
2
.
(c)
i
E
j
(k) represents an elementary row
replacement matrix in which row i is
multiplied by scalar k and added to
row j, e.g.,
3
E
1
(2) =
_
_
1 0 2
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
has the effect of multiplying row 3
by 2 and adding the result to row
1 to become the new row 1.
For each elementary matrix below, give the associated row opera-
tion (e.g., 2R
1
+ R
3
R
3
) that would be performed if a given
matrix was left-multiplied by the elementary matrix.
(a) E
14
=
_
_
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
_
_
(b) E
2 3
_
1
5
_
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0
1
5
1
_
_
(c) E
2
(1) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
2. Explain how row operations can be represented as multiplications
of elementary matrices.
Consider the matrices A =
_
_
7 4 3
2 7 5
4 2 3
_
_, B =
_
_
4 2 3
2 7 5
7 4 3
_
_ and
C =
_
_
7 4 3
2 7 5
3 2 0
_
_.
(a) What is the specic elementary matrix (use one of the following
notations: E
ij
, E
i
(k), or
i
E
j
(k)) that left-multiplies A to produce
matrix B?
(b) What is the specic elementary matrix (use one of the following
notations: E
ij
, E
i
(k), or
i
E
j
(k)) that left-multiplies B to produce
matrix A?
(c) What is the specic elementary matrix (use one of the following
notations: E
ij
, E
i
(k), or
i
E
j
(k)) that left-multiplies A to produce
matrix C?
(d) What is the specic elementary matrix (use one of the following
notations: E
ij
, E
i
(k), or
i
E
j
(k)) that left-multiplies C to produce
matrix A?
3. Recognize that an invertible matrix can be written as a product
of elementary matrices.
Write matrices A and B below as products of elementary matrices.
(a) A =
_
3 4
3 1
_
(b) B =
_
_
1 0 2
0 5 3
0 0 1
_
_
4. Find inverses of square matrices of higher order than 2 2.
Using row operations to convert
_
A [ I
_

_
I [ A
1
_
, nd
the inverse of the following matrix.
A =
_
_
1 0 1
1 1 1
0 1 0
_
_
5. Find the inverse of square matrices of higher order than 2 2
using a symbolic calculator.
Find the inverses of the following matrices:
(a) A =
_
_
3 1 0
1 2 2
5 0 1
_
_
(b) B =
_
_
2 4 8 9
6 5 6 1
0 2 1 5
7 9 0 1
_
_
(c) C =
_
_
1 5 2
1 1 7
0 3 4
_
_
Lesson 10
1. Solve a linear system by rst writing it in matrix form, then
multiplying both sides by the inverse of the coefcient matrix. Unique Solution Theorem. If A is an
invertible square matrix (n n) and b
is a column vector of constants (n 1),
then the system of equations Ax = b
has exactly one solution, namely,
x = A
1
b.
(a) Solve the following systems of equations by inverting the coef-
cient matrix and using the Unique Solution Theorem.
i.
4x
1
3x
2
= 3
2x
1
5x
2
= 9
ii.
x
1
+3x
2
+ x
3
= 4
2x
1
+2x
2
+ x
3
= 1
2x
1
+3x
2
+ x
3
= 3
iii.
5x
1
+3x
2
+2x
3
= 4
3x
1
+3x
2
+2x
3
= 2
x
2
+ x
3
= 5
(b) Solve the following general systems of equations by inverting the
coefcient matrix and using Unique Solution Theorem. Then
use the resulting formula for x to nd the specic solution for a
specic b.
i.
3x
1
+5x
2
= b
1
x
1
+2x
2
= b
2
where b =
_
b
1
b
2
_
=
_
4
3
_
.
ii.
3x
1
+5x
2
= b
1
x
1
+2x
2
= b
2
where b =
_
b
1
b
2
_
=
_
2
1
_
.
iii.
x
1
+2x
2
+3x
3
= b
1
2x
1
+5x
2
+5x
3
= b
2
3x
1
+5x
2
+8x
3
= b
3
where b =
_
_
b
1
b
2
b
3
_
_ =
_
_
1
3
4
_
_.
iv.
x
1
+2x
2
+3x
3
= b
1
2x
1
+5x
2
+5x
3
= b
2
3x
1
+5x
2
+8x
3
= b
3
where b =
_
_
b
1
b
2
b
3
_
_ =
_
_
5
0
0
_
_.
v.
x
1
+2x
2
+3x
3
= b
1
2x
1
+5x
2
+5x
3
= b
2
3x
1
+5x
2
+8x
3
= b
3
where b =
_
_
b
1
b
2
b
3
_
_ =
_
_
1
1
3
_
_.
2. Solve a matrix equation by using the inverse of a matrix.
Solve the following matrix equation for X:
_
_
1 1 1
2 3 0
0 2 1
_
_ X =
_
_
2 1 5 7 8
4 0 3 0 1
3 5 7 2 1
_
_
3. Apply properties of diagonal matrices to solve various mathe-
matical problems.
(a) Determine whether the diagonal matrix below is invertible; if it
is, nd the inverse by inspection.
i.
_
3 0
0 7
_
ii.
_
_
5 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
1
2
_
_
iii.
_
_
18 0 0
0 5 0
0 0
1
3
_
_
(b) The matrix products below include at least one diagonal matrix
as a factor. Compute the product by inspection.
i.
_
_
5 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 3
_
_
_
_
2 1
4 1
2 5
_
_
ii.
_
3 2 1
2 1 4
_
_
_
3 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 4
_
_
iii.
_
_
4 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 2
_
_
_
_
4 3 1
1 2 0
5 1 3
_
_
_
_
3 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 5
_
_
(c) Find A
2
, A
2
, and A
k
by inspection.
i. Let A =
_
1 0
0 3
_
ii. Let A =
_
_
1
3
0 0
0
1
4
0
0 0
1
2
_
_
Test II: Determinants
Lesson 11
1. Count the number of inversions in a permutation and classify
whether the permutation is even or odd. A permutation is an arrangement of a
nite set of numbers. In a permutation,
each element of the nite set can be
used only one time. So
_
1 2 3
_
,
_
1 3 2
_
, and
_
3 1 2
_
are exam-
ples of permutations of the set 1, 2, 3
but
_
1 1 2 3
_
and
_
2 2 3
_
are
not.
For the permutations below, give the number of inversions and
indicate whether the permutation is odd or even.
(i)
_
3 1 2 4 5
_
(ii)
_
1 2 3 4 5
_
(iii)
_
5 1 2 4 3
_
(iv)
_
4 5 2 1 3
_
(v)
_
2 1 5 4 3
_
(vi)
_
3 1 5 4 2
_
(vii)
_
5 1 2 4 5
_
2. Find elementary products of a given matrix.
Find all the elementary products of matrices B and C. Make sure
that, in each elementary products, the factors are ordered with the
i index in numerical order (e.g., b
1
b
2
b
3
or c
1
c
2
c
3
c
4
). An elementary product of a n n
matrix A is a product of n entries from
A, no two of which come from the same
row or the same column.
(a) B =
_
_
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
b
31
b
32
b
33
_
_
(b) C =
_
_
c
11
c
12
c
13
c
14
c
21
c
22
c
23
c
24
c
31
c
32
c
33
c
34
c
41
c
42
c
43
c
44
_
_
3. Find signed elementary products of a given matrix. Each elementary product can be or-
dered according to its rst index,
e.g., a
13
a
22
a
31
. The j indices form an
elementary products permutation,
e.g.,
_
3 2 1
_
. A signed elemen-
tary product is simply the product of
(1)
# of inversions of the permutation
and its
associated elementary product, e.g.
(1)
3
a
13
a
22
a
31
.
The determinant of a square matrix is
the sum of all of its signed elementary
products.
The determinant of a matrix A is
denoted either det (A) or [A[.
For matrices B and C in the previous problem, nd all of the
signed elementary products.
4. Calculate the determinant by using the denition.
Use the denition to calculate each of the determinants below.
Specically, in each case, nd all the elementary products, deter-
mine their respective signs, and then add the signed products.
(a)
3 7
2 4
(b)
5 1
10 2
(c)
5 6
2 7
(d)
a 3 5
3 a 2
(e)
2 7 6
5 1 2
3 8 4

(f)
3 0 0
2 1 5
1 9 4
(g)
c 4 3
2 1 c
2
4 c 1 2
5. Calculate the determinant by using a graphing/symbolic calcula-

tor.
Use your TI-89 calculator or equivalent technology to check your
calculations of the determinants of the matrices in the previous
problem.
6. Solve equations involving determinants.
(a) Find all values for which det (A) = 0 if A =
_
+2 2
4 4
_
.
(b) Find all values for which det (B) = 0 if B =
_
_
5 0 0
0 4
0 3 4
_
_.
(c) Solve for x:
x 2
3 1 + x
2 x 6
1 0 3
1 3 x 3
7. Solve linear systems of equations using Cramers Rule. Cramers Rule If Ax = b is a system of
n linear equations in n unknowns such
that det (A) ,= 0, then the system has
the unique solution:
x
1
=
det (A
1
)
det (A)
x
2
=
det (A
2
)
det (A)
.
.
.
x
n
=
det (A
n
)
det (A)
where A
j
is the matrix formed when
the jth column of A is replaced with the
entries of b.
(a)
7x
1
2x
2
= 3
3x
1
+ x
2
= 5
(b)
4x +5y = 2
11x + y +2z = 3
x +5y +2z = 1
(c)
x 4y + z = 6
4x y +2z = 1
2x +2y 3z = 20
(d)
x
1
3x
2
+ x
3
= 4
2x
1
x
2
= 2
4x
1
3x
3
= 0
(e)
x
1
4x
2
+2x
3
+ x
4
= 32
2x
1
x
2
+7x
3
+9x
4
= 14
x
1
+ x
2
+3x
3
+ x
4
= 11
x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
4x
4
= 4
Lesson 12
1. Calculate determinants by inspection. Basic Properties of Determinants
Zero Row/Column Property: If A is a
square matrix with a either a row or
column of zeros, then det (A) = 0.
Proportional Rows Property: If A is a
square matrix with two proportional
rows or two proportional columns, then
det (A) = 0.
Matrix Transpose Determinant The-
orem. If A is a square matrix, then
det (A
T
) = det (A).
Effects of Elementary Row Operations
on the Determinant:
(a) Multiplication of matrix row (or
column) by a scalar k multiplies the
matrix determinant by that scalar k.
(b) Switching two rows (or columns)
of a matrix changes the sign of its
determinant.
(c) Adding a scalar multiple of a
row (or column) to another row
(or column) has no effect on the
determinant.
(a) Use basic properties of determinants to calculate the determi-
nants below. Dont use a calculator; look instead for patterns
related to the basic properties of determinants.
i.
3 15 7
0 4 2
0 0 3
ii.
7 10 5
0 0 0
5 2 3
iii.
2 0 0 0
7 1 0 0
7 0

2 0
4 2 6 1
iv.
4 4 0
8 7 0
2 19 0
v.
2 1 3
1 7 4
2 1 3
vi.
1 2 3
2 4 6
5 7 5
vii.
1
2
7 3
1
3
11 2
5
6
13 5
viii.
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 7 0
0 0 0 1
ix.
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
x.
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 9
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

xi.
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
(b) Given that
a b c
d e f
g h i
= 5, nd the following determinants: Denition of Triangular Matrices.

A matrix is said to be triangular if all
the entries below (or above) the main
diagonal are zero. A matrix in which
all of the nonzero entries are at or
above the main diagonal is said to be
an upper triangular matrix; a matrix
in which all of the nonzero entries are
at or below the main diagonal is said
to be lower triangular. A matrix which
is simultaneously upper and lower
triangular is said to be diagonal.
Triangular Matrix Determinant Theo-
rem. If A is an upper triangular, lower
triangular, or diagonal matrix, then the
det (A) is simply the product of the
diagonal entries of A.
i.
d e f
g h i
a b c
ii.
3a 3b 3c
d e f
4g 4h 4i
iii.
a + g b + h c + i
d e f
g h i
iv.
5a 5b 5c
d e f
g 2d h 2d i 2d
2. Calculate determinants by reducing the matrix to row-echelon

form.
(a) Evaluate the matrix determinants below by reducing the matrix
to row-echelon form.
i.
3 6 9
0 0 2
2 1 5
ii.
0 3 1
1 1 2
3 2 4
iii.
1 3 0
2 4 1
5 2 2
iv.
1 4 4 1
0 1 2 2
3 3 1 4
0 1 3 2
v.
1 0 0 3
0 1 2 2
2 3 2 3
0 3 3 3

(b) Use row reduction to establish the identity:
1 1 1
a b c
a
2
b
2
c
2
= (b a)(c a)(c b)
Lesson 13
1. Evaluate determinants of scalar multiplications, sums, differ-
ences, products, and quotients where possible using properties
of the determinant function. Determinant of a Product The-
orem. If A and B are square
matrices of the same size, then
det (AB) = det (A) det (B).
(a) Suppose that A and B are 3 3 matrices with det (A) = 5 and
det (B) = 2. Evaluate, if possible, the following determinants
using the given specics and your knowledge of properties of
the determinant function.
i. det (A
3
)
ii. det (B + A)
iii. det (2B)
iv. det (B
T
A)
v. det (B
1
)
(b) Suppose that C and D are 4 4 matrices with det (C) =
1
3
and
det (D) = 7. Evaluate, if possible, the following determinants
using the given specics and your knowledge of properties of
the determinant function.
i. det (C
T
C
1
)
ii. det (2C +3D)
iii. det (
1
2
D
2
)
iv. det (D
T
CD)
v. det (3C)
1
2. Determine when a matrix is invertible by taking its determinant.
Determinant Test for Invertibility The-
orem A square matrix A is invertible if
and only if det (A) ,= 0.
Use the Determinant Test for Invertibility Theorem to determine
which of the following matrices is invertible:
(a)
_
_
1 0 1
9 1 4
8 9 1
_
_
(b)
_
_
4 2 8
2 1 4
3 1 6
_
_
(c)
_
7 0
3
2 3
7 0
5 9 0
_
_
(d)
_
_
3 0 1
5 0 6
8 0 3
_
_
3. Identify solutions to determinant equations by inspection. Matrix Inverse Determinant
Theorem. If A is invertible, then
det (A
1
) =
1
det (A)
.
(a) Without actually computing the determinant, show that the
equation below is satised by x = 0 and x = 2:
x
2
x 2
2 1 1
0 0 5
= 0
(b) Without actually computing the determinant, show that:
b + c c + a b + a
a b c
1 1 1
= 0
Lesson 14
1. Represent 2D and 3D vectors in drawings.
(a) Sketch the vectors v
1
= (2, 5), v
2
= (3, 4), and v
3
= (0, 5)
on the same set of xy-coordinate axes.
(b) Sketch the vector w
1
= (3, 1, 5) within a set of xyz-coordinate
axes.
(c) Sketch the vector w
2
= (2, 4, 6) within a set of x
1
x
2
x
3
-
coordinate axes.
2. Explain the effects of multiplying a vector by various scalar
values.
(a) What is the effect of multiplying the vector u = (1, 3, 4) by the
following scalars k? (i) k = 2 (ii) k = 1 (iii) k =
1
2
(iv) k = 0
(v) k =
1
2
(vi) k = 1 (vii) k = 2
(b) In general, what is the effect of multiplying any vector u by
scalars in the following ranges?
i. k > 1
ii. k = 1
iii. 0 < k < 1
iv. k = 0
v. 1 < k < 0
vi. k = 1
vii. k < 1
3. Compute sums of vectors graphically and algebraically. Denition of Vector Addition. Two
vectors u = (u
1
, u
2
) and v = (v
1
, v
2
)
can be added algebraically by adding
their respective components: u + v =
(u
1
, u
2
) + (v
1
, v
2
)
= (u
1
+ v
1
, u
2
+ v
2
).
Triangle Law: If two vectors are rep-
resented by two sides of triangle in
sequence (i.e, the tail of the second vec-
tor begins at the arrowhead of the rst),
then the third side of the triangle, in
the opposite direction of the sequence,
represents the sum (or resultant) of the
two vectors.
Parallelogram Law: If two vectors are
represented by two adjacent sides of
a parallelogram, then the diagonal of
the parallelogram through the common
point represents the sum of the two
vectors.
Denition of Vector Inverse. A vector
x has an additive inverse in IR
n
if there
exists a vector y such that x +y = 0 =
y + x. The inverse vector y is denoted
x. Furthermore if x = (x
1
, x
2
) is any
vector in IR
2
, then x = (x
1
, x
2
).
Denition of Vector Subtraction.
Subtracting a vector is the same as
adding its inverse: x y = x + (y)
Let u = (1, 4) and v = (2, 3).
(a) Add the vectors u and v using the Triangle Law of Vector Addi-
tion.
(b) Add the vectors u and v using the Parallelogram Law of Vector
Addition.
(c) Add the vectors u and v algebraically by adding their compo-
nents.
4. Find linear combinations of vectors.
(a) Calculate av + bw if a = 3, b = 2, v =
_
7
1
_
and w =
_
2
2
_
.
(b) Calculate av + bw if a = 1, b = 4, v =
_
2 1 2
_
and
w =
_
3 1 5
_
.
(c) Calculate av + bw if a = 1.2, b = 0, v = (1, 2, 5) and w =
(4, 0, 152).
(d) Find scalars k and l such that kv + lw = b where v = (2, 1),
w = (1, 2), and b = (1, 0)
(e) Let u = (2, 0, 4) and v = (1, 3, 6). Find values of k and l such
that ku + lv = (5, 9, 14).
(f) Find scalars c
1
, c
2
, and c
3
such that c
1
u + c
2
v + c
3
w = b where
u = (3, 1, 2), v = (4, 0, 8), w = (6, 1, 4), and b = (2, 0, 4)
5. Describe the geometry of a set of linear combinations of vectors
in IR
2
and in IR
3
. A locus is a set of points that contains
all the points, and only the points, that
satisfy the condition, or conditions,
required to describe a geometric gure.
For example, the locus of points in a
plane that are all the same distance 3
from a xed point would be a circle of
radius 3.
Describe the locus of points contained in the following sets.
(a) k(1, 1) : k IR That is, all the scalar multiples of the vector
u = (1, 1) where the scalar ranges over the set of real numbers.
(b) a(1, 0) : a ZZ That is, all the scalar multiples of the vector
u = (1, 0) where the scalar ranges over the set of integers.
(c) c(1, 0) : c 0, c IR
(d) a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) : a ZZ and b IR
(e) c(1, 0) + d(0, 1) : c, d IR
(f) e(1, 1, 0) + f (0, 1, 1) : e, f IR
6. Calculate the Euclidean inner (dot) product and outer product of
two vectors. The inner product of u and v:
u v = u
T
v
=
_
1 2 3
_
_
5
5
5
_
_
= (1)(5) + (2)(5) + (3)(5)
= 30
The outer product of u and v:
u v = uv
T
=
_
_
1
2
3
_
_
_
5 5 5
=
_
_
(1)(5) (1)(5) (1)(5)
(2)(5) (2)(5) (2)(5)
(3)(5) (3)(5) (3)(5)
_
_
=
_
_
5 5 5
10 10 10
15 15 15
_
_
Recall that vectors can be written as column vectors. This allows
us to dene two types of vector multiplication, an inner product
and an outer product. Consider two vectors u = (1, 2, 3) and
v = (5, 5, 5). To nd the inner product, we rst view both vectors
as 3 1 column vectors u =
_
_
1
2
3
_
_ and v =
_
_
5
5
5
_
_. Its not possible

to multiply two 3 1 matrices. However, taking the transpose of
either u or v would allow us to use regular matrix multiplication
to combine the two vectors. Note that, for u
T
v, we are multiplying
a 1 3 matrix times a 3 1 matrix to produce a 1 1 matrix, or
scalar; and, for uv
T
, we are multiplying a 3 1 column matrix by
a 1 3 row matrix to produce a 3 3 square matrix. The vector
product u
T
v is called the Euclidean inner product (or dot prod-
uct) of u and v and is represented u v. The vector product uv
T
is
called the outer product of u and v and is represented u v.
For the vectors u and v below, calculate the dot product u v and
the outer product u v.
(a) u = (2, 1) and v = (3, 7)
(b) u = (3, 1, 6) and v = (2, 5, 3)
(c) u = (u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) and v = (v
1
, v
2
, v
3
)
7. Calculate the length of a vector. Denition of Magnitude of Vector:
The magnitude, or length, of a vector v
is given by [[v[[ =

v v.
Find the length of the following vectors:
(a) u = (3, 1) (b) w = (1, 2, 5) (c) x = (4, 3) (d) v = (7, 4, 5)
8. Derive relationships about vectors when their lengths are known.
Magnitude of a Scalar-Vector Product
Theorem. [[kv[[ = [k[[[v[[.
Denition of Unit Vector. A vector u
is said to be a unit vector if [[u[[ = 1.
Sometimes, a hat-notation is used
to indicate a unit vector in the same
direction as a vector. For example, x
would represent a unit vector in the
same direction as x.
(a) If [[u[[ = 3 and [[v[[ = 7, what are the largest and smallest
possible values for [[u v[[?
(b) Let w = (2, 1, 5). Find all scalars k such that [[kw[[ = 4.
(c) Prove: Unit Vector Theorem. If w is any nonzero vector, then
w =
1
[[w[[
w is a unit vector.
(d) Use the result above to nd a unit vector that lies in the same
direction as w = (2, 5).
(e) Use the result above to nd a unit vector that lies in the same
direction as w = (2, 6, 3).
9. Determine whether any two vectors u and v are orthogonal, or
whether they have an included angle that is acute or obtuse. Angle Between Vectors Theorem. If
u and v are vectors in either IR
2
or IR
3
,
then u v = [[u[[[[v[[ cos ().
Orthogonal Vectors Theorem. If u and
v are vectors in either IR
2
or IR
3
, then
u v if and only if u v = 0.
Acute/Obtuse Vectors Theorem. If u
and v are vectors in either IR
2
or IR
3
and
is the angle between them, then is
acute if and only if u v > 0 and is
obtuse if and only if u v < 0.
(a) Find the angle between vectors u and v.
i. u = (2, 1) and v = (3, 7)
ii. u = (3, 1, 6) and v = (2, 5, 3)
(b) Without calculating the exact value of the angle, determine
whether the vectors u and v make an acute angle, make an
obtuse angle, or are orthogonal.
i. u = (6, 1, 4) and v = (2, 0, 3)
ii. u = (0, 0, 1) and v = (1, 1, 1)
iii. u = (6, 0, 4) and v = (3, 1, 6)
iv. u = (2, 4, 8) and v = (5, 3, 7)
(c) Let a = (2, k) and b = (3, 5). Find k such that
i. a and b are parallel.
ii. a and b are orthogonal.
iii. the angle between a and b is

3
.
iv. the angle between a and b is

4
.
10. Calculate the projection of one vector onto another for 2D and
3D vectors. Suppose that x and a are two vectors in
either IR
2
or IR
3
and a ,= 0. Then vector
x can be written as the resultant (sum)
of two vectors x = x
|
+x
where x
|
is
a vector that is parallel to a and x
is a
vector that is perpendicular to a.
Note that because x
|
is parallel to the
vector a, it can also be described as
"lying on" a. For this reason, we also
call x
|
the projection of x onto a and
write x
|
= proj
a
x.
It can be shown that x = x
|
+x
where
x
|
= proj
a
x =
x a
a a
a =
x a
[[a[[
2
a and
x
= x x
|
= x proj
a
x = x
x a
[[a[[
2
a
Calculate the following projections:
(a) proj
a
u where u = (6, 3) and a = (3, 9).
(b) proj
b
w where w = (1, 2) and b = (2, 3).
(c) proj
y
x where x = (3, 1, 7) and y = (1, 0, 5).
(d) proj
x
y where y = (1, 0, 5) and x = (3, 1, 7).
11. Given a nonzero reference vector a and an arbitrary vector x,
rewrite the vector x as the sum of two vectors, one parallel to a
and one orthogonal to a.
Find x
|
and x
such that x = x
|
+x
for the given vectors x and a

below:
(a) x = (2, 5) and a = (3, 1).
(b) x = (2, 3, 1) and a = (1, 1, 1).
(c) x = (3, 4, 5) and a = (1, 2, 3).
12. Apply the concept of projection to nd the distance from a point
to a line. Applying the Magnitude of a Scalar-
Vector Product Theorem to the projec-
tion of x onto a, we get

proj
a
x
x a
[[a[[
2
a
=
[x a[
[[a[[
2
[[a[[ =
[x a[
[[a[[
.
(a) Find the distance between the point (2, 1) and the line
4x +2y +7 = 0.
(b) Find the distance between the point (s, t) and the line
ax + by + c = 0.
13. Establish properties of the dot product via mathematical proof.
1 1
The properties in this problem are true
in both IR
2
and IR
3
. Once youve proved
the property in IR
2
(or IR
3
), it is easy to
write an analogous proof for the IR
3
(or
IR
2
) case.
(a) Prove: Symmetry Property. If u IR
2
and v IR
2
,
then u v = v u.
(b) Prove: Additivity Property. If u IR
3
, v IR
3
, and w IR
3
,
then (u +v) w = u w+v w.
(c) Prove: Homogeneity Property. If k is a real number scalar,
u IR
3
, and v IR
3
, then (ku) v = k(u v).
(d) Prove: Positivity Property. If v IR
2
, then
i. v v 0
ii. v v = 0 if and only if v = 0.
Lesson 15
1. Calculate the cross product of two vectors. If u = (u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) and v = (v
1
, v
2
, v
3
)
are vectors in IR
3
, then the cross prod-
uct u v is dened as
uv =
_
u
2
u
3
v
2
v
3
u
1
u
3
v
1
v
3
u
1
u
2
v
1
v
2
_
Compute the vector cross products below by using the denition.
(a) v w where v = (3, 2, 1) and w = (2, 5, 4).
(b) wv where v = (3, 2, 1) and w = (2, 5, 4).
(c) What is the relationship between v w and wv?
2. Compare and contrast the dot product of two vectors with the
cross product of two vectors.
Make a table that lists similarities and differences between the dot
product and the cross product.
3. Given two vectors, nd a third vector that is orthogonal to both. The cross product of two vectors is
orthogonal to each of its component
vectors: u v u and u v v
Find a vector w that is orthogonal to the vectors u and v. Then
verify orthogonality by showing that u w = 0 and v w = 0.
(a) u = (3, 1, 4) and v = (2, 1, 3).
(b) u = (2, 0, 5) and v = (1, 1, 7).
4. Find the area of a parallelogram spanned by two vectors. Area(parallelogram spanned by u & v)
= [[u v[[
(a) Find the area of the parallelogram spanned by u = (1, 1, 2)
and v = (3, 1, 4).
(b) Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the four
points P(1, 2), Q(2, 1), R(6, 1), and S(3, 4).
5. Find the area of a triangle spanned by two vectors. Area(triangle spanned by u & v) =
1
2
[[u v[[
(a) Find the area of the triangle spanned by u = (3, 1, 3) and
v = (2, 2, 2).
(b) Find the area of the triangle determined by the three points
A(0, 4, 1), B(6, 2, 5), and C(10, 10, 10)
6. Given a xed point and a vector, nd the equation of the line
that passes through the xed point and is orthogonal to the
vector. Equation for a Line or a Plane Given
a Fixed Point and a Normal Vector: In
2-space, let n = (a, b); let P be a xed
point (x
0
, y
0
); and X be an arbitrary
point (x, y). In 3-space, let n = (a, b, c);
let P be a xed point (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
); and let
X be an arbitrary point (x, y, z). Then
the equation of the line/plane is given
by:
n
PX = 0
_
ax + by + c = 0 (a line in IR
2
)
ax + by + cz + d = 0 (a plane in IR
3
)
Find the equation of a line ax + by + c = 0 that passes through P
and is orthogonal to n.
(a) P(3, 1) and n = (5, 1)
(b) P(2, 5) and n = (3, 4)
7. Given a xed point and a vector, nd the equation of the plane
that passes through the xed point and is orthogonal to the
vector. Find the equation of a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 that
passes through P and is orthogonal to n.
(a) P(1, 3, 2) and n = (2, 1, 1)
(b) P(3, 0, 0) and n = (0, 0, 1)
(c) P(0, 0, 0) and n = (3, 2, 1)
8. Find the equation of the plane that is determined by three given
points.
(a) P(5, 3, 4), Q(2, 1, 7), and R(1, 4, 5)
(b) P(2, 0, 1), Q(1, 2, 3), and R(3, 1, 2)
Parametric Equations for a Line Given
a Fixed Point and a Direction Vector:
In 2-space, let v = (q, r) be the direction
vector for the line; let P be a xed
point (x
0
, y
0
) on the line; and X be any
point (x, y) on the line. In 3-space, let
v = (q, r, s) be the direction vector;
let P be a xed point (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) on the
line; and let X be any point (x, y, z) on
the line. Then parametric equations of
the line/plane can be derived from the
vector equation:
X = vt + P (x, y) = (q, r)t + (x
0
, y
0
)
(x, y) = (qt + x
0
, rt + y
0
)
_
x = qt + x
0
y = rt + y
0
or
X = vt + P (x, y, z) = (q, r, s)t + (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
(x, y, z) = (qt + x
0
, rt + y
0
, st + z
0
)
_
x = qt + x
0
y = rt + y
0
z = st + z
0
9. Given a xed point and a direction vector, nd parametric equa-
tions for a line in 2- and 3-space.
(a) Find the parametric equations x = qt + x
0
, y = rt + y
0
of a line
that passes through P and is parallel to v = (q, r).
i. P(2, 3) and v = (3, 1)
ii. P(1, 2) and v = (5, 1)
iii. Find parametric equations for the line passing through points
P(3, 5) and Q(1, 8).
(b) Find the parametric equations x = qt + x
0
, y = rt + y
0
, z = st +
z
0
of a line that passes through P and is parallel to v = (q, r, s).
i. P(2, 3, 1) and v = (3, 1, 2)
ii. P(2, 2, 5) and v = (1, 0, 1)
iii. Find parametric equations for the line passing through points
P(4, 2, 3) and Q(2, 7, 4).
10. Analyze geometric relationships between lines and planes by
recognizing normal vectors implicit in equations of the form
ax +by +c = 0 and ax +by +cz +d = 0 and recognizing direction
vectors for lines in sets of parametric equations like x = qt + x
0
,
y = rt + y
0
and x = qt + x
0
, y = rt + y
0
, z = st + z
0
(a) Determine whether the pairs of planes below are parallel.
i. 5x 3y +7z = 12 and 3x +9y 4z = 13
ii. 6x = 24y 12z +18 and
1
2
x 2y + z =
3
2
(b) Determine whether the given line and plane are parallel.
i. x = 5 4t, y = 1 t, z = 3 +2t and x +2y +3z 9 = 0
ii. x = 3s, y = 2s +1, z = s +2 and 4x y +2z = 1
(c) Determine whether each pair of planes is perpendicular.
i. 3x y + z = 4 and x +2z = 1,
ii. x 2y +3z = 4 and 2x +5y +4z = 1
(d) Determine whether the given line and plane are perpendicular.
i. x = 2 4t, y = 3 2t, z = 1 +2t and 2x + y z 5 = 0
ii. x = q +2, y = q +1, z = 3q +5 and 6x +6y = 7
(e) Find parametric equations for the line of intersection of the
planes 7x 2y +3z = 2 and 3x + y +2z +5 = 0.
(f) Find an equation of the plane that passes through the point
(3, 6, 7) and is parallel to the plane 5x 2y + z 5 = 0.
(g) Find the point of intersection of the line x = 5t +9,
y = t 1, z = t +3 and the plane 2x 3y +4z +7 = 0.
Lesson 16
1. Explain any limitations to graphing vectors in spaces with di-
mensions higher than 3.
If possible, sketch a graph of the vector v = (3, 2, 1, 5, 1) on
a set of x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
axes. If not, explain any limitations and/or
workarounds to graphing vectors in IR
5
.
2. Compute linear combinations of vectors in IR
n
.
(a) Find ku where k =
1
3
and u = (1, 0, 1, 9).
(b) Find 2v 3w where v = (2, 1, 1, 3, 7) and w = (4, 2, 1, 3, 3).
(c) Find scalars k
1
, k
2
, k
3
, and k
4
such that k
1
(1, 3, 2, 0) +k
2
(2, 0, 4, 1) +
k
3
(7, 1, 1, 4) + k
4
(6, 3, 1, 2) = (0, 5, 6, 3).
3. Calculate the dot product in IR
n
.
(a) Find u v if u = (1, 0, 1, 3, 2, 1) and v = (0, 2, 4, 1, 2, 3).
(b) Find x y if x = (1, 7a, 2b, 3, 0) and y = (0, 2, 1, 1, 4c).
4. Calculate and use the norm (length) of vectors in IR
n
.
(a) Find [[u[[ if u = (1, 4, 1, 5, 2, 1).
(b) Find all scalars k such that [[k(2, 3, 0, 6)[[ = 5.
(c) Prove: If v is a nonzero vector in IR
n
, then
v
[[v[[
has length 1.
(d) Find the distance between u = (0, 2, 1, 1) and v = (3, 2, 4, 4).
(e) Find the distance between x = (3, 3, 2, 1, 0) and y =
(1, 5, 0, 4, 2).
5. Determine whether two vectors in IR
n
are orthogonal.
(a) u = (2, 4, 3, 0, 2, 0) and v = (0, 5, 4, 1, 1, 12).
6. Establish properties of the dot product in IR
n
via mathematical
proof.
(a) Prove: If k IR and u IR
n
, then [[ku[[ = [k[[[u[[.
(b) Prove: If u IR
n
, v IR
n
, and w IR
n
,
then (u +v) w = u w+v w.
Test III: General Vector Spaces
Lesson 17
1. Dene a real vector space. A vector space is a nonempty set V of
objects that are called vectors. On this
set, two operationsvector addition
and scalar multiplicationare dened.
Let x, y, z V and , IR.
I. Closure Property of Addition:
If x V and y V, then x +y V
II. Commutative Property:
x +y = y +x
III. Associative Property:
x + (y +z) = (x +y) +z
IV. Additive Identity Property:
0 V such that x +0 = x, x V
V. Additive Inverse Property:
x V (x) V such that
x + (x) = 0
VI. Closure Property of Scalar Multi-
plication:
If IR and x V, then x V
VII. Vector Distributive Property:
(x +y) = x +y
VIII. Scalar Distributive Property:
( + )x = x + x
IX. Scalar Associative Property:
(x) = ()x
X. Scalar Identity Property:
1x = x
State from memory the 10 axioms of the denition of a real vector
space.
2. Determine whether a set of objects plus two operations is a real
vector space.
To show that something is a real vector
space all 10 axioms must be satised.
To show something is not a real vector
space, nd at least one axiom that fails
to hold.
In the exercises below, you are given a set of objects, V, and two
operations called vector addition (represented with +) and scalar
multiplication (represented by juxtaposition). Determine which
sets are under the operations form a vector space by verifying that
all 10 properties of the vector space denition hold, or show that at
least one real vector space axiom fails to hold.
(a) Let V = IR
2
be the set of objects. In other words, V is the set of
all order pairs (x, y) of real numbers. Vector addition and scalar
multiplication are dened as follows:
u +v = (x, y) + (x
/
, y
/
) = (x + x
/
, y + y
/
)
ku = k(x, y) = (x, ky)
(b) Let V = (x, y) IR
2
: x 0 be the set of objects. Vector
addition and scalar multiplication are dened in the standard
way for two-dimensional vectors.
(c) Let V = IR
3
be the set of objects. In other words, V is the set
of all order triples (x, y, z) of real numbers. Vector addition and
scalar multiplication are dened as follows:
u +v = (x, y, z) + (x
/
, y
/
, z
/
) = (x + x
/
, y + y
/
, z + z
/
)
ku = k(x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)
(d) Let V = IR
2
be the set of objects. Vector addition and scalar
u +v = (x, y) + (x
/
, y
/
) = (x + x
/
, y + y
/
)
ku = k(x, y) = (2kx, 2ky)
(e) Let V =
__
x 1
1 y
_
: x, y IR
_
be the set of objects. That is, V
is the set of all 2 2 matrices such that the antidiagonal entries
are all 1. Vector addition is dened as the standard way of
adding two matrices, and scalar multiplication is dened as the
standard way for multiplying a matrix by a scalar.
(f) Let V =
__
x y
z 0
_
: x, y, z IR
_
be the set of objects. That is, V
is the set of all 2 2 matrices such that bottom right corner is
0. Vector addition is dened as the standard way of adding two
matrices, and scalar multiplication is dened as the standard
way for multiplying a matrix by a scalar.
(g) Let V = IR
2
be the set of objects. Vector addition and scalar
u +v = (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c +1, b + d +1)
ku = k(a, b) = (ka, kb)
(h) Let V = (1, t) : t IR be the set of objects. Vector addition
and scalar multiplication are dened as follows:
u +v = (1, ) + (1, ) = (1, + )
ku = k(1, ) = (1, k)
(i) Let V = (x, y) IR
2
: 2x +3y = 1 be the set of objects. Vector
(j) Let V = (x, y) IR
2
: 2x +3y = 0 be the set of objects. Vector
(k) Given the two problems above, what can you say about V =
(x, y) IR
2
: ax + by = c
3. Establish additional properties of real vector spaces using math-
ematical proof.
(a) Prove: If V is a vector space, u V, and k IR, then k0 = 0.
(Justify each step of the proof below with the appropriate math-
ematical property, theorem, or denition.)
i. Proof. Assume V is a vector space, u V, and k IR.
ii. Note that k0 + ku = k(0 +u)
iii. = ku
iv. We know that ku V.
v. And if ku V, then ku V.
vi. Consider the sum (k0 + ku) + (ku).
vii. (k0 + ku) + (ku) = ku + (ku)
viii. k0 + (ku + (ku)) = ku + (ku)
ix. k0 +0 = 0
x. Therefore, k0 = 0
xi. Q.E.D.
(b) Prove: If u, v, and w are vectors in a vector space V, and
u +w = v +w, then u = v.
i. Proof. Assume u, v, and w are vectors in a vector space V and
u +w = v +w, then u = v.
ii. Since w is a vector in V, then so is w.
iii. It follows that the sums (u +w) + (w) and (v +w) + (w)
are also in V.
iv. (u +w) + (w) = (v +w) + (w)
v. Simplifying the left hand side (LHS) of the equation above:
(u +w) + (w) = u + (w+ (w))
vi. = u +0
vii. = u
viii. Simplifying the right hand side (RHS) of the equation in (iv):
(v +w) + (w) = v + (w+ (w))
ix. = v +0
x. = v
xi. It follows that u = v.
xii. Q.E.D.
(c) Prove: There exists one and only one zero vector 0.
i. Proof. Suppose to the contrary that there exists more than one
zero vector.
ii. It would follow that there were at least two different zero
vectors, say 0
1
and 0
2
, and that 0
1
,= 0
2
.
iii. Consider the sum 0
1
+0
2
iv. Since 0
2
is a zero vector in V,
then 0
1
+0
2
= 0
1
v. But 0
1
is also a zero vector in V,
so 0
1
+0
2
= 0
2
+0
1
vi. = 0
2
vii. Then 0
1
= 0
2
.
viii. This statement is a contradiction of what we originally sup-
posed.
ix. Therefore, there exists one and only one zero vector.
x. Q.E.D.
Lesson 18
1. Determine if a subset of a real vector space is itself a vector
space (i.e., a subspace). Subspace Theorem. If W is a set of one
or more vectors from a vector space V,
then W is a subspace of V if and only if
the following properties hold:
(a) Subspace is closed under vector addi-
tion:
If u and v are vectors in W, then
u +v is also in W.
(b) Subspace is closed under scalar multi-
plication:
If k is any real-valued scalar and u is
in W, then ku is also in W.
(a) Use the Subspace Theorem to determine which of the following
subsets of the vector space IR
3
are subspaces of IR
3
.
i. S
1
= (x, 0, 0) : x IR
ii. S
2
= (x, 1, 1) : x IR
iii. S
3
= (x, y, z) : y = x + z
iv. S
4
= (x, y, z) : y = x + z +1
v. S
5
= (x, y, 0) : x, y IR
(b) Use the Subspace Theorem to determine which of the following
subsets of the vector space M
22
are subspaces of M
22
.
i. T
1
=
__
i j
k l
_
: i, j, k, l ZZ
_
ii. T
2
=
__
w x
y z
_
: w + x + y + z = 0; w, x, y, z IR
_
iii. T
3
=
__
a b
c 0
_
: a, b, c IR
_
iv. T
4
= A M
22
: det (A) = 0
v. T
5
=
__
x x
x x
_
: x IR
_
(c) Use the Subspace Theorem to determine which of the following
subsets of the vector space P
3
are subspaces of P
3
.
i. U
1
= a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ a
3
x
3
P
3
: a
0
= 0
ii. U
2
= a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ a
3
x
3
P
3
: a
0
+ a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
= 0
iii. U
3
= a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ a
3
x
3
P
3
: a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
0
iv. U
4
= a
3
x
3
P
3
: a
3
IR
(d) Use the Subspace Theorem to determine which of the fol-
lowing subsets of the vector space F(, ) are subspaces of
F(, ).
i. G
1
= f F(, ) : f (x) 0, x IR
ii. G
2
= f F(, ) : f (0) = 0
iii. G
3
= f F(, ) : f (0) = 2
iv. G
4
= f F(, ) : f (x) = k, k a constant
v. G
5
= f F(, ) : f (x) = k
1
+k
2
sin (x), k
1
, k
2
constants
2. Determine if a vector can be represented as a linear combination
of other vectors. A vector w is called a linear combina-
tion of the vectors v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
if it can
be expressed in the form
w = k
1
v
1
+ k
2
v
2
+ + k
n
v
n
=
n
i=1
k
i
v
i
where k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
n
IR are scalars.
(a) If possible, write (3, 3, 6) as a linear combination of x =
(1, 2, 1) and y = (0, 1, 1). Otherwise, explain why it can-
not be done.
(b) Find vectors v and w so that v + w = (4, 5, 6) and v w =
(2, 5, 8).
(c) If possible, write
_
1 5
7 1
_
as a linear combination of A =
_
4 0
2 2
_
, B =
_
1 1
2 3
_
, and C =
_
0 2
1 4
_
. Otherwise, explain
why it cannot be done.
(d) If possible, write 6 +11x +6x
2
as a linear combination of p
1
=
2 + x +4x
2
, p
2
= 1 x +3x
2
, and p
3
= 3 +2x +5x
2
. Otherwise,
explain why it cannot be done.
3. Determine if a group of vectors span a vector space. Linear Combinations Form a Subspace
Theorem. If v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
are vectors in
a vector space V, then the set W of all
linear combinations of v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
is a
subspace of V.
W = span v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
is a subspace of V.
(a) Is IR
2
= span v, w where v = (2, 3) and w = (1, 4)?
(b) Is IR
2
= span v, w where v = (2, 8) and w = (1, 4)?
(c) Is IR
2
= span v where v = (3, 5)?
(d) Is IR
3
= span x, y, z where x = (2, 2, 2), y = (0, 0, 3), z =
(0, 1, 1)?
(e) Is IR
3
= span x, y, z where x = (2, 1, 3), y = (4, 1, 2),
z = (8, 1, 8)?
(f) Is P
2
= span p
1
, p
2
, p
3
, p
4
where p
1
= 1 x +2x
2
, p
2
= 3 + x,
p
3
= 5 x 4x
2
, p
4
= 2 2x +2x
2
?
4. Determine if a vector lies within a space spanned by a set of
vectors.
(a) Let f = cos
2
x and g = sin
2
x. Which of the following vectors lie
in span f, g?
i. Is cos 2x span f, g?
ii. Is 3 + x
2
span f, g?
iii. Is 1 span f, g?
iv. Is 0 span f, g?
v. Is sin x span f, g?
(b) Let x = (2, 1, 0, 3), y = (3, 1, 5, 2), and z = (1, 0, 2, 1). Which
of the following vectors lie in span x, y, z?
i. Is (2, 3, 7, 3) span x, y, z?
ii. Is (0, 0, 0, 0) span x, y, z?
iii. Is (1, 1, 1, 1) span x, y, z?
(c) Describe the geometry of a space spanned by a set of vectors.
What geometric shape is represented by spans below? Then
give the shapes mathematical equation or set of equations.
i. span (2, 5)
ii. span (3, 1), (6, 2)
iii. span (2, 1, 3)
iv. span (2, 1), (3, 4)
v. span (3, 2, 2), (6, 4, 4)
vi. span (1, 1, 1), (4, 4, 3)
(d) Describe the solution space (the space of the solution vectors)
for a given homogeneous linear system of equations. Solutions to a Homogeneous System
Form a Subspace Theorem. If Ax = 0
is a homogeneous linear system of m
equations in n unknowns, then the set
of solution vectors is a subspace of IR
n
.
For each homogeneous system of equations below, determine
(1) the number of equations m, (2) the number of unknowns
n, (3) the solution as a set of parametric equations, and (4) the
solution space of the system Ax = 0 given as a set of linear
combinations of vectors.
i.
x
1
2x
2
+ 3x
3
2x
4
= 0
3x
1
+ x
2
3x
3
+ x
4
= 0
2x
1
+ 4x
2
+ 3x
3
x
4
= 0
ii.
x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
= 0
x
1
x
2
+ 2x
3
3x
4
+ x
5
= 0
x
1
+ x
2
2x
3
x
5
= 0
2x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
+ x
5
= 0
iii.
2x
1
x
2
3x
3
= 0
x
1
+ 2x
2
3x
3
= 0
x
1
+ x
2
+ 4x
3
= 0
Lesson 19
The trivial solution to a system of
linear equations occurs when all of
the systems unknowns are equal to
zero. For example, x
1
= x
2
= 0 and
c
1
= c
2
= c
3
= 0 are trivial solutions to
systems with variables x
1
, x
2
or c
1
, c
2
, c
3
respectively.
1. Dene a linearly independent set of vectors and linearly depen-
dent set of vectors.
Now, lets multiply each vector in a
set by an unknown scalar, add the
products and set the sum equal to the
zero vector. Let us call the resulting
equation the trivial vector equation or
the zero vector equation:
k
1
v
1
+ k
2
v
2
+ + k
n
v
n
= 0
State from memory the denition of a linearly independent set of
vectors and a linearly dependent set of vectors.
2. Determine whether a set of vectors is linearly independent (LI)
or linearly dependent (LD) using the denition or theorems
about linear independence/dependence.
A set of vectors is said to be linearly
independent if its zero vector equa-
tion has only the trivial solution, and
linearly dependent otherwise.
Some quick terminology: The car-
dinality of a set is the number
of vectors in the set; so the car-
dinalities of the following sets
A, B, C, states in the USA ,
(1, 2), (3, 4), (8, 1), (2, 3), (1, 7)
are 3, 50, and 5, respectively. We will
dene dimension more precisely later,
but, for Euclidean spaces IR
n
, the di-
mension is always equal to the number
of components in a vector. For ex-
ample, vectors in IR
4
have the form
(a, b, c, d) with four components; so the
dimension of IR
4
is 4. In general, the
dimension of IR
n
is n.
Cardinality Exceeds Dimension Theo-
rem If the cardinality of set of vectors in
IR
n
exceeds the dimension of IR
n
, then
the set of vectors is linearly dependent.
In symbolic notation: If S =
w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
n
is a set of p vec-
tors in any space IR
n
, and if p > n, then
S is linearly dependent.
(a) The following sets of vectors are taken from vector spaces IR
2
,
IR
3
, IR
4
, P
2
, and M
22
. In each case determine whether the set
of vectors is linearly independent or dependent. Then explain
why.
i. (1, 2, 4), (5, 10, 20)
ii. (3, 1), (5, 7), (2, 4)
iii. 3 2x + x
2
, 6 4x +2x
2
iv.
__
5 7
6 0
_
,
_
5 7
6 0
__
v. (4, 1, 2), (4, 10, 2)
vi. (2, 0, 1), (3, 2, 5)(6, 1, 1), (7, 0, 2)
vii. (3, 8, 7, 3), (1, 5, 3, 1), (2, 1, 2, 6), (1, 4, 0, 3)
viii. (0, 0, 2, 2), (3, 3, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 1)
ix. 6 x
2
, 1 + x +4x
2
(b) For which real values of do the following vectors form a lin-
early dependent set in IR
3
?
x
1
= (,
1
2
,
1
2
), x
2
= (
1
2
, ,
1
2
), x
3
= (
1
2
,
1
2
, )
3. Establish properties of linear dependent and independent sets
using mathematical proof.
(a) Prove: If x
1
, x
2
, x
3
is a linearly dependent set of vectors in V,
and x
4
V, then x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
is also linearly dependent.
(b) Prove: If x
1
, x
2
, x
3
is a linearly independent set of vectors in V,
then x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, 0 is linearly dependent.
Lesson 20
1. Dene a basis for a real vector space. State from memory the A set of vectors B = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
from a vector space V is said to be a

basis for V if:
the set B is linearly independent
the set B spans V.
denition of a basis of real vector space.
2. Determine whether a set of vectors form a basis by using the
denition or other properties.
(a) From inspection, explain why the following sets of vectors are
not bases for the indicated vector spaces.
i. Is S = (2, 1), (0, 5), (1, 7) a basis for IR
2
?
ii. Is S = (0, 0), (3, 7) a basis for IR
2
?
iii. Is S = (3, 9), (5, 15) a basis for IR
2
?
iv. Is T = (2, 3, 1), (5, 1, 1) a basis for IR
3
?
v. Is U = 1 +2x +3x
2
, x 2 a basis for P
2
?
vi. Is W =
__
1 0
2 5
_
,
_
7 3
2 6
_
,
_
4 4
6 1
_
,
_
3 1
2 0
_
,
_
2 3
1 1
__
a
basis for M
22
?
(b) Using the denition of a basis or any theorems about bases,
determine whether the following sets of vectors are bases for
the indicated vector spaces.
i. Is J = (1, 0, 0), (2, 2, 0), (3, 3, 3) a basis for IR
3
?
ii. Is K = (3, 1, 4), (2, 5, 6), (1, 4, 8) a basis for IR
3
?
iii. Is L = 1 3x +2x
2
, 1 + x +4x
2
, 1 7x a basis for P
2
?
iv. Is M = 1 + x + x
2
, x + x
2
, x
2
a basis for P
2
?
v. Is N =
__
3 6
3 6
_
,
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
_
0 8
12 4
_
,
_
1 0
1 2
__
a
basis for M
22
?
3. Calculate the coordinates of vector relative to a specic basis. Uniqueness of Basis Representation
Theorem. If B = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
is a
basis for a vector space V, then every
vector v V can be written as a linear
combination of ordered basis vectors,
v = k
1
x
1
+ k
2
x
2
+ + k
n
x
n
, in exactly
one way.
(a) If (u)
M
= (2, 3) and M = (1,
3), (
2
3
, 1), calculate u.
(b) If (v)
N
= (1, 0, 2) and N = (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (3, 0, 1),
calculate v.
(c) If (v)
P
= (2, 2, 1, 1) and
P =
__
1 0
0 0
_
,
_
0 1
0 0
_
,
_
0 0
1 0
_
,
_
0 0
0 1
__
, calculate v.
(d) If w = (1, 1), determine (w)
S
, the coordinate vector of w rela-
tive to the basis S = (2, 4), (3, 8).
(e) If w = (1, 1), determine (w)
T
, the coordinate vector of w rela-
tive to the basis T = (1, 5), (2, 3).
(f) If x = (a, b), determine (x)
U
, the coordinate vector of x relative
to the basis U = (1, 1), (0, 2).
(g) If y = (2, 1, 3), determine (y)
V
, the coordinate vector of y
relative to the basis V = (1, 0, 0), (2, 2, 0), (3, 3, 3).
(h) If u =
_
2 0
1 3
_
, determine (u)
J
, the coordinate vector of u
relative to the basis J =
__
1 1
0 0
_
,
_
1 1
0 0
_
,
_
0 0
1 0
_
,
_
0 0
0 1
__
.
4. Determine the basis and dimension for the solution space of a
homogeneous system of linear equations. It can be shown that, if a vector space
has a basis consisting of n vectors,
then any other basis set will also
consist of n vectors. The dimension
of a nite-dimensional vector space
is the number of vectors in any of its
bases. For example, we know that
B = (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) is a
basis for IR
3
so the dimension of IR
3
is 3
(symbolically: dim(IR
3
) = 3). A basis
for P
3
is 1, x, x
2
, x
3
, so dim(P
3
) = 4.
For the homogeneous systems of linear equations below, solve the
system to nd the solution space. Then analyze the solutions to
nd the basis and the dimension of the solution space.
(a)
3x
1
+ x
2
+ 4x
3
x
4
= 0
2x
1
x
2
+ x
3
x
4
= 0
(b)
x + y + z = 0
3x + 2y 2z = 0
4x + 3y z = 0
6x + 5y + 2z = 0
(c)
x
1
3x
2
+ x
3
= 0
2x
1
6x
2
+ 2x
3
= 0
3x
1
9x
2
+ 3x
3
= 0
(d)
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
= 0
2x
1
5x
3
= 0
x
2
+ 2x
3
= 0
5. Determine the basis and dimension of subspaces described
algebraically and geometrically .
(a) Find the basis and dimension of the following subspaces of IR
3
.
i. the plane 2x 3y +7z = 0
ii. the plane x 3y = 0
iii. the line x = 2t, y = 3t, z = 5t
iv. Is the origin
_
_
0
0
0
_
_ included in the subspaces of the three exer-

cises above? Explain.
v. (x, y, z) IR
3
: y = x + z
(b) Find the basis and dimension of the following subspaces of IR
4
.
i. (w, x, y, 0) : w, x, y IR
ii. (w, x, y, z) IR
4
: w = x = y = z
iii. (w, x, y, z) IR
4
: y = w x, z = w + x
(c) Find the basis and dimension of the following subspace of P
4
:
k
4
x
4
+ k
3
x
3
+ k
2
x
2
+ k
1
x + k
0
: k
0
= 0.
Lesson 21
1. Identify row and column vectors for a given matrix.
List the row and column vectors of the matrix A.
_
_
3 2 5 4 6
2 1 5 1 0
4 2 3 1 2
_
_
2. Express matrix-vector products (e.g. Ax) as linear combinations
of column vectors of the matrix.
Express the matrix-vector product Ax as a linear combination of
the column vectors of A.
(a)
_
2 5
1 3
_ _
3
4
_
(b)
_
_
3 0 1
1 3 2
5 1 2
_
_
_
_
1
4
2
_
_
(c)
_
_
3 6 1
4 5 1
2 1 0
3 1 1
_
_
_
_
1
2
5
_
_
3. Determine whether a given column vector lies in the column
space of a matrix. Column Space Test for Consistency
Theorem. A system of linear equations
Ax = b is consistent if and only if b is
in the column space of A. In symbols,
Ax = b is consistent b ( (A)
Determine whether the column vector b is in the column space
of A. If so, then express b as a linear combination of the column
vectors of A.
(a) A =
_
1 3
4 6
_
; b =
_
2
10
_
(b) A =
_
_
1 1 2
1 0 1
2 1 3
_
_; b =
_
_
1
0
2
_
_
(c) A =
_
_
1 1 1
9 3 1
1 1 1
_
_; b =
_
_
5
1
1
_
_
(d) A =
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_; b =
_
_
2
0
0
_
_
(e) A =
_
_
1 2 0 1
0 1 2 1
1 2 1 3
0 1 2 2
_
_
; b =
_
_
2
3
5
7
_
_
4. Explain the distinctions and the relationships between the term
particular solution for a nonhomogeneous linear system Ax = b,
the general solution for a homogeneous linear system Ax = 0,
and the general solution of the nonhomogeneous linear system
Ax = b.
(a) Suppose that x =
_
_
1
2
5
3
_
_
+
_
_
1
2
5
3
_
_
s +
_
_
1
2
5
2
3
7
_
_
t solves the
system Ax = b.
i. What is the particular solution of Ax = b?
ii. What is the general solution of Ax = 0?
iii. What is the general solution of Ax = b?
(b) Suppose that x
1
= 9, x
2
= 3, x
3
= 1, x
4
=
3
4
is a solution of a
nonhomogeneous linear system Ax = b and that the solution of
the homogeneous system Ax = 0 is given by x
1
= 2 3, x
2
=
2, x
3
= , x
4
= .
i. Find the vector form of the general solution of Ax = 0.
ii. Find the vector form of the general solution of Ax = b.
(c) For each of the problem below, rst nd the vector form of the
general solution of Ax = b; then nd the vector form of the
general solution of Ax = 0.
i.
3x
1
x
2
= 1
6x
1
+ 2x
2
= 2
ii.
x
1
+ x
2
+ 2x
3
= 5
x
1
+ x
3
= 2
2x
1
+ x
2
+ 3x
3
= 3
iii.
x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
+ 2x
4
= 1
2x
1
4x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 4x
4
= 2
x
1
2x
2
x
3
2x
4
= 1
3x
1
6x
2
+ 3x
3
+ 6x
4
= 3
5. Find the bases for row space and null space of a matrix that is in
row-echelon form.
The matrices R
i
below are all in row-echelon form. Find bases for
!(R
i
), row space of R
i
, and ( (R
i
), column space of R
i
.
(a) R
1
=
_
_
1 0 3
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
(b) R
2
=
_
_
1 5 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
(c) R
3
=
_
_
1 3 5 4
0 1 3 0
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
_
_
(d) R
4
=
_
_
1 2 1 6
0 1 5 2
0 0 1 9
0 0 0 1
_
_
6. Given a matrix that is not in row-echelon form, nd the bases
for row space, column space, and nullspace of the given matrix.
Find bases for !(A
i
), row space of A
i
, ( (A
i
), column space of A
i
,
and A (A
i
), null space of A
i
.
(a) A
1
=
_
_
1 1 3
5 4 4
7 6 2
_
_
(b) A
2
=
_
_
1 4 5 2
2 1 3 0
1 3 2 2
_
_
(c) A
3
=
_
_
1 4 5 6 9
3 2 1 4 1
1 0 1 2 1
2 3 5 7 8
_
_
(d) A
4
=
_
_
1 3 2 2 1
0 3 6 0 3
2 3 2 4 4
3 6 0 6 5
2 9 2 4 5
_
_
7. Find a basis for row space of a matrix consisting entirely of row
vectors of the given matrix.
For the matrices below, nd bases for !(A) that consist entirely of
row vectors of A.
(a) A =
_
_
1 2 0 0 3
2 5 3 2 6
0 5 15 10 0
2 6 18 8 6
_
_
(b) A =
_
_
1 3 4 2 5 4
2 6 9 1 8 2
2 6 9 1 9 7
1 3 4 2 5 4
_
_
8. Construct a matrix that generates a particular nullspace.
(a) Let A =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
_
_.
Show that A (A) is the z-axis and that ( (A) is the xy-plane.
(b) Find a 3 3 matrix whose nullspace is the x-axis and whose
column space is the yz-plane.
(c) Find a 3 3 matrix whose nullspace is:
i. a point
ii. a line
iii. a plane
9. Find a basis for a subspace that is the span of a set of vectors.
(a) For each subspace of IR
4
below, nd a basis.
i. S
1
= span (1, 2, 4, 3), (2, 0, 5, 2), (2, 2, 1, 2)
ii. S
2
= span (1, 1, 2, 1), (3, 3, 6, 0), (7, 1, 14, 4)
iii. S
3
= span (2, 2, 0, 0), (2, 1, 2, 5), (2, 0, 2, 2), (0, 3, 0, 3)
(b) For each subspace of IR
4
below, nd a basis in terms of the
vectors of the spanning set. Then express each vector not a part
of the basis as a linear combination of the remaining vectors.
i. T
1
= span (1, 0, 1, 1), (3, 3, 7, 1), (1, 3, 9, 3), (5, 3, 5, 1)
ii. T
2
= span (1, 2, 0, 3), (2, 4, 0, 6), (1, 1, 2, 0), (0, 1, 2, 3)
Lesson 22
1. Dene the four fundamental matrix spaces. Denition of the Four Fundamental
Matrix Spaces. Three vector spaces can
be generated for a matrix A, namely,
rowspace of A, columnspace of A,
and nullspace of A, and three vector
spaces can be generated from A
T
,
namely, rowspace of A
T
, columnspace
of A
T
, and nullspace of A
T
. Note,
however, that !(A) = ( (A
T
) and
( (A) = !(A
T
). So, any matrix
A is said to generate a total of four
fundamental matrix spaces:
!(A)
( (A)
A (A)
A (A
T
)
State from memory the four fundamental matrix spaces.
2. Dene the rank of a matrix.
Denition of Rank of a Matrix. The
rank of a matrix A is the dimension
of !(A) (or ( (A)). Note that the
dimension of !(A) and ( (A) are
always the same. The rank of A is
denoted by rank (A).
(a) State from memory the denition of the rank of a matrix.
(b) Explain why rank (A) = rank (A
T
).
3. Dene the nullity of a matrix.
Denition of Nullity of a Matrix. The
nullity of a matrix A is the dimension
of A (A). The nullity of A is denoted
by nullity (A).
State from memory the denition of the nullity of a matrix.
4. Using the Dimension Theorem, explain the relationship between
the rank of a given matrix, its nullity, and the number of column
vectors in the matrix.
Dimension Theorem for Matrices If
A is a matrix with n columns, then
rank (A) +nullity (A) = n.
Give the relationship between rank, nullity, and number of columns
of a matrix in a formula from memory.
5. Determine the rank and nullity of a given matrix.
Find the rank and nullity of the matrices below. Then verify that
the rank, nullity, and number of columns satisfy the relationship
described in the Dimension Theorem.
(a) A
mn
=
_
_
1 1 3
5 4 4
7 6 2
_
_;
rank (A) = ; nullity (A) = ; n = .
(b) B
rs
=
_
_
1 4 5 2
2 1 3 0
1 3 2 2
_
_;
rank (B) = ; nullity (B) = ; s = .
(c) C
pq
=
_
_
1 3 2 2 1
0 3 6 0 3
2 3 2 4 4
3 6 0 6 5
2 9 2 4 5
_
_
;
rank (C) = ; nullity (C) = ; q = .
6. Determine the number of leading (basic) variables and the num-
ber of parameters (free variables) for a homogeneous system
Ax = 0 from the rank and nullity of the coefcient matrix A.
Determine the number of leading variables and the number of
parameters for the homogeneous systems given below. (Note:
you have already computed the rank and nullity of these matrices in the
previous problem.)
(a) Ax = 0; A
mn
=
_
_
1 1 3
5 4 4
7 6 2
_
_
# of leading variables = ; # of parameters = .
(b) Bx = 0; B
rs
=
_
_
1 4 5 2
2 1 3 0
1 3 2 2
_
_
(c) Cx = 0; C
pq
=
_
_
1 3 2 2 1
0 3 6 0 3
2 3 2 4 4
3 6 0 6 5
2 9 2 4 5
_
_
7. Determine the largest possible rank and smallest possible nul-
lity given the size of a matrix.
Find the largest possible rank and the smallest possible nullity for
the following matrices:
(a) S
44
(b) T
35
(c) U
53
(d) A
mn
8. Determine the dimensions of the four fundamental subspaces
of a matrix given the size of the matrix and its rank. Find the Dimensions of Fundamental Matrix
Spaces Theorem. If a matrix A
pq
has rank r, then the dimensions of the
four fundamental matrix spaces are as
follows:
dim!(A) = r
dim( (A) = r
dimA (A) = q r
dimA (A
T
) = p r
dimension of row space, column space, and nullspace of the given
matrix as well as the dimension of nullspace of the transpose of
the matrix.
(a) If rank (A
33
) = 3, then (i) dim(!(A)) = ;
(ii) dim(( (A)) = ; (iii) dim(A (A)) = ; and
(iv) dim(A (A
T
)) = .
(b) If rank (A
33
) = 2, then (i) dim(!(A)) = ;
(iv) dim(A (A
T
)) = .
(c) If rank (A
33
) = 1, then (i) dim(!(A)) = ;
(iv) dim(A (A
T
)) = .
(d) If rank (B
59
) = 2, then (i) dim(!(B)) = ;
(ii) dim(( (B)) = ; (iii) dim(A (B)) = ; and
(iv) dim(A (B
T
)) = .
(e) If rank (C
95
) = 2, then (i) dim(!(C)) = ;
(ii) dim(( (C)) = ; (iii) dim(A (C)) = ; and
(iv) dim(A (C
T
)) = .
(f) If rank (D
44
) = 0, then (i) dim(!(D)) = ;
(ii) dim(( (D)) = ; (iii) dim(A (D)) = ; and
(iv) dim(A (D
T
)) = .
(g) If rank (E
62
) = 2, then (i) dim(!(E)) = ;
(ii) dim(( (E)) = ; (iii) dim(A (E)) = ; and
(iv) dim(A (E
T
)) = .
9. Determine whether a system Ax = b is consistent by evaluating
the rank of the coefcient matrix A and the augmented matrix
[A[b]. Additionally use the size of the coefcient matrix A to
determine the number of parameters in the general solution. Augmented Matrix Test for Consis-
tency. A system of linear equations
Ax = b is consistent if and only if
the rank of A and the rank of the aug-
mented matrix [A[b] are equal. In
symbols, Ax = b is consistent
rank (A) = rank ([A[b])
Given the size and rank of the coefcient matrix A and given the
rank of the augmented matrix [A[b], determine whether the asso-
ciated linear system Ax = b is consistent. If Ax = b is consistent,
determine the number of parameters in its general solution.
(a) rank (A
33
) = 3 and rank ([A[b]) = 3
(b) rank (A
33
) = 2 and rank ([A[b]) = 3
(c) rank (A
33
) = 1 and rank ([A[b]) = 1
(d) rank (A
59
) = 2 and rank ([A[b]) = 2
(e) rank (A
59
) = 2 and rank ([A[b]) = 3
(f) rank (A
44
) = 0 and rank ([A[b]) = 0
(g) rank (A
62
) = 0 and rank ([A[b]) = 2
Test IV: Inner Product Spaces
Lesson 23
1. Dene an inner product for a vector space. An inner product on a real vector space
V is a function that associates a real
number x, y with each pair of vectors
x and y in V such that the following
properties are satised for all vectors
x, y, and z in V and all real number
scalars k:
(a) Symmetry:
x, y = y, x
(b) Additivity:
x +y, z = x, z +y, z
(c) Homogeneity:
kx, y = k x, y
(d) Positivity:
i. x, x 0
ii. x, x = 0 x = 0
State from memory the four properties of the denition of an inner
product.
2. Determine whether a particular function that maps two vectors
to a scalar is or is not an inner product.
Are the following mappings inner products on the given space? If
so, show that all four properties of the inner product function are
satised. If not, show that at least one of the properties does not
hold.
(a) Let x = (x
1
, x
2
) and y = (y
1
, y
2
) be any vectors in IR
2
.
x, y = 2x
1
y
1
+7x
2
y
2
(b) Let x = (x
1
, x
2
) and y = (y
1
, y
2
2
.
x, y = x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
(c) Let u = (u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) and v = (v
1
, v
2
, v
3
3
.
u, v = u
1
v
1
+ u
3
v
3
(d) Let u = (u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) and v = (v
1
, v
2
, v
3
3
.
u, v = 2u
1
v
1
+ u
2
v
2
+4u
3
v
3
(e) Let u = (u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) and v = (v
1
, v
2
, v
3
3
.
u, v = u
1
v
1
u
2
v
2
+ u
3
v
3
3. Give examples of how different inner products yield different
values for magnitude of a vector and distance between vectors.
(a) If the inner product on IR
2
is the Euclidean inner product
x, y = x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
, nd:
i. [[w[[ if w = (2, 5)
ii. d(a, b) if a = (1, 2) and b = (2, 5)
(b) If the inner product on IR
2
is the weighted Euclidean inner
product x, y = 2x
1
y
1
+3x
2
y
2
, nd:
i. [[w[[ if w = (2, 5)
ii. d(a, b) if a = (1, 2) and b = (2, 5)
(c) If the inner product x, y on IR
2
is generated by the matrix
_
1 2
1 3
_
, nd:
i. [[w[[ if w = (2, 5)
ii. d(a, b) if a = (1, 2) and b = (2, 5)
(d) If p = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
and q = b
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
x
2
are vectors in P
2
and p, q = a
0
b
0
+ a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
, nd
i. [[r[[ if r = 2 +3x + x
2
ii. d(r, s) is r = 5 2x
2
and s = x +2x
2
(e) If p = p(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
and q = q(x) = b
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
x
2
are vectors in P
2
and p, q =
_
1
1
p(x)q(x)dx, nd
i. [[r[[ if r = x
2
ii. d(r, s) if r = 2 x and s = 1 +2x x
2
(f) If =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
and =
_
b
11
b
12
b
21
b
22
_
are vectors in M
22
and
, = a
11
b
11
+ a
12
b
12
+ a
21
b
21
+ a
22
b
22
, nd
i. [[[[ if =
_
2 6
7 3
_
ii. d(, ) if =
_
4 7
1 5
_
and =
_
2 4
1 0
_
4. Evaluate specic inner products using their properties. Suppose
that x, y, and z are vectors in space V such that
x, y = 3, y, z = 2, x, z = 4, [[x[[ = 1, [[y[[ = 2, [[z[[ = 5.
Evaluate the following expressions.
(a) x +y, y +z
(b) 3y +z, 2x +2z
(c) [[x +z[[
(d) [[2y z[[
5. Prove theorems about inner products using the denitions ax-
ioms.
(a) Prove: If u and v are vectors in a real inner product space V and
k IR, then u, kv = k u, v.
(Justify each step of the proof below with the appropriate math-
ematical property, theorem, or denition.)
i. Proof. Assume
ii. u, kv = kv, u
iii. = k v, u
iv. = k u, v
v. Therefore, u, kv = k u, v
vi. Q.E.D.
(b) Prove: If u, v, and w are vectors in a real inner product space V
and k IR, then u v, w = u, w v, w.
(c) Prove: If u, v, and w are vectors in a real inner product space V
and k IR, then u, v w = u, v u, w.
Lesson 24
1. Determine if two vectors are orthogonal using a given inner
product.
Find the angle between two vectors for a given inner product.
(a) Determine if, or under what circumstances, the pair of vectors
below are orthogonal under the Euclidean inner product.
i. u = (1, 3, 2) and v = (4, 2, 1)
ii. x = (3, 3, 3) and y = (1, 0, 1)
iii. a = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) and b = (0, 0, 0)
iv. = (0, 3, 2, 1) and = (5, 2, 1, 0)
v. r = (2, 1, 3) and s = (1, 7, c)
vi. v = (k, k, 1) and w = (k, 5, 6)
(b) Do there exist scalars a and b such that vectors x = (2, a, 6),
y = (b, 5, 3), and z = (1, 2, 3) are pairwise orthogonal with
respect to the Euclidean inner product?
(c) Solve the following equation for k assuming that IR
3
has the
Euclidean inner product and vectors u = (1, 1, 1) and v =
(6, 7, 15):
[[ku +v[[ = 13
(d) Let p, q = a
0
b
0
+ a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
be the inner product for any two
vectors p = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
and q = b
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
x
2
in P
2
.
i. Determine whether the two vectors p = 1 x + 2x
2
and
q = 2x + x
2
are orthogonal.
ii. Find the angle between the two vectors p = 1 + 5x + 2x
2
and q = 2 +4x 3x
2
(e) Let p, q =
_
1
1
p(x)q(x)dx be the inner product for any two
vectors p = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
and q = b
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
x
2
in P
2
.
i. Determine whether the two vectors p = 1 x + 2x
2
and
q = 2x + x
2
are orthogonal.
ii. Find the angle between the two vectors p = 1 + 5x + 2x
2
and q = 2 +4x 9x
2
(f) Let , = a
11
b
11
+ a
12
b
12
+ a
21
b
21
+ a
22
b
22
be the inner
product for any two vectors =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
and =
_
b
11
b
12
b
21
b
22
_
in M
22
.
i. Determine whether the two vectors =
_
2 1
1 3
_
and =
_
3 0
0 2
_
are orthogonal.
ii. Find the angle between the two vectors =
_
1 4
2 3
_
and
=
_
3 2
0 1
_
2. Given a subspace W of a vector space V, nd its complement.
(a) Let W
1
be the line in IR
2
with equation y = 2x. Find an equation
for W
1
.
(b) Let W
2
be the plane in IR
3
with equation x 2y 3z = 0. Find
parametrics for W
2
.
(c) Let W
3
be the line in IR
3
with parametric equations x = 2t,
y = 5t, z = 4t. Find an equation for W
3
.
(d) Let W
4
be the intersection of the two planes x + y + z = 0 and
x y + z = 0. Find an equation for W
4
.
3. Explain the geometric link between nullspace of A and the row
space of A. The Fundamental Theorem of Linear
Algebra. If A be an m n matrix
with rank r, then four fundamental
subspaces can be formed:
!(A), the row space of A;
( (A), the column space of A;
A (A). the nullspace of A; and
A (A
T
), the nullspace of A
T
(1) And the dimensions of the four
fundamental subspaces are:
dim!(A) = dim( (A) = r,
dimA (A) = n r,
dimA (A
T
) = mr
(2) And the geometric relationships be-
tween the subspaces are as follows:
i. A (A) = (!(A))
The nullspace of A and the

row space of A are orthogonal
complements in IR
n
with respect
to the Euclidean inner product.
ii. A (A
T
) = (( (A))
The nullspace of A
T
and the col-
umn space of A are orthogonal
complements in IR
m
with respect
to the Euclidean inner product.
Let
A =
_
_
1 2 1 2
3 5 0 4
1 1 2 0
_
_
(a) Find bases for !(A) and A (A).
(b) Verify that every vector in !(A) is orthogonal to every vector
in A (A) as guaranteed by the Fundamental Theorem of Linear
Algebra.
4. Explain the geometric link between nullspace and column space
of A. Let
A =
_
_
1 2 1 2
3 5 0 4
1 1 2 0
_
_
(a) Find bases for ( (A) and A (A
T
).
(b) Verify that every vector in ( (A) is orthogonal to every vector in
A (A
T
) as guaranteed by the Fundamental Theorem of Linear
Algebra.
Lesson 25
1. Dene an orthogonal set of vectors and an orthonormal set of
vectors. A set of vectors in an inner product
space is said to be an orthogonal set
if all pairs of vectors in the set are
orthogonal. An orthonormal set is an
orthogonal set in which the each vector
has length 1.
(a) State from memory the denition of an orthogonal set of vec-
tors.
(b) State from memory the denition of an orthonormal set of
vectors.
2. Classify a set of vectors orthonormal, orthogonal only, or not
orthogonal.
(a) For each set of vectors below, determine whether the set of
vectors is orthonormal, orthogonal only, or not orthogonal with
respect to the Euclidean inner product.
i. (0, 1), (2, 0)
ii.
_
2
,
1
2
_
,
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
iii.
_
2
,
1
2
_
,
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
iv. (1, 0), (0, 0)

v.
_
1
2
, 0,
1
2
_
,
_
1
3
,
1
3
,
1
3
_
,
_
2
, 0,
1
2
_
vi.
_
2
3
,
2
3
,
1
3
_
,
_
2
3
,
1
3
,
2
3
_
,
_
1
3
,
2
3
,
2
3
_
vii. (1, 0, 0) ,
_
0,
1
2
,
1
2
_
, (0, 0, 1)
viii.
_
1
6
,
1
6
,
2
6
_
,
_
1
2
,
1
2
, 0
_
(b) For the set of vectors below, determine whether the set of vec-
tors is orthonormal, orthogonal only, or not orthogonal with
respect to the inner product p, q = a
0
b
0
+ a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
, where
p = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
and q = b
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
x
2
in P
2
.
i.
_
2
3

2
3
x +
1
3
x
2
,
2
3
+
1
3
x
2
3
x
2
,
1
3
+
2
3
x +
2
3
x
2
_
ii.
_
1,
1
2
x +
1
2
x
2
, x
2
_
(c) For the set of vectors below, determine whether the set of vec-
tors is orthonormal, orthogonal only, or not orthogonal with
respect to the inner product , = a
11
b
11
+ a
12
b
12
+ a
21
b
21
+
a
22
b
22
, where =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
and =
_
b
11
b
12
b
21
b
22
_
in M
22
.
i.
__
1 0
0 0
_
,
_
0
2
3
1
3

2
3
_
,
_
0
2
3
2
3
1
3
_
,
_
0
1
3
2
3
2
3
__
ii.
__
1 0
0 0
_
,
_
0 1
0 0
_
,
_
0 0
1 1
_
,
_
0 0
1 1
__
3. Given an orthonormal basis, use the Coordinate Vector Theo-
rem to write a vector as a linear combination of vectors in the
orthonormal set. The Coordinate Vector Theorem. If
B = b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
is an orthonormal
basis for an inner product space V and
v is any vector in V, then
v = v, b
1
b
1
+v, b
2
b
2
+ +v, b
n
b
n
And we can write v as a coordinate
vector (v)
B
:
(v)
B
= (v, b
1
, v, b
2
, . . . , v, b
n
)
(a) Verify that the vectors x = (
3
5
,
4
5
, 0), y = (
4
5
,
3
5
, 0), z = (0, 0, 1)
form an orthonormal basis for IR
3
with the Euclidean inner
product. Then use the Coordinate Vector Theorem to express
each of the following as linear combinations of x, y, and z.
i. u = (1, 1, 2)
ii. v = (3, 7, 4)
iii. w = (
1
7
,
3
7
,
5
7
)
(b) Using the information from the previous problem, rewrite each
vector as a coordinate vector with respect to the orthonormal
basis B = x, y, z.
i. (u)
B
=
ii. (v)
B
=
iii. (w)
B
=
(c) Find the coordinate vector with respect to the given orthonor-
mal basis. (In both cases, assume the Euclidean inner product.)
i. Find (r)
B
where r = (3, 7) and B = b
1
, b
2
, in which
b
1
=
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
and b
2
=
_
1
2
,
1
2
_
ii. Find (s)
B
where s = (1, 0, 2) and B = b
1
, b
2
, b
3
, in which
b
1
=
_
2
3
,
2
3
,
1
3
_
, b
2
=
_
2
3
,
1
3
,
2
3
_
, and b
3
=
_
1
3
,
2
3
,
2
3
_
4. Compute magnitudes, distances, and inner products using co-
ordinates as allowed by the Coordinate-Magnitude Properties.
Coordinate-Magnitude Properties
Theorem. If B is an orthonormal basis
for an n-dimensional inner product
space V and if the coordinate vectors
relative to B for two vectors x and y are
given by
(x)
B
= (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) and (y)
B
= (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
)
then
i. x, y = x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
+ + x
n
y
n
ii. [[x[[ =
_
x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ + x
2
n
iii. d(x, y) =
_
(x
1
y
1
)
2
+ + (x
n
y
n
)
2
(a) Let IR
2
have the Euclidean inner product, and let B = b
1
, b
2
be an orthonormal basis with b

1
=
_
3
5
,
4
5
_
, b
2
=
_
4
5
,
3
5
_
i. Find vectors x and y in IR
2
that have coordinate vectors
(x)
B
= (1, 1) and (y)
B
= (1, 4).
ii. Compute x, y, [[x[[, and d(x, y) by applying the Coordinate-
Magnitude Properties to the coordinate vectors (x)
B
and
(y)
B
; then recalculate the inner product, the norm, and the
distance between two vectors by performing the necessary
computations directly on x and y.
(b) Let IR
3
have the Euclidean inner product, and let B = b
1
, b
2
, b
3
be an orthonormal basis with b

1
=
_
0,
3
5
,
4
5
_
, b
2
= (1, 0, 0),
b
3
=
_
0,
4
5
,
3
5
_
i. Find vectors x, y, and z in IR
3
that have coordinate vectors
(x)
B
= (2, 1, 2), (y)
B
= (3, 0, 2), and (z)
B
= (5, 4, 1).
ii. Compute x, z, [[y[[, and d(z, y) by applying the Coordinate-
Magnitude Properties to the coordinate vectors (x)
B
and
(y)
B
; then recalculate the results by performing the necessary
computations directly on x, y, and z.
5. Use the Gram-Schmidt process to transform a regular basis into
an orthonormal one.
(a) Let IR
2
have the Euclidean inner product. Perform the Gram-
Schmidt process on each of the bases for IR
2
given below to nd
an associated orthogonal basis. Then divide out the magnitude
of each vector in the orthogonal basis to nd an orthonormal
one.
i. (1, 1), (2, 1)
ii. (0, 1), (1, 3)
iii. (0, 1), (1, 0)
(b) Let IR
3
have the Euclidean inner product. Perform the Gram-
Schmidt process on each of the bases for IR
3
given below to nd
an associated orthogonal basis. Then divide out the magnitude
of each vector in the orthogonal basis to nd an orthonormal
one.
i. (2, 2, 2), (1, 0, 1), (0, 3, 1)
ii. (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 0), (2, 3, 1)
(c) Note that the plane x y + z = 0 is a subspace of IR
3
. Find an
orthonormal basis for it.
(d) Note that the set
(x, y, z, w) IR
4
: x y z + w = 0 and x + z = 0
is a subspace of IR
4
. Find an orthonormal basis for it.
Lesson 26
1. Given an inconsistent linear system, nd the best approximation
to the system (i.e., the least squares solution).
Given a least squares solution to an inconsistent linear system,
nd the orthogonal projection of it onto the column space of the
coefcient matrix of the original system.
For each inconsistent system Ax = b, give the best approximation
(least squares solution). Then nd the orthogonal projection of b
onto the column space of A.
(a)
x + y = 7
x + y = 0
x + 2y = 7
(b)
2x 2y = 2
x + y = 1
3x + y = 1
(c)
x z = 6
2x + y 2z = 0
x + y = 9
x + y z = 3
(d)
2x z = 0
x 2y + 2z = 6
2x y = 0
y z = 6
(e) Compute the orthogonal projection of a vector outside a sub-
space onto the subspace.
i. Find the proj
S
(u) where u = (2, 1, 3) and S = span (1, 1, 0), (1, 2, 1).
ii. Find the proj
S
(u) where u = (6, 3, 9, 6) and S = span (2, 1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1, 1), (2, 1, 0, 1).
iii. Find the proj
S
(u) where u = (5, 6, 7, 2) and S is the solution
space of the homogeneous linear system
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 0
2x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 0
Lesson 27
1. Determine whether a square matrix is orthogonal by denition
or by the Orthogonal Matrix Theorem. A square matrix A is said to be an
orthogonal matrix if A
1
= A
T
. Note
that this is logically equivalent to saying
that A is orthogonal if
A
T
A = AA
T
= I
Orthogonal Matrix Theorem. The
following are equivalent for A
nn
:
(a) A is orthogonal.
(b) The row vectors of A form an
orthonormal set in IR
n
with the
Euclidean inner product.
(c) The column vectors of A form an
orthonormal set in IR
n
with the
Euclidean inner product.
(a) Show that the matrix
A =
_
_
4
5
0
3
5
9
25
4
5

12
25
12
25
3
5
16
25
_
_
is orthogonal in three ways:
i. by calculating A
T
A (consequence of the denition)
ii. by using part (b) of the Orthogonal Matrix Theorem (row
vectors should form an orthonormal set)
iii. by using part (c) of the Orthogonal Matrix Theorem (column
vectors should form an orthonormal set).
(b) Show that the matrix
B =
_
_
1
3
2
3
2
3
2
3

2
3
1
3
2
3

1
3
2
3
_
_
is orthogonal in three ways:
i. by calculating B
T
B (consequence of the denition)
ii. by using part (b) of the Orthogonal Matrix Theorem (row
vectors should form an orthonormal set)
iii. by using part (c) of the Orthogonal Matrix Theorem (column
vectors should form an orthonormal set).
2. Calculate the inverse of an orthogonal matrix by recognizing the
relationship of the inverse and the transpose of such matrices.
(a) Find A
1
if A =
_
_
4
5
0
3
5
9
25
4
5

12
25
12
25
3
5
16
25
_
_
.
(b) Find B
1
if B =
_
_
1
3
2
3
2
3
2
3

2
3
1
3
2
3

1
3
2
3
_
_
.
(c) For the matrices below, rst determine whether the matrices are
orthogonal. If a matrix is orthogonal, then nd its inverse.
i.
_
1 0
0 1
_
ii.
_
_
1
2

1
2
1
2
1
2
_
_
iii.
_
_
0 1
1
2
1 0 0
0 0
1
2
_
_
iv.
_
2
1
6
1
3
0
2
6
1
3
1
2
1
6
1
3
_
_
v.
_
_
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2

5
6
1
6
1
6
1
2
1
6
1
6

5
6
1
2
1
6

5
6
1
6
_
_
vi.
_
_
1 0 0 0
0
1
3

1
2
0
0
1
3
0 1
0
1
3
1
2
0
_
_
3. Establish mathematical relationships and properties of orthogo-
nal matrices.
Prove: If A is orthogonal, then A
T
is also orthogonal.
Lesson 28
1. Given a square matrix, nd its eigenvalues, its eigenspaces, and
its eigenbases.
For each matrix below, i) generate the characteristic equation,
ii) solve the characteristic equation to nd the eigenvalues of the
matrix, iii) describe the eigenspace generated by each eigenvalue,
and iv) write the basis for each eigenspace.
(a)
_
3 0
8 1
_
(b)
_
10 9
4 2
_
(c)
_
2 7
1 2
_
(d)
_
_
4 0 1
2 1 0
2 0 1
_
_
(e)
_
_
2 0 1
6 2 0
19 5 4
_
_
(f)
_
_
5 0 1
1 1 0
7 1 0
_
_
(g)
_
_
0 0 2 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 2 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
2. Recognize eigenvalues of triangular matrices.
By inspection, nd the eigenvalues of the following matrices:
(a)
_
1 6
0 5
_
(b)
_
_
3 0 0
2 7 0
4 8 1
_
_
(c)
_
1
3
0 0 0
0
1
3
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0
1
2
_
_
3. Given eigenvalues of a matrix, nd the eigenvalues of powers of
that matrix.
(a) Find the eigenvalues of A
9
if
A =
_
_
1 3 7 11
0
1
2
3 8
0 0 0 4
0 0 0 2
_
_
(b) Find the eigenvalues and eigenbases of B
25
if
B =
_
_
1 2 2
1 2 1
1 1 0
_
_
Lesson 29
1. Diagonalize an n n matrix by creating a similarity transfor-
mation that uses a matrix made up of n linearly independent
eigenvectors of the matrix. Procedure for Diagonalizing a Matrix:
Let A be an n n matrix.
Step 1. Find n linearly independent eigen-
vectors of A, say e
1
, e
1
, . . . e
n
.
Step 2. Form a similarity transformation
matrix P having e
1
, e
1
, . . . e
n
as its
column vectors.
Step 3. Calculate an associated diagonal
matrix by performing a similarity
transformation on A with matrix P:
D = P
1
AP.
If possible, diagonalize the matrices below using the three-step
similarity transformation procedure. (Note that, if its not possible
to nd n linearly independent eigenvectors, then it wont be possible to
diagonalize the matrix.)
(a) A =
_
0 1
1 0
_
(b) B =
_
14 12
20 17
_
(c) C =
_
1 0
6 1
_
(d) D =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 1 1
_
_
(e) E =
_
_
6 3 8
0 2 0
1 0 3
_
_
(f) F =
_
_
2 0 2
0 3 0
0 0 3
_
_
2. Given an n n matrix and its characteristic equation, determine
the possible dimensions for the eigenspaces of the given matrix. The algebraic multiplicity of an eigen-
value
0
is the number of times
0
appears as a factor in the character-
istic equation for a particular matrix.
The geometric multiplicity of an
eigenvalue
0
is the dimension of
the corresponding eigenspace for the
particular matrix.
Geometric and Algebraic Multiplicity
Theorem. If A is a square matrix, then
(a) For every eigenvalue of A, the
geometric multiplicity algebraic
multiplicity.
(b) A is diagonalizable if and only if,
for every eigenvalue, the geometric
multiplicity is equal to the algebraic
multiplicity.
(a) Let A be a 4 4 matrix with characteristic equation
( 3)( +1)( 1)
3
= 0. What are the possible dimensions of
the eigenspaces of A?
(b) Let B be a 6 6 matrix with characteristic equation
2
( 1)( 2)
2
= 0. What are the possible dimensions of the
eigenspaces of B?
3. Analyze the rank of the eigenvalue equations coefcient matrix
I A to determine whether a matrix is diagonalizable without
producing the diagonalized matrix D.
Use the steps below to determine whether a matrix is diagonaliz-
able without actually producing the diagonal matrix.
Step 1. Find the eigenvalues of A.
Step 2. For each eigenvalue , nd the rank and nullity of the matrix
I A.
Step 3. Use the nullity for each eigenspace to nd the geometric mul-
tiplicity of ; then compare the geometric and algebraic multi-
plicities to determine whether the matrix A is diagonalizable.
(a)
_
2 0
1 2
_
(b)
_
2 3
1 1
_
(c)
_
_
4 0 1
2 3 2
1 0 4
_
_
(d)
_
_
3 0 0
0 2 0
0 1 2
_
_
(e)
_
_
1 0 1
1 3 0
4 13 1
_
_
4. Compute powers of a matrix by rst diagonalizing the matrix. Computing Powers of a Matrix. It can
be shown that
P
1
A
k
P = (P
1
AP)
k
= D
k
which, upon solving for A
k
, gives us
A
k
= PD
k
P
1
So, to compute a power of a matrix A
(a) Form a matrix P that diagonalizes
the matrix by nding the eigenbases
of A.
(b) Find the diagonal matrix D by
left multiplying by P
1
and right
multiplying by P.
(c) Raise the diagonal matrix D to the
desired power, say k, by raising each
diagonal entry to the power k.
(d) Find A
k
by left multiplying by P and
right multiplying by P
1
.
(a) Let A be an n n matrix and P be an invertible matrix. Show
that (P
1
AP)
3
= P
1
A
3
P. Then explain how this implies that
P
1
A
3
P = D
3
. Lastly, use this result to show that
A
3
= PD
3
P
1
.
(b) Compute A
10
where A =
_
1 0
1 2
_
.
(c) Compute A
11
where A =
_
_
1 7 1
0 1 0
0 15 2
_
_.
Lesson 30
1. Diagonalize an n n matrix by creating a similarity transfor-
mation that uses an orthogonal matrix made up of n linearly
independent eigenvectors of the matrix. Spectral Theorem. Let A be a real
symmetric n n matrix. Then there
exists an orthogonal n n matrix Q
and a real diagonal matrix such that
Q
T
AQ = , and the n eigenvalues of A
are the diagonal entries of .
Procedure for Diagonalizing a Matrix:
Let A be an n n symmetric matrix.
Step 1. Find n eigenvectors of A, say
e
1
, e
1
, . . . e
n
.
Step 2. Apply the Gram-Schmidt process to
e
1
, e
1
, . . . e
n
in order to generate or-
thonormal eigenvectors q
1
, q
1
, . . . q
n
Step 3. Form a similarity transformation
matrix Q having q
1
, q
1
, . . . q
n
as its
column vectors. (Note that Q is an
orthogonal matrix. )
Step 4. Calculate an associated diagonal
matrix by performing a similarity
transformation on A with matrix Q:
= Q
1
AQ. (Note that = Q
T
AQ
as well since Q is an orthogonal
matrix.)
Spectral Theorem (Alternate State-
ment. Let A be a real n n matrix.
Then the following are equivalent:
(a) A is orthogonally diagonalizable.
(b) A has an orthonormal set of n
eigenvectors.
(c) A is a symmetric matrix.
Find a matrix Q that orthogonally diagonalizes A. Then nd the
associated diagonal matrix by computing either Q
1
AQ or
Q
T
AQ.
(a)
_
3 1
1 3
_
(b)
_
6 2
2 3
_
(c)
_
_
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
(d)
_
_
2 0 36
0 3 0
36 0 23
_
_
(e)
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
(f) Assuming that b ,= 0, nd a matrix that orthogonally diagonal-
izes
_
a b
b a
_
Lesson 31
1. Determine the domain and codomain of a transformation de-
ned by a system of equations.
Classify transformations as linear or nonlinear.
For each transformation described by a set of equations below,
nd the transformations domain and codomain. Then determine
whether the transformation is linear or nonlinear.
(a)
w
1
= 3x
1
2x
2
+ 4x
3
w
2
= 5x
1
8x
2
+ x
3
(b)
w
1
= 2x
1
x
2
x
2
w
2
= x
1
+ 3x
1
x
2
w
3
= 5x
1
+ x
2
(c)
w
1
= 5x
1
x
2
+ x
3
w
2
= x
1
+ x
2
+ 7x
3
w
3
= 2x
1
4x
2
x
3
(d)
w
1
= x
2
1
3x
2
+ x
3
2x
4
w
2
= 3x
1
4x
2
x
2
3
+ x
4
2. Translate between the following notations for linear transforma-
tions: (i) a system of linear equations, (ii) function notation, and
(iii) a matrix equation.
Observe that a linear transformation can be written in the follow-
ing notations:
w
1
= 2x
1
3x
2
w
2
= 5x
1
7x
2
T(x
1
, x
2
) = (2x
1
3x
2
, 5x
1
7x
2
)
_
w
1
w
2
_
=
_
2 3
5 7
_ _
x
1
x
2
_
Rewrite the transformation given in one notation in the format of
the other two notations.
(a) T(x
1
, x
2
) = (2x
1
x
2
, x
1
+ x
2
)
(b)
w
1
= x
1
w
2
= x
1
+ x
2
w
3
= x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
w
4
= x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
(c)
_
_
w
1
w
2
w
3
_
_ =
_
_
2 1 4
3 5 7
6 0 7
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
(d) T(x
1
, x
2
) = (x
1
, x
2
)
(e)
w
1
= x
1
+ x
2
w
2
= 3x
1
2x
2
w
3
= 5x
1
7x
2
(f)
_
w
1
w
2
_
=
_
1 2 0
3 1 5
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
(g)
w
1
= 2x
1
3x
2
+ x
4
w
2
= 3x
1
+5x
2
x
4
(h) T(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
3. Calculate linear transformations of given vector directly and by
left multiplying by the appropriate standard matrix.
Rewrite each transformation T as a matrix function
T
A
(x) = Ax. Then, for the particular value v, nd the vector T(v)
directly (using the rst notation) and then nd T(v) using the
matrix function (the second notation), left multiplying the vector v
by the standard matrix to nd the value T(v).
(a) T(x
1
, x
2
) = (x
1
+ x
2
, x
2
); v = (1, 4)
(b) T(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
x
2
+ x
3
, x
2
+ x
3
, 0); v = (2, 1, 3)
4. Apply appropriate standard matrix to achieve a reection, orthog-
onal projection, rotation, or dilation/contraction of a vector.
(a) Use matrix multiplication to nd the reection of (1, 3) about:
i. the x-axis
ii. the y-axis
iii. the line y = x
(b) Use matrix multiplication to nd the reection of (2, 5, 3)
about:
i. the xy-plane
ii. the xz-plane
iii. the yz-plane
(c) Use matrix multiplication to nd the orthogonal projection of
(3, 4) on:
i. the x-axis
ii. the y-axis
(d) Use matrix multiplication to nd the orthogonal projection of
(3, 1, 2) on:
i. the xy-plane
ii. the xz-plane
iii. the yz-plane
(e) Use matrix multiplication to nd the image of the vector (3, 4)
when it is rotated through an angle of:
i. = 30
ii. = 60
iii. = 45
iv. = 90
5. Convert compositions of transformations into products of stan-

dard matrices
(a) Find the standard matrix for the stated composition of linear
operators on IR
2
.
i. A rotation of 90
, followed by a reection about the line

y = x.
ii. An orthogonal projection on the y-axis, followed by a con-
traction with factor k =
1
2
.
iii. A dilation with factor k = 2, followed by a rotation of 45
,
followed by a reection about the y-axis.
iv. A rotation of 15
, followed by a rotation of 105
, followed by
a rotation of 60
.
(b) Find the standard matrix for the stated composition of linear
operators on IR
3
.
i. A reection about the yz-plane, followed by an orthogonal
projection on the xz-plane.
ii. A rotation of 45
about the y-axis, followed by a dilation with

factor k =
2.
iii. A rotation of 30
about the x-axis, followed by a rotation

of 30
about the z-axis, followed by a contraction of factor

k =
1
4
.
iv. A reection about the xy-plane, followed by a reection
about the xz-plane, followed by an orthogonal projection on
the yz-plane.
6. Determine whether a linear operator T
A
: IR
n
IR
n
is injective
(one-to-one). A linear transformation T
A
: IR
m
IR
n
is
said to be injective or one-to-one if T
maps distinct vectors (points) in IR
m
into distinct vectors (points) in IR
n
.
A linear transformation is surjective or
onto if all vectors in IR
n
are the results
of mappings of the vectors in IR
m
using
T.
A linear transformation T that is both
injective and surjective is said to be
bijective.
For the linear operators in IR
2
or R
3
below, determine by inspec-
tion whether the operators are injective (one-to-one).
(a) the orthogonal projection on the x-axis in IR
2
(b) the reection about the y-axis in IR
2
(c) the reection about the line y = x in IR
2
(d) a contraction with factor k > 0 in IR
2
(e) a rotation about the z-axis in IR
3
(f) a reection about the xy-plane in IR
3
(g) a dilation with factor k > 0 in IR
3
7. Determine whether a linear operator T
A
: IR
n
IR
n
is injective
(one-to-one) by using the Linear Operator Invertibility Theorem. Linear Operator Invertibility Theo-
rem If A is an n n matrix and the
linear operator T
A
: IR
n
IR
n
is left-
multiplication by A, then the following
statements are equivalent:
(a) A is invertible.
(b) T
A
is surjective (i.e., the range of T
A
is IR
n
).
(c) T
A
is injective.
Find the standard matrix of the linear operators below and then
use the matrix and the Linear Operator Invertibility Theorem to
determine whether the linear operator is injective.
DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS, AND OTHER JUSTIFICATIONS USED
IN PROOFS
Substitution. When two expressions are equal, then one expression
can be replaced by the other in any proof or justication.
Denition of Linear Equation. An equation of n variables x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
is said to be linear if it is in the form a
1
x
1
+ a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
= b
where a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
and b are real number constants.
Denition of a Linear Combination. A linear combination of un-
knowns (or variables) is the weighted sum of the unknowns, that
is, a sum in which each term is the product of one real number and
one unknown. Note: the denition of linear combination can be ex-
tended to objects than variables. You can have a linear combination
of vectors, matrices, or functions. The general idea is that the linear
combination of variables, vectors, matrices, or functions is a weighted
sum, the terms of which consist of a real number times the variable,
vector, matrix, or function.
Denition of Solution Set. The solution set of a linear equation or
system of linear equations is a list or description of the numbers that
make the linear equation or system of linear equations true.
Denition of Zero Row. A zero row is a row of a matrix in which all
the entries are zero.
Denition of Nonzero Row. A nonzero row is matrix row that con-
tains at least one nonzero entry.
Denition of Leading Coefcient. The rst nonzero element of a
matrix row is called a leading coefcient.
Denition of Leading One (1). If the leading coefcient of a row is a
1, then it is called a leading 1 or pivot.
Number of Solutions to a Homogeneous System of Equations The-
orem. A homogeneous system of linear equations with more un-
knowns than equations has innitely many solutions.
Matrix Arithmetic Properties Theorem. If the sizes of the matrices
A, B, and C are such that the stated operations can be performed and
k and l are any two real number constants, then
(a) Commutative Property of Addition: A + B = B + A
(b) Associative Property of Addition A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
(c) Associative Property of Multiplication A(BC) = (AB)C
(d) Left Distributive Property: A(B + C) = AB + AC
(e) Right Distributive Property: (A + B)C = AC + BC
(f) (k + l)A = kA + l A
(g) k(l A) = (kl)A
(h) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
Denition of Matrix Subtraction. For any two matrices A and B
of the same size, the difference of A and B is dened as: A B =
A + (B)
Transpose Properties Theorem. If the sizes of the matrices are such
that the stated operations can be performed, then
(a) (A
T
)
T
= A
(b) (A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T
and (A B)
T
= A
T
B
T
.
(c) (kA)
T
= kA
T
, where k is any scalar
(d) (AB)
T
= B
T
A
T
Denition of Zero Matrix. A zero matrix is a matrix in which all of
its entries are zero.
Denition of Identity Matrix. An identity matrix, designated I,
is the matrix that when multiplied by any other matrix returns the
matrix. That is, AI = I A = A for all A. In particular, an identity
matrix is a square matrix in which the main diagonal entries are ones
and all other entries are zero. The identity matrix is denoted by I, or
I
n
if the size (n n) is of importance.
Denition of Inverse Matrix. The inverse of matrix A, designated
A
1
, is the matrix that when multiplied by the original matrix re-
turns the identity. That is, AA
1
= A
1
A = I for all A.
Inverse-Product Theorem. If A and B are invertible matrices of the
same size, the product of AB is invertible and the inverse of the product
is given by: (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
. In other words, the inverse of the
product is equal to the reverse product of the inverses.
Inverse Matrix Properties Theorem. If A is invertible and n is an
integer such that n 0, then
(a) A
1
is invertible and (A
1
)
1
= A
(b) A
n
is invertible and (A
n
)
1
= A
n
= (A
1
)
n
(c) kA is invertible for any scalar k ,= 0 and (kA)
1
=
1
k
A
1
Inverse-Transpose Theorem. If A is an invertible matrix, then A
T
is
also invertible and (A
T
)
1
= (A
1
)
T
.
Denition of a Symmetric Matrix. A square matrix D is called sym-
metric if D
T
= D.
Denition of a Skew-Symmetric Matrix. A square matrix M is
called skew-symmetric if M
T
= M.
Unique Solution Theorem. If A is an invertible square matrix (n n)
and b is a column vector of constants (n 1), then the system of
equations Ax = b has exactly one solution, namely, x = A
1
b.
Denition of a Permutation. A permutation is an arrangement of a
nite set of numbers. In a permutation, each element of the nite set
can be used only one time. So
_
1 2 3
_
,
_
1 3 2
_
, and
_
3 1 2
_
are examples of permutations of the set 1, 2, 3 but
_
1 1 2 3
_
and
_
2 2 3
_
are not.
Denition of an Inversion. If a pair of numbers are out of order in
a permutation, then the pair is called an inversion. For example,
consider the permutation
_
2 3 1 5 4
_
. Working left to right,
notice that the following pairs are out of natural order: 2 > 1, 3 > 1,
and 5 > 4. The permutation
_
2 3 1 5 4
_
is said to have a total
of three inversions.
Denition of an Elementary Products Permutation. Each ele-
mentary product can be ordered according to its rst index, e.g.,
a
13
a
22
a
31
. The arrangement of j indices forms the elementary prod-
ucts permutation, e.g.,
_
3 2 1
_
.
Denition of Signed Elementary Product. A signed elementary
product is simply the product of (1)
# of inversions of the elementary products permutation
and its associated elementary product. For example, the elementary
product a
13
a
22
a
31
has the following permutation
_
3 2 1
_
, which
has three inversions 3 > 2, 3 > 1, and 2 > 1. The signed elementary
product is: (1)
3
a
13
a
22
a
31
.
Denition of Determinant. The determinant of a square matrix is
the sum of all of its signed elementary products. The determinant of
a matrix A is denoted either det (A) or [A[.
Cramers Rule. If Ax = b is a system of n linear equations in n
unknowns such that det (A) ,= 0, then the system has the unique
solution:
x
1
=
det (A
1
)
det (A)
x
2
=
det (A
2
)
det (A)
.
.
.
x
n
=
det (A
n
)
det (A)
where A
j
is the matrix formed when the jth column of A is replaced
with the entries of b.
Matrix Transpose Determinant Theorem. If A is a square matrix,
then det (A
T
) = det (A).
Denition of Triangular Matrices. A matrix is said to be triangular if
all the entries below (or above) the main diagonal are zero. A matrix
in which all of the nonzero entries are at or above the main diagonal
is said to be an upper triangular matrix; a matrix in which all of
the nonzero entries are at or below the main diagonal is said to be
lower triangular. A matrix which is simultaneously upper and lower
triangular is said to be diagonal.
Triangular Matrix Determinant Theorem. If A is an upper triangu-
lar, lower triangular, or diagonal matrix, then the det (A) is simply
the product of the diagonal entries of A.
Determinant of a Product Theorem. If A and B are square matrices
of the same size, then det (AB) = det (A) det (B).
Determinant Test for Invertibility Theorem A square matrix A is
invertible if and only if det (A) ,= 0.
Matrix Inverse Determinant Theorem. If A is invertible, then det (A
1
) =
1
det (A)
.
Denition of Vector Addition. Two vectors u = (u
1
, u
2
) and
v = (v
1
, v
2
) can be added algebraically by adding their respective
components: u +v = (u
1
, u
2
) + (v
1
, v
2
) = (u
1
+v
1
, u
2
+v
2
) (Note that
this denition extends to IR
n
:
If x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) and y = (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
) are vectors in IR
n
, then
x +y = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) + (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
) = (x
1
+ y
1
, x
2
+ y
2
, . . . , x
n
+
y
n
)).
Denition of Vector Inverse. A vector x has an additive inverse in
IR
n
if there exists a vector y such that x +y = 0 = y +x. The inverse
vector y is denoted x. Furthermore if x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) is any
vector in IR
n
, then x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
).
Denition of Vector Subtraction. Subtracting a vector is the same as
adding its inverse: x y = x + (y)
Denition of Inner (Dot) Product of Two Vectors. The inner (dot)
product of u and v, symbolized by u v, is dened as follows: u and v are viewed as column vectors
in this denition.
u v = u
T
v = u
1
v
1
+ u
2
v
2
in 2-space, or
u v = u
T
v = u
1
v
1
+ u
2
v
2
+ u
3
v
3
in 3-space, or
u v = u
T
v = u
1
v
1
+ u
2
v
2
+ + u
n
v
n
in n-space. Note further that the dot product always produces a
scalar value.
Denition of Outer Product of Two Vectors. The outer product of u
and v, symbolized by u v, is dened as the matrix multiplication: u and v are viewed as column vectors
in this denition.
u v = uv
T
Note further that the outer product of two vectors always pro-
duces a square matrix.
Denition of Magnitude of Vector: In IR
n
, the magnitude, or length,
of a vector v is given by [[v[[ =

v v.
Magnitude of a Scalar-Vector Product Theorem. [[kv[[ = [k[[[v[[.
Denition of Unit Vector. A vector u is said to be a unit vector if
[[u[[ = 1. Sometimes, a hat-notation is used to indicate a unit vector
in the same direction as a vector. For example, x would represent a
unit vector in the same direction as x.
Angle Between Vectors Theorem. If u and v are vectors in either IR
2
or IR
3
, then u v = [[u[[[[v[[ cos ().
Orthogonal Vectors Theorem. If u and v are vectors in either IR
2
or
IR
3
, then u v if and only if u v = 0.
Acute/Obtuse Vectors Theorem. If u and v are vectors in either IR
2
or IR
3
and is the angle between them, then is acute if and only if
u v > 0 and is obtuse if and only if u v < 0.
Vector Projection Formula Theorem. proj
a
x =
x a
a a
a =
x a
[[a[[
2
a
Dot Product Properties Theorem. If u IR
n
, v IR
n
, w IR
n
, and k a
scalar, then
Symmetry Property. u v = v u.
Additivity Property. (u +v) w = u w+v w.
Homogeneity Property. (ku) v = k(u v).
Positivity Property.
1. v v 0
2. v v = 0 if and only if v = 0.
Denition of a Real Vector Space
Let x, y, z be objects in a nonempty set V and , IR.
On this set V, two operationsaddition and scalar multiplication
are dened.
If the following 10 axioms are satised, then we call V together with
its operations of addition and scalar multiplication a real vector
space and we call the objects in V vectors.
1. Closure Property of Addition:
If x V and y V, then x +y V
2. Commutative Property:
x +y = y +x
3. Associative Property:
x + (y +z) = (x +y) +z
4. Additive Identity Property:
0 V such that x +0 = x, x V
5. Additive Inverse Property:
x V (x) V such that x + (x) = 0
6. Closure Property of Scalar Multiplication:
If IR and x V, then x V
7. Vector Distributive Property:
(x +y) = x +y
8. Scalar Distributive Property:
( + )x = x + x
9. Scalar Associative Property:
(x) = ()x
10. Scalar Identity Property:
1x = x
Subspace Theorem. If W is a set of one or more vectors from a vec-
tor space V, then W is a subspace of V if and only if the following
properties hold:
1. Subspace is closed under vector addition:
If u and v are vectors in W, then u +v is also in W.
2. Subspace is closed under scalar multiplication:
If k is any real-valued scalar and u is in W, then ku is also in W.
Linear Combinations Form a Subspace Theorem. If v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
are
vectors in a vector space V, then the set W of all linear combinations
of v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
is a subspace of V.
W = span v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
is a subspace of V.
Solutions to a Homogeneous System Form a Subspace Theorem.
If Ax = 0 is a homogeneous linear system of m equations in n un-
knowns, then the set of solution vectors is a subspace of IR
n
.
Denition of a Trivial Solution to an Equation. The trivial so-
lution to a system of linear equations occurs when all of the sys-
tems unknowns are equal to zero. For example, x
1
= x
2
= 0 and
c
1
= c
2
= c
3
= 0 are trivial solutions to systems with variables x
1
, x
2
or c
1
, c
2
, c
3
respectively.
Denition of a Trivial Vector Equation (or Zero Vector Equation).
A trivial vector equation (or zero vector equation) is an equation
formed by multiplying each vector in a set by an unknown scalar,
adding the products, and setting the sum equal to the zero vector. In
symbols, we write:
k
1
v
1
+ k
2
v
2
+ + k
n
v
n
= 0
Denition of a Linear Independence/Dependence. A set of vectors
is said to be linearly independent if its trivial vector equation has
only the trivial solution, and linearly dependent otherwise.
Denition of Cardinality of a Set. The cardinality of a set is the
number of vectors in the set. For example, the cardinalities of the fol-
lowing sets A, B, C, states in the USA , (1, 2), (3, 4), (8, 1), (2, 3), (1, 7)
are 3, 50, and 5, respectively.
Denition of Dimension for IR
n
. For Euclidean spaces IR
n
, the di-
mension is always equal to the number of components in a vector.
For example, vectors in IR
4
have the form (a, b, c, d) with four compo-
nents; so the dimension of IR
4
is 4. In general, the dimension of IR
n
is
n. (Note that this denition is a specic case of a more general denition for
abstract vector spaces. See below.)
Cardinality Exceeds Dimension Theorem If the cardinality of set of
vectors in IR
n
exceeds the dimension of IR
n
, then the set of vectors is
linearly dependent.
In symbolic notation:
If S = w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
n
is a set of p vectors in any space IR
n
, and if
p > n, then S is linearly dependent.
Denition of a Basis of a Vector Space. A set of vectors B = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
from a vector space V is said to be a basis for V if:

the set B is linearly independent
the set B spans V.
Uniqueness of Basis Representation Theorem. If B = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
is a basis for a vector space V, then every vector v V can be written

as a linear combination of ordered basis vectors, v = k
1
x
1
+ k
2
x
2
+ + k
n
x
n
,
in exactly one way.
Denition of Dimension of a Vector Space. It can be shown that,
if a vector space has a basis consisting of n vectors, then any other
basis set will also consist of n vectors. The dimension of a nite-
dimensional vector space is the number of vectors in any of its bases.
For example, we know that B = (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) is a basis
for IR
3
so the dimension of IR
3
is 3 (symbolically: dim(IR
3
) = 3). A
basis for P
3
is 1, x, x
2
, x
3
, so dim(P
3
) = 4.
Denition of the Four Fundamental Matrix Spaces. Three vector
spaces can be generated for a matrix A, namely, rowspace of A,
columnspace of A, and nullspace of A, and three vector spaces can
be generated from A
T
, namely, rowspace of A
T
, columnspace of
A
T
, and nullspace of A
T
. Note, however, that !(A) = ( (A
T
) and
( (A) = !(A
T
). So, any matrix A is said to generate a total of four
fundamental matrix spaces:
!(A)
( (A)
A (A)
A (A
T
)
Column Space Test for Consistency Theorem. A system of linear
equations Ax = b is consistent if and only if b is in the column space
of A. In symbols, Ax = b is consistent b ( (A)
Denition of Rank of a Matrix. The rank of a matrix A is the dimen-
sion of !(A) (or ( (A)). Note that the dimension of !(A) and ( (A)
are always the same. The rank of A is denoted by rank (A).
Denition of Nullity of a Matrix. The nullity of a matrix A is the
dimension of A (A). The nullity of A is denoted by nullity (A).
Dimension Theorem for Matrices If A is a matrix with n columns,
then rank (A) +nullity (A) = n.
Dimensions of Fundamental Matrix Spaces Theorem. If a matrix
A
pq
has rank r, then the dimensions of the four fundamental matrix
spaces are as follows:
dim!(A) = r
dim( (A) = r
dimA (A) = q r
dimA (A
T
) = p r
Augmented Matrix Test for Consistency. A system of linear equa-
tions Ax = b is consistent if and only if the rank of A and the
rank of the augmented matrix [A[b] are equal. In symbols, Ax =
b is consistent rank (A) = rank ([A[b])
Denition of an Inner Product
An inner product on a real vector space V is a function that asso-
ciates a real number x, y with each pair of vectors x and y in V such
that the following properties are satised for all vectors x, y, and z in
V and all real number scalars k:
1. Symmetry:
x, y = y, x
2. Additivity:
x +y, z = x, z +y, z
3. Homogeneity:
kx, y = k x, y
4. Positivity:
(a) x, x 0
(b) x, x = 0 x = 0
The Fundamental Theorem of Linear Algebra. If A be an m n
matrix with rank r, then four fundamental subspaces can be formed:
!(A), the row space of A;
( (A), the column space of A;
A (A). the nullspace of A; and
A (A
T
), the nullspace of A
T
(1) And the dimensions of the four fundamental subspaces are:
dim!(A) = dim( (A) = r,
dimA (A) = n r,
dimA (A
T
) = mr
(2) And the geometric relationships between the subspaces are as
follows:
(a) A (A) = (!(A))
The nullspace of A and the row space of A are orthogonal com-

plements in IR
n
with respect to the Euclidean inner product.
(b) A (A
T
) = (( (A))
The nullspace of A
T
and the column space of A are orthogonal
complements in IR
m
with respect to the Euclidean inner prod-
uct.
Denition of Orthogonal Matrix. A square matrix is orthogonal if
A
1
= A
T
.
Inverse-Product Theorem. If both A and B are invertible and the
same size, then the product AB is invertible and (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.
Inverse-Transpose Theorem. If A is an invertible matrix, then A
T
is
also invertible and (A
T
)
1
= (A
1
)
T
.
Denition of Orthogonal Vectors. Two vectors u and v are said to be
orthogonal in a real inner product space V if u, v = 0.
Determinant of a Scalar Times a Matrix Theorem
If A is an n n matrix and k is any scalar, then det (kA) = k
n
det (A).
Vector Inverse Theorem
If V is any vector space, then (1)x = x.
Denition of Vector Subtraction.
Subtracting a vector is the same as adding its inverse: x y = x +
(y)
Denition of Magnitude of a Vector.
For any vector x in a real inner product space V, the magnitude of x
is symbolized as [[x[[ and is dened as [[x[[ =
_
x, x.
Best Approximation Theorem.
If W is a nite-dimensional subspace of an inner product space V
and if v is a vector in V but not in W, then proj
W
v is said to be the
best approximation of v in W in the sense that
[[v proj
W
v[[ < [[v w[[
for all vectors w W such that w ,= proj
W
v
Least Squares Solutions Theorem.
For any inconsistent linear system of equations Ax = b, the associ-
ated normal system
A
T
Ax = A
T
b
is consistent, and all solutions of the normal system are least squares
solutions of Ax = b. Moreover, if x is any least squares solution of
Ax = b, then the orthogonal projection of b onto the column space of
A, ( (A) is
proj
( (A)
b = Ax
Eigenvalue Characteristic Equation Theorem
If A is an n n matrix, then is an eigenvalue of A if and only if it
satises the equation det (I A) = 0.

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Linear Algebra Homework and Study Guide

Phil R. Smith, Ph.D.

_, then compute tr(A).

_, then compute tr(B).

linear algebra homework and study guide 22

5. Calculate the determinant by using a graphing/symbolic calcula-

linear algebra homework and study guide 24

(b) Given that

= 5, nd the following determinants: Denition of Triangular Matrices.

2. Calculate determinants by reducing the matrix to row-echelon

linear algebra homework and study guide 25

_. Its not possible

for the given vectors x and a

from a vector space V is said to be a

_ included in the subspaces of the three exer-

The nullspace of A and the

iv. (1, 0), (0, 0)

be an orthonormal basis with b

be an orthonormal basis with b

5. Convert compositions of transformations into products of stan-

, followed by a reection about the line

, followed by a rotation of 105

about the y-axis, followed by a dilation with

about the x-axis, followed by a rotation

about the z-axis, followed by a contraction of factor

from a vector space V is said to be a basis for V if:

is a basis for a vector space V, then every vector v V can be written

The nullspace of A and the row space of A are orthogonal com-

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