1 Stress and Strain

An understanding of stress and strain is essential for the analysis of metal forming
operations. Often the words stress and strain are used synonymously by the nonscientic
public. In engineering usage, however, stress is the intensity of force and strain is a
measure of the amount of deformation.
1.1 STRESS
Stress is dened as the intensity of force at a point.
= F/ A as A 0, (1.1)
where F is the force acting on a plane of area, A.
If the stress is the same everywhere in a body,
= F/A. (1.2)
There are nine components of stress as shown in Figure 1.1. Anormal stress component
is one in which the force is acting normal to the plane. It may be tensile or compressive.
A shear stress component is one in which the force acts parallel to the plane.
Stress components are dened with two subscripts. The rst denotes the normal
to the plane on which the force acts and the second is the direction of the force.

For
example,
xx
is a tensile stress in the x-direction. A shear stress acting on the x-plane
in the y-direction is denoted by
xy
.
Repeated subscripts (e.g.,
xx
,
yy
,
zz
) indicate normal stresses. They are tensile
if both the plane and direction are positive or both are negative. If one is positive and
the other is negative they are compressive. Mixed subscripts (e.g.,
zx
,
xy
,
yz
) denote
shear stresses. A state of stress in tensor notation is expressed as

i j
=

xx

yx

zx

xy

yy

zx

xz

yz

zz

, (1.3)

The use of the opposite convention should cause no problem because

i j
=
j i
.
1
2 STRESS AND STRAIN

zz
x
y
z

zx

zy

xz

xx

xy

yx

yy

yz
Figure 1.1. Nine components of stress acting on an
innitesimal element.
where i and j are iterated over x, y, and z. Except where tensor notation is required, it
is simpler to use a single subscript for a normal stress and denote a shear stress by .
For example,
x

xx
and
xy

xy
.
1.2 STRESS TRANSFORMATION
Stress components expressed along one set of orthogonal axes may be expressed along
any other set of axes. Consider resolving the stress component,
y
= F
y
/A
y
, onto the
x

and y

axes as shown in Figure 1.2.

The force, F
y

, acts in the y

direction is F
y

= F
y
cos and the area normal to y

is
A
y
= A
y
/ cos , so

y
= F
y
/A
y
= F
y
cos /(A
y
/ cos ) =
y
cos
2
. (1.4a)
Similarly

x
= F
x
/A
y
= F
y
sin /(A
y
/ cos ) =
y
cos sin . (1.4b)
Note that transformation of stresses requires two sine and/or cosine terms.
Pairs of shear stresses with the same subscripts that are in reverse order are always
equal (e.g.,
i j
=
j i
). This is illustrated in Figure 1.3 by a simple moment balance
y
x
F
y
F
y
F
x
A
y
x
y

Figure 1.2. The stresses acting on a plane, A

, under a
normal stress,
y
.
1.2 STRESS TRANSFORMATION 3

yx

yx

xy

xy
x
y
Figure 1.3. Unless
xy
=
yx
, there would not be a mo-
ment balance.
on an innitesimal element. Unless
i j
=
j i
, there would be an innite rotational
acceleration. Therefore

i j
=
j i.
(1.5)
The general equation for transforming the stresses from one set of orthogonal axes
(e.g., n, m, p) to another set of axes (e.g., i, j, k), is

i j
=
3

n=1
3

m=1

i m

j n

mn
. (1.6)
Here, the term
i m
is the cosine of the angle between the i and the m axes and the
term
j n
is the cosine of the angle between the j and n axes. This is often written more
simply as

i j
=
i n

j n

mn
, (1.7)
with the summation implied. Consider transforming stresses fromthe x, y, z axis system
to the x

, y

, z

system shown in Figure 1.4.

Using equation 1.6,

x
=
x

xx
+
x

xy
+
x

xz
+
x

xz
+
x

yz
+
x

zz
(1.8a)
and

y
=
x

xx
+
x

xy
+
x

xz
+
x

xx
+
x

yy
+
x

yz
+
x

xz
+
x

yz
+
x

zz
. (1.8b)
x
y
z
x
y
z
Figure 1.4. Two orthogonal coordinate systems.
4 STRESS AND STRAIN
These can be simplied to

x
=
2
x

x
+
2
x

y
+
2
x

z
+2
x

yz
+2
x

zx
+2
x

xy
(1.9a)
and

y
=
x

x
+
x

y
+
x

z
+(
x

z
+
x

y
)
yz
+ (
x

x
+
x

z
)
zx
+(
x

y
+
x

x
)
xy
(1.9b)
1.3 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
It is always possible to nd a set of axes along which the shear stress terms vanish. In
this case
1
,
2
and
3
are called the principal stresses. The magnitudes of the principal
stresses,
p
, are the roots of

3
p
I
1

2
p
I
2

p
I
3
= 0, (1.10)
where I
1
, I
2
and I
3
are called the invariants of the stress tensor. They are
I
1
=
xx
+
yy
+
zz
,
I
2
=
2
yz
+
2
zx
+
2
xy

yy

zz

zz

xx

xx

yy
and (1.11)
I
3
=
xx

yy

zz
+2
yz

zx

xy

xx

2
yz

yy

2
zx

zz

2
xy
.
The rst invariant, I
1
= p/3 where p is the pressure. I
1
, I
2
and I
3
are independent of
the orientation of the axes. Expressed in terms of the principal stresses they are
I
1
=
1
+
2
+
3
,
I
2
=
2

2
and (1.12)
I
3
=
1

3
.
EXAMPLE 1.1: Consider a stress state with
x
=70 MPa,
y
=35 MPa,
xy
=20,
z
=

zx
=
yz
= 0. Find the principal stresses using equations 1.10 and 1.11.
SOLUTION: Using equations 1.11, I
1
= 105 MPa, I
2
= 2,050 MPa, I
3
= 0. From
equation 1.10,
3
p
105
2
p
+2,050
p
+0 = 0,
2
p
105
p
+2,050 = 0.
The principal stresses are the roots,
1
= 79.1 MPa,
2
= 25.9 MPa and
3
=
z
= 0.
EXAMPLE 1.2: Repeat Example 1.1, with I
3
= 170,700.
SOLUTION: The principal stresses are the roots of
3
p
65
2
p
+1750
p
+170,700 =0.
Since one of the roots is
z
=
3
= 40,
p
+ 40 = 0 can be factored out. This gives

2
p
105
p
+ 2,050 = 0, so the other two principal stresses are
1
= 79.1 MPa,

2
= 25.9 MPa. This shows that when
z
is one of the principal stresses, the other two
principal stresses are independent of
z
.
1.4 MOHRS CIRCLE EQUATIONS 5
1.4 MOHRS CIRCLE EQUATIONS
In the special cases where two of the three shear stress terms vanish (e.g.,
yx
=
zx
=0),
the stress,
z
, normal to the xy plane is a principal stress and the other two principal
stresses lie in the xy plane. This is illustrated in Figure 1.5.
For these conditions
x

z
=
y

z
= 0,
yz
=
zx
= 0,
x

x
=
y

y
= cos and

y
=
y

x
= sin . Substituting these relations into equations 1.9 results in

y
= cos sin (
x
+
y
) +(cos
2
sin
2
)
xy
,

x
= cos
2

x
+sin
2

y
+2 cos sin
xy
, and (1.13)

y
= sin
2

x
+cos
2

y
+2 cos sin
xy
.
These can be simplied with the trigonometric relations,
sin 2 = 2 sin cos and cos
2
= cos
2
sin
2
to obtain

y
= sin 2(
x

y
)/2 +cos 2
xy
, (1.14a)

x
= (
x
+
y
)/2 +cos 2(
x

y
) +
xy
sin 2, and (1.14b)

y
= (
x
+
y
)/2 cos 2(
x

y
) +
xy
sin 2. (1.14c)
If
x

y
is set to zero in equation 1.14a, becomes the angle between the principal
axes and the x and y axes. Then
tan 2 =
xy
/[(
x

y
)/2]. (1.15)
The principal stresses,
1
and
2
, are then the values of
x

and
y
,

1,2
= (
x
+
y
)/2 [(
x

y
)/ cos 2] +
xy
sin 2 or

1,2
= (
x
+
y
)/2 (1/2)
_
(
x

y
)
2
+4
2
xy
_
1/2
. (1.16)
z
x
y
y
x
y

xy

yx

yx

xy
x

Figure 1.5. Stress state for which the Mohrs circle equations apply.
6 STRESS AND STRAIN
(
x
-
y
)/2
(
x
+
y
)/2

y
2

xy

2
(
1
-
2
)/2

x
y
x

Figure 1.6. Mohrs circle diagram for stress.

2
3

xy
2
Figure 1.7. Three-dimensional Mohrs circles for stresses.
A Mohrs

circle diagram is a graphical representation of equations 1.15 and 1.16.

They form a circle of radius (
1

2
)/2 and with the center at (
1
+
2
)/2 as shown
in Figure 1.6. The normal stress components are plotted on the ordinate and the shear
stress components are plotted on the abscissa.
Using the Pythagorean theorem on the triangle in Figure 1.6,
(
1

2
)/2 =
_
[(
x
+
y
)/2]
2
+
2
xy
_
1/2
(1.17)
and
tan(2) =
xy
/[(
x
+
y
)/2]. (1.18)
A three-dimensional stress state can be represented by three Mohrs circles as
shown in Figure 1.7. The three principal stresses
1
,
2
and
3
are plotted on the
ordinate. The circles represent the stress state in the 12, 23 and 31 planes.
EXAMPLE 1.3: Construct the Mohrs circle for the stress state in Example 1.2 and
determine the largest shear stress.

O. Mohr, Zivilingeneur (1882), p. 113.

1.5 STRAIN 7

max

xy

x
= 59.6
= -40
= 79.1
= 35
= 20
= 70
= 25.9
Figure 1.8. Mohrs circle for stress state in Exam-
ple 1.2.

A
A
B
B
Figure 1.9. Deformation, translation, and rotation of a line in
a material.
SOLUTION: The Mohrs circle is plotted in Figure 1.8. The largest shear stress is

max
= (
1

3
)/2 = [79.1 (40)]/2 = 59.6 MPa.
1.5 STRAIN
Strain describes the amount of deformation in a body. When a body is deformed, points
in that body are displaced. Strain must be dened in such a way that it excludes effects
of rotation and translation. Figure 1.9 shows a line in a material that has been deformed.
The line has been translated, rotated, and deformed. The deformation is characterized
by the engineering or nominal strain, e
e = (
0
)/
0
= /
0
. (1.19)
An alternative denition

is that of true or logarithmic strain, , dened by

d = d/, (1.20)
which on integrating gives = ln(/
0
) = ln(1 +e)
= ln(/
0
) = ln(1 +e). (1.21)
The true and engineering strains are almost equal when they are small. Expressing
as = ln(/
0
) = ln(1 +e) and expanding, so as e 0, e.
There are several reasons why true strains are more convenient than engineering
strains. The following examples indicate why.

True strain was rst dened by P. Ludwig, Elemente der Technishe Mechanik, Springer, 1909.
8 STRESS AND STRAIN
EXAMPLE 1.4:
(a) A bar of length,
0
, is uniformly extended until its length, = 2
0
. Compute the
values of the engineering and true strains.
(b) What nal length must a bar of length
0
, be compressed if the strains are the same
(except sign) as in part (a)?
SOLUTION:
(a) e = /
0
= 1.0, = ln(/
0
) = ln 2 = 0.693
(b) e = 1 = (
0
)/
0
, so = 0. This is clearly impossible to achieve.
= 0.693 = ln(/
0
), so =
0
exp(0.693) =
0
/2.
EXAMPLE 1.5: A bar 10 cm long is elongated to 20 cm by rolling in three steps:
10 cm to 12 cm, 12 cm to 15 cm, and 15 cm to 20 cm.
(a) Calculate the engineering strain for each step and compare the sum of these with
the overall engineering strain.
(b) Repeat for true strains.
SOLUTION:
(a) e
1
=2/10 =0.20, e
2
=3/12 =0.25, e
3
=5/15 =0.333, e
tot
=0.20 +.25 +.333
= 0.833, e
overall
= 10/10 = 1.
(b)
1
= ln(12/10) = 0.182,
2
= ln(15/12) = 0.223,
3
= ln(20/15) = 0.288,
tot
=
0.693,
overall
= ln(20/10) = 0.693.
With true strains, the sum of the increments equals the overall strain, but this is not so
with engineering strains.
EXAMPLE 1.6: A block of initial dimensions,
0
, w
0
, t
0
, is deformed to dimensions
of , w, t .
(a) Calculate the volume strain,
v
= ln(v/v
0
) in terms of the three normal strains,

,
w
and
t
.
(b) Plastic deformation causes no volume change. With no volume change, what is the
sum of the three normal strains?
SOLUTION:
(a)
v
= ln[( wt )/(
0
w
0
t
0
)] = ln(/
0
) + ln(w/w
0
) + ln(t/t
0
) =

+
w
+
t
.
(b) If
v
= 0,

+
w
+
t
= 0.
Examples 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 illustrate why true strains are more convenient than engi-
neering strains.
1. True strains for an equivalent amount of tensile and compressive deformation are
equal except for sign.
2. True strains are additive.
3. The volume strain is the sum of the three normal strains.
1.6 SMALL STRAINS 9
If strains are small, true and engineering strains are nearly equal. Expressing true
strain as = ln(

0
+

0
) = ln(1 +/
0
) = ln(1 +e) and taking the series expansion,
= e e
2
/2 + e
3
/3! . . . . , it can be seen that as e 0, e.
EXAMPLE 1.7: Calculate the ratio of /e for e = 0.001, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2.
SOLUTION:
For e = 0.001, = ln(1.001) = 0.0009995; /e = 0.9995.
For e = 0.01, = ln(1.01) =0.00995, /e = 0.995.
For e = 0.02, = ln(1.02) =0.0198, /e = 0.99.
For e = 0.05, = ln(1.05) = 0.0488, /e = 0.975.
For e = 0.1, = ln(1.1) = 0.095, /e = 0.95.
For e = 0.2, = ln(1.2) = 0.182, /e = 0.912.
As e gets larger the difference between and e become greater.
1.6 SMALL STRAINS
Figure 1.10 shows a small two-dimensional element, ABCD, deformed into A

where the displacements are u and v. The normal strain, e

xx
, is dened as
e
xx
= (A

AD)/AD = A

/AD 1. (1.22)
Neglecting the rotation
e
xx
= A

/AD 1 =
dx u +u +(u/x) dx
dx
1 or
e
xx
= u/x. (1.23)
Similarly, e
yy
= v/y and e
zz
= w/z for a three-dimensional case.
A
B
C
D
A
C
D
B
y
x
dx x
y
dy
v
u
v + ( v/ y)dy
u + (u/x)dx
(v/x)dx
(u/y)dy
Q
P

Figure 1.10. Distortion of a two-dimensional element.
10 STRESS AND STRAIN
The shear strain are associated with the angles between AD and A

and between
AB and A

. For small deformations

AD
A

D
v/x and
AB
A

B
u/y (1.24)
The total shear strain is the sum of these two angles,

xy
=
yx
=
u
y
+
v
x
. (1.25a)
Similarly,

yz
=
zy
=
v
z
+
w
y
and (1.25b)

zx
=
xz
=
w
x
+
u
z
. (1.25c)
This denition of shear strain, , is equivalent to the simple shear measured in a
torsion of shear test.
1.7 THE STRAIN TENSOR
If tensor shear strains,
i j
, are dened as

i j
= (1/2)
i j
, (1.26)
small shear strains form a tensor,

i j
=

xx

yx

zx

xy

yy

zy

xz

yz

zz

. (1.27)
Because small strains forma tensor, they can be transformed fromone set of axes to
another in a way identical to the transformation of stresses. Mohrs circle relations can
be used. It must be remembered, however, that
i j
=
ij
/2 and that the transformations
hold only for small strains. If
yz
=
zx
= 0,

x
=
x

2
xx
+
y

2
xy
+
xy

y
(1.28)
and

y
= 2
x

x
+2
y

y
+
xy
(
x

y
+
y

y
). (1.29)
The principal strains can be found from the Mohrs circle equations for strains,

1,2
=

x
+
y
2
(1/2)
_
(
x

y
)
2
+
2
xy

1/2
. (1.30)
Strains on other planes are given by

x,y
= (1/2)(
1
+
2
) (1/2)(
1

2
) cos 2 (1.31)
and

xy
= (
1

2
) sin 2. (1.32)
1.8 ISOTROPIC ELASTICITY
Although the thrust of this book is on plastic deformation, a short treatment of elasticity
is necessary to understand springback and residual stresses in forming processes.
1.9 STRAIN ENERGY 11
Hookes laws can be expressed as
e
x
= (1/E)[
x
(
y
+
z
)],
e
y
= (1/E)[
y
(
z
+
x
)], (1.33)
e
z
= (1/E)[
z
(
x
+
y
)],
and

yz
= (1/G)
yz
,

zx
= (1/G)
zx
, (1.34)

xy
= (1/G)
xy
,
where E is Youngs modulus, is Poissons ratio and G is the shear modulus. For an
isotropic material, E, and G are inter-related by
E = 2G(1 +) or (1.35)
G = E/[2(1 +)]. (1.36)
EXAMPLE 1.8: In Example 1.2 with
x
= 70 MPa,
y
= 35 MPa,
xy
= 20,
z
=

zx
=
yz
= 0, it was found that
1
= 79.1 MPa and
2
= 25.9 MPa. Using E = 61
GPa and = 0.3 for aluminum, calculate
1
and
1
by
(a) First calculating
x
,
y
and
xy
using equations 1.33 and then transforming these
strains to the 1, 2 axes with the Mohrs circle equations.
(b) By using equations 1.33 with
1
and
2
.
SOLUTION:
(a)
e
x
= (1/61 10
9
)[70 10
6
0.30(35 10
6
+ 0)] = 0.9754 10
3
e
y
= (1/61 10
9
)[35 10
6
0.30(70 10
6
+ 0)] = 0.2295 10
3

xy
= [2(1.3)/61 10
9
](20 10
6
) = 0.853 10
3
Now using the Mohrs strain circle equations.
e
1,2
= (e
x
+ e
y
)/2 (1/2)[(e
x
e
y
)
2
+
2
xy
]
1/2
= 0.603 10
3
(1/2)[(0.1391 10
3/2
+ (0.856 10
3
)
2
]
1/2
= 1.169 10
3
, 0.0361 10
3
(b)
e
1
= (1/61 10
9
)[79.9 10
6
0.30(25.9 10
6
)] = 1.169,
e
2
= (1/61 10
9
)[25.9 10
6
0.30(79.9 10
6
)] = 0.0361.
1.9 STRAIN ENERGY
If a bar of length, x and cross-sectional area, A, is subjected to a tensile force F
x
, which
caused an increase in length, dx, the incremental work, dW, is
dW = F
x
dx. (1.37)
The work per volume, dw, is
dw = dW/A = F
x
dx/(Ax) =
x
de
x
. (1.38)
12 STRESS AND STRAIN
For elastic loading, substituting
x
= Ee
x
into equation 1.38 and integrating
w =
x
e
x
/2 = Ee
2
x
/2. (1.39)
For multiaxial loading
dw =
x
de
x
+
y
de
y
+
z
de
z
+
yz
d
yz
+
zx
d
zx
+
xy
d
xy
. (1.40)
and if the deformation is elastic,
dw = (1/2)(
1
de
1
+
2
de
2
+
3
de
3
). (1.41)
1.10 FORCE AND MOMENT BALANCES
Many analyses of metal forming operations involve force or moment balances. The
net force acting on any portion of a body must be zero. External forces on a portion
of a body are balanced by internal forces acting on the arbitrary cut through the body.
As an example, nd the stresses in the walls of thin wall tube under internal pressure
(Figure 1.11). Let the tube length be L, its diameter Dand its wall thickness t and let the
pressure be P (Figure 1.11a). The axial stress,
y
, can be found from a force balance
on a cross section of the tube. Since in PD
2
/4 = Dt
y
,

y
= PD/(4t ). (1.42)
The hoop stress,
x
, can be found from a force balance on a longitudinal section
of the tube (Figure 1.11b). PDL = 2
x
t L or

x
=
1
2
PD/t
y
= PD/(2t ). (1.43)
A moment balance can be made about any axis through a material. The internal
moment must balance the external moment. Consider a cylindrical rod under torsion.
A moment balance relates the torque, T, to the distribution of shear stress,
xy
(Fig-
ure 1.12). Consider an annular element of thickness dr at a distance r fromthe axis. The
shear force on this element is the shear stress times the area of the element, (2r)
xy
dr.
The moment caused by this element is the shear force times the distance, r, from the
axis so dT = (2r)
xy
(r)dr so
T = 2
_
R
0

xy
r
2
dr. (1.44)
P

y
t
D D
P

x
t
(a) (b)
Figure 1.11. Forces acting on cuts through a tube
under pressure.
1.11 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 13
R
dr

xy
x
y
z
r
Figure 1.12. Moment balance on an annular element.
An explicit solution requires knowledge of how
xy
varies with r for inte-
gration.
1.11 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
In analyzing metal forming problems, it is important to be able to recognize boundary
conditions. Often these are not stated explicitly. Some of these are listed below:
1. A stress,
z
, normal to a free surface and the two shear stresses in the surface are
zero.
2. Likewise there are no shear stresses in surfaces that are assumed to be frictionless.
3. Constraints from neighboring regions: The strains in a region are often controlled
by the deformation in a neighboring region. Consider a long narrow groove in a
plate (Figure 1.13.) The strain
x
, in the groove must be the same as the strain in
the region outside the groove. However, the strains
y
and
z
need not be the same.
4. Saint-Venants principle states that the constraint from discontinuity will disappear
within one characteristic distance of the discontinuity. For example, the shoulder
on a tensile bar tends to suppress the contraction of the adjacent region of the
gauge section. However this effect is very small at a distance equal to the diameter
away from the shoulder. Figure 1.14 illustrates this on sheet specimen.
Bending of a sheet (Figure 1.15) illustrates another example of Saint-Venants principle.
The plane-strain condition
y
=0 prevails over most of the material because the bottom
and top surfaces are so close. However, the edges are not in plane strain because
y
=
0. However, there is appreciable deviation from plane strain only in a region within a
distance equal to the sheet thickness from the edge.
EXAMPLE 1.9: A metal sheet, 1 m wide, 3 m long and 1 mm thick is bent as shown
in Figure 1.15. Find the state of stress in the surface in terms of the elastic constants
and the bend radius, .
A
x
y
z
B
Figure 1.13. Grooved plate. The material outside the
groove affects the material inside the groove,
xA
=
xB
.
14 STRESS AND STRAIN
Figure 1.14. The lateral-contraction strain of a sheet tensile specimen of copper as a function to the
distance from the shoulder. The strain was measured when the elongation was 27.6%.
y
x
z
Figure 1.15. In bending of a sheet, plane-strain (
y
= 0) prevails except within a distance equal to the
thickness from the edges where
y
= 0.
SOLUTION: e
y
= (1/E)[
y
(
z
+
x
)] = 0 and
z
= 0, so
y
=
x
. Neglecting
any shift of the neutral plane, e
x
= t/(2). Substituting into Hookes law,
e
x
= t /(2) = (1/E)[
x
(
y
+
z
)] or t /(2) = (
x
/E)(1
2
).
Solving for

x
=
Et
2(1
2
)
and
y
=
Et
2(1
2
)
.
NOTES OF INTEREST
Otto Mohr (18351918) made popular the graphical representation of stress at a point
(Civiling, 1882, p. 113) even though it had previously been suggested by Culman
(Graphische Statik, 1866, p. 226).
Barr e de Saint-Venant was born 1797. In 1813 at the age of 16 he entered L

Ecole
Polytechnique. He was a sergeant on a student detachment as the allies were attacking
Paris in 1814. Because he stepped out of ranks and declared that he could not in good
conscience ght for a usurper (Napoleon), he was prevented fromtaking further classes
at L

Ecole Polytechnique. He later graduated from L

Ecole des Ponts et Chauss ees

where he taught through his career.
PROBLEMS 15

y
+ (
y
/ y)dy

x
+ (
x
/ x)dx

yx

xy

yx
+ (
yx
/ y)dy

xy
+ (
xy
/ x)dx
dx
dy
Figure 1.16. Variation of a stress state in space.
REFERENCES
R. M. Caddell, Deformation and Fracture of Solids, Prentice-Hall, 1980.
H. Ford, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Wiley, 1963.
W. F. Hosford, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Cambridge University Press, 2004.
W. Johnson and P. B. Mellor, Engineering Plasticity, Van Nostrand-Reinhold, 1973.
N. H. Polokowski and E. J. Ripling, Strength and Stucture of Engineering Materials,
Prentice-Hall, 1966.
APPENDIX EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
As the stress state varies from one place to another, there are equilibrium conditions,
which must be met. Consider Figure 1.16.
An x-direction force balance gives

x
+
xy
=
x
+
x
/x +
xy
+
xy
/y
or simply

x
/x +
xy
/y = 0. (1.45)
In three dimensions

x
/x +
xy
/y +
yz
/z = 0

xy
/x +
y
/y +
yz
/z = 0 (1.46)

xz
/x +
yz
/y +
z
/z = 0.
These equations are used in Chapter 9.
PROBLEMS
1.1. Determine the principal stresses for the stress state

i j
=

10 3 4
3 5 2
4 2 7

.
16 STRESS AND STRAIN
1.2. A 5-cm-diameter solid shaft is simultaneously subjected to an axial load of
80 kN and a torque of 400 Nm.
a) Determine the principal stresses at the surface assuming elastic behavior.
b) Find the largest shear stress.
1.3. A long thin-wall tube, capped on both ends, is subjected to internal pressure.
During elastic loading, does the tube length increase, decrease, or remain con-
stant?
1.4. A solid 2-cm-diameter rod is subjected to a tensile force of 40 kN. An identical
rod is subjected to a uid pressure of 35 MPa and then to a tensile force of
40 kN. Which rod experiences the largest shear stress?
1.5. Consider a long, thin-wall, 5-cm-diameter tube, with a wall thickness of 0.25 mm
that is capped on both ends. Find the three principal stresses when it is loaded
under a tensile force of 400 kN and an internal pressure of 200 kPa.
1.6. Three strain gauges are mounted on the surface of a part. Gauge A is parallel to
the x-axis, and gauge C is parallel to the y-axis. The third gauge, B, is at 30

to
gauge A. When the part is loaded, the gauges read
Gauge A 3,000 10
6
Gauge B 3,500 10
6
Gauge C 1,000 10
6
a) Find the value of
xy
.
b) Find the principal strains in the plane of the surface.
c) Sketch the Mohrs circle diagram.
1.7. Find the principal stresses in the part of problem 1.6 if the elastic modulus of
the part is 205 GPa and Poissons ratio is 0.29.
1.8. Show that the true strain after elongation may be expressed as = ln(
1
1r
),
where r is the reduction of area.
1.9. Athin sheet of steel, 1-mmthick, is bent as described in Example 1.9. Assuming
that E = is 205 GPa and = 0.29, and that the neutral axis doesnt shift,
a) Find the state of stress on most of the outer surface.
b) Find the state of stress at the edge of the outer surface.
1.10. For an aluminum sheet, under plane stress loading
x
= 0.003 and
y
= 0.001.
Assuming that E = is 68 GPa and = 0.30, nd
z
.
1.11. A piece of steel is elastically loaded under principal stresses,
1
= 300 MPa,

2
= 250 MPa, and
3
= 200 MPa. Assuming that E = is 205 GPa and =
0.29, nd the stored elastic energy per volume.
1.12. A slab of metal is subjected to plane-strain deformation (e
2
=0) such that
1
=
40 ksi and
3
= 0. Assume that the loading is elastic, and that E = is 205 GPa,
and = 0.29 (note the mixed units). Find
a) the three normal strains.
b) the strain energy per volume.