Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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6.1 Structure sizing
6.1 .1 Fight envelope
Methods for constructing V-n diagram:-
The V-n diagrams are used to determine design limit and design ultimate load factors as well as
the corresponding speeds to which airplane structures are design as well be done many require
as input a design load factor and/or a design speed.
V-n diagram for FAR 23 certified airplanes:
The following definitions apply to the various speeds given in the diagram:
NOTE: all speeds are normally given in KEAS.
Vs= stall speed or the minimum speed at which the airplane is controllable
Vc = design cruising speed
VD =design diving speed
VA =design maneuvering speed
Determination of stall speed (V
s
):-
( )
5 . 0
max
2

=
N
s
C
s
Gw
V

Where:-
Gw= flight design gross weight in lbs= 6440*0.85=5474 lb
S= wing area in ft
2
=322 ft
2
CN max= maximum normal force coefficient=CN max =1.1CL max =1.1*1.67=1.837
= air density in slugs/ft
3
= 0.00237 slugs/ft
3

V
s
=88.372 ft/s

Determination of design cruising speed (V
c
):-
) / ( s Gw k V
c c
>
Kc= 33 for normal and utility category airplane up to w/s= 20 psf
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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V
c
= 33*4.1231= 136 fps
Determination of design diving speed (V
D
):-
C D
V V 25 . 1 >
V
D
= 1.25*136=170 fps
Determination of design maneuvering speed (V
A
):-
lim
n V V
S A
>
Where:-
nlim =is the limit maneuvering load factor given by:-
) 10000 (
24000
1 . 2
lim
+
+ >
Gw
n
pos

nlim need not be greater than 3.8
n
lim pos
=3.65
pos nag
n n
lim lim
4 . 0 =

n
lim nag
=1.46
V
A
=168.83 fps

Design Equivalent Speed:-
The relationship between the equivalent air-speed and the true air-speed is given by:
) ( ) ( kts V keas V o =
c


Where:

V=is the equivalent air-speed.
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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V=is the true air-speed.
=is the ratio of air density at altitude to that of sea-level.at see level =1
At altitude 10000=0.7385 slug/ft
3
Note:
( ) kts
s
f
5921 . 0 1 =





















Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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6.1.2 Span wise load distribution:
There are several methods to determine the lift distribution the schrenk's method is chosen.
Schrenk's method
Schrenk's method makes allowance for the effect of the varying down-wash along the span of a non
elliptic wing by assuming that the final span load distribution for an untwisted wing is halfway between
the actual planform shape and a semi-ellipse of the same area, as it turns out, the assumption is not
reasonable
The span wise lift distribution may be handled in two parts
The additional lift distribution cc
la
and the basic lift distribution cc
lb

These distributions are considered separately and may be added to yield the net distribution
The additional part cc
la
is that part of the lift due to angle of attack referenced from the wing zero lift
line
The basic lift distribution is always constant for a given wing shape, it is the lift distribution when the
wing c
l
=0 and exists only when the wing is twisted aerodynamically
The total lift
lb la l
cc cc cc + =
The theory assumes that the additional lift distribution cc
la
for c
l
=1 is a mean between the actual
distribution of wing chord and a semi-ellipse having the same as wing.
The second assumption is that the basic lift distribution ids a mean between the wing zero lift line and
the geometric lift coefficient distribution due to twist.
Flaps and ailerons are treated as special cases of abrupt twist.
A third assumption is that non dimensional span wise lift distribution coefficient is decreased by a
function of the swept back angle so that the center of lift is moved out.
The ideal distribution would be elliptic for additional and zero for the basic.
It might be mentioned that above assumptions fit in well with simple reasoning. First the flaw is always
apt to tend toward the path of the least resistant's (in this case elliptic loading), and second sustentation
of a abrupt pressure variations in free air is quite foreign to practical experience.
The additional lift may be found as follows:
Set the wing area s equal to one-half the area of an ellipse whose semi-minor axis is A and semi-major
axis is b/2 then
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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B
S
A
b
A S
t
t
4
,
2
2 = =
The equation of ellipse is then
( )
0 . 1
2
2
2
2
2
= +
b
Y
A
X

Letting be out along the span and z= c
e
(the elliptic chord) be vertical, we have
( )
( ) ( )
0 . 1
2
4
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
b
S
C
e
t

From which
2
2
1
4
|
.
|

\
|
=
b
y
b
S
C
e
t

From the assumption that cc
la1
is the mean between chord and the semi-ellipse having the same area
and the wing we have
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+
=
b
y
b
S C C C
CC
e
la
t

Where cc
la1
is the additional lift distribution when c
l
=1.0
For a variable thickness ratio use an effective chord c
1
defined by

=
o
o
a
a
C C
1

Where
o
a = local aslope of the lift curve per degree

o
a =average slope of the lift curve form
}
=

2
0
2
b
o o
dy ca
S
a
For straight taper wings both c and ca
o
vary linearly and
t S
ot t os S
o
C C
a C a C
a
+
+
=

Where the subscripts s and t refer to the plane of symmetry and tips, respectively
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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2
1
1
2
1
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
b
y
b
S C
CC
a
t

For c
l
=x instead of c
l
=1.0, we have
1 la lax
xCC CC =
]
2
1
2
2
[ .
2
1
1
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
b
y
b
S C
x CC
x a
t

The value of cc
la
will be zero at the wing tip
The basic lift distribution is found as flow:
Let

be the section twist angle referred to the zero lift line of the aerofoil section at plane of symmetry.
The angle of zero lift for the wing is
} } }
= =
2 /
0
2 /
0
2 /
0
2
b b
o
b
o zl
cdy
S
cdy cdy c c o
The geometric twist angle
1
referred to the zero lift line of the wing is
zl o
o c c =
1

Hence we may say
2 2
0
1 zl o o
lb
a
c
o c c
=
The net lift distribution for c
l
=x is therefore
( )
c a
b
y
b
S
a
a c
x cc
o
zl o
o
o
l
2
2
1
2
2
2
o c
t

+
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ =


Two type of wing twist are considered:
1- Linear twist

varies linearly along the semi-span

2- Uniform twist

c varies linearly along the semi-span

An aerodynamic twist obtained by a change in airfoil section is usually assumed to be a linear twist.
Uniform twist occurs whenever the tip chord is twisted relative to the root chord while retaining straight
leading and trailing edges
t o
b
y
c c
2
=
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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t t o
c
b
y
c c c
2
=
If the basic lift distribution is a function of more than on e type of twist distribution, the net result can
be obtained by the algebraic sum of the individual twist distribution for each joint.
For uniform twist along the entire span, the cc
lb
and c
lb
distributions are directly proportional to the twist
angle. Thus if c
lb1
is the distribution for
t
c

C
lbn
=nc
lb
for n
1
We may either plot values of c
t
vs. span wise lift coefficient distribution; cc
l
vs. span for the span wise lift
distribution, or cc
t
/
l
C c
=
vs. span for the non dimensional span wise lift distribution, where

c is the mean
geometric chord.
The effect of sweepback is simply found from:
( ) | | . |
.
|

\
|

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
.

cos 1 2
2
1
b
y
C c
cc
C c
cc
l
l
L
l

Where = angle of sweepback.
The figure show half span






0 0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
lift coefficient distribution
22 ft 7.3 ft
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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6.1.3 Design of wing structure:
The semi-monocoque structure has been chosen for wing which contain of skin, two spar, several
stringers and ribs
The bending moments will be resisted by the stringered skin and flange area of the spars as direct stress
The shear force generated by bending moments and twisting moment, resisted by stringered skin and
spar's webs
Bending moments and shear force diagrams:
The relation between distributed load, shear force and bending moment are obtained from:
z
S
y
Y
o
o
e =

z
M
S
X
y
o
o
=
2
2
z
M
z
S
X
y
y
o
o
o
o
e = =
David Perry' method is used to determine the bending moment and shear force.



The weight of wing obtained form weight estimation and the aerodynamic loads are determined by
shrink's method
The shear force is the difference between aerodynamic load and inertia force
The lift is the distributed aerodynamic load and the inertia load

Inertia loads
Aerodynamics loads
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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=
=
=
` nW L S
nW L S
nW L
y
y

}
=
tip
root
Y X
S M






Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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0
2.5
5
7.5
10
12.5
15
17.5
20
22.5
25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
shear force 10^
3


SemiSPAN ft
SFD
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
B
E
N
D
I
N
G

M
O
M
E
N
T






1
0
3

SemiSPAN ft
BMD
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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Sizing of spars and stringers:-
The determination of materials and dimension of spar, stringer and skin; simple bending
equation to define the relation between bending moment, moment of inertia, stress, and
distance from centroid of aerofoil
6.0.0.0

2 . 1
5 . 1
o

=
y M
I 6.0.0.0

Where
Distance from centroid
in
c
t
c y 25 . 5 12 . 3 . 7 5 . 0
max
= = =

1.5=safety factor
1.2=proof factor
= material yield stress for Al 2024 equal 42000lb/in
2

At the wing root maximum bending moment is 242851.2lb.ft "from tab 0.0"


4
7 . 655
2 . 1
42000
5 . 1 12 25 . 5 2 . 242851
in I =

=
The cantilever wing light A/C usually constructed from two spars front and rear.
The front and rear spar are to be located at 70% and 30% form chord length respectively


Fig 6.0
y I
M o
=
2.19ft
5.11ft

Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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6.2 A/C Systems
Flight control system layout design
Flight control system can be divided into secondary and primary flight control system
Primary flight control systems are:-
1-latral control
2-langitudinal control
3-directianal control

Secondary flight control systems are:-
1-trim controls
2-high lift control
3-thrust

- Layout of reversible flight control system:
Definition:-
In a reversible flight control system, when the cockpit controls are moved the
aerodynamic surface control move vise verse.
Reversible flight control systems are typically mechanized with cables, push-rods or a
combination there of major design problem associated with this type of flight control as:-
1-friction
2-cable stretch
3-wight
4-flutter
5-handling qualities

Major advantages associated with this type of flight control are:-
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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1-simlicity
2-lowcost
3-relatively maintenance free
Reversible lateral flight control system:-

This system types in figer (A) commonly used in light airplanes. The lateral stick motion is
translated directly into cable motion.
The principle shows by the directions in the figer




- Reversible longitudinal flight control systems:
The cable-crossing feature shown in figer (b) is acceptable only as long as the cable do not
rub together.
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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Reversible directional flight control system:-
When ever duel cockpit controls are needed the layout shown in figures are employed








- High lift control systems:
Most airplanes need flaps to a chive the lift coefficients required for take off and landing.

Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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Fuel system layout design
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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The purpose of this system is to transfer the fuel to the engine from fuel tank
properly to transfer the fuel properly the fuel pump and fuel lines must be dimensioned
so they can supply (1.5) times the maximum required fuel flow by engine.
MAX
fuel flow
= T
to
(C
j
)
The operation and the layout of airplane fuel system need to design the tank and
fuel tank volume and calculate the fuel consumption required.
Since airplane fuels are very combustible liquid the design, location, operation
accessibility to maintenance and airplane safety as well as to airplane economy.
Some important guidelines for safe fuel system design during the preliminary design
phase of airplanes.
Make sure that the fuel tanks cannot easily rupture in otherwise survivable crashes.
Design the landing gear attachments so that rupture of gear struts and braces during a
crash is not likely to damage any fuel tanks.
Do not please fuel lines in the vicinity of landing gear attachment point which are easily
damaged or even separated from the airframe in the case of hard landings or aborted
take-offs .fuel lines are easily ruptured in such cases.
Do not place fuel lines in the vicinity of equipment which can generate sparks such as
many electrical components.

3


9

B) ) A) )
1 7
5




6


2

8
1- Fuel tank or fuel bays with a total volume sufficient to cover the design range of the
airplane plus reserves.
Chapter 6 Sizing of A/C structure and system

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2-fuel pump(s):-
The fuel pumps and fuel lines to carry the fuel from the tank to the propulsion units
(engines).

3-fuel venting:-
A fuel venting system to prevent excessive pressures from building up in the tanks (this
could happen when parked in the hot sun). the fuel venting system also must provide positive
pressure in the tanks during flight.

4-fuel quantity indicating:-
A fuel quantity indicating system so the crew can tell how much fuel has been used and
how fuel is left. In some systems fuel flow indicators are also needed.

5-shut off valve:-
For ceasing supply of the engine during shut down of the latter.

6-fuel filter:-
Intended for remains ice crystals and mechanical impurities from fuel.

7-drain crack:-
Used for draining fuel sediment (water, dint) before flight or entire fuel from the fuel
system.

8-fuel flow meter:-
This measure the amount of fuel spent from the beginning of engine operation.

9-transfer pumps:-
This pump fed the fuel from tank (A) to tank (B)