(1) CHAPTER 6 HEAT TRANSFER

Q1. What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer may be defined as the transmission of energy from one region in space to another as a result of temperature difference.

Q2. State and explain the different modes (methods) of heat transfer with the aid of illustrative examples. OR Explain the different mechanisms of heat transfer with examples.
Heat transfer takes place in the direction of decreasing temperature by the following modes or mechanisms:

Conduction (in solids) Convection (in fluids) Radiation

Conduction:
This is the mode of heat transfer in solids. Conduction may be defined as the mode of heat transfer that takes place by molecular vibrations or electronic interactions in a continuous and rigid medium only (eg. Solids) Eg. When a solid metallic bar is heated from one end, we find that the other end of the bar gets hot due to conduction of heat.

(2) Convection:
This is the mode or mechanism of heat transfer in a fluid (liquid or gaseous) medium. Convection is defined as the mode of heat transfer that involves the fluid motion i.e., the heat is transferred by the actual movement of the fluid molecules from one point to another. So, convection requires a medium that is continuous but not rigid (liquid and gases) Eg. In water tube boilers, heat is transferred from hot flue gases to the water tubes walls by convection. The heat from water tube walls is again imparted to water flowing inside the tubes by convection. There are two types of convective heat transfer:

Natural convection heat transfer Forced convection heat transfer.

Radiation:
Radiation is a mode of heat transfer which requires no material medium. Radiation may be defined as a mode transfer that takes place from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature in the form of electromagnetic waves emitted by vibrating electrons at the surface of the body. The quantity of heat radiated depends upon the absolute temperature of the body. Eg. Solar energy reaches the earth's surface by radiative heat transfer.

Q3. State and explain Fourier's law of heat conduction in solids. Give its mathematical formulation and explain the meaning of terms involved.
Fourier's law of heat conduction: This law governs the heat flow by conduction:

Statement :

(3) Fourier's law state that the rates of flow heat transfer per unit area is directly proportional temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow.

i.e. Q/A or Q=-kA dt/dx

dt/dx ----------------(1)

where, k= constant of proportionality called thermal conductivity W/m oC or W/mK Q=rate of heat flow is J/s or watts A= surface area normal to the direction of heat flow. dt/dx= temperature gradient is the direction of heat flow in k/m Q/A= rate of heat flow per unit area (w/m2) dt= temperature difference in K dx= thickness of the material or length of the path of heat flow in 'm'. the negative sign is the equation (1) show that there is decrease in temperature along the direction of heat flow. NOTE: from equation (1) we can note the following -: rate of heat flow is directly proportional to temperature gradient (i.e. Q dt / dx) -: rate of heat flow is directly proportional to the area of the cross section perpendicular to the direction of heat flow. (Q A) -: rate of heat flow is directly proportional to temperature difference & inversely proportional to the length of heat flow path. i.e i.e Q Q 1/dx dt

thickness or lenght of heat flow path cold end =T2 hot end = T1

imp Q4) what is thermal conductivity? state its unit and explain its physical significance. Ans -- from fourier's law, we have k=Q/A . dx/dt k=Q when A =1m2 , dt= 1k, t= 1sec Defination thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the amount of heat energy conducted through a body of unit area & unit thickness in unit time when the difference is temperature between the surface causing the heat flow is 1k physical significance Thermal conductivity is the indication of ease with which a material can conduct heat . it depend upon the proportion of material like structure , specific gravity etc. Q5} explain the concept of thermal resistance Ans-- when two physical system are described by similar equation and have similar boundary conditions, these are said be analogous. The heat transfer process may be compared by analog with the flow of electricity in an electrical resistance the flow of electricity (R) is directly proportional to the potential difference (dv) causing the flow . Similarly, the heat of flow rate (Q) is directly proportional to the temperature difference causing the heat flow. As per ohm's law, Current (i) = potential difference (dv) electrical resistance (R) by analog, fourier's heat flow equation can be written as Heat flow (Q) = temperature difference (dv) thermal resistance (dx/dt) (B) (A)

(4)

... by comparing equation (A) and (B), we have rate of heat flow (Q) is analogous is (i) current. Temperature difference (dt) is analogous is dv (potential difference) thermal resistance (dx/kA) is analogous to R (electrical resistance) ... The term (dx/kA) termed as thermal resistance i.e. (Rth)cond. = dx/KA

(5) Defination Thermal resistance (Rth) may be defined as the amount of resistance offered to the flow of unit quantity of heat (Q) per unit time through unit temperature difference. (dt) Note the reciprocating of thermal resistance is called thermal conductance (KA/dx). Heat conduction through composite walls on slabs Imp Q6) derive an equation for steady flow of heat through a composite wall by conduction.

Ans a Consider the transmission of heat through a composite wall consisting of a no. slabs are assumed to be is perfect thermal contact, so that no temperature drop takes place across the interfaces. Let A=area of heat flow LA, LB & LC = thickness of slabs A, B, & C respectively KA, KB, & KC = conductivity of slabs A, B, & C respectively T1, T2, T3, & T4 = temperature of wall surfaces of interfaces as shown in fig.

(6)

Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through each slab is the same, we have

We have,

Adding (3) (4) and (5) equation

(7)

Q7) explain different types of convection heat transfer types of convection heat transfer are: convective heat transfer involves the mass transfer of fluids. based on how the fluid motion is produced,
convection heat transfer can be classified into: i. natural or free convection heat transfer ii. forced convection heat transfer. Ans 1) Natural or free convection heat transfer: when a temperature difference produced a density difference which results in mass movement, the process is called free or natural convection. The buoyancy force causing the flow and the amount of heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature difference. The amount of heat transfer is free convection is very low.

(8) 2) forced convection heat transfer: when the convection current causing the heat transfer is produced by an external device like a pump, compressor, blower etc then it is termed as forced convection. The amount of heat transfer is forced convection depend on: I. temperature difference. II. Rate of fluid flow. The amount of heat transfer is forced convection is large.

Q8 ) differentiate between free convection and forced convection heat transfer. Free convection Heat transfer depend upon temperature difference. Convection current depend upon the buoyancy effect due to density difference created within the fluid by heat transfer. Low heat transfer. Limited application due to heat transfer. Forced convection Amount of heat transfer depend upon the temperature difference and rate of fluid flow. Convection current is produced by artificial means like blower, pump etc. large heat transfer. Find many engineering. Application. eg. heat exchanger

Q9) Ans

what is convective heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient? Explain. There is always a fluid film immediately adjacent to the wall where the temperature varies from Tw or Tf. Heat is first conducted through this fluid film and then it is transported by fluid motion. Rate of heat transfer through the film.

where kf = thermal conductivity of fluid film A= area of heat flow (m2 ) d = thickness of film (m)

(9) Tw = wall temperature (K)

Tf = fluid temperature (K)

the film coefficient of heat transfer or heat transfer coefficient 'h' is defined as. h= kf (w/m2 0c ) or (w/m2 K ) equation ( 1 ) can be written as -------------------------(2) Q = hA (f ) equation 2 represent newton's law of cooling for convection from eq (2) we have 1. Q h (heat transfer coeficient) 2. Q h (area of heat flow) 3. Q (f ) (temeratura difference) Higher the value of kf and lower the value of film thickness ,the higher will be value ofh. The thermal resistance offered by the fluid film can be found as follows:

Where Rth = 1/hA is the convective thermal resistance

Q10) derive on equation for heat transfer from a hot to cold fluid through a plane wall or slab. Explain the concept of overall heat transfer coefficient.

Consider a hot fluid at temperature Th separated from a cold fluid at temperature Tc by a plane wall having thermal conductivity k. heat Q is transferred from hot fluid to cold fluid through the plane wall. The resistance offered in series to the heat transfer by two films and plane wall as shown in the circuit diagram.

(10)

Rth = R1+ R2 + R3 Rth = 1/h1A+1/k A+1/h2A We know,

Q= uA (Th - Tc) Where u= the overall heat transfer coefficient (w/m2k )

IMP Q 11)

derive an expression for the heat flow from a hot to a cold fluid through a composite wall and determine the overall heat transfer coefficient.

Equivalent thermal circuit Consider a composite wall separating a hot fluid from a cold fluid. So, heat transfer from hot fluid to cold fluid takes place through the composite wall. Let, L1 , L2 and L3 = thickness of slabs (1),(2),(3) respectively. K1 , K2 and K3 = thermal conductivity of slabs (1),(2),(3) respectively T1 , T2 and T3 = surface or interface temperature as shown in fig. h1 and h2 = heat transfer coefficient at the two suraface.

(11) Rate of heat flow throughout remains the same throughout, we have,

from equation (2) we have, Th-T1 = Q/ h1A ----(3) T1-T2 = Q/ K1A ----(4) T2-T3 = Q/ K2A ----(5) T3-T4 = Q/ K3A ----(6) T4-Tc = Q/ h2A ----(7) adding equation (3), (4) ,( 5 ) ,( 6 ), ( 7 ) we have,

Where

where u= overall heat transfer coefficients Definition overall heat transfer coefficients is defined as the rate of heat flow per unit area per unit temperature difference maintained through a composite wall in contact with two fluids with different temperature at both sides. IMP Q 12)

derive an equation for heat flow through a hollow cylinder.( radial heat transfer )

image
consider a hollow cylinder of inside and outside radius r1 and r2 respectively. Let the length of the cylinder by ' L' and thermal conductivity 'k' . T1 and T2 be the temperature at the inside and outside wall surfaces respectively . Heat flows radially outward if T1 > T2 consider an element area at radius ' r ' and thickness ' dr. but A = area of heat flow = 2rL

(12) dr
=

dx

applying Fouriers law of heat conduction (Q/A) = -K (dt/ dx) (Q/A) dx = Q dr / 2rL = -K dt -------------(1) Applying boundary conditions and integrating eq. (1) When

Q= -2kl (T2-T1) / loge(r2/r1)

Q 13 ) write a short note on thermal radiation. Thermal radiation refers to the radiant energy emitted by bodies by virtue of their own absolute temperatures, resulting from the thermal excitation of the elections. Radiation is proposed to propagate in the form of electromagnetic waves without requiring any transmitting medium. The thermal radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves travels with the velocity of light.

(13) Imp Q 14) Define the following terms with reference to thermal radiation

Absorptivity Emissivity Reflectivity transmitivity

the incident energy falling on a body is partly reflected, partly absorbed and partly transmitted as shown in fig. For energy balance, Qi = Qa + Qr + Qt i= Qa/Qi + Qr/Qi i =++ + Qt/Qi

Where = Qa/Qi = Absorptivity = Qr/Qi = Reflectivity = Qt/Qi = transmitivity absorptivity () it is define as the ratio of amount of energy absorbed to amount of energy incident on it. Ie. = Qa/Qi Reflectivity () it is define as the ratio of the amount of energy reflected to the amount of the energy incident on the body = Qr/Qi transmitivity it is amount of energy transmitted through the body to the amount of = Qt/Qi = transmitivity emissivity it is defined as the ratio of emissive power of the body to the emissive at same temperature.

energy incident on it power of a black body

(14) i.e

Emissivity is an indication of the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. If valuefrom 0 to 1 for various substances. Emissivity varries with temperature and wave length. Imp Prob 1) A furnace wall is made up of these layers of thickness 250mm, 100mm and 150mm.the inside is exposed to gases at 1250 oc. with convection coefficient of 25 w/m2 oc and the inside surface is at 1100 oc . the outside surface is exposed to air at 25 oc with the convection coefficient of 12 w/m2 oc. Determine thermal conductivity of middle layer. Overall heat transfer coefficient. All surface temperature. The thermal conductivities of inside and outside layer are 1.65 w/m oc and 9.2 w/m oc respectively. Ans -Given data: L1 = 250mm=0.25m L2 = 100mm=0.1m L3 = 150mm=0.15m Th =1250 oc=1250+273=1573K h1 = 25 w/m2 oc T1 = 1100 oc = 1100+273=1373K Tc = 25 oc =25+273=298K h0 = 12 w/m2 oc k1 = 1.65 w/m oc k3 = 9.2 w/m oc

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Thermal con nductivity k2:We know,

Heat per unit (Q/A) of the w can be foun by considerin heat transfer through the inside film. wall nd ng r Th-T1) = 25 ( 152 23-1373 ) = 375 w/m2 50 (Q/A) = hi (T q. Now from eq (1) we have,

(16)

Overall heat transfer Coefficient (u),

Surface temperature (T2, T3, T4 ) We know,

But Q/A = 3750 w/m2 oC From eq. (2)

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3750 * 0.1515 = 1373 T2 T2 = 804.878 K T2 = 804.878 273 T2 = 531.875 oC

T3 = 671.75K T3 = 398.75 oC

T4 =610.625K T4 = 337.625 oC END

(1) Chapter 4

Forced draught Fan is placed before fire gate. Pressure inside the furnace is above atmospheric pressure. It forces fresh air into combustion chamber. Volume of air head is less because of low temperature of cold air. Fan size is less and it requires less power. There is a serious danger of blow out when the fire door are opened. No cooling of bearing required.

Induced draught Fan is placed at the base of chimney. Pressure is inside the furnace below atmospheric pressure. It sucks hot gases from the combustion chamber and forces them in to chimney. Volume of hot gases is move because of high temperature. Fan size is more and required more power. If fire doors are heavy air infiltration into combustion chamber takes place. Bearings are water