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GIS Basics

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Contents
3.1. 3.2. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 26 WHAT IS GIS................................................................................................................ 26 Geographic Information Systems: a generic definition............................................. 26 Three observations should be made about this definition ......................................... 27 Toolbox based definition ......................................................................................... 27 Database definitions ................................................................................................ 27 Organization based definition .................................................................................. 28 Other Definitions ..................................................................................................... 28 The G in GIS ........................................................................................................... 29 The IS in GIS .......................................................................................................... 29

3.2.1.      3.2.2. 3.2.3. 3.3. 3.4.

WHY IS GIS IMPORTANT? ......................................................................................... 29 WHAT MAKES GIS DIFFERENT ................................................................................ 30 Geospatial Data ....................................................................................................... 30 Spatial Data ............................................................................................................. 30 Attribute Data.......................................................................................................... 31

3.4.1.   3.5. 3.6. 3.7.

GIS OPERATIONS........................................................................................................ 32 GIS DIVERSITY ........................................................................................................... 33 COMPONENTS OF GIS................................................................................................ 34 Hardware ................................................................................................................ 34 Software .................................................................................................................. 34 Data ........................................................................................................................ 34 Method.................................................................................................................... 35 People ..................................................................................................................... 35 Network .................................................................................................................. 35

3.7.1. 3.7.2. 3.7.3. 3.7.4. 3.7.5. 3.7.6. 3.8.

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3.9.

BENEFITS OF COMPUTERIZING INFORMATION..... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.10. USERS OF GIS .............................................................................................................. 37 y y 3.11. Professional operators of GIS...................................................................................... 37 General users .............................................................................................................. 37 MAJOR ARES OF APPLICATIONS ......................................................................... 38

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3.1. INTRODUCTION
GIS is no longer for specialists. Powerful and affordable computer hardware and software, the graphical interface, and public digital data have brought GIS to mainstream use. But the priority of GIS has also created situations in which misuse or misinterpretation of data and results can easily happen. Therefore to use GIS properly we must be familiar with technology as well as basic concepts that drive the technology. The present chapter is an attempt to provide basic fundamentals of GIS for beginners.

3.2. WHAT IS GIS

GIS is expressed in individual letters G I S and not at pronunciation GIS. It stands for geographic or geographical information systems. Geographic Information Science is a new interdisciplinary eld. It is built upon knowledge from geography, cartography, computer science, mathematics etc.

3.2.1. Geographic Information Systems: a generic definition

GIS can be defined as A system for Capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth. This is normally considered to involve a spatially referenced computer database and appropriate applications software. A Geographic Information System is an integration of computer hardware and software which can create, manipulate, and analyze a geographically referenced data base to produce new maps and tabular data GIS includes the capabilities of Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Data Base Management Systems (DBMS), but is more than just a combination of those systems. GIS is a special-purpose digital database in which a common spatial coordinate system is the primary means of reference. Comprehensive GIS require a means of: 1. Data input, from maps, aerial photos, satellites, surveys, and other sources. 2. Data storage, retrieval, and query. 3. Data transformation, analysis, and modeling, including spatial statistics. 4. Data reporting, such as maps, reports, and plans.

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 Three observations should be made about this definition

First, GIS are related to other database applications, but with an important difference. All information in a GIS is linked to a spatial reference. Other databases may contain locational information (such as street addresses, or zip codes), but a GIS database uses geo-references as the primary means of storing and accessing information. Second, GIS integrates technology. Whereas other technologies might be used only to analyze aerial photographs and satellite images, to create statistical models, or to draft maps, these capabilities are all offered together within a comprehensive GIS. Third, GIS, with its array of functions, should be viewed as a process rather than as merely software or hardware. GIS are for making decisions. The way in which data is entered, stored, and analyzed within a GIS must mirror the way information will be used for a specific research or decision making task. To see GIS as merely a software or hardware system is to miss the crucial role it can play in a comprehensive decision-making process.

 Toolbox based definition

y A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world (Burrough 1986) y A system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to earth (Department of Environment 1987) y An information technology which stores analyses, and displays both spatial and non spatial data

 Database definitions
y A database system in which most of the data are spatially indexed, and upon which a set of procedures operated in order to answer queries about spatial entities in the database (Smith et al. 1987) y Any manual or computer based set of procedures used to store and manipulate geographically referenced data (Aronoff 1989)

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 Organization based definition

y An automated set of functions that provides professionals with advanced capabilities of storage, retrieval, manipulation and display of geographical located data (Ozemoy, Smith, and Sicherman 1981) y An institutional entity, reflecting an organizational structure that integrates technology with database, expertise and continuing financial support over time (Carter 1989) y A decision support system involving the integration of spatially referenced data in problem solving environment (Cowen 1988)

 Other Definitions
A definition quoted in William Huxholds Introduction to Urban Geographic Information Systems: The purpose of a traditional GIS is first and foremost spatial analysis. Therefore, capabilities may have limited data capture and cartographic output. Capabilities of analyses typically support decision making for specific projects and / or limited geographic areas. The map data-base characteristics (accuracy, continuity,

completeness, etc.) are typically appropriate for small-scale map output. Vector and raster data interfaces may be available. However, topology is usually the sole underlying data structure for spatial analyses.
Dana Tomlins definition, from Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling:

A geographic information system is a facility for preparing, presenting, and interpreting facts that pertain to the surface of the earth. This is a broad definition . . . a considerably narrower definition, however, is more often employed. In common parlance, a geographic information system or GIS is a configuration of computer hardware and software specifically designed for the acquisition, maintenance, and use of cartographic data. From Jeffrey Star and John Estes, in Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction: A geographic information system (GIS) is an information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially-reference data, as well [as] a set of

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operations for working with data . . . In a sense, a GIS may be thought of as a higher-order map.

3.2.2. The G in GIS

Geographic Information is information which can be related to specific locations on the Earth. It covers an enormous range including the distribution of natural resources, the influence of pollution's, description of infrastructures such as buildings, utility and transport services, patterns of land-use and the health, wealth, employment, housing and voting habits of people. Most human activity depends on geographic information: on knowing where things are and understanding how they relate to each other. ( Handling Geographic Information, Report of the Committee of Inquiry chaired by Lord Chorley, Department of the Environment, 1987).

3.2.3. The IS in GIS

Information Systems can have different roles in an organization. According to Strobl (1995) they can be: y Operational Support of processes; getting the data needed in the process. Or to put it in a more simple way; automating the day to day processes like a database of clients or in case of a GIS the catalog of a collection of maps; y y Documentation of records, documenting the available records of an organization; External information; providing information about activities and records of an organization for marketing or sales purposes; y MIS; Management Information Systems; supporting management in providing information. Most IS systems can be put in one of these 4 categories.

3.3. WHY IS GIS IMPORTANT?

Many businesses have adopted GIS because they provide increased efficiency in the delivery of goods and services.  Strategic position of a Geographic Information System in the Organization. A recent Dutch study Gis, noodzaak of luxe? (Grothe et al. 1994) looking at the the position of GIS in 2500 private organizations showed the following results: 29 GIS Integrated Project Management | seminar 2

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Organization-Use of GIS  Utility companies; 67%  Trade and retail companies; 47%  Transport and communication; 58%  Financial services; 60%  Business services. 44%  Utility companies; 67% y GIS integrates spatial and other kinds of information within a single system it offers a consistent framework for analyzing geographical data. y By putting maps and other kinds of spatial information into digital form, GIS allows us to manipulate and display geographical knowledge in new and exciting ways. y GIS makes connections between activities based on geographic proximity  Looking at data geographically can often suggest new insights, explanations.  These connections are often unrecognized without GIS, but can be vital to understanding and managing activities and resources.

3.4. WHAT MAKES GIS DIFFERENT

Geospatial data separates GIS from other information system. Therefore before discussing GIS operations, we must understand the nature of geospatial data

3.4.1. Geospatial Data

Geospatial Data has two components y Spatial data & Attribute data

Take the example of a building, we refer to its location (i.e. where it is) and its characteristics (e.g., name, limit, use). The location also called geometry or shape represents spatial data, whereas characteristics are attribute data.

 Spatial Data
Spatial data describe the locations of spatial features, which may be discrete or continous. Discrete features are individually distinguishable features that do not exist between observations. Discrete features include points (e.g., wells), lines (e.g., roads), and areas(e.g., landuse types). Continous features are features that exist spatially between observations. Examples of continous 30 GIS Integrated Project Management | seminar 2

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features are elevation and precipitation. A gis represents these spatial features on earth surface as map features on plain surface. This transformation involves two main issues: spatial reference system and the data model. The location of spatial feature on earth surface are based on geographical coordinate system with longitude and latitude values, whereas location of map features are based on a plane cordiante system with x and y coordinates. Projection is the process that can transform the earths spherical surface to a plane surface and bridge the two spatial reference systems. But his transformations always involve distortion. The data models defines how spatial features are represented in a GIS. The vector data model uses points and their x,y coordinates to construct spatial features of points, lines and areas. The raster model uses a grid and grid cells to represent the spatial variation of feature. The two data models differ in concept: vector data are ideal for representing discrete features; raster data are better suited for representing continuous features. The georelational data model uses a split system to store spatial data and attribute data. The object based model, on the other hand stores spatial data and attribute data in a single system. Recent trends suggest that GIS vendors have adopted the object based datamodel in their software development.

 Attribute Data
Attribute data describe the characteristics of spatial features. For raster data, each cell has a vlue that corresponds to the attribute of spatial feature at that location. For vector data, the amount of attribute associated with a spatial feature can vary significantly. A road segment may only have the attributes of length and speed limit, whereas a soil polygon may have dozens of properties, interpretations, and performance data. Joining Spatial & Attribute Data The georelational data model stores attribute data separately from spatial data in a split system. The two data components are linked through feature IDs. The object based data model stores spatial data and attribute data along with other attributes in a single system. Thus the object based data model eliminates the complexity of coordinating and synchronizing two sets of data files. It also brings GIS closer to other nonspatial information system.

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3.5. GIS OPERATIONS

Although GIS activities no longer follow a set sequence. GIS activities can be grouped as shown
1. Data entry: use existing data, create new data Spatial data input 2. Data editing 3. Geometric transformation 4. Projection & reprojection 1. Data entry and verification Attribute data management 2. Database management 3. Attribute data manipulation Data display 1. Cartographic symbolization 2. Map design 3. Attribute data query Data exploration 4. Spatial data query 5. Geographic visualization 1. Vector data analysis: buffering, overlay, distance measurement, spatial statistics, map manipulation 2. Raster data analysis: local neighborhood, Data analysis zonal, global, raster data manipulation. 3. Terrain mapping and analysis 4. Viewshed and watershed 5. Spatial interpolation 6. Geocoding and dynamic segmentation 7. Path analysis and network applications 1. Binary models GIS modeling 2. Index models 3. Regression models 4. Process models
Table 3. 1 GIS Operations

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3.6. GIS DIVERSITY

Although the general definition of GIS given here is quite valid, in practice the diversity of GIS has spawned various definitions. There are many views of GISs, including: y y A data processing system designed for map production or visualization A data analysis system for examining conflicts over plans or optimizing the design of transport systems y y An information system for responding to queries about land ownership or soil type A management system to support the operations of a utility company, helping it to maintain its distribution network of pipes or cables y A planning system to aid the design of road systems, excavations, or forest harvest operations y An electronic navigation system for use in land or sea transport

GISs are often designated according to application. When used to manage land records they are often called land information systems (LISs); in municipal and natural resource applications they are important components of urban information systems (UISs) and natural resource information systems (NRISs) respectively. The terms spatial and geospatial are often used almost interchangeably with geographical, although spatial is also used to refer more generally to any two-or three-dimensional data whether or not it relates directly to the surface of the Earth. The term automatic mapping/facility management (AM/FM) is frequently used by utility companies, transportation agencies, and local governments for systems dedicated to the operation and maintenance of networks. Nonetheless, GIS is now accepted internationally as an umbrella term for all digital systems designed to process geographical data. CAD systems have been developed to support design applications in engineering, architecture, and related fields. Broadly, CAD systems emphasize design over analysis and often lack the capabilities needed to process the complex attributes and information of georeferenced data or to integrate georeferenced data from many sources. Nevertheless, the distinction between CAD and GIS has become increasingly blurred in recent years; by adding appropriate features, many former vendors of CAD systems are now able to compete effectively in the GIS market.

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3.7. COMPONENTS OF GIS

Like any other information technology GIS require the following components to work with Geospatial data.

3.7.1. Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The choice of hardware system ranges from Personal Computers to multi user Super Computers. These computers should have essentially an efficient processor to run the software and sufficient memory to store enough information (data).typically the choices are PCs that use the windows operating system or work stations that use the UNIX or Linux operating system. Additional equipment may include monitor for display, digitizers and scanners for spatial data input, GPS receivers and mobile devices for field work, and printers and plotters for hardcopy data display.

3.7.2. Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic information. The software available can be said to be application specific. All GIS software generally fit all these requirements, but there on screen appearance (user interface) may be different. Common user interface in GIS are menus, graphical icons, command lines, and scripts. The software for geographical information system may be split into 5 functional groups a. Data input and verification b. Data storage and database management c. Data output and presentation d. Data transformation e. Interaction with user

3.7.3. Data
Data consist of various kinds of inputs that sstem take into produce information. Geographic data and related tabular data are the backbone of GIS. It can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects can also be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS.

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3.7.4. Method
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan, which are the models and operating practices unique to each task. There are various techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map creation can either be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorized using the scanned images. The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by any survey agency or satellite imagery.

3.7.5. People
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. GIS operators solve real time spatial problems. They plan, implement and operate to draw conclusions for decision making.

3.7.6. Network
With rapid development of IT, today the most fundamental of these is probably the network, without which no rapid communication or sharing of digital information could occur. GIS today relies heavily on the Internet, acquiring and sharing large geographic data sets.

Fig: 3. 1 Components of GIS

Although it is very easy to purchase the constituent parts of a GIS (the computer hardware and basic software), the system functions only when the requisite expertise is available

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3.8. BRIEF HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF GIS

In 1854, John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of the geographic method. His study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water pump (the Broad Street Pump, whose handle he had disconnected, thus terminating the outbreak) within the heart of the cholera outbreak. The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This work was originally drawn on glass plates but later, plastic film was introduced. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once colour printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each colour. While the use of layers much later became one of the main typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described is not considered to be a GIS in itself as the maps were just images with no database to link them to. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-purpose computer 'mapping' applications by the early 1960s. The year 1960 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by Dr.Roger Tomlinson, it was called the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI). GIS is not new though, GIS has been considered to be difficult, expensive, and proprietary. The advent of the graphical user interface (GUI), powerful and affordable hardware and software, and public digital data broadened the range of GIS applications and brought GIS to mainstream use in the 1990s.

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Table: 3. 2 The stages of GIS development

3.9. USERS OF GIS

Today, the widespread acquisition of digital computers by businesses, universities, researchers and households has allowed technologies such as GIS to penetrate many aspects of our lives. Nevertheless, computer processing of geographical data remains problematic, and GIS are widely regarded as difficult to learn about and to use. Users of GIS naturally fall into two groups y
Professional operators of GIS: who spend much of their lives working with the

technology in their jobs. They are well trained in the particular software they use and are well aware of its capabilities. In many cases they do not use the results of their work themselves, but pass them to end users. y
General users: users spend a relatively small proportion of their lives using GIS.

They may maintain a GIS capability on their personal workstation in order to produce an occasional map, to find a park in an unfamiliar city, to plan a driving route for a vacation, or to carry out analysis of map data in connection with a research project. This group also comprises end users and primary users who make professional decisions based on GIS products The group includes 37 GIS Integrated Project Management | seminar 2

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 Operation and maintenance engineers; a typical decision may be whether to replace or repair a damaged water main.  Regional planners; characteristic tasks involve presentations of plans to municipal authorities in a realistic, varied, visual manner.  Building authority functionaries; representative jobs include processing building permit applications involving access roads, water supply, or sewage.  Revenue officials, typically dealing with tax assessment and taxpayer addresses.  Road engineers, whose responsibilities include locating new roads to minimize cutand-fill operations.  Information officers; information produced may include complete packages to newly established firms with details on industrial areas, schools, and transportation.  Local officials, who may require updated overviews on the effects of effluents on water quality at municipal hand pumps.  Fire brigades, for whom rapid, reliable information on the locations of fires and the presence of hazards such as explosives would be invaluable.  Forest managers planning harvest operations, computing volumes of annual growths, estimating road costs and identifying sensitive wildlife areas.

Table: 3. 3 Definition of GIS & groups who finds them useful

3.10. MAJOR ARES OF APPLICATIONS

 Earth surface-based scientific investigations;  Resource management  Reference and projections of a geospatial nature, both artificial and natural; 38 GIS Integrated Project Management | seminar 2

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 Asset management and location planning  Archaeology;  Environmental impact-assessment;  Infrastructure assessment and development;  urban planning and regional planning;  Cartography, for a thematic and/or time-based purpose;  Criminology;  Geospatial intelligence;  GIS data development;  Geographic history;  Marketing (also see Geo (marketing));  Logistics;  Population and demographic studies;  Public health planning.  Prospectively mapping;  Statistical analysis;  GIS in environmental contamination;  Disease surveillance;  Military planning.  Utility and analysis applications;  high consequence area (HCA) analysis;  outage and trouble call management;  Damage Prevention;  Engineering Analysis.

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