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CHAPTER 1

ASTRONOMY: A UNIVERSAL ACTIVITY







THE NAKED EYE SKY
Astronomy, the study of celestial objects, is a universally human endeavor whose roots lie
deeply buried in prehistory. For the skywatcher devoid of optical aid, the heavens can be
thought of as a sort of earthcentered celestial sphere on to which have been sprinkled hundreds
of tiny points of light we have called the stars. Half of this inverted bowl of blackness is almost
completely dominated by the dazzling presence of the sun, the most prominent and important of
the celestial objects. Such is the suns brilliance that any attempt to view this object directly is to
risk serious eye damage or even total blindness. As a result of the earths spinning motion or
rotation, an observer at a given location on the earth sees a sky that alternates between a daytime
sky dominated by the sun and a nighttime sky characterized by its absence. As the earth turns on
its axis, the sun appears to rise up from a given observers eastern horizon, pass through a high
noon point or maximum angle above the horizon, and then descend toward the western horizon.
Approximately onehalf an earth rotation later, the sun once more rises to repeat the cycle. This
rising and falling effect is not limited to the sun. As the earth rotates relative to all celestial
objects, they too appear to go through the rising and falling diurnal motions of the sun. Since the
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rate of the earths rotation is very nearly constant, this diurnal motion of the sun and stars has
long been employed as an important and reliable way of measuring time. The earths rotation
also creates the illusion that the stars of the celestial sphere seem to revolve about two imaginary
points located exactly opposite each other. One, the south celestial pole, is visible only from the
southern hemisphere of the earth, while the other, the north celestial pole, is visible only from
the northern hemisphere. The earths long term precessional motion carries the locations of
these celestial poles along a 47 degree diameter circular path among the stars once every
26,000 years. From time to time, a relatively bright star can be found near the position of one of
the celestial poles for a few centuries. Such is the case at present for the north celestial pole,
which is currently located near the fairly bright star Polaris, the Pole Star.
In addition to its daily rising and setting, the sun also appears to travel along a great circle
on the celestial sphere, which is called the ecliptic. This latter movement is the direct result of
the earths orbital motion about the sun. As the earth arcs along in its orbital path, the apparent
position of the sun relative to the more distant background stars appears to change. For an
observer on the earth, the sun thus seems to creep gradually from west to east among the stars,
completing an entire 360 journey around the ecliptic in exactly the same one year time interval
it takes the earth to complete one orbital revolution about the sun. The background stars hence
appear to be gradually overtaken in the western sky by the sun as it moves eastward along the
ecliptic, engulfed by the solar glare for a month or so, and then reemerge in the predawn sky as
the sun leaves them behind in its ongoing easterly movement. The overall result of this annual
movement of the sun is a seasonal parade of the heavens in which different stars are visible at
different times of the night at different times of the year.
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The earths axis of rotation is also found to be tilted at an angle of 23 degrees off the
vertical to the earths orbital plane. As the earth orbits the sun, this tilt causes the sun to shine
alternately more directly on the northern hemisphere and less on the southern hemisphere and
then vice versa over the span of a simple year. This effect is observable as a yearly variation of
the suns highest altitude above the horizon at a given location, and as a change in the time that
the sun spends above the horizon. Thus when the sun is shining most directly on the northern
hemisphere at the time of the summer solstice, the suns diurnal motion in the northern
hemisphere is characterized by long days and short nights, and in the southern hemisphere by
short days and long nights. Half an orbital revolution or six months later at the time of the
winter solstice, when the sun is shining more directly on the southern hemisphere, the lengths of
night and day are reversed. Halfway between these extremes the sun shines directly down on the
earths equator twice each year. On these dates, the lengths of the days and nights all over the
earth are equal, except at the poles, and hence these dates are said to be the equinoxes. It is this
combination of the tilt of the earths axis of rotation and the earths orbital motion that gives rise
to our cycle of seasons here on the earth.
Firmly entrenched in second place in the brightness hierarchy of celestial objects is the
moon. Although not as important as the sun, the moon, none the less, exerts several significant
influences on the earth, most notably as the chief agent by which tides are produced in the
worlds oceans. The reflected sunlight we receive from the moon is over one million times
fainter than that emanating from the sun, and as a result, the moon can be readily viewed against
the backdrop of the stars of the night sky. As the moon orbits the earth in space, it appears to
traverse a great circle about the celestial sphere in a fashion not unlike the annual motion
displayed by the sun. There are however some important differences between the lunar motion
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and that of the sun. The moon swings along an apparent path that is tilted at an angle of about
five degrees to the ecliptic and takes onetwelfth of the suns time to make a single journey
about the celestial sphere. The moon thus moves at an average rate of about half a degree per
hour relative to the background stars, an angular speed easily detectable over the course of a
single night by a naked eye observer.
Although the moons half degree angular diameter is almost exactly the same as that of the
un, the diminished brightness of the moon permits us to look directly upon its face without fear
or danger. As a result, the moon presents a number of most interesting and fascinating
phenomena to the naked eye observer. Perhaps the most familiar of these is the set of seeming
shape changes or phases exhibited by the moon as it journeys about the celestial sphere. These
phases arise from the fact that as the moon orbits the earth, the half of the moons spherical
surface which faces the sun, and is hence illuminated by the suns light, is viewed at different
angles by an observer situated on the earth. When the moon is very nearly lined up between the
earth and the sun, almost all of the moons sunlit hemisphere faces away from the earth, and all
we see of the moon is a very thin crescent of light. As the moon moves toward progressively
larger angular distances from the sun, the thickness of the crescent grows or waxes until the
angle between the moon and the sun as seen from the earth is 90. At this point we see exactly
onehalf of the moons sunlit surface and the moon appears to have a semicircular or quarter
moon shape. As the sunmoon angular separation increases past 90, the moon takes on a
bulging or gibbous shape whose thickness continues to grow until the moon is very nearly
opposite the sun in the sky. When this configuration occurs, the entire sunlit hemisphere of the
moon face the earth, and the now circularshaped moon is said to be a full moon. After
passing through the full phase, the moons shape changes now proceed to reverse order,
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successively passing through waning gibbous phases, a second of last quarter phase, and finally a
waning crescent phase as the angle between the moon and the sun decreases from 180 to nearly
zero. The waning crescent moon eventually slides into the predawn solar glare for a few days
and then reemerges as a silvery crescentshaped new moon in the postsunset twilight.
The moon is also unique among celestial objects in that it is the only one for which surface
detail can be easily viewed with the unaided human eye. This detail manifests itself in the form
of the dark areas on the moons disk which are called maria or seas and the light areas called
continents. This terminology dates back to the Western European Renaissance observers of the
moon who imagined the lunar surface to be divided between bright land and dark waters.
In addition to the sun and moon, human beings have recognized since prehistoric times that
five other naked eye objects also move about the sky relative to the background stars. These
starlike wanderers are called planets, and historically have enjoyed the appellations of the gods
and goddesses of ancient Greek and Roman mythology. The five socalled naked eye planets
have been named, in order of their increasing distance from the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn. A sixth planet, Uranus, possesses a brightness which is just at the limit of
naked eye visibility, but the planetary nature of this object does not seem to have been
recognized until the English astronomer William Hershel accidentally stumbled upon it while
telescopically scanning the sky in March of 1781.
Two of the planets, Mercury and Venus, have orbits about the sun which are interior to that
of the earth. As a result of this orbital geometry and the suns gravitationally induced faster
orbital speeds, these planets exhibit a marked pattern in their appearances in the earths sky. In a
typical cycle, the planet is first visible as an evening star in the west after sunset, then appears
to move out to a maximum angle of greatest elongation away from the sun before retreating back
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into the suns light. After several days or weeks, the planet reemerges from the solar glare, but
this time as a morning star in the predawn sky. The planet once more moves out to an angle of
greatest elongation and then drops back into the solar light. The swiftly moving planet Mercury
goes through a complete cycle of appearances or synodic period in about four months, while
Venus, whose orbital speed is more closely matched to that of the earth, takes a year and a half
for its cycle of appearances. Typically Mercurys appearances as a morning or evening star last
about three weeks, while those of Venus extend over several months at a time.
Visually, the planet Mercury appears in the sky as a sparkling object having a somewhat
reddishorange tint. Its apparent brightness is actually comparable to the brightest stars, but
because it is almost always observed in twilight, it is usually not as impressive an object as it
otherwise might be. The most spectacular of the naked eye planets and the third brightest object
in the sky behind only the sun and moon is the planet Venus. The orbital path of Venus can
carry it out to an angle of greatest elongation as large as 47 degrees, or about twice that exhibited
by the planet Mercury. Thus it is possible to observe this splendid object for as long as four
hours after sunset or before sunrise. At its greatest brilliancy, the soft white light of Venus has
even been observed to cast very faint shadows as it gleams in the darkness of the predawn or
postsunset night sky.
The three remaining naked eye planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, move in vast orbit about
the sun which are exterior to the orbit of the earth. As a result, these planets appear most of the
time to move about the celestial sphere in a fashion similar to the west to east movement
exhibited by the sun and moon. The times required for each of these planets to make a complete
cycle about the celestial sphere, however, are far longer than those for the sun and moon. Mars,
for example, completes a single journey around the celestial sphere in just under two years,
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while Jupiter and Saturn require nearly twelve and thirty years, respectively, to complete similar
journeys. As the faster moving earth catches up to and passes one of these exterior planets, the
planet exhibits an illusionary phenomenon in the earths sky called retrograde motion in which
the given planet seems to stop its normal west to east motion among the stars, moves backward
or east to west for several months, stops again, and then resumes its direct or west to east
movement. In the midst of its retrograde motion, a given planet will appear to be opposite the
suns position in the celestial sphere as sun from earth. When such a configuration occurs, the
planet is said to be in opposition to the sun, or more simply, at opposition. At the time of a
given planets opposition, the earth makes its closest approach to the planet, and as a result, the
planet shines more brightly than at any other time. Moreover, at opposition the planet rises at
sunset, sets at sunrise, and is thus visible throughout the night.
Visually, the planet Mars is perhaps the most remarkable of the exterior planets owing to
its distinctly reddish hue. At times of closest approach to the earth, the apparent brightness of
this ruddy world is exceeded only by that of the Sun, Moon, and Venus. When Mars is not at a
close opposition, the fourth brightest object in the sky is the yellowishwhite planet Jupiter
which shines some ten times more brightly than the average of the brightest of the background
stars. The goldencolored planet Saturn is the most distant of the naked eye planets from both
the earth and the sun, and thus exhibits a reduced apparent brightness which is comparable to the
average of the brightest background stars.
While the paths of the planets about the celestial sphere are not coincident with the ecliptic,
they are, none the less, nearly coplanar with it. As a result, the sun, moon, and five naked eye
planets move about the celestial sphere in a relatively narrow band of sky centered on the ecliptic
which is called the zodiac. Because the sun, moon, and planets move along the zodiac at
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differing rates, it is possible for objects in the sky to appear to pass close to other objects along
the zodiac. When such a passage occurs, the resulting configuration of the two objects is said to
be a conjunction. Conjunctions can occur among the sun, moon, and planets, as well as between
these moving objects and the bright stationary stars which are to be found along the zodiac.
From time to time conjunctions can involve three or more objects, and on rare occasions a
conjunction can be so close that the two objects cannot be seen as separate with the unaided eye.
In addition to the imaginary band of planetary paths that is the zodiac, there exists a quite
real band of diffuse light, called the Milky Way, which is stationary relative to the stars and girds
the celestial sphere like a gigantic faintly glowing heavenly belt. The Milky Way is the naked
eye manifestation of the vast galactic system of gas, dust, and stars in which our sun is located.
The Milky Way Galaxy, as this system is called, is in the shape of a huge, flat pinwheel which
has a substantial bulge at its center. Our sun is situated about twothirds of the way toward the
outer edge of this system, and as a result, our view of the summertime Milky Way in the
northern hemisphere is the more prominent one, since at this time we are looking toward the
direction in which most of our galaxy is located. On the other hand, in the northern hemisphere
winter, our view is now directed away from the galactic center toward the less prominent regions
of the galaxy, with the visual result that the wintertime Milky Way is much fainter than its
summertime counterpart.
Off the plane of the Milky Way, there exist approximately a dozen or so lesser diffuse
objects which are visible to the naked eye and are also set in fixed positions among the stars.
Modern telescopic observations reveal that these fuzzy patches of light are in reality quite a
diverse lot, including clouds of glowing gas, star clusters, and even other galaxies well outside of
our Milky Way.
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From time to time transitory apparitions and events occur in the sky which can be as
awesome as they are spectacular. One such event is a total eclipse of the sun. When the moon
passes directly between the earth and the sun, a moving shadow of the moon about
240 kilometers wide is cast upon the surface of the earth. An observer located in the shadows
path will see the suns disk gradually covered by the dark lunar disk until the suns light is
almost completely blotted out. During this total phase of the eclipse, only the light from the
suns outermost atmospheric layers is visible and a darkness comparable to full moon night
descends on the land for a time period ranging from a few seconds to as long as seven minutes.
Finally the moon moves out of its direct alignment between the earth and the sun, and the sun
reemerges to its full disk and full brightness.
The sun, earth, and moon can also align in such a way that the moon passes into the earths
shadow, thereby producing a total eclipse of the moon. When such an event occurs, an observer
on the earth sees a full moon gradually enter the curved shadow of the earth. When the moon is
totally immersed in the earths shadow, it can take on a variety of ruddy hues ranging from an
almost totally darkened red to a bright coppery shade of redorange. This illumination even at
the total phase of a lunar eclipse is caused by sunlight being refracted on to the moons surface
by the earths atmosphere. The variety of colorations exhibited during various lunar eclipses is
thus the direct result of the weather conditions in the earths atmosphere, especially the degree of
cloud cover at key locations around the earth. Typically the eclipsed moon spends an hour or so
in the total phase before reemerging from the earths shadow and regaining its full moon
brilliance.
Every few years or so the night sky is visited by a strange apparition, a diffuse long
haired starlike object called a comet. Comets are known to be collections of ices, dust grains,
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rocks, and frozen gases which wheel about the sun in huge elongated orbits which alternately
carry them from relative proximity to the sun out to the most distant parts of the solar system,
thousands of earthsun distances away. As a comet approaches the sun, the suns radiant energy
causes the ices and frozen gases to evaporate into a glowing comma which surrounds the dust
and rocks at the comets nucleus. As this diffuse, starlike object draws ever closer to the sun,
the solar proton wind and radiation pressure drive material out of the diffuse head into a long,
streaming tail which can extend over millions of miles in space. For several weeks, like a
cosmic messenger, a comet will approach the sun, blossom with a flowing tail, and then fade into
the cold blackness that is the periphery of the solar system.
The debris left behind by both these interlopers as well as from the formation process of the
solar system permeates the interplanetary medium. As the earth sweeps along its orbit, it is
constantly bombarded by objects ranging in size from tiny grains of dust up to small asteroids
several kilometers in diameter. Fortunately collisions with the latter are extraordinarily rare!
When a given interplanetary particle, called a meteoroid, strikes the earth, it does so at speeds as
high as 50 km/sec. At such speeds, friction with the earths atmosphere causes the object to heat
up quickly and glow brilliantly as it falls toward the earth. An observer at the earths surface
sees this event as a falling star or shooting star. Most of the time, such objects disintegrate
in the upper layers of the earths atmosphere, but occasionally a meteoroid is able to traverse the
earths atmosphere and strike the earths surface. Such an object is then referred to as a
meteorite.
Occasionally the earth passes through a large stream of meteoric debris left behind by a
comet. Under these conditions, large numbers of meteors can be seen in the form of a meteor
shower. During a typical meteor shower, one can see anywhere from 1560 meteors per hour
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above the normal sporadic or background meteor counts of about six meteors per hour. About
three or four times per century the earth strikes a particularly large and dense aggregate of
meteoroids. Under these circumstances, thousands of meteors per hour flash across the heavens
in a display of celestial fireworks which is unmatched anywhere else in the natural world.
From time to time in the remote recesses of interstellar space a star will end its life in a
spectacular event called a supernova explosion. For a few days the energy output of this dying
object rivals that of all the stars in an entire galaxy. If a supernova detonation occurs at a
distance sufficiently close to the earth, the observed result is the transitory appearance of a
new star in the terrestrial night sky. For time periods ranging from a few days to several
months, the star shines at or near its maximum brightness before fading back into naked eye
invisibility. One of the more notable of these objects was observed in the year AD 1054. At its
maximum brightness, the supernova of 1054 was nearly three times brighter than the planet
Venus and could be readily seen in broad daylight. The remains of this stellar blast can be
telescopically viewed today as the tattered and twisted gaseous cauldron called the Crab Nebula.

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EXPLAINING THE HEAVENS
Unlike the mathematical monolithic universality which characterized the scientific
philosophy emergent from the Western European Renaissance, the explanations tendered for the
considerable array of celestial phenomena by nonwestern cultures as well as those of pre
Renaissance Europe and the Mediterranean were far more qualitative in nature and represented a
diversity of ingenious viewpoints that were nearly as numerous as the cultures from which they
sprang. Generally such explanations appear in a given culture in the form of myths, legends, and
folklore, and pay considerable homage to the observed characteristics of the sky and its resident
objects. As such, they represent the beginning attempts on the part of human beings to provide
rational explanations consistent with observations for the variety of events which occur in the
physical world, thereby making that world more comprehensible.
Perhaps the most familiar example of this process in action is to be found in the myths and
legends pertaining to the fixed stars. Out of the more or less random distribution of stars in the
night sky, one can imagine a variety of figures, shapes, and patterns not unlike the variety of
faces and forms that one often fancies in the puffy clouds of a springtime sky. In some
instances, a given pattern of stars can bear a striking resemblance to a familiar terrestrial entity.
For virtually every culture, such similarities were not fortuitous, but in fact were intrinsic
characteristics of the sky which were significant and demanded explanation. The most common
approach was to regard the sky as a kind of Celestial Hall of Fame into which various
legendary characters from a given cultures folklore had been inducted for various reasons. Such
inductees thus became figures outlined in stars or constellations. The outline of some of the
constellations are so compelling in their shapes that a variety of farflung cultures would often
envision very similar portraits for a given star group. Thus, the stars of the highly prominent
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wintertime constellation of Orion, for example, seem to outline a very fit and trim individual
possessed of considerable physical strength. Thus Orion, the mighty hunter of Greek mythology
is also alBabdur (The Strong One) for the Arabs, the great hunter Bull of the Hills for the
Blackfoot Tribe of the western Canadian plains, and the Slender First One to the Navajos of
the American southwest. As one might expect, there is also a considerable amount of variation
in the sky pictures of various cultures. Even though the Jshaped array of summertime stars
which we call Scorpius the Scorpion has been widely depicted as a celestial version of its earthly
arachnid namesake; there are many other interpretations of this asterism from other cultures.
The Polynesians, for example, saw this star group as the fishhook of their great hero Maui, while
the Chinese viewed it as the noble Azure Dragon, the Bringer of Spring. To the Mayas of
Central America these stars represented the death god Yalahau, the lord of blackness and waters.
The constellation through which the sun, moon, and planets travel in their respective
journeys about the celestial sphere were quite naturally assigned a particularly significant status
as the constellations or signs of the zodiac. Traditionally there are twelve such constellations,
each of roughly equal extent along the zodiac, and which include Aries the Ram, Taurus the
Bull, Gemini the Twins, Cancer the Crab, Leo the Lion, Virgo the Virgin, Libra the Scales,
Scorpius the Scorpion, Sagittarius the CentaurArcher, Capricornus the SeaGoat, Aquarius the
Water Carrier, and Pices the Fishes. In addition to the standard twelve constellation zodiacs
employed by a majority of the worlds cultures, the zodiac has been variously divided
throughout human history into as many as 28 constellations by the Chinese and as few as six by
the early Euphratean cultures. The denizens of the zodiac exhibit a considerable variation from
culture to culture. The Aztec zodiac was graced with the starry presence of a frog, a lizard, a
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rattlesnake, and a jaguar, while that of the Incas contained a tree, a bearded man, a puma, and the
sacred cantua plant.
Numerous explanations were offered for the observed movement of the sun, moon and
planets along the zodiac, virtually all of which centered on the basic idea that only gods and
goddesses could possess the power to move among the stars. In the case of the sun the concept
was further reinforced by the fact that to look directly on the face of the suns disk was to incur
the Sun deitys wrath in the form of severe damage to ones eyes. Thus the sun was the sun god
AmonRa to the Egyptians, the sun goddess Amaterasu to the early Japanese, and so on.
Eclipses and conjunctions in the sky have also inspired a number of mythologically based
explanations. In the Hindu culture, for example, the mortal Rhu is said long ago to have
attempted to partake of the forbidden nectar of immortality. The god Visnu was told of Rhus
transgression by the sun and moon, and as punishment Visnu proceeded to decapitate Rhu.
Ever since, Rhu was sought to take vengeance on the sun and moon by pursuing them across
the sky in an attempt to eat them. Once in a while, at the time of an eclipse, Rhu actually
catches either the un or the moon and attempts to devour his prey. As the sun or moon is
devoured, it gradually disappears into Rhus throat for a time before reappearing at the base of
his severed neck as Rhu attempts to swallow. The entire event is observed here on the earth as
an eclipse of the sun or moon.
The sky watchers of antiquity were able to identify a number of basic characteristics
relating to the background objects of the celestial sphere. The recognition of the variety of
intrinsic colors that characterize the stars, for example, is manifested in names for stars such as
the Arabic Qalb aAqrab (Heart of the Scorpion) for the bright red star Antares located at the
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center of Scorpius and the Hindu Rohini (Red Deer) for the ruddy star Alphard in the chest of the
constellation of Hydra the Sea Serpent.
Bright stars near the celestial poles have held great meaning and significance to the
watchers of the sky. In the third millennium BC the orth celestial pole was located in the
constellation of Draco the Dragon near a second magnitude star called Eltanin. Because the
heavens of the day appeared to rotate about this star, it was quite literally regarded as an object
of pivotal importance. As a result, Eltanin was worshiped by a number of cultures, including the
Egyptians who used this star to align a number of their important buildings and structures. As
the earths axis of rotation has precessed, other stars have taken on the mantle of Pole Star, most
notably by the stars Thuban in the constellation of Draco and Kochab in the constellation of Ursa
Minor, the Lesser Bear, and in more recent cultures by the star Polaris at the tip of the tail of
Ursa Minor. Both Kochab and Polaris were regarded by the Chinese as Da Di the Great Imperial
Ruler of the heavens, about whom the other stars circled in homage. The Pawnee tribe of the
American plains names Polaris The Star That Does Not Walk Around. To the Pawnee this star
was related to the god Tirawahat, and as such, was chief over all the other stars. It was this star
that saw to it the other stars did not lose their way as they moved across the sky.
Attempts to explain the true nature of the diffuse objects that dot the sky are
understandably less prolific in light of the difficulties that are often encountered in observing
them. The major exception is, of course, the Milky Way. Of the diffuse objects detectable in the
heavens with the unaided eye, the Milky Way is far and away the most extensive and prominent.
This delicate band of light which is also highlighted by an array of brighter stars has thus
inspired a variety of explanations which include its portrayal as a celestial river by the Chinese
and Japanese, as a Path of Souls to an eternal home by the Algonquin tribe of the Lake Ontario
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region of southern Canada, and as a band of glowing cinders by which one could find ones way
home when lost in the darkness by the Bushmen of Africas Kalahari Desert.

USING THE HEAVENS
As imaginative and rational as they were, however, the explanations advanced by different
cultures for the variety of celestial phenomena observed in the heavens generally became
intertwined with the religious beliefs and societal mores of these cultures. As a result, there was
a marked tendency for the explanations of celestial phenomena to take on dogmatic qualities in
which they were seldom questioned or challenged by alternate points of view. Moreover, the
lack of a telescopic astronomy placed severe and fundamental limitations on the level of insight
that was possible regarding the nature of celestial objects. Thus, the explanations proposed for
various celestial phenomena tended to remain largely unchanged in a give culture, and whatever
changes that did occur were not so much the result of additional observational insights, but rather
due to a gradual evolution brought on as these explanations were passed on from generation to
generation or from culture to culture. Even while armed with an impressive instrumental
technology, however, human beings still continue to struggle with questions relating to the
fundamental nature of what we see in the sky.
Certain observable aspects of the heavens readily lend themselves to practical usage here
on the earth, and the greatest levels of achievement enjoyed by nonwestern astronomers have
come in the discovery, recognition, and application of these characteristics. Systematic
observations of the sky reveal, for example, that many celestial phenomena, most notably the
diurnal and annual motions of the sun and the cycle of lunar phases, occur with precise and
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predictable regularity. This observable fact of the heavens has thus been employed by cultures
worldwide as a method of accurate time keeping.
The diurnal rising and setting of the sun, with its alternating cycle of daylight and darkness,
is the shortest and most convenient unit of astronomical timekeeping, and as a result human
beings the world over have employed it, quite literally, as an integral part of their daily lives. A
second, much longer unit of astronomical time is defined by one complete journey of the Sun
around the ecliptic. This annual astronomical cycle is of considerable importance owing to the
fact that it is intimately related to the cycle of seasons which occur here on the earth. The cycle
of seasons, in turn, is virtually identical to the cycle of vegetative growth and those of some
animal activity and migrations. Thus agricultural methods and hunting techniques developed by
various cultures were necessarily tied deeply to the cycle of seasons and the suns annual journey
along the ecliptic. Intermediate in length between the day and the year is the time interval
required for the moon to pass through one complete cycle of its phases. The lunar cycle is
particularly attractive as a timing cycle due to the fact that the everchanging shape of the moon
is readily observable on a daily basis. Sequences of shapes inscribed on CroMagnon cave walls
and artifacts strongly suggest their use as lunar phase timing devices in just this fashion. Similar
sequences carved by the inhabitants of Nicobar Island in the Bay of Bengal are known with
certainty to be employed for this purpose.
Unfortunately these cycles are not quite numerically compatible with each other. For
example, there are about 365 days in a year, but in reality it takes the sun precisely
365.242199 days to complete one cycle around the ecliptic. Similarly there are 29.530588 days
to a cycle of lunar phases and 12.36827 cycles of lunar phases in a year. These discrepancies
can create difficulties if one wishes to reckon the time of the year, the start of a given season, or
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the date of an important religious holiday by simply counting the number of days which have
elapsed from some defined starting point such as the day of a solstice or equinox. If one counts
the number of days as the year progresses, for example, one would find that after 365 days had
passed, the sun would not quite yet have completed its journey around the ecliptic, and after 366
days had elapsed, the sun would have moved slightly past one complete cycle. Over several
years time such an effect can add up to a significant discrepancy between the suns actual
position along the ecliptic and the position dictated by the day count. As a result, a variety of
schemes, called calendric systems or calendars, have been developed by various cultures around
the world which are designed to synchronize two or more astronomical cycles. The most
familiar of these is the addition of one day to our calendar every fourth or leap year in order to
keep the day count in a given year in agreement with the suns actual position along the ecliptic.
A number of ingenious techniques were developed by various cultures to monitor the
astronomical timekeeping process. The Aztec Temple Mayor, now buried beneath modern
Mexico City, was designed in the fifteenth century with two spires that provided a Vshaped
notch through which the rays from a sun rising at the time of an equinox shone on the temple of
Quetzalcoatl. At no other times of the year would a rising sun produce this effect. Thus the
Aztec temples served quite nicely and deliberately as a device with which the Aztec calendar
could be corrected whenever necessary. Similar structural alignments are to be found at
Stonehenge in England, in the temples of ancient Egypt, and among the buildings of the ancient
peoples of the American Southwest. The Mayas of ancient Mesoamerica developed not only
astronomical alignments for many of their structures, but also an incredibly accurate but
somewhat complicated astronomical calendar which was based on the annual solar cycle and the
synodic period of the planet Venus. The Maya calendar was accurate to within one day every
Chapter 1: Astronomy: A Universal Activity 19


5000 years. By contrast, the simpler Gregorian calendar used by contemporary society is
accurate to within one day in 3300 years.
In addition to the structural alignments, various cultures have also employed natural terrain
as calendar correctors. On the top of Fajada Butte at the mouth of Chaco Canyon in the
American Southwest, for example, there stand three rock slabs, each of which is about three
meters in height. On the rock wall behind these slab a first millennium AD people called the
Anasazi carved a spiral petroglyph in such a way that precisely at noon of the day of the summer
solstice, a daggershaped beam of sunlight would neatly slice the petroglyph exactly through its
center. Through this clever manipulation of sunlight, the Anasazi were able to precisely mark
the time of summer solstice.
The Hopi and Zuni tribes, also of the American Southwest, make use of a socalled sunrise
horizon calendar. As the sun moves along the ecliptic, the points of sunrise and sunset along the
horizon at a given location exhibit an annual cyclic shift in which the sunrise and sunset points
appear to migrate along the horizon from south to north while the sun is moving from the winter
solstice to the summer solstice and then north to south along the horizon while the sun is moving
from the summer solstice to the winter solstice. As the sunrise and sunset points pass over
various key landmarks along the horizon, each passage is taken as a signal to begin the
appropriate agricultural activity such as planting various crops, harvesting, etc.
In addition to timekeeping, earthsky relations can also be employed to find ones way
about the surface of the earth. Such techniques are referred to in general as celestial navigation
and have been of considerable importance to human cultures, particularly those which are
maritime in nature. There are a number of aspects of the heavens which readily lend themselves
as navigational aids. As the earth spins on its axis, for example, a star at or near the celestial
20 Chapter 1: Astronomy: A Universal Activity


pole will not appear to change its position in the sky significantly. More importantly, the point
on the horizon directly beneath such a star will also remain in a relatively fixed position as well.
Thus for observers in the northern hemisphere, the relatively bright star Polaris is located very
close to the north celestial pole, and the point on the horizon directly beneath this signpost star
has been used for centuries by northern hemisphere peoples to mark the direction we call north.
Other cultures took advantage of the fact that the angular distance of the pole star above the
horizon as well as the locations of the rising and setting points of bright stars and constellations
along the horizon changed with ones location on the earths surface. Thus the Caroline
Islanders of the central Pacific skillfully navigated by means of this star compass in which 32
points on the horizon were defined by the rising and setting points of bright stars and
constellations such as Vega, the Pleiades, Antares, and the Southern Cross. The Polynesians
employed a device called the sacred calabash, which was a gourd into which four holes were
bored at the same height near the neck. The gourd was then filled with water to the level of the
holes. Using the water level as a horizon, altitudes of stars were then measured by sighting
through one of the holes over the opposite edge of the gourd. Thus armed with what was in
effect the equivalent of our modern sextant, the Polynesians became most adept at deepwater
navigation.
Systematic observations of the heavens also reveal that there exist a number of
correspondences between celestial events and configurations and natural phenomena here on the
earth. For example, the Egyptians recognized that the annual flooding of the allimportant Nile
River was at hand when the bright star Sirius made its helical rising or first appearance out of the
predawn solar glare. The Incas of the South American Andes Mountains noticed that the
cantua plant blossomed beautifully each year when the sun was located in our zodiacal
Chapter 1: Astronomy: A Universal Activity 21


constellation of Cancer, but which they named appropriately from their observations as the
asterism of the sacred cantua plant. The helical rising of the bright stars Rigel, Aldebaran, and
Sirius served to warn the tribes of the high plains of western America that cold weather was at
hand. In the light of such readily observable earthsky correspondences, it was very logical to
assume that similar correspondences exist between celestial phenomena and human affairs. Thus
evolved the endeavor which we now call astrology.
Whether the astrological leap of logic from earthsky to humansky correspondences is a
valid one has, of course, been a topic of considerable debate for many centuries, and since the
1600s the premise that such humansky correlations exist has been emphatically rejected by
western science. Nevertheless, astrology, more so than either timekeeping or celestial
navigations, demands access to careful and ongoing observations of the entire heavens for the
purpose of interpreting the significance here on earth of what is seen to occur in the sky, and
whenever possible, to predict future events in the sky as well. Thus a welldeveloped astrology
in China was certainly an important factor in the preparation of the earliest known star catalogue
in the fourth century BC, and in the recording of a variety of celestial events, most notably the
transitory appearances of sunspots and astrological omens such as comets, which were referred
to as huixing (broom stars or sweeping stars) and of novae and supernovae explosions, which
were called kexing (guest stars or visiting stars). So detailed were the records of the Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean observations of the supernova event in AD 1054, for example, that modern
astronomers were easily able to identify its present remains as the Crab Nebula in the
constellation of Taurus, despite the fact that the event went virtually unobserved and unrecorded
in Western Europe.
22 Chapter 1: Astronomy: A Universal Activity


From some cultures, most notably those of the Mayas, Egypt, China, and the Islamic world,
careful observations of the sky combined with centuries of relative social and political stability
to make possible the discovery of much more subtle and longterm astronomical cycles. The
Mayas, for example, were aware of the longterm reappearances of the planet Venus and built
the planets 584day synodic period into their calendar. Both the Chinese and Islamic observers
were aware of the fact that the lunar nodes, or the points on the celestial sphere where the
moons orbit crosses the ecliptic, drift in a westerly direction along the ecliptic at a rate of one
complete revolution every 18.6 years and used this knowledge to predict the occurrences of both
lunar and solar eclipses.
The Chinese and Islamic observers also recognized that the suns equinox points drift in a
westerly direction along the ecliptic at a rate of nearly one degree per year and made appropriate
adjustments in their respective star catalogues and calendric systems in order to account for the
protracted effect of this equinotical precession. Awareness of the shifting equinoxes may have
also been the province of the Egyptians as well. A number of additions and reconstructions are
found to exist in Egyptian temples and other structures which strongly suggest an architectural
response to just such longterm changes in the positions of the equinoxes.
Although rich in remarkable achievement, the astronomy of antiquity possessed some very
fundamental limitations. Observations of astronomical phenomena were decidedly ad hoc and
pragmatic in their intent, and as a result, astronomical knowledge was in large measure
fragmented and disjoint. The explanations offered for astronomical phenomena tended, for
religious and political reasons, to be quite resistant to change, thus precluding the adoption of
alternate and more successful explanations. Such was the state of affairs in astronomy for
millennia until the seventeenth century saw the emergence of an ingenious philosophy of
Chapter 1: Astronomy: A Universal Activity 23


knowledge gathering which would profoundly impact the world and forever change our
perceptions of the night sky and its fascinating inhabitants.



25







CHAPTER 2


THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHY





THE GREEK CULTURE
Out of the multitude of attempts in antiquity to forge some sense of order and reason out of
the physical world, perhaps the most profound thinking came from what we now refer to as the
Greek and Hellenistic cultures. Centered on the Greek peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea,
and the western coast of Asia Minor, the Greek culture flourished from roughly the sixth to the
fourth centuries B.C. As a result of the meteoric career of Alexander the Great in the fourth
century B.C., the Greek culture was expanded far beyond the shores of the Aegean Sea and
blended with the Near Eastern cultures of Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia into a mixture called the
Hellenistic civilization. The Hellenistic era lasted some five centuries after Alexander. During
this period the intellectual and cultural center of action shifted from the storied but shopworn
Athens to a newer and more vibrant city founded on the Nile River delta by Alexander himself
the famed city of Alexandria.
The contributions made by the Greek and Hellenistic culture to our western heritage are
myriad, and to do proper justice to them is well outside the province of this chapter. Suffice to
26 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



say, however, that in light of the immense impact of these cultures on western thought, it is not
the least bit surprising to find that several of the basic concepts that underlie our modern
scientific method originated during this extraordinary era of human history.
One of the earliest such ideas was that proposed in the sixth century B.C. by Pythagoras, a
man perhaps most familiar for his Pythagorean theorem involving right triangles in plane
geometry. Pythagoras firmly believed that a fundamental relationship existed between numbers
and the physical world. In fact, the school founded by Pythagoras in the Greek city of Croton in
southern Italy had its motto All is Number. Most of Pythagorass ideas and concepts have
faded into history, but his belief that nature could be described by numbers and, through logical
extension, by mathematics in general remains one of the cornerstones of our present scientific
endeavors.
Mathematics, however, often involves concepts that are difficult to reproduce physically in
a way that is consistent with their abstract definitions. For example, in the perception of Greek
geometry put together in the third century B.C. by the Alexandrian mathematician, Euclid, a
straight line has length but no width and a point defined by the intersection of two straight lines
has no dimensions at all! Thus when we draw a point or a straight line, such a drawing can only
be a representation of that point or line. In other words, a drawing of a point or line can only
approximate the true nature of that point or line. Moreover, representing nature with numbers
often turned out to be messy. The ratio pi () of the circumference of a circle to its diameter,
for example, cannot be expressed as a nice ratio of two integers, or whole numbers, but is
rather an irrational number whose true value can only be approximated by such ratios as 22/7,
377/120, etc.
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 27



Many of the Greek thinkers, most notably Plato, felt that such representations were totally
inadequate in determining the true nature of the universe. Such a determination could only be
properly done at the higher plane of pure thought and reason. Conclusions drawn from
observations and measurements made by the eye of the body were imperfect and not to be
trusted, while conclusions drawn from the thought and reason of the eye of the soul were
regarded as the essence of truth. Other Greek thinkers vehemently disagreed with Plato. The
most notable of these was one of Platos very own students, a young man by the name of
Aristotle. Aristotle regarded the conclusions drawn from observations and measurements made
on the physical world as having validity to the extent that any explanation proposed for a
phenomenon is nature had to save the phenomenon, that is, the explanation had to satisfy as
many of the observed characteristics associated with the phenomenon as possible.
On one hand, such a view concedes in effect that any such explanations offered were in
essence approximations, representations, or models of the true nature of a given physical
phenomenon. Thus we are left with the disconcerting fact that an ultimately true nature of the
physical world may well turn out to be an impossible quarry to capture. On the other hand, such
a view permits our ideas concerning natural phenomena to change and evolve in light of new
information. Thus the suncentered or heliocentric theory proposed by Aristarchus of Samos in
the third century B.C. was rejected in favor of the earthcentered or geocentric view of Claudius
Ptolemy about 140 A.D. The geocentric theory was accepted primarily because the Ptolemaic
view with its system of orbits and suborbits or epicycles did a better job of saving the
phenomenon of the observed motions of the sun, moon, and planets relative to the background
stars and constellations than did Aristarchuss system in light of the observational data available
28 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



at the time. In like fashion, the atomic theory proposed around 530 B.C. by Democritus, in
which he envisioned matter as being composed of an infinitude of tiny indivisible spherical
particles he called atoms, was superseded by Aristotles view that matter was continuous and
composed of four basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire.
Interestingly, as new experimental evidence has become available in more recent times,
these two basic ideas, a heliocentric system of planets and matter composed of fundamental
particles, have been resurrected and now enjoy a preeminence far beyond what they were able to
achieve in antiquity. For all intents and purposes,. the death of Ptolemy around 150 A.D.
marked the end of Greek and Hellenistic scientific achievement, and for the next 14 centuries
scientific advance came to a virtual standstill, as discussed in the next section.

THE MEDIEVAL INTERLUDE
The slowing of progress in science that characterized the 1400 years after Ptolemy was the
result of several historical factors which, at first glance, appear to be unrelated to the province of
science. The death of Ptolemy about 150 A.D., however, corresponds to within a few decades
the various dates assigned by historians as the high water mark of the Roman Empire. By
180 A.D. nearly all of the centers of Greek and Hellenistic culture including Athens and
Alexandria had fallen under the domination of the Romans. The Roman culture was the
epitome of practicality. The Romans were superb warriors, political organizers, and engineers.
At the same time, they showed little interest or enthusiasm for the Greeks abstract speculations
concerning the nature of the physical world. Instead, they concerned themselves with practical
morality and the philosophy of how one should conduct ones affairs so a to achieve the highest
levels of order, peace, prosperity, and pursuit of pleasure. Indeed, the Romans grudging
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 29



admiration for the famed Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse centered not on his
abstract mathematical ideas, but rather on the fact that the machines of war he designed during
the Roman siege of Syracuse in 212 BC, almost singlehandedly kept the vaunted Roman army
at bay for over two and onehalf years. In addition, the Romans were highly adept at
Romanizing the cultures they conquered. As a result, Roman cultural attitudes, concerns, and
priorities permeated the populace of their empire. Thus the first attack on the advances of
Greek and Hellenistic scientific thought came about from what was essentially neglect on the
part of a Roman Empire preoccupied with more practical and materialistic concerns.
An even more profound impact on scientific progress was generated by the rise of
Christianity. Christianity first appeared in the region of the Near East that is now modern Israel
barely a century before the time of Ptolemy. Despite persecution by Roman authorities, the
influence of Christianity steadily increased until it was finally installed as the state religion of the
Roman Empire in the fourth century A.D. The success of the Christians during this period was
due in no small part to the wellknown material excesses and moral bankruptcy that had gripped
the Roman Empire, particularly in its latter stages. The spiritually oriented Christians simply
stepped into the spiritual vacuum left by the Romans. For the Christians the primary purpose of
ones existence here on earth was to save ones soul, and in this context, therefore, the physical
world represented a dangerous distraction from that task. In such a scheme, any field of human
endeavor, whether science or attendance at the chariot races, that did not have as it primary
concern the salvation of souls was at the very least to be deemphasized if not shunned altogether.
When St. Ambrose, the impressive and talented bishop of Milan, wrote in 400 A.D. that To
30 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



discuss the nature and the position of the earth does not help us in the hope of life to come, he
was in essence speaking against the basic motivation of scientific thought, i.e., human curiosity.
There was also a more sinister side to the Christian ascendancy. For three centuries the
Christians had suffered mightily at the hands of the Roman persecution, and when the Christians
gained power in the fourth century, there was a decidedly unchristian now its our turn attitude
toward their erstwhile persecutors. As a result, there was considerable hostility on the part of
the Christians toward anything or anyone that was deemed pagan. Thus did the last of the
great Hellenistic astronomermathematicians, Hypatia of Alexandria, meet her doom when in
415 she was murdered by a Christian mob and her pagan works burned. Unfortunately, such
mindless activity was all too common at this time and resulted in losses to the reservoir of human
knowledge which are almost unimaginable. It is known, for example, that in addition to
Oedipus Rex, the Greek playwright Sophocles, wrote over one hundred plays of which less
than ten percent have survived. We can only speculate on what similar losses may have been
endured by the physical sciences as well.
With the fall of Rome in the fifth century, the political stability that had been a hallmark of
the Roman Empire and had made possible the continued existence of learning centers such as
Alexandria was now swept away. Roman order in Western Europe was now shattered into a
multitude of small, often warring feudal states. Such conditions were not conducive to learning
of any kind, let alone scientific endeavor.
The final blow to scientific endeavor was provided in the seventh century A.D. by the rise
of a third major religion out of the Near East, the religion called Islam. From its origin in the
Arabian peninsula, the influence of Islam was expanded vial military conquest over the next two
centuries throughout most of the Near East and along the southern Mediterranean coast. In the
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 31



course of his conquest of Alexandria in 642 A.D., the Caliph Omar burned what was left of the
great library there with the words, If these writings of the Greeks agree with the Book of God
(the Koran), they are useless, and need not be preserved; if they disagree, they are pernicious,
and ought to be destroyed, These were tough centuries indeed for the library of Alexandria!
The Islamic expansion continued for another century before finally being stopped in the
west at the battle of Tours in southern France and in the Near East by the power of the Byzantine
Empire. When a revised politicalreligious equilibrium was reached in the eighth century, the
Mediterranean was polarized between mutually antagonistic Christian and Islamic areas of
control, with most of the great Hellenistic centers of culture and learning, most notably
Alexandria, ending up in Islamic hands. Despite their early excesses, the Islamic civilization
did an admirable job of preserving the remnants of the Greek and Hellenistic heritage, but the
animosity between Islam and Christianity precluded the accessibility of that knowledge to
western scholars. Thus by the end of the eighth century, scientific endeavor in Western Europe
had come to a complete and total standstill.
History, however, is not a static entity and the conditions that had combined so effectively
to create the Dark Ages eventually began to dissolve. Perhaps the first manifestations of this
dissipation came in the form of renewed contact between Christian West and Islamic East. Late
in the eleventh century the Western Europeans launched the first of the crusades against the
Islamic East. The purpose of the crusades was to regain Christian control of the holy places
around Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, etc. The first crusade was far and away the most
successful and resulted in the establishment of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which stretched
from the Red Sea northward along the eastern Mediterranean coast into Asia Minor. By the end
32 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



of the thirteenth century, despite additional crusades and the support of the Italian mercantile
states such as Venice and Genoa, the Latin possessions in the Near East were destroyed.
Nevertheless, the close contact between Christianity and Islam not only in the Latin
kingdom of the Near East but also in Spain and on the island of Sicily served to reintroduce the
West to Greek and Hellenistic ideas and triggered what historians have called the Twelfth
Century Renaissance. However, the return of the Greek heritage of Western Europe in the
twelfth century did not come without changes. A definite attempt was made, for example, to
Christianize the Greek ideas so as to make them compatible with the Christian faith. Thus
Thomas Aquinass thirteenth century work Summa Theologica is in essence a combination of
Christian doctrine and the rational common sense morality of Aristotle. To this day it stands as
an important work in Christian philosophy.
There was also a tendency on the part of twelfth and thirteenth century scholars to impart
to the rediscovered Greek works a level of authority that the original authors neither enjoyed nor
even desired in their own time. Although such a view was totally consistent with an Age of
Faith, Aristotle and the others would have been totally dismayed at the thought of their works
being relegated to the realm of dogma. The rediscovery of the Greek and Hellenistic heritage
led to the development in Western Europe of a curious blend of faith and reason called
Scholasticism, in which new knowledge was generated by rational appeals to revered sources
of authority, most notably the Bible, Aristotle, and the like.
Although most of the Scholasticism of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries dealt
with trivial matters, such as how many angels can dance on the head of a pin, etc., two important
concepts arose out the Middle Ages that have become incorporated into our modern science.
The thirteenth century English Franciscan Roger Bacon, for example, advanced the idea that the
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 33



only viable way to investigate the physical world was through observation and measurement. A
century later, another Englishman, William of Occam, claimed that because faith and reason
were fundamentally different entities, it was impossible to rationally demonstrate the truth of
many of the revealed articles of Christian belief. Conversely, the truth of the physical world
was not necessarily to be fathomed by appeals to a religious faith whose mysteries were in
direct contradiction to the working of that world. Occam also proposed a philosophical razor
that he believed would cut out theories that were too cumbersome. Occams razor, as it is
called, states that if two competing theories are equally able to save the phenomena then the
least complicated theory should be the preferred theory. This idea, which is sometimes called
the principle of simplicity, tells us that the most acceptable explanation for a natural
phenomenon must be the simplest explanation that is the most consistent with the available facts.
Other changes were occurring in Western Europe that also contributed to the eventual
demise of the Dark Ages. The rise of the modern nation states and the domestic tranquility that
their central governments were able to provide was instrumental in the restoration of a climate
conducive to creative thinking. It was not just historical coincidence that the rise of more
extensive and centralized governments, particularly in France and England, was attended by the
appearance of the first universities in Western Europe. Also, the Church of the latter Middle
Ages was not the spiritually oriented church it had once been. The spiritual leader of
Christendom, the Pope, had also become the temporal ruler of vast tracts of land in central Italy
which were called Papal States. In their capacity as the temporal rulers of the Papal States,
popes thus participated in wars, alliances, and a wide variety of political intrigues which bore
little relationship to the spiritual emphasis of the Christianity of the catacombs. The
34 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



increasingly materialistic and temporal orientation on the part of the Church, particularly the
hierarchy, as manifested by tithing, payment of indulgences, and so forth, disturbed a significant
part of the Church membership and would eventually be one of the principal factors which
triggered the Protestant Reformation in 1517. In short, the preoccupation of the early Christians
with spiritual matters at the expense of concern about the material and physical world had, by the
turn of the fifteenth century, become irrevocably compromised, thereby setting the stage for a
renewed interest in that material and physical world.

RENAISSANCE AND REVOLUTION
The fourteenth century in Western Europe saw the onset of a most extraordinary era of
human history called the Renaissance. The Renaissance was characterized by a rebirth of
interest in a wide variety of intellectual and cultural activities. Contrary to the medieval disdain
for worldly concerns, the Renaissance saw a renewed appreciation for all of the wonder and
mystery of the physical world. It was an era in which one could still be a jack of all trades
and master of them all. Thus the man who epitomizes the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci,
could play the roles of architect, artist, biologist, engineer, philosopher, and physicist and play
each of them as well as any human being of his time.
As the enthusiastic explorations of the physical world began to gain momentum, it was not
long before many of the Greek and Hellenistic views of nature were found to be severely lacking
in their ability to save the phenomena. In 1572, for example, less than 60 years after the death
of da Vinci, a new star or nova appeared in the constellation of Cassiopeia. This star was
carefully observed by a Danish astronomer named Tycho Brahe. Tychos star attained an
apparent brightness equal to that of the planet Venus and could be seen for well over a year
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 35



before fading from nakedeye visibility. Here was spectacular observational evidence that was
totally at odds with the Greek view of an eternal and unchanging star sphere.
Tycho also made extensive observations of the wispy celestial objects called comets.
Aristotle had taken the view that comets were a rare form of atmospheric phenomenon similar to
the thin, highaltitude ice crystals cirrus clouds that are sometimes visible in the sky. Tychos
attempts to determine the altitudes of several of these objects demonstrated conclusively that the
comets were located at distances beyond the moon, well outside of any reasonable extension of
the earths atmosphere. Thus the comets were not atmospheric phenomena as Aristotle had
claimed, but in fact were interplanetary phenomena.
The Aristotelian view of nature was further called into question by a young Florentine
named Galileo Galilei. According to Aristotle, larger, heavier objects were supposed to fall to
the ground faster than smaller, lighter objects. While seemingly reasonable, such a view could
not be verified experimentally. Galileo performed a number of experiments on falling bodies
and found, contrary to Aristotles pronouncements, that two objects of different weight dropped
from the same height fall to the ground at exactly the same rate.
Throughout the sixteenth century, the list of the failures of Greek and Hellenistic views of
nature to save the phenomena grew at such a rate that Galileo and others began to take the
view that facts about nature can only be deduced through experimentation and observation.
Moreover, these experimentally deduced facts should not have to be derivable from or even
consistent with authoritative, sources. Up to this point the Church authorities had by and
large looked on the activities of the Renaissance experimenters with a certain amount of
bemusement. After all, what difference did it really make if the stars werent eternal and
36 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



unchanging, comets werent atmospheric phenomena, and objects of unequal size fell to the
ground at equal rates? As long as these newly discovered discrepancies did not impinge on
matters of faith and morals, the Church hierarchy, already bogged down in the religious conflicts
of the Protestant Reformation, was largely content to pursue a policy of noninterfence when it
came to the new discoveries of nature. It was only a matter of time, however, before one or
more of the pronouncements of the Renaissance rationalists would be perceived as a threat to the
articles of faith and morality, thereby resulting in a fundamental confrontation. That collision
between the Church and the emerging empirical science finally came to pass early in the
seventeenth century. The confrontation occurred at the very doorstep of the Church hierarchy in
Rome and was over an astronomical issuethe true nature of the planetary system. Although
the nature of the planetary system is an astronomical question, the effects of the philosophical
and political drama that was about to be played out over this astronomical issue were to have a
profound impact on all of the science of the day.
As we have seen, the geocentric view of the system of planets emerged triumphant from
the Hellenistic age. The victory had been won quite simply because the system of orbits,
epicycles, and other geometric gyrations, developed by the Greek astronomers Hipparchus and
Ptolemy, best saved the phenomena of the perceived celestial motions of the Sun, Moon, and
planets. The triumph had thus been one of observation and rationality rather than one of faith
and authority. As the Greek and Hellenistic ideas filtered back into Western thought, however,
the concept of an Earthcentered system of planets came to be particularly revered and cherished
by the Church. After all, what more appropriate place for human beings, the greatest of Gods
creatures, to be located than at the center of the physical universe? Moreover, the scholars of
the period noted that such a view had been developed by pagan thinkers operating only out of
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 37



rational considerations, thus lending support to one of the central themes of scholasticismthat
faith and reason were two different roads to the same eternal truths.
The beginning of the end for this neat and clean world view came with the advent of the
Polish mathematicianastronomer Nicholas Copernicus. In the early years of the sixteenth
century, Copernicus became interested in the problem of predicting the motions of the Sun,
Moon, and five nakedeye planets: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. He found to
his dismay that the Ptolemic scheme of orbits and epicycles had become extremely complicated.
More than 75 wheels were required by the Ptolemic system to describe, and imperfectly at
that, the motions of seven objects in the sky. For Copernicus this was an intolerable situation
and he set about the task of developing a less tedious method for his calculations. Soon
Copernicus was able to demonstrate that a somewhat simpler system was to be had by assuming
that the Sun and not the Earth marked the center of the planetary system. Copernicus published
his findings in 1543, the same years as his death, in a text entitled De Revolutionibus Orbium
Celestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres). Copernicus, however, clung to the
Greek idea of circular orbits and epicycles and, as a result, his Suncentered system was not
much simpler than that of Ptolemy; in fact, it was observationally indistinguishable from
Ptolemys system. Through the persuasiveness of his writings, however, Copernicus had
managed to resurrect the idea of a heliocentric planetary system and place it on an equal
intellectual footing with the geocentric system of Ptolemy. After the death of Copernicus,
matters languished for the next halfcentury, but it was only the lull before the storm.
Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa in 1564 and, as we have already seen, had performed a
number of basic experiments on falling bodies whose results were contrary to Aristotelian
38 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



mechanics. In addition, he also studied the properties of the motion of a pendulum and
developed one of the first thermometers. Most importantly, however, was the fact that
sometime in the 1590s Galileo read De Revolutionibus and became intuitively convinced that the
Copernican system was correct despite a lack of supporting evidence at that time. In 1609
Galileo heard of the invention of the telescope in Holland. He then constructed several similar
instruments on his own and turned them toward the heavens. The results spelled the demise of
virtually all astronomical thought to that point in time. Instead of being a smooth and perfect
celestial orb, the Sun was found to be blemished with spots and stains. The Moon possessed a
topography of craters, mountains, and valleys as complex as anywhere on the Earth. Even the
very shapes of the planets Mercury and Venus changed in a series of phases not unlike those of
the Moon. Galileo was quick to seize on the significance of the latter observation. The phases
of the Moon had long been known to be the result of our viewing the Moons sunlit hemisphere
from various angles as the Moon orbits the Earth. For Mercury and Venus to exhibit this same
effect and at the same time display their observed closeness to the Sun, Galileo correctly
deduced that these planets must be moving about the Sun in orbits whose radii were less than the
EarthSun distance.
Galileos observations of Jupiter revealed that planet to be orbited by four smaller bodies,
which have become known as the Galilean satellites. In Galileos mind, here was a solar
system in miniature. His observations of the stars provided strong indications that these objects
were at enormous distances from the Earth and hence could not be expected to reveal to mere
nakedeye observations the apparent shifts in position among themselves that an orbiting Earth
would require. All of the observations were collected by Galileo into a short but impressive
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 39



work entitled Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger). With its publication in 1610, Galileo
became an instant celebrity.
Galileos telescopic observations made him more convinced than ever of the correctness of
Copernicus heliocentric theory. If Mercury and Venus were orbiting the Sun, it was logical to
assume that the rest of the planets did likewise. The satellite system of Jupiter dramatically
demonstrated that centers of motion could exist that were outside of the earth and were
themselves in motion, thus invalidating the centuriesold argument that if the Earth were
orbiting the Sun, the Moon would be quickly left behind. Galileo also found that in the Jupiter
system small objects orbited a larger one, just as a smaller moon orbited a larger earth.
Moreover, Mercury and Venus, which were both considerably smaller than the Sun, were now
found to be orbiting that larger Sun. The fact that the Sun was known to be larger than the Earth
dictated to Galileo that the smaller Earth should therefore orbit the larger Sun. While all of this
provides strong circumstantial evidence in favor of the Copernican theory, none of it proves
unambiguously that the Earth orbits the Sun. A possible response from a Ptolemaic astronomer
might be, for example, to note that since the Moon orbits the Earth, it is logical to assume that
the rest of the planets do likewise.
Further support for the heliscentric view was also forthcoming from a German
mathematician named Johann Kepler. Using data accurately and painstakingly collected on
planetary positions for over 25 years by Tycho Brahe, Kepler spent the first two decades of the
seventeenth century forging Tychos observations into three ingenious laws of planetary motion
which now bear his name. Keplers laws of planetary motion did a far better job of
mathematically representing the phenomenon of planetary motion and reduced the number of
40 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



required orbits in the system to a total of only seven, one each for the Sun, moon, and the five
naked eye planets. Thus Keplers laws dramatically saved the phenomenon with a far simpler
model, a model that placed the sun at the center of the planetary system.
Armed with such evidence, Galileo went to Rome in 1616 to plead the cause of the
Copernicus system, but ended up being forbidden by formal decree to hold or defend a
doctrine that the Church regarded as false and absurd, formally heretical, and contrary to
scripture. A decade later, Galileo, badly misreading the political and religious climate, began
work on his fateful text Diologo dei Due Massimi Sistemi (Dialogue on the Two Chief World
Systems), which was finally published in the northern Italian city of Florence in 1632. The
Dialogue is a discussion of the relative merits of the Ptolemaic and Copernican theories and is
presented in the form of a conversation among three individuals, one a Copernican, the second a
supporter of the Ptolemaic theory, and the third a sort of neutral moderator. Galileo leaves no
doubt about where he stands. The supporter of the heliocentric system of Aristarchus and
Copernicus is called Salviati or Brains while the supporter of Ptolemys geocentric view is
handed the name of Simplicio. Moreover, the Dialogue was published in Italian rather than
Latin and sold out in Florence almost immediately. Church authorities in Rome were outraged.
Having endured a century of Protestant Reformation and decades of religious wars, the Catholic
hierarchy in 1632 was in no mood for anything that remotely smacked of defiance or heresy. In
the spring of 1633, at the age of 70 Galileo was ordered to stand trial before the Roman
Inquisition on charges of violating the decree of 1616 and otherwise holding beliefs that were
false and contrary to the Bible.
What followed was one of the more fascinating episodes in the history of Western
Civilization, an event that is commonly called the Galileo trial. Under severe pressure from
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 41



the inquisitors, an old and relatively frail Galileo was forced to recant his belief in the
Copernican system and was also placed under house arrest in his villa near Florence for the
remaining 10 years of his life. His Dialogue was placed on the Index of Prohibited Books
where it remained for nearly two centuries. Galileo was not exonerated by the Church until
1980, some three and onehalf centuries after the fact.
The results of the Galileo trial reverberated throughout intellectual Europe. Although no
direct experimental evidence had been advanced in favor of the Earths orbital motion about the
Sun, by 1633 it was obvious to anyone familiar with the situation that it was only a matter of
time before such evidence would be forthcoming. The clearcut observational evidence, finally,
came later in the century when in 1675 Danish astronomer Olaus Roemer discovered the
socalled lighttime effect, which could be accounted for only if the Earth orbited about the
Sun. The Churchs attempt to extend its authority over faith and morals to matters of natural
law,matters pertaining to the physical worldhad in the end failed. Its dogmatic views of
nature simply did not agree with the facts garnered by precise observations. The Galileo trial
thus marks a parting of the paths between rational, empirical scientific endeavor on one hand and
authoritarian, dogmatic religious endeavor on the other. To this day, there remains a legacy of
uneasy truce, apprehension, and opposition between these two great areas of human thought.
Galileo himself could not fathom such a division. To him the God of his religious beliefs was
the same God who created the universe, the workings of which are best understood by empirical
methods.
After the Galileo trial, scientific thought took on a distinctly amoral quality. The laws of
nature were no longer regarded as good or evil, but rather existed as morally neutral entities,
42 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



and scientific investigation of those laws would henceforth proceed with little homage being
paid to religious doctrine, morals, or authority. As a result, the stereotype scientist has been
portrayed, as far back as Mary Shelleys Frankenstein and Goethes Faust, as a person whose
hunger for scientific knowledge far outweighs any other consideration, including moral scruples.
Such stereotyping is, of course, both unfair and inaccurate. Many scientists throughout history
have been deeply religious men and women, and almost all have scrupulously upheld the
integrity of the empirical method. Moreover, it is quite often the scientist, particularly in the
twentieth century, who has been among the first to warn that as science and technology play an
increasingly dominant role in modern society, the concept of an amoral scientist doing amoral
science without regard to its potential impact on society could lead to disastrous consequences.
For all intents and purposes the Galileo trial had a distinctly chilling effect on scientific
endeavor in the countries of the Mediterranean. As a result, with few exceptions after 1633,
scientific achievement in Europe took place north and west, in Scandinavia, England, France,
Germany, and the Netherlands. The most important legacy of Galileos seventeenth century,
however, was the emergence of a philosophy of gathering knowledge that has thus far enjoyed
three and onehalf centuries of favor. During this time, human beings have advanced their
understanding of the physical world more rapidly and more profoundly than has been possible
during all of the other eras of human history combined. This philosophy of knowledge
gathering came to be known as natural philosophy or more commonly as the empirical or
scientific method.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 43



Although the seventeenth century in Europe is often regarded by historians as the time of
the Scientific Revolution, the scientific method that emerged from that collage of political,
religious, and philosophical forces was in fact a product forged from many prior centuries of
human history. The scientific method is basically a philosophy of acquiring knowledge. Like
any other philosophy, it begins with a statement or statements that are the equivalent of we hold
these truths to be selfevident. . . A considerable amount of heated debate can arise when one
persons set of truths, postulates, or axioms are not selfevident to someone else. Such is the
driving force, for example, behind the diversity of political, religious, and other viewpoints that
exist in our society.
The scientists most important selfevident truth is the fundamental claim that the only
viable way to gain significant information about the nature of the physical world is through
observation and experimentation. Such an empirical view, of course, implies some basic
assumptions regarding the ultimate nature of reality. The scientific method says in effect that
the world perceived by our senses constitutes a reality within which universal truths can be
found. Reliance on this sort of perceived reality has not enjoyed a universal acceptance, and in
fact has been rejected by many of the worlds philosophies.
Implied in the assumption of a physical world that can be observed and experimented on is
the additional inference that the results of those experiments and observations can be expressed
quantitatively, i.e., represented by numerical quantities. Once in numerical form, the
experimental results can then be described in terms of mathematical equations and formulas.
Thus the scientific method is based in part on a revised and more extensive version of
Pythagorass All is Number theme.
44 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



The actual scientific method proceeds along the general outline shown in the following
figure. Experiments, observations, and measurements are performed on a given object or
phenomenon. After a sufficient number of observations have been made, behavior patterns or
laws begin to emerge in the data that ideally can be expressed and described in terms of
mathematical equations and relationships involving the measured quantities. Once a sufficient
number of laws have been established, they are collected into a general overall description of the
phenomenon under investigation, which is called a hypothesis. Thus, in the last half of the
seventeenth century, the Englishman Isaac Newton wove the various laws pertaining to the
phenomenon of motion, which had been derived by Galileo, Kepler, and others, into a majestic
hypothesis called classical or Newtonian mechanics.
When such a hypothesis is proposed, it then serves as the basis on which predictions are
made regarding the behavior of the given phenomenon, with each prediction tested by an
appropriate observation or experiment. If the predictions of a given hypothesis agree with
experimental and observational results, then the hypothesis becomes a theory, as did Newtons
ideas on motion. Once a theory is in place, additional predictions are made and empirically
tested until the theory reaches the limits of its application.
When the predictions of a given theory do not agree with experimental results, the theory
must be expanded on, amended, or changed, but only in accordance with a rule of the scientific
method called the correspondence principle. The correspondence principle states that any new
or revised theory must not only account for the discrepancy between experimental results and the
predictions of the old theory, but also must be successful where the old theory was successful as
well. Thus the theory of quantum mechanics, which was developed only a few decades ago to
describe the behavior of phenomena at the atomic or microscopic level of nature, must also
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 45



match the success of the everyday or macroscopic level of nature enjoyed by the older, more
limited classical theories of physics such as Newtonian mechanics. In like fashion, competing
theories can be distinguished by their success or lack thereof in being able to predict
experimental and observational results. Should two theories of unequal complexity be equally
successful in predicting experimental results, then the modern version of Occams razor tells us
to discard the more complex theory. Thus has the scientific method operated for over three
centuries.
During this period the scientific method has enjoyed a most spectacular level of success for
several reasons. First of all, there appears to be a sort of commonality about the way nature
operates. This commonality is sometimes expressed as the principle of universality. The
principle of universality states that the basic principles and laws governing the behavior of the
physical world do not change with time or ones location in the universe. Thus the laws of
aerodynamics that keep a jetliner flying over the United States are the same as those keeping that
aircraft flying over Eurasia, Africa, Australia, or anywhere else on the earth. The principle of
universality holds that experimental results can be reproduced at any time and at any location.
Thus many of the important and fundamental experiments of scientific history are often repeated
in elementary laboratory science courses.
In a similar vein, the important and fundamental experiments performed at the frontiers of
human scientific knowledge must be replicable or they will be cast aside as spurious results.
The principle of universality also comes to the rescue of the astronomer whose scientific
investigation of celestial objects is severely hampered by the size and distances of those objects.
Using the principle of universality, astronomers have been able to glean enormous amounts of
46 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



information by interpreting the observations made on celestial objects from afar in terms of the
laws of physics, chemistry, and geology that have been derived on Earth.
The theories of science are only good as long as their predictive prowess holds up.
Therefore, we must regard such theories as successive representations or approximations to the
true workings of the physical world, which can and must be altered or even overthrown in
favor of different theories that better account for new experimental results. Such a view does
not provide us with the psychological security that eternal and unchanging truths can bring,
and many nonscientists are very much troubled by what they perceive as an everchanging
scientific view of the truth of nature. It is, however, this very capacity for change within the
scientific method that has permitted great progress to be achieved in our understanding of the
physical world. Differences over articles of religious faith have been debated for centuries, and
the debate promises to continue, unresolved, for centuries more. Differences over scientific
views of the physical world, meanwhile, can and have been settled by that final arbiter of
scientific theories and hypothesesexperimental observation.
Because experimental results play such a central role in the scientific method, however, it
is of fundamental importance that those results be reliable. This is most often far easier said
than done. Scientific equipment can and often does malfunction, thus yielding results that are in
error and/or spurious. It is no accident of history that the infamous and whimsical Murphys
laws,
1
with which most of us are familiar in one form or other, arouse out of the struggles and
frustrations experienced in the laboratory by the experimental scientist. The mark of a truly

1
Some of Murphys laws include: In any field of endeavor, anything that can
go wrong, will go wrong; nature always sides with the hidden flaw; and inanimate
objects always operate against you.
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 47



competent experimentalist is one who can repeatedly and unambiguously glean the real
phenomena of nature from his or her scientific apparatus.
The scientific method also presupposes a total honesty on the part of the experimentalist.
Scientific laws and theories that are based on data or measurements that are false, altered, or
manufactured are necessarily flawed and are hence totally useless to science. Empirical
integrity of the highest order is therefore a basic prerequisite if the scientific method is to
function properly. For this reason, the instructors in laboratory science courses take a very dim
view of drylabbing experiments or otherwise faking laboratory results. One sinister side
effect of the increasingly important role played by science and technology in our society has
come in the form of the pressures that are sometimes exerted on the experimental scientist to
obtain experimental results that are deemed expedient for political, economic, or other
nonscientific considerations. Fortunately modern science has been able to blunt the effects of
such pressure by insisting that any and all experimental results be reproducible not only by the
scientist in question but also by other scientists working independently.
The scientific method rightly projects itself as a systematic and rational approach to our
investigations of nature. However, some great discoveries and creative theories have come to
us as a result of fortuitous circumstances or unexpected inspiration.
The stories of scientific discoveries made by accident are legion. In 1820 a Danish high
school physics teacher names Hans ersted set out to prove to his class via a lecture
demonstration that the phenomena of electricity and magnetism were completely unrelated to
each other. To his amazement, he discovered during the course of his demonstration that quite
48 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



the opposite was true! Thus began the recognition of the existence of the much more
encompassing phenomenon of electromagnetism.
At the end of the nineteenth century, French physicist Henri Becquerel was initially quite
perturbed when the uranium compounds he was studying were somehow able to fog
photographic plates, even though the latter were in lightproof containers. His investigations of
this annoyance led to the discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity.
In more recent times, two radio astronomers at Bell Telephone Laboratory named Robert
Wilson and Arno Penzias set out in 1964 to detect sources of radio waves in outer space. In the
course of their study they were continually plagued by a level of background radio static.
Initially this radio noise was regarded as a nuisance and the two scientists tried mightily to
eliminate it somehow. Despite their best efforts, the static persisted and eventually came to be
recognized as being the quite real vestiges of a primordial Big Bang in which our universe
literally burst onto the scene.
The scientific inspirations visited on human beings have been many, varied, and generally
unexpected. Newton developed his theory of motion while on his family farm waiting out the
plague that was ravaging Cambridge. Einsteins inspiration for this theory of relativity came
while he was working at a nondescript job in the Swiss patent office, and Archimedes principle
of buoyancy came to him in his bathtub!
The greatness of the individuals who have made such discoveries or had such inspirations
lies not in the making or the having, but in how they were able to recognize the importance of
what was there and translate it into a meaningful contribution to human scientific knowledge.
The discoveries of ersted, Becuerel, Wilson, and Penzias became important because their
discoverers were alert to the implications of what they had stumbled on. In a similar fashion,
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 49



the fate of an inspiration rests entirely with the person to whom it came. The ultimate triumphs
of the theories of Newton and Einstein are due in no small part to those individuals willingness
to take the heat for their then unconventional views of the physical world.
All of which raises a haunting question for scientists. For all the accidental discoveries
and inspirations pursued in science, how many more have been lost owing to the inattentive and
inept investigator or the scientific thinker unwilling to be receptive to inspirations that are
seemingly too fantastic to have any possible scientific validity?
Despite its great success in the physical world, there are areas of human endeavor to which
the application of scientific method seems to have limited effectiveness or is even inappropriate.
Religious matters stand as the best and most familiar example of the latter. For instance, the
scientific method cannot generate definitive commentary on the existence or lack thereof of
entities such as a Supreme Being, guardian angels, demons and the like, because, by definition
these entities are spiritual in nature and therefore have no physical existence into which the
scientist can sink his or her empirical teeth. In a similar fashion, the New Age has provided
us with a plethora of netherworld beings, alien creatures, and other assorted entities, all of which
exist in dimensions which render them impervious to the best efforts of observational and
experimental science to demonstrate their existence. The very term supernatural which is
often applied to such entities and their world, immediately conveys to us that such a world or
dimension lies outside the realm of the natural world and hence of experimental science.
Whatever we believe about that supernatural world then becomes just thatbelief. It is
tempting to say, as many do, that anything which cannot be dealt with empirically simply does
not exist. However, one must be careful with such views. Barely a century ago, most of the
50 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



forms of electromagnetic energy such as radio waves, gamma rays, and x rays, which presently
provide an important component of our current technology, were totally unknown to the
scientists of the day. On the other hand many of the supernatural phenomena of past centuries
are now recognized as being perfectly natural and explainable within the framework of our
modern science. It is for this reason that supernatural explanations for observed, but
unexplainable, phenomena are advanced by scientists only as explanations of last resort, if at all.
The success enjoyed by the scientific method in the socalled exact sciences such as
physics and chemistry has inspired attempts, particularly in the present century, to extend that
method to human phenomena. The result has been the development of the social sciences in
which investigators have endeavored to understand better human personality and human
interactions through the application of the scientific method. Problems arise almost
immediately, however, due to the fact that most often the factors that determine human
personality and interaction such as love, ambition, patience, fear, and intelligence do not readily
lend themselves to quantitative measurement. For example, your interactions with friends and
fellow students when you are falling deeply in love are far different from those same interactions
when you are coming off the breakup of a relationship. Form a scientific point of view it would
be nice to be able to measure quantitatively the amount of love, etc., in a given person on a given
day. The ongoing controversy over the interpretation and validity of the socalled IQ tests,
which are presumably designed to measure quantitatively the inherent intelligence of a given
individual, stands as example of the difficulties involved with such a task.
As a result, most of the laws developed by the social sciences are statistical in nature and
can be used only to describe the behavior of large groups of people. Some social scientists,
dismayed by this result, feel that the scientific method was developed by physical scientists for
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 51



the physical sciences and as such is not appropriate for human personality and behavioral
studies. What is needed in their view is a social scientific method designed by social
scientists for the social sciences. Others believe that at some point in the future the problem of
quantitatively measuring the qualities of the human psyche will be satisfactorily solved. Hence,
the scientific method as it now stands is a totally appropriate tool in gaining an understanding of
how human beings operate. These individuals also note that at the atomic level even the exact
sciences have been forced to resort to statistical descriptions of the behavior of individual
entities. It is a debate whose outcome will be fundamental to the future direction and progress
of the social sciences, but it is also one that will not be settled here, or any time soon!
In recent decades considerable interest and attention have been focussed on a plethora of
supposedly strange occurrences which are collectively referred to as paranormal phenomena.
Embracing phenomena as seemingly diverse as UFO abductions and crystal power, the world of
the paranormal is a curious amalgam of medieval semiscience, semireligion and, in some
instances, just good oldfashioned hucksterism.
Scientists in general and astronomers in particular would be more than happy to leave the
paranormal adherents to their spectral beings, astral planes, and sidereal synchronicities were it
not for their brazen pretensions to scientific validity. Paranormal lectures and literature abound
with terms such as electromagnetic harmony, cosmic vibration, and auric energy fields, which
sound scientific and create the illusion of scientific credibility. More importantly, however, are
the claims of empirical verification made in support of such phenomena. It is over these latter
claims that the scientist cringes with anguish and anger. Virtually every attempt to
52 Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy



experimentally or observationally verify claims made for paranormal has ended with
inconclusive, irreproducible, or outright negative results..
The explanations tendered for such results are almost always centered on anything but the
truth of the paranormal contention, and as a result routinely violate the principle of simplicity.
Thus when a telekinesis experiment goes awry, it is because the environment wasnt right for
the subject to perform, as opposed to the far simpler explanation that the subject possessed no
such power to begin with. In a similar fashion, astrological predictions fail because the
individual has free will to override the celestial correspondences, and solid, irrefutable UFO
evidence is not forthcoming owing to a vast and incredibly efficient, longterm government
coverup.
Unfortunately any investigations of a paranormal phenomenon potentially has attached to it
a sinister component as well. All too often, and for a variety of reasons, claimants of
peranormal phenomena engage in a wide range of fraudulent activity, paring off simple magic
tricks as paranormal phenomena and outright lying about alleged paranormal experience.
Such activity is, of course, totally unacceptable to a scientific method which requires
scrupulously honest data, measurements, and observations to properly function. As a result,
scientific investigative teams must employ among their numbers magicians, illusionists, and
slightofhand artists whenever they research paranormal claims so that the integrity of the
investigation is not compromised by trickery.
As both a century and a millennium come to a close, we find that we live in an age filled
with a multitude of wonders, some of which will be detailed in this text. But along with the
truly genuine wonders, there also exist many which are counterfeit, some manifestly so, others
more subtly so. For all of its faults and limitations, scientific philosophy has proved itself to be,
Chapter 2: The Development of Scientific Philosophy 53



at least for the present, the best means by which rational beings can distinguish what is genuine
from what is not. Thus, amidst the errors, fantasy, fraud, and hucksterism which are so often
intertwined with the claims of the paranormal, there may well be profound and important
nuggets of knowledge to be had. For the critical thinker, however, the extraordinary claims of
the paranormal necessarily require extraordinary evidence to back up those claims.
From the time of Galileo onward, scientific philosophy has enabled us to expand our
perception and comprehension of the physical world at a rate unparalleled in all of human
history. Out of a myriad of scientific experiments, human beings have pieced together a picture
of the universe that is as interesting and as fascinating as any that could be conjured up from our
most imaginative fantasies. In the chapters that follow we will explore the portions of that
portrait or our universe that lie within the province of that most magnificent scientific endeavor
that we call astronomy.


55







CHAPTER 3


THE ASTRONOMICAL ALPHABET





Galileo once wrote that Mathematics is the alphabet with which God has written the
universe, and indeed one need only take a quick glance at the world around us to detect the
multitude of mathematical shapes and patterns that exist in the physical universe. Natural
geometry, for example, is manifested in a wealth of structures and phenomena such as the
luminous circular disk of the sun, the spirals of snail and nautilus shells, and the hexagons of
snowflakes and beehive honeycombs. Moreover, such mathematical manifestations occur at all
levels of our perceptions of the physical world. They range from the spheroidal viruses and
helicalshaped DNA molecules of the microscopic world to the giant elliptical and spiral
galaxies existent in the vast and remote universe of the astronomer. It is a small wonder, then,
that the Pythagoreans promoted the idea that the physical world could be described with
mathematical figures, concepts, and principles, a view that continues as one of the basic ideas
inherent in our modern scientific method.

56 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



MATHEMATICS AS A SCIENTIFIC PAINTBRUSH
Although much of nature is quite striking in its mathematical patterns, for a significant
portion of the physical world, a mathematical description is far more subtle and complex. The
process by which the scientist develops complex mathematical descriptions of a phenomenon of
nature is not unlike the way an artist might proceed in creating a drawing of some aspect of
nature. One of the very popular and more familiar techniques of learning how to draw has the
wouldbe artist starting a given sketch with a series of simple mathematical figures and curves.
If, for example, we wish to make a detailed drawing of the fish shown in Figure 3.1, one way to
begin that drawing is to approximate the shape of the fish with two circles and a Cshaped curve.
As the drawing develops into a progressively better and more accurate likeness of the fish, the
number of mathematical shapes and curves must increase correspondingly. The end result is a
drawing that is presumably a fairly accurate rendition of the fish. In a similar fashion, the
scientist attempts to sketch mathematical portraits of natural phenomena using sets of
progressively more complex mathematical models and techniques.
In the course of developing such mathematical descriptions, the scientist nearly always
makes use of mathematical symbols to represent physical quantities. These symbols are then
employed in mathematical statements called equations, which are versatile entities capable of
being manipulated, transformed, and ultimately solved to yield some piece of desired
information, thereby making them the mainstays of any quantitative descriptions of the natural
world. In addition, the mathematical symbolism of the scientist allows the laws governing
nature to be written in a clear and precise fashion. For example, suppose that we have observed
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 57



the study habits of a friend or roommate and have formulated a law of grades, which can be
stated as follows
The grade received by a student in a given course is equal to the time in minutes that the
student studies for the course per week divided by the number of television programs per
week that the student watches.
If we let the letter G represent the grade received by the student in the course, T the time that the
student studies, and N the number of television shows that the student watches, then the above
law of grades can be very simply written in the form of a mathematical equation as follows:

G =
T
N


which is a far simpler and more succinct version than the preceding word equation.
While most of the mathematical symbolism and techniques employed by astronomers in
their descriptions of nature lie well beyond the scope of this text, a few fundamental concepts are
of considerable importance in any mathematical description of astronomical phenomena.

GRAPHS
In developing a symbolic description of the physical world, it is often very useful to
construct a mathematical picture of a given relationship between two interdependent quantities
in nature. Such a portrait is referred to as a graph and represents a powerful tool by which
considerable insight can be quickly obtained regarding a given phenomenon.
58 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



The most common type of graph begins with two mutually perpendicular lines or axes.
The horizontal axis is referred to as the x axis or abscissa and the vertical axis as the y axis or
ordinate. A single point on the graph is located by specifying its position along both the x and y
axes, as shown in Figure 3.2. A plot of several points, such a those obtained from a set of
experiments in which both x and y values were simultaneously determined, would take on an
appearance similar to that shown in Figure 3.3(a). A plot of a theoretical mathematical equation
involving x and y would result in the solid line shown in Figure 3.3(b).
Graphs can thus be used to compare the behavior of a phenomenon as predicted by one or
more theories with a set of points obtained from actual experiments, thereby permitting scientists
to distinguish empirically between competing theories for that phenomenon (Figure 3.4). Sets
of experimental points plotted onto a graph can also suggest from their pattern or form the type
of mathematical model that can be used to account for the empirical results.
Graphs also provide a wealth of information in a concise and convenient form. Consider,
for example, the alltooaccurate graph of annual tuition costs versus time at some hypothetical
university shown in Figure 3.5. We can use this graph to find the year when tuition costs were
at a certain level of expense. Thus if you want to know when you could have gone to this
particular school for $2000 per year, you would find from the graph that the year corresponding
to a $2000 per year tuition cost would be 1985. On the other hand, when your parents tell you
how low their tuition costs were in 1975, a quick check of the graph reveals they paid about $300
in annual tuition that year, about onetenth what it would be a generation later.
Graphs can also be used to project or extrapolate into the future. Thus if present trends
continue, the annual cost of tuition as this particular institution will soar about $32,000 by the
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 59



year 2005. Such projections, of course, always assume that past trends will continue as
predicted by the model, and many extrapolations have turned out to be embarrassingly wrong
when this assumption did not prove to be valid. Thus, we need to revise and update the model
continually with new observations and experiments.

BASIC QUANTITIES IN NATURE
If we pursue the Pythagorean All is Number theme from Chapter 2 a bit further, we find
that a wide variety of phenomena and quantities exist in nature that lend themselves to numerical
or quantitative measurement. Even more significant is the fact that nearly all of these numerical
descriptions can be based directly or indirectly on just three fundamental quantities: time,
length, and mass.
Time can be thought of as the duration or interval that exists between two observed events
in nature. A quantity of interval of time is measured by comparing it to some defined standard
time interval, such as the back and forth swing of a pendulum. The standard unit of time in
science is the second, which was originally defined as 1/60 of 1/60 of 1/24 (or 1/86,400) of the
mean solar day, or the average interval of time it takes for the earth to spin once on its axis
relative to the sun. Problems arose with such a standard when it was found that the earths
rotation rate is not constant, but is slowing down at a rate of about one second per century.
Because of such problems and the development of atomic clocks, the standard unit of time in
science is now based on the time interval between successive vibrations of a cesium atom. This
is a remarkably tiny but precisely measurable segment of time, and as a result, the second is now
60 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



defined in modern science as the interval of time required for exactly 9,192,631,770 atomic
vibrations of cesium to occur (Figure 3.6).
Length is a quantity used to denote the position of extent of an object in space. A given
quantity of length is determined by comparing it to a defined standard of length or reference
length. Thus, if we wish to measure the length of an object, we do so by using a ruler, which
is calibrated in terms of standard length units such as inches, feet, or centimeters. Although
several different standards of length can be employed in science, we will use as our reference in
this text a standard unit of length called the meter. The meter was originally defined during the
French Revolution as one tenmillionth of the distance between the earths north pole and its
equator. Based on that definition, a length equal to the standard meter was delineated by two
parallel lines scratched on a platinumiridium bar kept at the International Bureau of Weights
and Measurements at Sevres, near Paris, France. More modern measurements of the earths
dimensions have shown that the standard meter is not exactly one tenmillionth of the
poletoequator distance on the earth. Moreover, the lines scratched on the standard
platinumiridium bar do not have precisely uniform widths, a fact that causes difficulties if
extremely accurate measurements of length are desired. As a result of these problems and the
discovery at the end of the last century that the time rate at which light changes its position in
space has a value that is the same for any observer in any state of motion, scientists now specify
the length of the meter in terms of the speed of light. The standard meter is currently defined as
the distance traveled by a flash of light in 1/299,792,458 of a second of time (Figure 3.7). In
terms of the more cumbersome system of English units commonly employed in our daily lives, a
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 61



meter is about 10% longer than a yard, and a length of 1000 meters, or one kilometer, is about
0.6 miles.
The third fundamental measurable quantity used by scientists to describe the physical world
is called mass. Mass can be thought of as a measure of the amount of matter or material
particles contained within a given object. As with time and length, the mass of a given object is
obtained by comparison with a standard, defined quantity of matter. The standard of mass in the
metric system is a cylinder made of a platinumiridium alloy, which is kept under carefully
controlled conditions at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. Initially
the cylinder was set up so as to have a mass equal to the quantity of mass contained in a liter of
water or a cube of water 1/10 of a meter on a side. Later, a small discrepancy was detected
between the mass of a liter of water and the platinumiridium cylinder. As a result, the
platinumiridium cylinder is itself now defined as having a mass of one kilogram. One kilogram
is therefore very nearly equal to the mass contained in one liter volume of water, and one gram or
1/1000 of a kilogram is very nearly equal to the mass contained in a cube of water one centimeter
or 1/100 of a meter on a side.
Although substances in nature can obviously exhibit a wide variety of physical
characteristics considerably different from the platinumiridium cylinder, the physical property
of mass for all substances is independent of any other properties of the substance. This fact
permits the scientist to measure the mass of a given substance by comparing the effects of the
mass of that substance with those of a standard mass, usually through the use of a scale, or pan
balance. Logistically, it would not be convenient to compare a substances mass each and every
time with the standard platinumiridium kilogram, so scientists have generated a number of
62 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



secondary standard masses. These masses are carefully compared with the standard kilogram
in France before being sent off to be used for measurements of mass in various other laboratories
around the world.

UNITS
Suppose one day you walked into a class and your instructor presents you with an exam and
tells you that the exam has a time limit of 50. After the initial shock passes of being hit with yet
another sneak quiz, you are now a bit puzzled because even though 50 is a nice, respectable
resident of the real number system, a time interval of 50" is meaningless in the absence of
additional information. If the exams time limit is 50 seconds, you are already out of time; if it
is 50 hours, you probably face perhaps the most murderous takehome exam in your academic
career. This example illustrates that whenever a numerical value is assigned to a quantity in
nature it must be accompanied by some sort of an indication of what measuring system was
employed in expressing that value. In science this is accomplished through the use of units,
which are placed after the numerical value of the quantity in question. In the above example, the
time interval would have been clearly defined had our hypothetical instructor told the class that
the exam time limit was 50 minutes, rather than just 50.
Units are an important part of the numerical description of a given quantity and are subject
to the same rules of mathematical manipulations as their numerical counterparts. Thus if we
wish to compute the quantity (3 meters)
3
, the result is

3 meters 3 meters 3 meters = 27 (meters)
3
.
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 63



Often we will encounter products or ratios of units that differ. Under these circumstances
no further unit simplification is possible. Thus 2 kilograms 3 meters is equal to
6 kilogrammeters, and 20 meters 2 seconds is 20 meters/2 seconds or 10 meters/second. A
more familiar version of this concept is the fruit theorem statement: If one divides apples by
oranges, the result is apples/oranges.
Sometimes in the course of our mathematical descriptions, a quantity will emerge in which
no units are present. For example, in the calculation (m/sec
2
) (m/sec)/sec, all of the units
cancel out. Such quantities are referred to as dimensionless quantities since their mathematical
descriptions do not include dimensions.
Very often we need to convert a measurement made in one set of units to a corresponding
value in another. To accomplish this, we must first know an equivalent value or conversion
factor for the two sets of units involved. Thus 1 kilometer = 1000 meters relates distance
measured in kilometers to distance measured in meters. One minute = 60 seconds relates time
measured in minutes to time measured in seconds. A ratio of the two equivalent quantities such
as 1000 meters/1 kilometer or 60 seconds/1 minute is, by definition, equal to one and we may
therefore use such ratios to convert the value of a given quantity expressed in one unit to the
same value expressed in another. Thus if we wished to convert a distance of 4 kilometers into
the equivalent distance expressed in meters we would proceed a follows

4 kilometers
1000 meters
1 kilometer
= 4000 meters .

64 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



Notice that kilometers/kilometers = 1 and these units cancel out of the final result. In like
fashion, a 0.5kg steak would have a mass in grams given by

0.5 kg
1000 grams
1 kilogram
= 0.5 1000 grams = 500 grams .

Our 50minute test from above would have a time interval expressed in seconds of

50 minutes
60 seconds
1 minute
= 3000 seconds .

and in hours of

50 minutes
1 hour
60 minutes
=
50
60
hour = 0.83 hour .

When we convert units in this way we are not in any way changing the quantity involved; we are
merely expressing its value in a different size unit.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
A we begin to assign numbers to our measurements of the physical world, we learn very
quickly that enormous ranges of magnitudes exist in numerical values. The diameter of the
nucleus of an atom, for example, is about 0.000000000000001 meter, while the distance to the
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 65



nearest star, Alpha Centauri, is about 40,000,000,000,000,000 meters. Such numbers become
particularly awkward if we wish to use them in calculations of one sort or another.
To reduce such difficulties, scientists have devised what is referred to as scientific notation
in which a given numerical value is expressed as a number between 1 and 10, times ten raised to
the appropriate power. Thus the number 350 can be thought of as the product of 3.5 times 100.
Since 100 is equal to 10 10 or 10
2
, we may write the number 350 as 3.5 (the number between 1
and 10) times 10
2
(ten raised to the appropriate power) or 3.5 10
2
. The number above and to
the right of the 10 is called the exponent or power and tells us how many places one must
move the decimal point in the number to express it in conventional form. The sign of the
exponent tells us the direction in which to move the decimal point. If the sign is positive, the
direction is to the right and if the sign is negative, the direction is to the left. Thus if we have a
number expressed in scientific notation, such as 4.5 10
3
, the conventional version of that
number would be 4.5 with the decimal point moved three places to the right or 4.500
__
. or 4500.
Note that if no other digits are present, zeros are added to fill the missing places.
Similarly, the number 3.8 10
4
is expressed in conventional form by moving the decimal
point four places to the left or
___
.0003.8 or .00038. Notice that, once more, zeros are used to fill
the missing places.
Conventional numbers can be expressed in scientific notation by reversing the above
process. For example, if we wish to express the number 620 in scientific notation we would
first swing the decimal point in such a way as to express the number as a number between 1
and 10, in the following manner 6.20
_
. Since the decimal point was moved two places to the
66 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



left to get it between the 6 and the 2, to retain the original value of the number, we must multiply
6.2 by 10 raised to the power 2 or 10
2
. The number 620 expressed in scientific notation thus
becomes 6.2 10
2
. In like fashion, the aforementioned diameter of an atomic nucleus expressed
in scientific notation would be 1.0 10
15
meters and the distance to Alpha Centauri written as
4.0 10
16
meters.
The advantage of using scientific notation to express numbers is twofold. First, the
exponent of 10 effectively absorbs the various orders of magnitude or factors of 10
encountered in nature. Thus the diameter of the nucleus of an atom (1.0 10
15
meters) can now
be expressed in the same convenient format as the distance to the nearest star (4.0 10
16
meters),
despite the fact that the latter number is 31 orders of magnitude or roughly a factor of 10
31

greater. Moreover, calculations involving such numbers are rather easily performed, since in
any calculations the powers of 10 must follow the algebraic laws of exponents which are

1. 10
a
10
b
= 10
a+b

EXAMPLES: 10
3
10
4
= 10
3+4
= 10
7

10
6
10
9
= 10
6+9
= 10
15


2. 10
a
10
b
= 10
ab

EXAMPLES: 10
5
10
2
= 10
52
= 10
3

10
4
10
9
= 10
49
= 10
5


3. (10
a
)
b
= 10
ab

Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 67



EXAMPLES: (10
3
)4 = 10
34
= 10
12

(10
2
)
5
= 10
(25)
= 10
10


4. 1/10
a
= 10
a

EXAMPLES: 1/10
5
= 10
5

1/10
3
= 10
(3)
= 10
3


Thus, the value of the speed of light (3 10
8
m/sec) squared would be

(3 10
8
m/sec)
2
= (3 10
8
m/sec) (3 10
8
m/sec)
= 3 3 10
8
10
8
(m/sec) (m/sec)
= 9 10
16
m
2
/sec
2
.

which is a far more convenient way to proceed than by multiplying out
300,000,000 300,000,000)!
Very often scientist will use prefixes to denote the power of 10 by which a particular
quantity is to be multiplied. Thus a centimeter is 1/100 or 10
2
meters, a kilogram is
1000 grams, and so on. A list of such prefixes commonly used is given in Table 3.2.

ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
One of the mathematical hurdles for a nonscience student enrolled in a science course
comes in the form of the algebraic equation. All too often the symbolism and manipulations
68 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



associated with algebraic equations generate a degree of confusion, frustration, and dread on the
part of the nonscience student to the extent that psychologists have even coined a term for the
phenomenonmath anxiety.
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 69



Table 3.1. Some Equivalents Between the English and Metric Measuring Systems.
___________________________________________________________________

1 centimeter = 0.394 inches 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1 meter = 39.4 inches 1 yard = 91.4 centimeters
1 meter = 1.09 yards 1 yard = 0.914 meters
1 kilometer = 0.621 miles 1 mile - 1.61 kilometers
____________________________________________________________________







Table 3.2. Commonly Used Prefixes
______________________________
Power of Ten
Prefix Denoted
______________________________

atto 10
18

femto 10
15

pico 10
12

nano 10
9

micro 10
6

milli 10
3

centi 10
2

deci 10
1

deka 10
hecto 10
2

kilo 10
3

kilo 10
3

mega 10
6

giga 10
9

tera 10
12

______________________________
70 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



In reality, the algebraic equation provides a convenient and precise way of stating the
behavior patterns we observe in nature. For example the relativistic energy if an object is equal
to the product of the mass of the object and the square of the speed of light. Using the symbols
E to denote energy, m to denote mass, and c to denote the speed of light, this result can be very
succinctly stated in the form of an algebraic equation as

E = mc
2
.

Quite often it is desirable to rearrange an algebraic equation so as to solve the equation for a
particular quantity. In this process, we isolate the desired quantity on one side of the equation,
through a series of steps or algebraic manipulations, each of which is relatively simple. The
main rule that must be followed during this process could be called the principle of algebraic
fairness in which any algebraic operation performed on one side of an equation must also be
performed identically on the other side as well. As an example, suppose we wish to derive an
algebraic expression for the quantity t, given that

v = at

To isolate the t, we need to divide the righthand side of the equation by the quantity a. But if
we do that, then we must also divide the lefthand side by the same quantity. This gives us the
result that

v
a
=
at
a
.
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 71




v
a
=

a
a
t


v
a
= (1)t

t =
v
a


or
t = v/a .

Very often, the isolation of a given quantity requires the use of several operations, each of which
must be identically performed on both sides of the equation. For example, suppose we are given
that

d =
1
2
at
2
.

The solution of this relationship for the quantity t would proceed by first multiplying both sides
of the equation by 2:

2 d =
1
2
at
2
2

72 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



which gives us

2d = at
2
.

We would then divide both sides of the equation by the quantity a


2d
a
=
at
2
a


which leaves us with


2d
a
= t
2
.

If we now take the square root of both sides of this equation we obtain


2d
a
= t
2


which gives us the final result that

t =
2d
a
.

Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 73



There are many ways to solve similar equations, but as long as one remembers to be fair
to both sides of an algebraic equation, then the particular order of steps will not matter and the
final result will always be the same.

POSITIONAL ASTRONOMY
As we have seen in Chapter 1, ancient sky watchers imagined that the night sky was filled
with the heavenly outlines of the heroes, heroines, beasts, and objects prominent in the folklore
and mythology of their cultures. Although every culture the world over had its own set of star
pictures or constellations, most of the constellations we know today came from the Greeks and
Babylonians. In more modern times observers in various countries imagined their own favorite
constellations. German star maps, for example, listed a constellation called Frederickss
Glory, the scepter of the famous Prussian ruler, Frederick the Great. Aside from their historical
and mythological interest, however, the constellations serve the modern astronomer as
largescale divisions of the night sky. In 1928, an international organization of astronomers, the
International Astronomical Union or IAU, met to decide what constellations would thenceforth
be recognized by the astronomical community and to formally define the boundaries of these
regions. After considerable discussion, a total of 88 constellations and their corresponding
regions of the sky were set up by the IAU. Thus, did Musca Borealis, the Northern Fly and
Globus Aerostaticus, the Hotair Balloon pass into astronomical history!
Astronomers retained and organized the concepts of constellations primarily because the
constellations provide a useful method of locating an objects general position in the sky. Thus
monthly astronomical columns appearing in the media routinely locate objects according to the
74 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



constellations in which they can be found. For example if the planet Mars is said to be located
in the constellation of Gemini, any observer familiar with the night sky in general and the
location of the constellation of Gemini in particular will be able to easily locate Mars. Such
techniques are profoundly lacking, however, when determinations of more precise celestial
positions are required. Even in antiquity, the astrologers of the day with their need for accurate
angular separations of the sun, moon and planet required a more precise statement of an objects
position than simply Mars is in the constellation of Gemini. With the coming of the telescope
and its ability to zoom in on very small areas of the sky, the need for a more precise method of
locating objects became overwhelming. Without such a method, for example, faint stars and
other objects such as nebulae and star clusters visible only in telescopes would be most difficult
if not impossible to relocate for continued observations.
The concepts underpinning the most commonly used system in positional astronomy are
geometric in nature and are closely related to the latitudelongitude system of coordinates
employed by geographers to precisely specify positions on the earths surface. In this system,
the earth is regarded as an idealized sphere spinning about an axis of rotation. Any location of
interest to the geographer is regarded as being situated on the surface of this sphere. The points
of intersection between the earths surface and its axis of rotation are referred to as the
geographic north pole and the geographic south pole. Exactly halfway between these two points
lies a great circle, that is, one whose center is at the spheres center, that divides the earth into
equal parts and is hence called the equator. The latitude (LAT) of a given point on the surface
of the earth is then defined as the shortest angular distance between the equator and the given
point as seen from the center of the earth. The latitude thus ranges from 90N at the earths
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 75



north geographic pole, to 0 at the equator, to 90S at the earths geographic south pole.
Fort Collins has a latitude of about 41N.
In order to complete the specification of a position on the earths surface we must now
define a second coordinate. This is accomplished by first defining a meridian. Meridians are
semicircles on the surface of the earth whose endpoints are located at the earths geographic
poles. One of these meridians, the meridian that passes through Greenwich, England, is
designated as the prime meridian or the meridian of zero longitude. The longitude (LONG) of
a given point on the earth is then defined as the angular distance east or west of the prime
meridian. Longitude ranges from 0 at the prime meridian eastward to 180E or from 0 at the
prime meridian westward to 180W. The longitude of Fort Collins is about 105W. Using
only two coordinates, latitude and longitude, geographers are thus able to determine positions on
the surface of the earth to whatever accuracy their instrumentation will allow. A list of the
latitude, longitude coordinates for a number of the worlds cities is given in Table 3.3 as a
sample of such coordinates.
The most commonly used coordinate system in astronomy is the equatorial or right
ascensiondeclination system. The development of this system closely parallels that of the
geographers latitudelongitude equation. In a similar fashion it is useful to first introduce the
concept of the celestial sphere. Basically the idea is both a vestige of the ancients crystalline
spheres concept and the geographers idealized sphere. The celestial sphere is an imaginary
sphere that is centered on the earth and has dimensions sufficiently large that the earth can be
regarded as a point at the spheres center. Because the astronomer is concerned at this point
only with the direction from which the light of celestial objects is coming, the images of all
76 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



celestial objects, regardless of their true distances, are considered to be projected onto the surface
of the celestial sphere. Thus, the celestial sphere plays the same role for the astronomer as does
the idealized globe in the geographers latitudelongitude system.
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 77



Table 3.3. Geographic Positions of Some Cities of the World.
__________________________________________________
City (Country) LAT LONG
__________________________________________________

Athens (Greece) 38.0 N 23.6 E
Beijing (China) 39.9 N 116.4 E
Berlin (Germany) 52.5 N 13.5 E
Buenos Aries (Argentina) 34.3 S 58.9 W
Cairo (Egypt) 30.0 N 31.3 E
Calcutta (India) 22.5 N 88.4 E

Cape Town (South Africa) 33.8 S 18.5 E
Honolulu (USA) 21.3 N 157.8 W
Jakarta (Indonesia) 6.3 S 106.8 E
Jerusalem (Israel) 31.8 N 35.2 E
London (United Kingdom) 51.5 N 0.1 W
Los Angeles (USA) 34.1 N 118.2 W

Mecca (Saudi Arabia) 21.5 N 39.8 E
Mexico City (Mexico) 19.5 N 99.2 W
Moscow (Russia) 55.8 N 37.6 E
Nairobi (Kenya) 1.3 S 36.8 E
New York (USA) 40.7 N 74.0 W
Paris (France) 48.9 N 2.3 E

Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) 22.8 S 43.3 W
Rome (Italy) 41.9 N 12.6 E
Singapore (Singapore) 1.3 N 103.9 E
Sydney (Australia) 33.9 N 151.3 E
Tokyo (Japan) 35.7 N 139.8 E
Wellington (New Zealand) 41.3 S 174.8 E
___________________________________________________
78 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



If we extend the poles of the earths axis of rotation, the extensions will ultimately intersect
the celestial sphere at two points, called the celestial poles. The intersection of an extension of
the earths north geographic pole and the celestial sphere is called the north celestial pole, while
the intersection of an extension of the earths south geographic pole and the celestial sphere is
called the south celestial pole. The celestial equator is the great circle on the celestial sphere
that is everywhere equidistant from the celestial poles. The declination (DEC) of an object is
defined as the shortest angular distance between the celestial equator and the object.
Declination is thus a sort of astronomical latitude. Declination ranges from +90 at the north
celestial pole to 0 at the celestial equator to 90 at the south celestial pole. Declinations of
some prominent stars are listed in Table 3.4.
As in the case of the geographic latitudelongitude system, we now must specify a second
coordinate. To this end astronomers define an hour circle as a semicircle on the celestial
sphere whose endpoints are located at the celestial poles. An hour circle can thus be thought of
as a sort of astronomical meridian. To define the reference meridian for the eastwest
celestial coordinate, astronomers must pick a point or object that is attached to the celestial
sphere. This can, of course, be done in a variety of ways, but bowing to tradition and calenderic
considerations, the point so designated by the astronomers is the vernal equinox point. As the
earth orbits the sun, the sun appears to project onto various parts of the celestial sphere along a
path called the ecliptic. This ecliptic path intersects the celestial equator at two points, called
the equinox points. The vernal equinox point is the point on the celestial equator at which the
sun appears to cross the celestial equator moving from south to north. It is thus a welldefined
point which is attached to the celestial sphere. The prime hour circle is then designated as the
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 79



hour circle which contains the vernal equinox point. The right ascension (RA) of an object is
defined as the angular distance between the prime hour circle and the hour circle of the object.
The right ascension is thus a sort of astronomical longitude. Unlike longitude, however, the
right ascension is measured from the prime hour circle in a counterclockwise direction looking
down from the north celestial pole. It ranges from 0
h
to 24
h
where 1
h
of RA = 15. The RAs
of some prominent stars are listed in Table 3.4. In this system the position of the vernal equinox
point represents the origin of the system and has coordinates of (0
h
,0). The (RA, DEC) position
of an

80 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



Table 3.4 Celestial Positions of Some Bright Stars
____________________________________________________________
Star (Constellation) RA DEC
____________________________________________________________

Achernar (Eridanus) 01
h
38
m
( 25) 57.3
Polaris (Ursa Minor) 02 32 ( 38 ) +89.3
Aldeberan (Taurus) 04 30 ( 68 ) +16.3
Capella (Auriga) 05 09 ( 77 ) +45.9
Rigel (Orion) 05 10 ( 78 ) 08.3
Betelgeuse (Orion) 05 50 ( 88 ) +07.4
Canopus (Carina) 06 24 ( 96 ) 52.7
Sirius (Canis Major) 06 41 (100 ) 16.6
Procyon (Canis Minor) 07 34 (114 ) +05.5
Castor (Gemini) 07 35 (114 ) +31.9

Pollux (Gemini) 07 39 (115 ) +28.3
Regulus (Leo) 10 03 (151 ) +12.5
Alpha Crucis (Crux) 12 27 (188 ) 63.1
Spica (Virgo) 13 20 (200 ) 10.6
Arcturus (Bootes) 14 11 (213 ) +19.7
Alpha Centauri (Centaurus) 14 40 (220 ) 60.8
Vega (Lyra) 18 34 (279 ) +38.7
Altair (Aquila) 19 46 (297 ) +08.6
Deneb (Cygnus) 20 38 (310 ) +44.9
Fomalhaut (Piscis Austrinus) 22 52 (343 ) 30.2
____________________________________________________________
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 81



object, like its terrestrial (LAT, LONG) counterpart on earth can be measured as accurately as
our instruments will allow.
Using (RA, DEC) coordinates, astronomers have systematically catalogued the celestial
positions of literally millions of objects. Moreover, long term observations of these coordinates
have enabled astronomers to detect a variety of phenomena including the precession and nutation
motions of the earth, the proper motions of the stars, the suns space motion, and stellar parallax
effects.
In a more practical mode, precise celestial coordinates can also be used for keeping time
and navigating the globe, using principles employed for thousands of years, albeit at a much
more accurate and sophisticated level.

OTHER ASTRONOMICAL ANGLES
In addition to locating the positions of celestial objects, astronomers also use angular
measurements to obtain distances and sizes of celestial objects as well. Because of the great
distances to these objects, astronomers must deal with very small angles which are measured in
units of arcminutes or arcseconds. One arcminute is defined as 1/60 of a degree and is about
1/30 of the halfdegree angular size of the sun or full moon. One arcminute is roughly the limit
of angular resolution of the human eye and is the angle between the top and the bottom of a
quarter viewed from a distance of about 90 meters or just under the length of a football field.
The arcsecond is an even tinier unit of angular measurement which is defined as 1/60 of an
arcminute of 1/3600 of a degree. An arcsecond is roughly the angle between the top and bottom
of a quarter viewed from a distance of a little over 5 kilometers or about 3 miles.
82 Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet



Using the latter definition of angular measurement, it can be shown that for an object
having a given linear diameter located at a given distance, the angular diameter measured in
arcseconds is given by the following equation


angular diameter
(measured arcseconds)
= 2.06 10
5

linear diameter
distance
.

In this equation the linear diameter and the distance must be expressed in the same units.
This equation can be used in either of two ways. If an object, such as a planet, has a
measurable angular diameter and its distance is known, then the linear size of the planet can be
readily calculated. Thus if the planet Mars exhibit an angular size of 23.3 arcseconds when it is
at a distance of 60 million kilometers from the earth, its linear size must be given by

2.3 = 2.06 10
5

D
60 10
6
km
.

Solving this equation for the diameter of Mars yields

D =
23.3 60 10
6
2.06 10
5
km = 6790 km .

In a similar fashion, when we triangulate on a given object, we in essence measure the angular
diameter of a baseline of known length as seen from the objects distance, and using the above
Chapter 3: The Astronomical Alphabet 83



equation, calculate that distance. It is in this way, for example, that the distances to stars can be
determined.
Many more mathematical techniques and approaches, not described here, have flowed from
the imaginations of scientists and mathematicians in their quest to describe the physical universe
in a quantitative way. So complex and sophisticated have some of these methods become that
Pythagoras himself would undoubtedly be very impressed by it all. The venerable old
mathematician would almost certainly derive great satisfaction from the spectacular success that
his most cherished philosophical principle has come to enjoy in modern times.


81







CHAPTER 4


THE PHYSICS OF ASTRONOMY:
MOTION AND GRAVITY





The astronomer who seeks the scientific secrets of outer space is faced with the basic
difficulty that the objects of interest are incredibly remote, and, therefore, distinctly inaccessible
for controlled experimentation. In a laboratory setting here on the earth, for example, we can
readily and accurately measure a number of physical characteristics of a given object, including
its mass, temperature, and chemical composition. If, however, we wish to measure those same
characteristics for a celestial object such as the sun or moon, we find that they are too big, too far
away, and in the case of the sun, much too hot to lend themselves to direct measurements in a
terrestrial laboratory. The astronomer must therefore perform experiments on these objects
in situ, or in their natural states. Space age efforts to bring the terrestrial laboratory to the object
via space probes have produced a number of spectacular contacts and encounters with many of
the worlds of our solar system, but have left the remainder of the cosmos essentially untouched.
Thus the astronomer must necessarily continue to observe from afar. At this point we make a
most vital appeal to the principle of universality. If the way nature operates is independent of
time and location here on the earth, then it is reasonable to apply this very same principle to the
82 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



whole of outer space. In other words, the astronomer regards all of the physical universe as
being consistent, or in a variation of an old astrological refrain, As below, so above. Armed
with this fundamental assumption, which has yet to be contradicted by any of our observations
and measurements, the astronomer can interpret objects and phenomena observed from afar by
tapping into the vast array of physical laws and descriptions of natural phenomena gleaned here
on the earth by the physical sciences.
Of these phenomena none is more intrinsic to the physical world than that of motion.
Movement of one sort or another is encountered at every level of our perception of the
observable universe from the tiniest subatomic particles racing through inner space to the
largest clusters of galaxies hurtling toward the farthest reaches of outer space. In spite of this
wealth of experience, however, an overall viable description of this important aspect of nature
eluded the greatest thinkers in the world for centuries. A profound change came to this state of
affairs when in 1687 the Englishman Sir Isaac Newton published his premier work Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy or, more simply, the Principia. The scientific revolutionaries
of the generation that preceded Newton--Galileo, Kepler, and Descartes, to name a few--had
managed to replace the Aristotelian view of motion with a number of ad hoc laws and principles
in which a specific phenomenon was described with a specific law. Thus Keplers laws of
planetary motion described precisely that--planetary motion. The brilliance of Newtons
Principia lay in the fact that it galvanized all of these bits and pieces into a simple, elegant, and,
most important, highly successful view of motion that was not limited to any specific motion in
particular, but could be explain a multitude of motion phenomena using only a few basic
concepts and principles. This Newtonian or classical view of motion was the first truly
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 83



successful scientific theory of any aspect of nature, and even after more than three centuries of
scientific progress, it still offers an excellent accounting of the behavior of moving objects in
everyday life.

BASIC NEWTONIAN KINEMATICS
If you were asked to write an informational definition of motion or movement you
would probably respond with something like motion is the process of changing places or
movement is the passage of an object form one location to another. Regardless of how you
might state your definition, it would have to involve the idea of an object changing places within
the framework of a nonmoving backdrop. Such a backdrop is denoted by scientists as a frame of
reference or reference frame and provides the base against which any position changes are to be
measured. Most of the time, common sense will dictate how we define our reference frames. If
an instructor strides across the front of a classroom, a reasonable assumption is that the instructor
is moving against the background of the classroom as opposed to the reverse--a classroom
complete with students and attached building that is moving against the reference frame of a
stationary instructor. Similarly, the state trooper who just pulled you over for doing 30 miles
per hour above the posted speed limit has made the decision that your automobile was moving
relative to a stationary road and speed limit sign rather than assuming that the road and sign were
whizzing by a stationary automobile. Quite often, however, frames of reference that are defined
as being at rest can, in fact, possess considerable motion of their own relative to other reference
frames. If a passenger walks up and down the aisles of a jetliner while the aircraft is in flight,
we think of the passenger moving relative to the stationary backdrop of the jetliner, despite the
84 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



fact that the aircraft may be moving several hundred miles per hour relative to the earths surface.
Even terra firma, our most familiar and widely used stationary reference frame, is whirling at
a rate of more than 100,000 kilometers per hour about a sun orbiting at more than
700,000 kilometers per hour about the center of our Milky Way Galaxy, which in turn is rushing
toward the Virgo supercluster of galaxies at millions of kilometers per hour, and so on.
Thus an at rest frame of reference must be decided on and defined. Any displacement or
change in an objects position relative to that rest frame then constitutes what is known as
translational motion. Newtons theory provides us with two basic concepts by which the degree
of such motion can be defined and measured. The first of these is called velocity and can be
defined as follows:

velocity =
distance object moves a given direction
elapsed time
(4.1)

or in algebraic symbols as
v =
d
t

.
There are several noteworthy characteristics about defining the degree of an objects motion in
this way. First of all, such a definition expresses motion in terms of measurable quantities, in
this instance the fundamental quantities of length and time, thus allowing an observer to
represent numerically the degree of an objects motion. When we make such a measurement,
the units in which the velocity is expressed are units of length/time such as miles/hour,
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 85



centimeters/second, or furlongs/fortnight. In keeping with the fundamental units of the meter
and the second, in science the velocities in this discussion will be expressed in meters/second
(m/s). One meter per second is a rate of motion equivalent to approximately 3.5 kilometers/hour
or 2.2 miles/hour.
With the above definition of velocity, we can now judge the degree of motion in a far more
articulate manner. When we exceed the speed limit in an automobile, for example, we are
judged to be covering more distance per unit time than society has deemed safe for the given
road. We judge the winner of a race of motion to be the human being, animal, or machine that is
able to achieve the highest overall average velocity by either covering a given distance in the
least amount of elapsed time or by covering the greatest distance in a given amount of elapsed
time. Thus the winner of a 10,000-meter run is the athlete who runs the 10,000 meters in the
fastest or shortest interval of time, while the driving team that wins the 24-hour LeMans
automobile race is the team that drives its machine the farthest distance in the allotted 24 hours
of racing time.
A specification of the numerical value of the distance traveled divided by the elapsed time,
however, does not of itself constitute a complete description of an objects velocity. An athlete
may be able to cover 10,000 meters in a smaller interval of time than the other contestants in the
field, but if the runner fails to direct that effort in the proper way, i.e., toward the finish line, the
effort becomes meaningless in terms of winning the race. A bowling ball delivered down an
alley will have a decidedly different effect from one delivered at the same rate but toward the
scorers table. Moreover, in attempting to describe the interaction of velocities such as a person
swimming cross-stream, we find that velocities and their interactions must be described in terms
86 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



of vector quantities in which both a magnitude and a direction are specified for a given velocity.
Thus a complete description of an objects velocity requires a value for the magnitude of the
velocity, called the speed of the object, and a designated direction toward which the object is
moving.
A second concept is needed to fully describe motion; specifically, the fact that most objects
change their velocities, sometimes speeding up, slowing down, or changing the directions.
Athletic coaches, for example, are fond of distinguishing an athletes speed from that athletes
quickness, where the quicker athlete can change whatever he or she is doing over a shorter
time interval than one not so gifted in this regard. Obviously such a quality is of great value in
virtually every form of athletic activity imaginable, whether it is a volleyball player altering the
direction of a spike or a halfback making a crucial cutback on a long run. In a somewhat similar
fashion, an automobile may have the ability to attain a high rate of speed, yet will lose out in a
drag race because it doesnt possess enough quickness, or ability to achieve that large
magnitude of speed in a short enough time interval. Newtons theory of motion therefore
establishes a second criterion by which the degree of an objects motion can be defined and
measured. The concept is, in essence, a formalization of the idea of quickness and is called
acceleration. The acceleration of an object is defined as follows:

acceleration =
change objects velocity
elapsed time


or more simply as

Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 87



a =
v
t
.
Like velocity, acceleration is defined in terms of the measurable quantities of length and time.
In this case, however, the units of acceleration are those of velocity/time. Since the units of
velocity are length/time, one can express acceleration in units of

(length/time)/time
length/[(time) (time)]

or simply as

length/(time)
2
.

For example, an object for which the velocity changes by 10 meters/sec over a time interval of
5 sec experiences an acceleration of 10 (meters/sec)/5 sec or 2 meters/(sec)
2
. Acceleration, like
velocity, is a vector quantity, and as such, a complete description of acceleration requires that
both the magnitude and the direction of the acceleration be specified.
Note that in our definitions of both velocity and acceleration we are in effect dealing with
average values for these quantities. If an automobile takes 3 hours to travel 120 kilometers, its
average velocity is 120 kilometers/3 hours or 40 kilometers/hour. This value provides us with
the overall average velocity, but says nothing about the manner in which the velocity may have
changed during the course of the journey. To gain this sort of insight we must examine the
average velocity of the auto over shorter intervals of time. In some cases we may need to
88 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



distinguish between average velocity and the velocity at a particular moment, such as would be
indicated on the cars speedometer. As early as the fifth century B.C., the Greek philosopher
Zeno of Elea called attention to the fact that any definition of motion that was based on an
elapsed time seemed to encounter serious difficulties whenever the value of the elapsed time
approached zero. One of the triumphs of Newtonian theory was its success in dealing
mathematically with such instantaneous velocities and accelerations through the use of limits
and other methods of the integral and differential calculus developed in the seventeenth century
by both Newton and the German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz.
Having decided on how the degree of an objects motion would be defined, Newton then
noted that agents existed in nature that were capable of altering the state of an objects motion.
These agents are referred to in Newtons theory as forces. If, for example, you hold a pencil
above the floor, two such agents act on the pencil. The first, called the force of gravity, tends to
cause the pencil to alter its state of motion by falling to the floor. Such an alteration of the
pencils state of motion, however, is prevented from occurring by the presence of a second force
called a frictional force, which exists between your fingers and the pencil. If you release the
pencil, thereby removing the force of friction, the force of gravity will then cause the pencil to
fall to the floor.
Force as an undefined and ambiguous concept had been in use for centuries prior to the
time of Newton and, for the most part, had little to do with motion phenomena. Such is the case
for the cosmic forces of the astrologer, the dark and light forces of witches and warlocks,
and a full gamut of all sorts of other supernatural forces, including The Force of Star Wars
fame.
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 89



The forces proposed by Newton, on the other hand, deal strictly with motion phenomena.
Moreover, the Newtonian forces of nature are completely amoral in their influence and efforts.
Thus the fall from a high cliff experienced by a great saint due to the action of the earths
gravitational force will be the same as that experienced by the worlds worst sinner.
Significantly, the forces of Newtonian theory can be mathematically described in terms of
measurable quantities. This latter characteristic of Newtonian forces is of crucial importance,
since we can, in principle, determine through experimentation what measurable quantities a
given type of force may depend on as well as the mathematical nature of that dependence. The
force of gravity between two objects, for example, depends inversely on the square of the
distance between the objects or 1/(distance)
2
. Thus the forces employed by Newtonian theory,
unlike their non-Newtonian counterparts, lie quite within the reach of empirical science, and as a
result, physicists have uncovered a number of important interactions in nature that can be
described in terms of a mathematical force equation.
The last of the basic concepts required in our discussion of Newtonian theory is that of
mass. Formally, the mass of an object is generally defined in terms of the quantity of matter
present in that object. A cubic centimeter of water at a temperature of 4C has a mass of very
nearly 1 gram. A similar cube of water 10 cm on a side, contains 1000 times more water and
hence is said to have 1000 times more mass than the 1-cm cube. The mass of an object,
however, can also be though of in terms of the ability of that object to resist a force. This
concept of mass is in effect a recognition that certain objects are harder to move than others.
Four very large sumo wrestlers, for example, would not have a particularly hard time pushing a
small compact car, but these same four individuals, exerting the same amount of force, would
90 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



encounter a good deal of trouble if they tried to push a large truck. Because of this fact, we say
that the large truck has more mass than the compact car, and thus can resist the force of the
wrestlers more effectively than does the car. In a similar vein, the force required to move the
more massive cube of water 10 cm on a side is far larger than that needed to move the one cubic
centimeter of water.

NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION
Armed with the four basic ideas of velocity, acceleration, force, and mass, Newton then
claimed that all motion phenomena could be summarized in three fundamental statements, called
Newtons laws of motion. The first of these is called the law of inertia and is stated by Newton
in the Principia as follows:
Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is
compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.

In other words, an object moving at a constant velocity will resist any attempt to change this state
of uniform motion. Numerous every day examples of the law of inertia exist. When a car
starts to move from a standstill, a given passenger will feel a backward pull against the seat
because the passengers body, in a state of uniform motion, in this case with a velocity or speed
of zero, initially resists the attempt of the car to change that motion. On the other hand, a
sudden stop at high velocity finds the passengers body continuing along in a sate of uniform
motion at the high velocity until a force is exerted on it by the windshield, dashboard, etc. The
use of seat belts or harnesses prevents this from happening by making the passenger in essence
an attached part of the vehicle. Because velocity has direction as well as magnitude, a moving
object will also resist any attempt to change the direction of the motion. A skier attempting to
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 91



make a sudden change of direction while coming down the slope finds that such is the stuff of
which torn ligaments are made because the body, which is moving in a straight line, is very
adamant about not changing that direction of motion, even though the skiers speed has remained
nearly constant throughout. If one drives around a mountain curve in such a way that the
speedometer reading remains fixed, a pull along the seat is still experienced because the inertia
of the bodys mass tends to keep the passenger moving in a straight line, while the automobile
tends to pull the passenger in a curved path.
Newtons second law regarding motion can be written as follows:
Whenever an object is subjected to a new force, it will respond by accelerating in the
direction of the force by an amount which is directly proportional to the force and
inversely proportional to the objects mass.

This relationship can be written as

acceleration =
force
mass


but is most often expressed in the more familiar form of

force = mass acceleration

or simply

92 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



F = ma .

In essence Newtons Second Law tells us that an object responds to a given force by changing its
velocity. If we exert a force on an object, such as by giving the object a push, its velocity
changes. For a given object the harder the push or force, the more pronounced the objects
acceleration or change in velocity. On the other hand, the same force applied to a more massive
object will result in a smaller change of velocity for that object.
We can see from Newtons second law that the units of force are mass length/(time)
2
. In
this context, physicists have defined one newton or 1 N as the amount of force which, when
applied to an object having a mass of one kilogram, will cause that object to accelerate at a rate
of one meter/sec
2
. Thus a force of one N is equal to one kilogram-meter/(second)
2
or kg-m/s
2
.
As noted earlier, a complete description of any acceleration requires that both the magnitude and
the direction of that acceleration by specified. The direction of the acceleration of an object that
results from the exertion of a given force depends on the direction in which the force was
exerted. Thus, if we are to evaluate the effects of a given force on a given object, we must
specify both the magnitude and the direction of that force. In short, Newtons second law
requires that forces, like velocities and accelerations, be mathematically described as vector
quantities.
In addition to the law of inertia and F = ma, Newton recognized yet a third pattern of
behavior in motion phenomena. This behavior, which is referred to as Newtons third law of
motion, may be described as follows:
If an object is subjected to a force, it will respond by exerting an equal and opposite force
on the initial force producing agent.
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 93



This law is often stated simply as action = reaction. Newtons third law says that when you
push an object (action force), you feel a resistance, which is the reaction force the object exerts
on you. One of the most familiar examples of Newtons third law is that of a balloon which is
inflated and then released. The air escaping out of the nozzle of the balloon pushes off the
balloon (action) and the balloon responds by pushing off the air to produce the familiar forward
thrust of the balloon (reaction). The air exerts a force on the balloon and the balloon exerts a
force on the escaping air. The third law thus tell us that force in nature must always occur in
pairs, action and reaction. Also, in a given interaction, the action force can never act on the
same object or entity as the reaction force. Failure to keep this fact in mind can lead to a certain
amount of confusion over how the third law operates. Newtons third law is also sometimes
misunderstood due to the fact that the effects of an action or reaction force are not always readily
ascertainable. Much of this difficulty can be resolved if we recall that the response of an object
to a given force depends on the mass of that object. Thus, even though an individual exerts just
as much gravitational force on the earth as the earth exerts on the individual, the mass of the
earth is of the order of 10
22
times as massive as a typical 50- to 100-kg human being. As a
result, the earth only accelerates 1/10
22
times as much as the human, or in other words, not very
much.
Almost all motion phenomena at the everyday level of our perception can be described by
these three simple but elegant laws of motion. Interestingly, several aspects of Newtons theory
of motion have loose analogues in the nonscientific areas of our lives. For example,
administrative types all too often provide a beautiful example of a bureaucratic law of inertia
for which habit = psychological inertia and the state of uniform motion is, for all intents and
94 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



purposes, equal to zero. In a similar fashion, the partners in an emotional relationship can be
thought of as affecting each other in a sort of sociological action = reaction principle. From a
scientific viewpoint, however, the credentials of Newtonian theory have not been gleaned from
its simplicity, elegance, or sociological analogues, but rather than from the simple fact that it has
been eminently successful in describing motion-related phenomena.
One very powerful manifestation of that success has come through the applications of
Newtons second law. Suppose we have an object that is subjected to one or more forces. We
immediately write from Newtons second law that F = ma. We also know that the acceleration
is a time rate of change of velocity which, in turn, is a time rate of change of position. Thus, the
acceleration can be thought of as a time rate of change of a time rate of change of position, or in
mathematical terms, the acceleration can be derived from the position or vice versa. In other
words, a very precise mathematical relationship exists between position and acceleration. If we
also know the mathematical form of the force(s) involved, we can forge all of this information
into an equation of motion. The mathematical solution of this equation of motion yields a
description of how the object will move when subjected to the stated forces. This, of course, is
an eminently useful thing to be able to do. Much of engineering is concerned with what will
happen to a bridge, building, aircraft wing, or a host of other objects if they are subjected to
various sets of forces. Newtonian mechanics can, in principle, answer those questions. In
practice, however, many such equations of motion are very complicated, and their solutions often
require mathematical techniques well beyond the scope of this discussion. We will, however,
consider two examples of objects in motion which for the astronomer are worth considering in
some detail.
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 95



THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
For centuries it was known that the Moon moves about the Earth in a roughly circular
pattern at a nearly constant speed. Galileos observations demonstrated a similar kind of motion
for the planets Mercury and Venus about the Sun and for the moons of Jupiter about that planet.
In the first two decades of the seventeenth century, the German mathematician Johannes Kepler
forged his laws of planetary motion in which he demonstrated that not only Mercury and Venus
orbited the Sun, but that the Earth and the rest of the planets did too.
Newton surmised that these orbital motions must be the result of some sort of force acting
on the objects involved. Making use of the work of predecessors such as Galileo, Tycho Brahe
and Kepler, Newton was able to demonstrate that such a gravitational force could be
mathematically described by the Universal Law of Gravitation


force of gravity
two objects
= constant
mass of first object mass of second object
(distance objects)
2


or in symbols

F = G
m
1
m
2
d
2

.
The constant G is called the universal gravitation constant and has a value of
6.6710
11
Newtonm
2
/kg
2
.
96 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



The universal law of gravitation thus provides us with the amazing result that there is a
mutual gravitational force between any given object and every other object in the universe! It
should be quickly noted, however, that even though such gravitational forces exist, most of them
are vanishingly small in their magnitudes. For example the force between you and your
roommate is about 10
11
times that between the earth and either one of you.

SURFACE GRAVITY
Having formulated his law of universal gravitation, Newton then proceeded to investigate
some of its implications and consequences. For example, consider a person standing on the
surface of the earth as shown in Figure 4.4. Relative to that person, various regions of the
earths interior lie in various directions at various distances. Thus, each mass element within the
earth will have its own gravitational interaction with the person on the surface. What, then, is
the net result of all of these gravitational forces? To answer this question, Newton first assumed
the earth could be thought of as being made up as a very large number of tiny gravitating mass
elements. Through the use of his flexions mathematics or calculus, Newton was
mathematically able to obtain the total gravitational effect from this infinitude of mass elements
within the earth. The result is amazingly simple. An object having a spherical array of mass
gravitationally behaves as if all of its mass were concentrated at a point at its center. This meant
that gravitating spheres such as the earth, moon, and sun could be regarded simply as gravitating
points in space. Thus the net gravitational force experienced by a person standing on the earths
surface is exactly equivalent to the gravitational force exerted on that person by a mass point or
center of gravity having the same mass as the earth located at a distance equal to the radius of the
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 97



earth. The force of gravity between the entire earth and a person or object at the earths surface
is then
force of gravity = G
mass of earth mass of object
(radius of earth)
2


From Newtons second law of motion, we also have that the force of gravity on the object is the
product of the objects mass and the acceleration of gravity at the earths surface, thus, we may
write that
EQ \A(mass of,) acceleration of earth___surface gravity = G \F(mass of earth mass of
object,(radius of earth)\S\up4(2))

Thus
acceleration of earth___surface gravity = G
mass of earth
(radius of earth)
2


or
g = G
m
R
2


Measurements made of the earths radius and mass (see Chapter 7) indicate that the earth has a
radius of about 6.3710
6
m and a mass of 9.9810
24
kg. If we substitute these values into the
preceding expression for the acceleration of the earths surface gravity, we find that g is equal to
9.8 m/sec
2
. Even though the value of the earths radius changes somewhat due to topography,
the rotational flattening of the earth, etc, the resulting variations in the acceleration of the earths
98 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



surface gravity or simply its surface gravity amount to only a few tenths of a percent. This is the
justification for the approximation that the magnitude of g has a constant value of 9.8 m/sec
2
, a
value that is sometimes employed in flight dynamics as a unit of acceleration simply called a g.
Thus a pilot subjected to an acceleration of 3 gs has experienced an acceleration of
39.8 m/sec
2
or 29.4 m/sec
2
.
Notice that the value of the mass of the object does not appear in the final expression for
that objects gravitational acceleration. In other words, the gravitational acceleration
experienced by a falling body does not depend on the mass of that body. Any object of any mass
will, therefore, fall to the ground at exactly the same rate, in the absence of other forces such as
air resistance and the like. From this result, Newton was able to provide the mathematical basis
for Galileos empirical observations at the turn of the seventeenth century that bodies of different
masses dropped from the same height strike the ground at the same time. It should be
emphasized that we are dealing here with the rate at which a given object falls. The weight of
the object or the gravitational force exerted on the object by the earth is equal to mass g and,
therefore, does depend on the objects mass in accordance with Newtons second law of motion.
For spherical objects in space such as the stars and planets, we find that a wide range of
surface gravities exist. The moon has a surface gravity, for example, that is about 1/6 as much
as the earth, while the acceleration of gravity in the suns outer atmospheric layers is nearly 30
times that of the earth. Some celestial objects exist that have very large masses compacted into
very small spheres, with the result that their surface gravities are billions of times larger than
what we experience here on the earths surface.
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 99



A quantity closely related to the surface gravity and also of considerable interest to space
scientists is the escape velocity. Briefly defined, the escape velocity is the minimum velocity
required to escape the gravitational pull of a given object. It can be shown that for an object
having a mass M and a radius R, the escape velocity v
esc
is given by
v
esc
=
2GM
R
= 2gR .

As in the case for surface gravity, celestial objects exhibit a wide range of values in their
escape velocities. For the earth, whose radius and surface gravity are about 6.4 10
6
m and
9.8 m/sec
2
, respectively, v
esc
is about 11,200 m/sec or over 24,000 miles per hour. On the other
hand, the escape velocity from a small asteroid can be as low as a few meters per second, while
other objects have escape velocities which can actually exceed the speed of light. These latter
objects which are called black holes are of considerable interest to the astronomer. Because, as
we shall see, the ultimate speed limit in the universe is the speed of light, no form of matter or
energy can escape the surface of a black hole. Moreover, any form of matter or energy incident
on such objects is fated to be swallowed up by the objects gravitational field, leaving behind
only a myriad of interesting and fundamental questions for the astronomer.

THE TWO-BODY SYSTEM
A gravitating system of considerable importance to astronomers is the two-body system,
which, as the name implies, is a system in which two objects are moving in each others
gravitational force. Since the mathematical form of the universal law of gravitation is known,
100 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



we can generate an equation of motion for the two objects involved. This equation can then be
solved, thereby providing us with the characteristics of the motion that occurs in such a system.
First of all, if a two-body system is moving through space, the overall motion of the system
behaves as if the sum of both masses were concentrated at a point mass called the barycenter,
which is located along a line connecting the two centers of gravity of the bodies. The position of
the barycenter along this line is given by


distance object 1
distance object 2
=
mass of object 2
mass of object 1
.

Thus, if an object is twice as massive as a second object, the barycenter of their mutual
revolution will be located along a line joining them at a distance that is twice as far from the
smaller mass as from the larger mass. Clearly if one object has a very large mass compared to
the second object, the barycenter will lie very close to the center of gravity of the massive object.
The earth, for example, is about 81 times more massive than the moon. Thus the barycenter of
the earth-moon system is 81 times closer to the earths center of gravity than to that of the moon.
Since the earth-moon distance is about 384,000 km, the earth-moon barycenter is located
4680 km from the earths center of gravity, or about 1690 km below the earths surface!
One also finds in a two-body system that the motion of one object about the other must
occur along one of the following types of mathematical curves: circle, ellipse, parabola, or
hyperbola (Figure 4.5). No other path or orbit is possible for a two-body system. Circular and
elliptical orbits are sometimes called capture orbits because of the fact that one body is in
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 101



effect trapped by the others gravity. The moon orbiting the earth, the earth orbiting the sun,
and stars orbiting other stars are all examples of objects moving in elliptical and circular orbits.
Keplers first law of planetary motion can then be demonstrated within the larger
framework of Newtons theory of motion and the universal law of gravitation. We also find,
however, that two additional types of orbits are possible that are not included in Keplers first
law of planetary motion. These are the parabolic and hyperbolic orbits, which are often referred
to as encounter orbits. For these types of orbits, a given object sweeps by the second body in a
one-time-only encounter, such as the Voyager space probe flybys of the planets Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.
Analysis of the motion in a two-body system also indicates that an orbiting body will move
about the second body in such a way that a line joining the two bodies will sweep out a constant
area of orbit per unit time regardless of the objects relative positions. This result is simply
Keplers second law of planetary motion and is often referred to as the law of equal areas. The
actual size of the orbital area swept out per unit time varies from object to object, but for a given
object this rate of swept out orbital area must always remain the same. For example, if a given
asteroid sweeps out 2 10
22
square meters of orbit during a given year in its orbit about the sun,
it will sweep out that same orbital area in any other one year time period. A second asteroid,
however, might sweep out 5 10
22
square meters of orbit in a given year, but it would then have
to continue to orbit at that same rate of 5 10
22
square meters of orbital area swept out per year.
For objects moving in noncircular orbits, the law of equal areas in effect dictates that the
object must speed up in its orbit when the objects are close together and slow down when they
are far away if a constancy in the orbital area swept out per unit time is to be maintained (see
102 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



Figure 4.6). Thus, as the famed Halleys comet moves in its highly elongated elliptical orbit
about the sun, it only spends a few months of its 76 year orbital period in the vicinity of the sun.
As the comet moves back into the deep recess of the solar system, however, its increased distance
fro the sun permits it to sweep out its constant orbital area per unit time at a lower orbital speed.
Further mathematical analyses of the motions in a two-body system result in the
formulation of a more comprehensive version of Keplers harmonic law. For a two-body system
in which the orbits are circular or elliptical, we can show that the mean distance, time for one
orbit, and the sum of the masses of the two bodies involved are related as follows:


(mean distance)
3
(time for one orbit)
2
=
G
4
2
(mass 1 + mass 2)
.
If distances are measured in astronomical units, where one astronomical unit is defined as
the mean earth-sun distance, orbital periods, called sidereal periods, are measured in years, and
masses are measured in solar mass units, then the constant G/4
2
= 1. The measured value of
the astronomical unit is about 1.510
11
meters or about 150 million kilometers and that of the
solar mass unit is 210
30
kilograms.
Thus far in our discussion of the two-body system, we have naively assumed that the bodies
involved behave as point masses and that no forces are present aside from the mutual gravitation
of the two bodies involved. This is not the case in the real universe. Most bodies, for example,
do not have perfectly spherical mass distributions. Instead, there exist within these objects
small-scale departures or asymmetries from this ideal. As a result, the point mass representation
for the gravitational behavior of such objects is one that is not exact. Moreover, according to the
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 103



universal law of gravitation, every mass in the universe interacts gravitationally with every other
mass. In almost every instance, such interactions are vanishingly small. For some situations,
however, gravitational interactions with bodies other than the two primary objects can be
significant. If such additional gravitational interactions are relatively small compared to the
mutual gravitation of the primary objects, they are referred to as perturbations and manifest
themselves as small but observable departures from the motion expected in a pure two-body
system. The moons orbit about the earth, for example, has a roughly elliptical shape, as
predicted by the analysis of the earth-moon system as a two-body system. The moons motion,
however, also exhibits small-scale departures from a strictly elliptical orbit owing to the
gravitational effects of the earths slightly nonspherical mass distributions as well as the
gravitational effects of some of the other planets in the solar system.
For some systems, such as star clusters and galaxies, the gravitational effects of additional
bodies are not small compared to the mutual gravitation of the two primary objects. Such
systems are referred to as many-body systems and any description of the motions of an object
in a many-body system must necessarily take into account all of the gravitational influences from
all of the bodies present. Unfortunately, there are no simple mathematical techniques for
dealing with such systems. As a result, these types of systems must be analyzed by means of
computers and complex mathematical techniques.

PLANETARY CONFIGURATIONS
As the planets orbit about the sun, they move with rates and sidereal periods different from
that of the earth. As a result, the relative positions of the earth, planet, and the sun are
104 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



constantly changing. The time for a given configuration to repeat itself is referred to as that
planets synodic period, and can be regarded as the approximate interval between successive
favorable observing conditions for the planet in a given part of the sky.
Two of the planets, Mercury and Venus, move in orbits about the sun which lie entirely
within the earths orbit. As a result of the geometry of these orbits, Mercury and Venus can
never be viewed at angles from the sun which are larger than their angles of greatest elongation
(Figure 4.7) which has a value of about 25 for the planet Mercury and 47 for the planet Venus.
These maximum angular separations represent the times of best observing these objects from
earth, and can occur when the planet is to the east of the sun (greatest eastern elongation) when
the planet appears after sunset in the evening sky and also when the planet is to the west of the
sun (greatest western elongation) when the planet appears before sunrise in the predawn sky.
Any planet which moves in an orbit about the sun which lies entirely outside of the earths
orbit has the orbital geometry shown in Figure 4.8. The most favorable configuration of an
exterior planet from the standpoint of the observational astronomer is called opposition and
occurs when the earth lies between the planet and the sun. At opposition the planet appears
exactly opposite the sun as seen in the earths sky. On the date of opposition, the planet rises at
sunset, sets at sunrise, and is visible all night long. Opposition also represents the time of an
exterior planets closest approach to the earth and hence the most favorable time for observing
the planet.
The sidereal periods and average synodic periods of each of the planets are listed in
Table 4.1. Using these data one can predict the next approximate date of a favorable observing
configuration if the date of the last such configuration is known. Thus if the planet Mercury was
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 105



seen in the evening sky at greatest eastern elongation on March 19, 1998, the next greatest
eastern elongation of Mercury would be expected 116 days later, or on July 13, 1998. In like
fashion, if the planet Mars was last observed at opposition on March 17, 1997, the next
opposition date will occur about 780 days later or on May 12, 1999. Because of the speeding up
and slowing down of planets in their elliptical orbits, dates of various configurations predicted
using average synodic periods may be off by a few days.

Table 4.1 Sidereal and Synodic Periods of the Planets
______________________________________________________________________________
Sidereal Period Average Synodic
Period
_____________
____________________
Planet Days Years Days Years
______________________________________________________________________________

Mercury 88 0.24 116 0.32
Venus 224 0.61 584 1.6
Mars 687 1.88 780 2.1
Jupiter --- 12 399 1.09
Saturn --- 30 378 1.03
Uranus --- 84 370 1.01
Neptune --- 165 367 1.005
Pluto --- 249 366 1.004
______________________________________________________________________________



106 Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity



From its conception, Newtons universal law of gravitation has enjoyed phenomenal
success in the analysis of the behavior of gravitating bodies. Within the pages of a section of the
Principia entitled the System of the World are to be found a correct explanation for the degree
of the earths flattening, oceanic tides, a valid technique for launching an artificial satellite, and
an accurate rendition of the orbit of Halleys comet at a time when comets were widely regarded
as supernatural portents of doom, death, and destruction. The universal law of gravitation has
lead to the discoveries of planets, satellites, and stellar companions. It has permitted the
motions of the moon and planets to be predicted with an accuracy such that they form the basis
for an entire system of timekeeping called ephemeris time. It even inspired the following ode
from Newtons close friend and second Astronomer Royal of England. Sir Edmund Halley:
. . . But now, behold
Admitted to the banquets of the gods,
We contemplate the politics of heaven;
And spelling out the secrets of the earth,
Discuss the changeless order of the world.

Such was the enthusiastic belief in the human capacity to comprehend the workings of the
physical universe during the European Enlightenment. At the turn of the 20th century, however,
measurements and observations of the physical world, particularly at the atomic level, yielded
results which could not be accounted for by using Newtonian mechanics. In keeping with the
principles of scientific philosophy, Newtons elegant theory has accordingly been replaced by the
more successful theories of relativity theory and quantum mechanics. While we will not dwell
Chapter 4: The Physics of Astronomy: Motion and Gravity 107



on these views of nature during the course of this text, we will nonetheless draw on some of their
important concepts as they become pertinent to our discussions.


107







CHAPTER 5


THE PHYSICS OF ASTRONOMY:
ENERGY, LIGHT, AND MATTER





ENERGY
Of all the quantities which are described in science, the most important, fundamental, and
unifying is that which we call energy. For simple systems energy can be thought of as a measure
of the ability of an object, person, or system to deliver or perform work, a quantity which in turn
is formally defined as a force acting through a given distance. Energy thus has the dimensions
of force length, or Newtonmeters. The basic unit of energy is called the Joule, J, where one
Joule is defined as the amount of energy expended when a force of one newton acts through a
distance of one meter. One Joule of energy is roughly the amount of energy expelled when you
hoist a 12 ounce soda from your waist to your lips.
Although energy is the agent by which work is performed, it is a far more comprehensive
quantity than work. We can in fact observe and measure the effects of energy over a wide range
of phenomena, one of which is the performance of detectable work, but we cannot point to a
given physical entity and say this is it. Yet energy is to be found at all levels of the physical
108 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



world, sometimes in rather subtle and disguised forms. Energy is to be found, for example, in
moving objects in the form of kinetic energy, and in spinning objects as rotational energy. Even
the positions of an object in a gravitational, electric, or magnetic field possess a form of
positional energy called potential energy. Moreover, countless scientific experiments the
world over have led to the result that although energy can be transferred, transformed, and even
dissipated to infinitesimally small quantities, it cannot be created or destroyed by any process in
nature of which we are aware. In other words if energy is gained by a system, it has to come
from somewhere, and if it is lost by a system, it has to go somewhere. If we require the
somewhere to be in the observable universe, then the total reservoir of energy in the observable
universe must have a value that remains constant in time. This profound property of energy is
expressed on a less grandiose level in the form of the principle of conservation of energy, which
can be stated as follows:
The total amount of energy in a closed, isolated system remains the same, even though the
energy in the system may be converted from one form to another.
The closed isolated provision ensures that the system cannot import or export any energy to any
nearby system. Under these circumstances, the principle of the conservation of energy tells us
that the total energy in a given system that is closed off and isolated from the rest of the universe
will not change before, during, or after an event or interaction of any kind.
Another important quantity for the astronomer is the time rate at which energy is produced
by a given system or object. This time rate of energy production is called the objects power
output or luminosity and has the dimensions of energy/time. A power output or luminosity of
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 109



one Joule per second is defined as one watt (w) of power. Thus a light bulb rated at 100 watts
will produce light energy at a rate of 100 Joules/second.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Virtually all of the information received by astronomers from celestial objects comes in the
form of a type of energy called electromagnetic energy, a small part of which our eyes perceive
as visible light. If an electric charge is made to oscillate, it will produce an outwardly
propagating disturbance having variable electric and magnetic field components. Such a
propagating disturbance is referred to as an electromagnetic wave and in essence serves as the
agent by which the energy producing the charge oscillation is carried away from the point of
oscillation, thus preventing an energy buildup at that point.
Electromagnetic waves can be represented by a type of wave called a transverse wave
(Fig. 5.1) in which the disturbance or displacement of the wave occurs perpendicular to the
direction that the wave is traveling. Such waves can be characterized by a distance called the
wavelength, which is the distance between successive corresponding parts of the wave, such as
the distance between successive crests or successive troughs. The frequency of the wave motion
is defined as the number of wave crests or cycles that pass a given point per unit time. A
frequency of one cycle per second is defined as a frequency of one Hertz (Hz).
Electromagnetic waves all travel through free space at a rate of 3 10
8
m/sec, regardless of
their frequency or wavelength. This speed is commonly referred to as the speed of light and is
of great significance in both physics and astronomy. Moving at this rate, an electromagnetic
wave can circle the earth about seven and a half times in one second. Leaving the earth even at
110 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



this incredible rate of speed, however, it would take an electromagnetic wave about eight minutes
to reach the sun, over five hours to reach the outermost planet in our solar system, and over four
years to reach the nearest star. Such travel times have inspired astronomers to define a unit of
distance called the light year as the distance an electromagnetic wave would travel through space
moving at 3 10
8
m/sec for one year. One light year is thus equal to about 9.5 10
15
meters
and serves the astronomer as a convenient unit with which the distances to objects outside of the
solar system can be measured.
Interestingly no form of particle or energy has been discovered to date which can travel
faster than the speed of light. The value of 3 10
8
m/sec thus appears to be the ultimate speed
limit in the universe. Perhaps the most amazing aspect of all concerning the speed of light in a
vacuum, however, is the observationally verifiable fact that regardless of how an observer is
moving with respect to a given electromagnetic wave, that observer will always measure the
same value, 3 10
8
m/sec, for the speed of light. Such a result is contrary to the way speeds and
velocities are predicted to behave in the Newtonian view of motion and is in fact one of the key
underpinnings of the view of motion proposed by relativity theory.
An important consequence of electromagnetic wave theory is that it is possible for an
electric charge to oscillate at any frequency larger than zero, thereby allowing for the possible
existence of an infinite variety of electromagnetic waves. This range of possible
electromagnetic frequencies and wavelengths is referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum
(Fig. 5.2). If we measure the wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves visible to us as light, we
find that the human eye can detect wavelengths as small or as short as 4 10
7
m and as large
or as long as 7 10
7
m. This range of electromagnetic wave observable with the human eye
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 111



is referred to as visible light or as the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum and has a
corresponding range of frequencies between 7.5 10
14
Hz and 4.0 10
14
Hz. Beyond these
limits, the human eye is not able to detect the presence of electromagnetic waves. There is, of
course, no reason whatsoever to assume that, just because we as human beings cannot directly
see radiant energy beyond these limits, no such energy exists. In fact, our bodies can, to some
extent, detect such energy. The thermal energy radiating from a hot spoon handle or teapot, for
example, can be felt by our hand as heat, and numerous creatures, such as pit vipers, are
equipped with detectors that operate quite superbly at nonvisual frequencies and wavelengths.
One of the supreme achievements of human technology over the past century has been the
exploration of this electromagnetic spectrum, particularly in our development of the ability to
detect and, in many instances, make use of its many types of radiant energy. As a result, we are
now aware of a wide variety of electromagnetic waves that extend outward from the high and
lowfrequency ends of the visible spectrum. Thermal energy, for example, has frequencies
smaller than 4.0 10
14
Hz and wavelengths longer than 7.5 10
7
m, which marks the red end of
the visible spectrum, and is hence said to be a part of the infrared region. The microwave region
of the electromagnetic spectrum extends over a frequency range of about 10
9
to 10
11
Hz or over a
corresponding wavelength range of 0.3 m to 30 m, followed by the radio region, whose
frequencies are lower than 10
9
Hz and wavelengths longer than 20 m. Included in this region of
the electromagnetic spectrum are those frequencies over which commercial AM radio broadcasts
are made (5351605 kilohertz), FM radio broadcasts (88188 megahertz), and all of the channels
of television broadcasting (54890 megahertz).
112 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



On the other side of the visible region, extending in frequency from 7.5 10
14
Hz to
roughly 3 10
15
Hz and in wavelengths from 4 10
7
m to 1.0 10
7
m, is the region we call the
ultraviolet region. It is primarily the ultraviolet waves we receive from the sun that provide us
with our summertime tans and sunburns. A yet higher frequency region for electromagnetic
waves called the xray region extends in frequency from about 3 10
15
Hz to 10
18
Hz and in
wavelength from 1.0 10
7
m to 3 10
10
m. X rays are perhaps most famous for their ability
to penetrate matter. In fact, their use as a diagnostic tool in the medical sciences is due to their
ability to pass through human tissue readily. The most energetic and probably the most feared
types of electromagnetic waves are the gamma rays. Gamma rays have frequencies in excess of
10
18
Hz, wavelengths smaller than 3 10
10
m, and are a result of incredibly high charge
vibration rates generated within atomic nuclei by various nuclear processes. Because gamma
rays are a byproduct of nuclear reactions and because they have an extraordinary ability to
penetrate and disrupt matter, they are a major factor to be contended with in the production of
nuclear power.
When an electromagnetic disturbance is created, the outward flow of its associated energy
can generally be represented as a uniformly expanding spherical shell of energy. As the shell
expands, the total energy in the shell remains the same, but the total surface area of the shell at
any given time increases as the square of the radius of the shell. As a result, if we define the
energy intensity or apparent brightness of a source as the power per unit area received from a
given source of electromagnetic waves at a given distance, we find that the apparent brightness of
the source is given by

Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 113




apparent brightness
of source
=
luminosity of source
4 (distance source)
2
(1)

Notice that the apparent brightness of the source is measured in watts per square meter and
decreases as the square of the distance to the source. In other words, the apparent brightness of a
source of electromagnetic waves can be described with what is referred to as an inverse square
law (Fig. 5.3). Thus the apparent brightness of a street light is larger when you are standing
directly beneath it than when you are viewing it from several blocks away. If you wish to
compare two objects 1 and 2, this dimming with distance effect can also be mathematically
expressed in the following way


b
1
b
2
=
L
1
L
2 \

|
.
|
|
d
2
d
1
2
(5.1)

where b
1
and b
2
, L
1
and L
2
, and d
1
and d
2
, are, respectively, the apparent brightnesses,
luminosities, and distances to objects 1 and 2.
These relationships are of fundamental importance to the astronomer in obtaining
astronomical data. If, for example, an astronomer has obtained the distance to a given object by
trigonometric triangulation techniques, then using equation (5.1) it is possible to calculate the
objects intrinsic luminosity. On the other hand, if we have an idea of the value of an objects
intrinsic luminosity owing to its similarity to a second object, such as our sun, whose luminosity
has been determined, we can now calculate the distance to the first object. In this fashion
114 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



astronomers have been able to measure the luminosities of objects and their related
characteristics as well as the vast dimensions of interstellar, intergalactic, and extragalactic space.
Even though celestial objects possess large intrinsic luminosities, their vast distances
reduce their apparent brightnesses to very small values when measured in watts per square meter.
Thus while the sun has a very respectable apparent brightness of 1360 w/m
2
, the brightest stars
in the night sky shine only at an apparent brightness of 2.8 10
8
w/m
2
, and the familiar objects
which can be detected with our largest telescopes are feebly glowing at only 4.5 10
19
w/m
2
.
As a result, astronomers have adopted a less cumbersome brightness rating scale for measuring
celestial brightness which is called the magnitude scale or scale of magnitudes.
The zero point of the magnitude scale is formally defined by astronomers in terms of a set
of photometric standard stars, but simply put, a zero magnitude object roughly corresponds in
brightness to the average brightness of the ten brightest stars in the sky. A zero magnitude
object thus has a brightness or energy intensity of about 2.8 10
8
w/m
2
.
Because larger telescopes and more sensitive detectors have enabled the astronomer to
observe progressively fainter objects, the magnitude scale is defined in such a way that
progressively more positive magnitudes denote progressively fainter objects. Thus a 6th
magnitude star is fainter than a 4th magnitude star, and a 12th magnitude star is fainter than a 6th
magnitude star, and so on. In like fashion, progressively more negative or less positive
magnitudes denote progressively brighter objects. Thus the full moon at a magnitude of about
12.7 is brighter than the planet Venus which has a magnitude of about 4. By defining the
direction of the magnitude scale in this way astronomers can avoid negative values of magnitudes
for all but the very brightest of celestial objects.
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 115



The third characteristic of the magnitude scale defines the relationship between a given
magnitude difference m
1
m
2
for two objects having magnitudes of m
1
and m
2
and the
corresponding ratio of their respective apparent brightnesses b
1
/b
2
. This relationship is set by a
scale called the Pogsen Scale in which a difference of 5 magnitudes is defined as corresponding
to a brightness ratio of 100:1. Thus a 10th magnitude object on this scale is, by definition, 100
times brighter than a 5th magnitude object. Each difference of one magnitude thus corresponds
to a ratio of about 2.5 in brightness. Hence a 5th magnitude star is about 2.5 times brighter than
a 6th magnitude star and 2.5 2.5 = 6.25 times brighter than a 7th magnitude star and so on. It
should be noted that this is an approximation. The actual ratio of brightness for a one magnitude
difference is 2.51:1, 6.30:1 for a two magnitude difference, etc. A list of various magnitude
differences and their corresponding brightness ratios is presented in Table 5.1.
We now have a scale in which the zero point, direction, and scale size are all formally
defined. In order to provide an idea of what these magnitudes are like when observed in the
real life sky, a list of familiar objects and their corresponding apparent visual magnitudes is
presented in Table 5.2.

LIGHT AS A PARTICLE OF ENERGY
In the last decade of the nineteenth century, the description of light as an electromagnetic
wave enjoyed enormous success in providing an explanation for the behavior of both visual light
and other forms of radiant energy. It was thus with considerable surprise and consternation that
around the turn of the century a number of lightrelated phenomena were observed that simply
could not be accounted for by electromagnetic wave theory. For example, consider the electrical
116 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



circuit shown in Figure 5.4 in which two plates having opposite electrical charges are hooked up
to a voltage supply and an ammeter. If no light shines on the plates, the circuit behaves as if it
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 117



Table 5.1. Magnitude Differences and Brightness Ratios
______________________________________________
Differences in Magnitude Brightness Ratio
______________________________________________

0.0 1.00 : 1
0.1 1.10 : 1
0.2 1.20 : 1
0.5 1.58 : 1
1.0 2.51 : 1
2.0 6.30 : 1
5.0 100 : 1
10.0 10,000 : 1
11.0 25,100 : 1
12.0 63,000 : 1
15.0 1.0 10
6
: 1
20.0 1.0 108 : 1
____________________________________________




Table 5.2 Apparent Visual Magnitudes of Some Familiar Celestial Objects
_____________________________________________________________
Apparent Visual Brightness
Object/Limit Magnitude (w/m
2
)
_____________________________________________________________

Sun 26.7 1360
Full Moon 12.7 .0034
Venus (brightest) 4 1.1 10
6

Jupiter (brightest) 2 1.8 10
7

Vega, Arcturus, Capella 0 2.8 10
8

Big Dipper Stars +2 4.5 10
9

Cassiopeia Stars +3 1.8 10
9

Pleiades Stars +4 7.1 10
10


Limit of:
Naked Eye +6 1.1 10
10

Binoculars +10 2.8 10
12

10inch Telescope +15 2.8 10
14

Largest Telescopes +27 4.5 10
19

118 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



_____________________________________________________________
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 119



were an open circuit and no electric charge current flows. If, however, the plates are exposed to
light, particles having negative electrical charge, called photoelectrons, are ejected from the
negatively charged cathode plate and flow across the plate gap to the positively charged anode
plate, as the electric circuit is completed. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect
and, as we hall see in the next chapter, is of fundamental importance in modern astronomical
instrumentation. Detailed investigation of the photoelectric effect uncovered a number of
characteristics of this phenomenon that were totally at odds with the idea that light acts as a
wave.
In 1905 the legendary German physicist Albert Einstein offered an ingenious explanation
for these difficulties by simply assuming that light, in some instances, does not behave as a
continuous wave motion, but instead acts as if it were composed of discrete packets of energy
called photons, which exhibit particlelike behavior. Each of these photons possesses an energy
having a value given by

energy of a photon = Plancks constant frequency of the photon
or
E
photon
= h f

where Plancks constant h has a value of 6.63 10
34
Joulesec. Since the product of the
frequency f and the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is equal to the speed of light c, we
may write the above equation as

120 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



E
photon
=
hc



Thus, the energy associated with a very small wavelength gamma ray photon is much higher than
that of larger wavelength photons, a fact which in part accounts for the wellknown ability of
gamma rays to penetrate matter with relative ease.
The realization that light can behave as a particle led to the amazing conclusion that light
exhibits a sort of waveparticle duality in which it can somehow behave as both a particle and as
a wave, but not simultaneously. In actuality such a result tells us that neither of these
comparatively simple representations of light as particle or as wave is adequate for the cause.
Less than three decades after Einsteins work on the photoelectric effect, physicists developed the
theory of quantum mechanics in which light is described in terms of a sort of probability
distribution called a wave function, which unfortunately has no visual analogue in the everyday
world, but which nonetheless has been successful in accounting for all of the observed
characteristics of electromagnetic radiant energy in general and visible light in particular.

ATOMIC THEORY AND THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER
As we have already seen, the Greek thinker Democritus claimed in the fifth century BC that
if an object such as a page from this book were chopped up into ever smaller pieces, one would
eventually come to the ultimate indivisible particle of matterthe atom. For over two
millennia this view of matter took a distinct back seat to the Aristotelian continuous
fourelement hypothesis. By the turn of the seventeenth century, however, the idea of only
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 121



four elements and continuous, forever divisible matter was to give way to a revised version of
Democritus atomic theory of matter.
From the systematic work of atomic and nuclear physicists, we now know that atoms are
almost unimaginably small. Approximately one million atoms side by side would cover a
distance roughly equal to one of the printed periods in this text! Because they are so small,
atoms are able to evade even the tiny wavelengths of light by which our most powerful optical
microscopes are able to detect and resolve objects in the microbial world. Nevertheless,
improved instrumentation such as the socalled electron microscope has allowed us to see
many of these atoms and molecules.
We have also learned that Democritus billiard ball atoms possess a structure of their own
whose complexity is considerable. As a first approximation to this structure, one can imagine
that atoms are composed of three basic types of building block particles: protons, electrons,
and neutrons. Protons and neutrons occupy the center or nucleus of an atom and are
simultaneously small in size and relatively large in mass. Electrons, meanwhile, are
comparatively lowmass particles and, depending on their number, occupy one or more
concentric shells or energy levels, which are centered on the nucleus (Fig. 5.5).
Protons and neutrons are each about 1800 times more massive than an electron. Thus the
bulk of the mass contained in an atom is highly concentrated over a relatively small volume of
space at the center of the atom. While protons and neutrons are relatively large mass particles
atomically speaking, on an everyday scale they have masses of only 1.7 10
27
kg. In other
words, it would take about 10
27
protons or neutrons to form into a total mass of one kilogram.
122 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



To place this number into perspective, the number of grains of sand on all the worlds beaches
has about the same value of 10
27
!
Each chemical element in nature is characterized by its atomic number or number of
protons in its nucleus. The element hydrogen, for example, has one proton in its nucleus, the
element helium has two, and oxygen has eight. The element uranium has a 92proton nucleus.
The mass number of an atom is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons contained in
the nucleus. Thus an oxygen atom with 8 protons and 8 neutrons has a mass number of 16 and a
uranium atom with 92 protons and 146 neutrons has a mass number of 238. Because any given
proton, neutron, or electron is identical to any other proton, neutron, or electron, it is possible to
transform one element into another by nuclear reactions of such particles with atomic nuclei.
Atoms of a given element can interact with other atoms of either the same element or
different elements to form combinations of atoms called molecules. Atoms of a given element
may also exist in various forms of isotopes in which atoms have the same number of protons in
their nuclei but a different number of neutrons (Fig. 5.6). An example of an isotope is the
substance called deuterium. Normally a hydrogen atom has only a single proton in its nucleus,
but the much rarer deuterium has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. Thus deuterium
still qualifies as a hydrogen atom because it has a oneproton nucleus, but it also has a mass
number twice as large as the more common variety of hydrogen in which the neutron is absent.
Many isotopes are important because they are radioactive and, as such, can be both quite useful
and also pose potential dangers to our environment.
Protons and electrons also possess a fundamental property called an electric charge. Two
types of electric charge exist in nature that have been designated positive (+) and negative ().
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 123



Electric charges with like signs exert repelling or repulsive forces on one another. Electric
charges with unlike signs exert an attractive force on each other. Protons possess a positive
electric charge and electrons a negative electric charge. Neutrons are in effect composed of a
proton and an electron that have been squished together and thus possess no net electrical
charge.
Recent decades of physics research has provided an overwhelming array of empirical
evidence in favor of the idea that protons, neutrons, and electrons are themselves composed of
even smaller, more elementary particles or subatomic particles, which leads one to wonder
whether Democritus ultimate billiard ball even exists at all, thus giving the last laugh in such
matters, at least in part, back to Aristotle.

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Of all the sources and reservoirs of energy that exist in the universe, none is more
extraordinary than that uncovered in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his theory of special relativity.
In the course of developing this revolutionary view of motion phenomena, Einstein was able to
demonstrate that mass and energy are in effect equivalent quantities which are related to one
another by what is perhaps the most widely known equation in the history of scientific endeavor:

E = mc
2


or the energy E locked up in a mass m is equal to the product of the mass m and the square of the
speed of light c. Mass can thus be thought of as a sort of freezedried form of energy.
124 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



Because of the large size of the square of the speed of light, a rather small amount of mass is
capable of becoming a tremendous amount of energy. It is precisely by making such a
conversion that the sun and distant stars are able to generate their large amounts of energy over
geological time scales.
There are a variety of processes in which the relativistic energy locked in matter can be
released, all of which involve the nuclei of atoms. Whenever a particle such as a neutron strikes
a nucleus and is absorbed, the impact causes a deformation of the shape of the nucleus. If the
deformation exceeds a certain critical amount, then it is possible for the electrostatic repulsive
forces within the nucleus to split that nucleus into two smaller nuclei of roughly equal size.
Such a process is called nuclear fission and generally occurs only in the heavier nuclei such as
uranium. Under certain circumstances, a substance can sustain such a fission process by means
of a chain reaction in which the particles generated in the initial fission process are able to
produce additional fission processes. Perhaps the most famous example of a chain reaction
involves the uranium isotope uranium235, which, on being struck by a neutron, will split in two
and release two or three neutrons, which in turn strike other uranium235 nuclei and so on.
With each fission, some of the mass in the nucleus is converted into its equivalent energy. As a
result, such fissionable materials constitute a potential source of impressive amounts of energy.
At conditions of extraordinarily high temperatures and pressures, two or more nuclei can
collide and fuse together into a single nucleus having a larger atomic number and atomic mass.
The most familiar example of a fusion process is the thermonuclear fusion of four protons into a
helium nucleus with an attendant conversion of mass into its equivalent energy. Such fusion
reactions are capable of releasing thousands of times more energy than the fission chain reactions
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 125



and, as we shall see, are known to be the source of the energy produced by the sun and distant
stars.
One of the hallmarks of the last half of the 20th century is that, for better or for worse,
human beings have managed to some degree to access the virtually limitless reservoir of
relativistic energy available in the physical world. How human beings are able to handle such
an awesome responsibility will, of course, have a direct impact on the very future of our
civilization.

SPECTRA OF LIGHT SOURCES
One of the most beautiful phenomena in nature is produced when white light strikes the
water droplets found in a rain shower, the mist of a waterfall, or even the spray of a lawn
sprinkler. As the sunlight interacts with the droplet, it is spread out into its component
wavelengths which we see as the total range of the visible light spectrum. Not only is sunlight
so composed of a spectrum of wavelengths, but so too is the light received from all celestial
objects. Using a variety of techniques and instrumentation astronomers can quantitatively
measure this effect by obtaining a plot of the energy intensity I

emitted by a given object at a


given wavelength versus wavelength. The resulting I

versus distribution is referred to as the


spectrum of the object and can provide astronomers with a wealth of information concerning a
given celestial object.
In addition to the rainbow, or continuous spectrum, astronomers have also identified two
other basic types of spectra exhibited in the light of celestial objects. As early as 1815 the
German optician Joseph Fraunhofer noticed that the solar spectrum was not a perfectly
126 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



continuous spectrum, but rather contained several hundred dark gaps or spectral lines at discrete
wavelengths. Such a spectrum was initially referred to as a dark line or Fraunhofer spectrum.
In addition, other types of objects, most notably glowing gaseous nebulae, were found to exhibit
spectra which consisted only of a number of bright spectral lines at discrete wavelengths. This
type of spectrum was initially referred to as a brightline spectrum.
In the last century it was found that all three types of spectra could be recreated in terrestrial
laboratories. For example, incandescent light sources which produce their own light such as the
glowing filament in a light bulb, are found to exhibit continuous spectra when directly observed.
If, however, the light from such a source is observed after passing through a low pressure volume
of gas as shown in Fig. 5.7, the resulting spectrum now contains dark lines. Moreover the
pattern of dark lines changes with gas composition, thus confirming the fact that somehow the
gas impacts the dark lines onto the emergent beam of light. In addition, if the gas volume is
observed along a line of sight perpendicular to the incident light beam, the gas volume appears to
glow and give off light of its own. When this light is broken up into a spectrum, it is found to
exhibit only a few bright lines of light whose pattern of spacing matched exactly that of the lines
in the dark line spectrum. The spectrum of the light observed coming from the gas
perpendicular to the incident beam is in effect the reverse of that emerging from the gas along the
line of sight.
By the turn of the 20th century it was clear that the explanation for such spectroscopic
phenomena lie buried within the structure of the atom itself. If we recall the simple model of the
atom described in an earlier section in which atoms are portrayed as having nuclei composed of
positively charged protons that in turn are surrounded by an array of negatively charged
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 127



electrons. From the basic principles of electrostatics, however, we know that like electrical
charges repel each other while opposite electrical charges attract each other. These facts at once
create serious difficulties for our simple atomic model. One such difficulty, that of how all of
the positive charges in the nuclei of atoms with two or more protons present are held together
when they should fly apart from electrostatic repulsive forces, was overcome when it was
realized by physicists that there exists a basic interaction in nature, called the strong nuclear
interaction, which serves as a sort of atomic glue that is strong enough to overcome the
repulsive electrostatic forces in the nucleus, thereby holding the nucleus together.
An explanation for the second of these difficulties, that of how the negatively charged
electrons are able to avoid electrostatically plunging into a positively charged nucleus, was first
provided by the Danish physicist Neils Bohr. In 1913 Bohr made the bold claim that, like light,
both the radii of the orbits electrons and their associated energies can only take on certain
discrete values. Furthermore, as long as an electron stays in one of the orbits or energy levels
it does not have to radiate electromagnetic energy as one would expect from an oscillating
charge. The electron, however, is no longer able to move about the nucleus in a continuous
fashion, but must change its position by making discrete jumps between energy levels. To
make an upward jump or transition to a higher energy level, the electron must absorb an energy
equal to the difference in the energy values of the levels involved. On the other hand, if an
electron makes a downward transition, it must give up a discrete amount of energy int he form of
a radiated photon. In essence, Bohr claimed that electron energies within the atom were
quantitized.
128 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



The Bohr model for the atom enjoyed a qualitative success that was immediate and
extensive. Virtually all of the observed characteristics of line spectra could now be qualitatively
explained. If a beam of light containing a continuum of light frequencies passes through a
relatively cool, tenuous layer of gas, the electrons present in the atoms comprising the gas will
tap whatever energy from the radiation field they need to move to a higher energy level in the
atom. Since a discrete amount of energy is involved in such a transition, only those photons
having the proper frequency and corresponding energy will be absorbed by the electrons. As a
result, the beam that emerges from the gas will be missing at least some of the radiation at a
number of discrete frequencies. If this emergent beam is broken up into a spectrum, the
observer will see a set of missing frequencies from the continuous spectrum that made it through
the gas unaffected (Fig. 5.8).
Electrons excited in this fashion generally do not remain in their upper levels for very long,
but drop back down to their initial level. In doing so, the electron must, according to the Bohr
model, reemit the energy it absorbed in jumping to its excited state. This energy is usually
reemitted in the form of one or more photons. These reemitted photons, however, can move off
in any direction and are just as likely to go back toward the incident light source as to proceed
along the original direction. Thus a certain number of photons absorbed in the gas are returned
to the original beam, but most are reemitted in other directions. If radiation observed from such
a source of reemitted photons were broken up into a spectra, no continuum of frequencies would
be observed. Instead, a set of bright lines would be observed whose frequencies would
correspond to the photon energies reemitted by electrons making downward transitions within
the gas.
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 129



The pattern of spectral lines emerging from such a gas depends on the spacing of the energy
levels of the electrons surrounding the nucleus, as well as on the location of an electron within
those energy levels. If an electron is in the lowest possible energy level it can occupy within a
given atom, it is said to be in its ground state. Any other electron energy levels are said to be
excited states. The transitions an electron can make out of its ground state may vary
considerably from transitions out of an excited state. In the very simple case of the element
hydrogen, for example, an electron in the ground state can make a transition into any of the
energy levels above the groundstate energy level, thus giving rise to a series of spectral lines at
highenergy ultraviolet frequencies called the Lyman series. On the other hand, if an electron is
excited up to the second energy level in hydrogen, it can make a transition into any of the energy
levels above it, thus giving rise to a second possible series of lines, called the Balmer series of
lines, which are observed at visible and near ultraviolet frequencies, and so on (Fig. 5.9).
Bohrs model of the atom was also able to provide an explanation for the continuous
spectrum emitted by incandescent light sources. Earlier investigations of continuous spectra
revealed that the wavelength distribution of the energy intensity emitted at a given wavelength
for an incandescent light source exhibited the humpshaped appearance shown in Fig. 5.10. At
the end of the nineteenth century the British physicist Lord Rayleigh attempted to theoretically
explain the observed characteristics of this curve by assuming that the radiant energy emitted
from an incandescent light source was due to electronic charges vibrating within the source over
a continuous distribution of energies of oscillation. Rayleigh was able to construct a theoretical
plot of wavelength versus energy intensity and found to his dismay that instead of passing
through a maximum value and returning toward zero as did the experimental curve, his
130 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



theoretical curve took off toward infinitely large values of the energy intensity as the
wavelength decreased in value. Not losing their sense of humor in this matter, the physicists of
the day referred to this discrepancy as the ultraviolet catastrophe.
In scientific philosophy whenever there is such a disagreement between theory and
replicable observations, it is the theory that must be altered to be consistent with observations.
So it was in 1900 when a German physicist named Max Planck found that he could theoretically
replicate the shape of the experimental wavelengthenergy intensity plot if he assumed that the
energies of oscillation in the light source were not continuous in their values as Rayleigh had
supposed, but were instead quantisized values which were integral multiples of a basic,
indivisible energy quantum. The resulting expression for the energy intensity is referred to as
the Planck function and is given as


energy intensity
at a
given wavelength
= I

=
A

)
`

1
10
B/T
1


where T is the temperature of the object expressed in Kelvins (0 K = absolute zero = 273C), A
is equal to 1.2 10
16
kgm
4
/sec
3
, and B is equal to .0063 mK. Planck was appalled at the idea
that energy of any form in the universe had to come in discrete packages, and would later refer to
his calculations as an act of mathematical desperation. Nevertheless the Planck function was
eminently successful in accounting for the behavior of continuous spectra and Einsteins
previously discussed work on the photoelectric effect would further confirm the idea that light
came in tiny energy packets, each of which possessed an energy equal to hc/.
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 131



The question then remained of how a Bohr model atom surrounded by discrete electronic
energy states could emit a continuous spectrum of radiant energy. Bohr noted that continuous
spectra were always produced from incandescent solids, liquids, and high density gases. Each of
these states of matter is characterized by the close packing of the atoms which compose the
source. This close packing in turn crowds the electronic energy levels of the atoms to such an
extent that these levels are no longer discretely separated. Under such circumstances electrons
can make transitions having any amount of energy. Hence the wavelength of the corresponding
photon that is emitted from such a source can take on any positive value as well. The result is
the observed continuum of radiant energy.
Although Bohrs portrait of the atom provided the first insights concerning spectroscopic
phenomena, less than twenty years later, the Bohr model came to be replaced by the far more
successful quantum mechanical view of the electron in which the energy absorbed or emitted by
an electron manifests itself not by making an upward or downward jump from one energy level
to another, but rather by a change in the shape of the electrons wave function.

TEMPERATURE
The ability of an object or system to transfer thermal energy is specified in science as the
temperature of that object or system. There are several scales which can be used to measure
temperature, but the most fundamental scale is the Kelvin scale in which the zero point is set at
absolute zero, the ultimate low temperature in the universe whose equivalent values are 273
and 460 respectively on the more familiar Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales. All
temperatures on the Kelvin scale thus have positive values.
132 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



As we have seen, the continuous energy intensity distribution emitted by an incandescent
light source, as expressed by the Planck function, depends in part on the Kelvin temperature of
the source. In theory, therefore, the Kelvin temperature of an object can be obtained by
measuring the value of energy intensity at a set wavelength and then calculating the Kelvin
temperature using the Planck function.
A far easier technique is to make use of two relationships which can be derived from the
Planck function. The first of these is called Wiens law. From Fig. 5.10 it can be seen that the
energy intensity for a given object at a given temperature passes through a maximum value at a
wavelength
max
which is defined as the wavelength of maximum energy intensity. Wiens law
states that the product of
max
in meters and the Kelvin temperature has a constant value equal to
.0029 meterKelvins or


max
Kelvin temperature = .0029 meter!__vins

for any incandescent light source. Also, if an incandescent light source has a given energy
intensity at its surface, then the total surface intensity I
total
in watts/m
2
of the radiant energy
emitted at all wavelengths is also related to the Kelvin temperature, this time by a second
equation called the StefanBoltzmann law, which states

I
total
= (Kelvin temperature)
4


Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 133



where the symbol represents a constant called the Stefan Boltzmann constant which has a
value of 5.67 10
8
(watts/m
2
)/(Kelvins)
4
. From these two laws, we can see that an increase in
the Kelvin temperature of an incandescent light source will produce a marked increase in the
total energy intensity emitted by the source as well as a downward displacement in the position
of the wavelength of maximum energy intensity (Fig. 5.10).
Both of these laws can be seen in action when we observe how the color of an incandescent
light source changes with temperature. As the temperature of the object increases, Wiens law
dictates that the value of
max
decreases inversely. Thus the first color we see when an object is
hot enough to visibly glow is the dull red color at the long wavelength end of the visible light
spectrum. As the temperature of the object increases, Wiens law continues to drive the value of

max
toward smaller values, while progressively more energy intensity is also contributed at all
wavelengths in accordance with the StefanBoltzmann law. The observed result is that with
increasing temperature the color of the object appears to change from dull red, through various
shades of red, orange, and yellow, and ultimately to the whitehot color attained when the
objects temperature is so high that large amounts of energy intensity are being emitted over the
entire range of the visible light wavelengths, resulting in the objects white light appearance.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Long before a physical explanation was offered for their existence, line spectra were
recognized as having enormous potential as a vehicle for chemical analysis. Spectral line
patterns exhibited by a given substance were found to be unique to that element. Thus the line
pattern exhibited by hydrogen is different from that of helium and so on. Moreover this property
134 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



of uniqueness extends to molecules, ions (atoms or molecules which have lost or gained one or
more electrons), and even isotopes of the same element. This uniqueness of spectra line patterns
can readily be explained with the Bohr model by noting that each atom, ion, or molecule is
surrounded by a set of energy levels whose energy spacings are unique to that substance. Thus
any electronic transitions which occur within that substance will have transition wavelengths
which are also unique to that substance.
To make use of this uniqueness characteristic in chemical analysis, scientists must first
collect a fingerprint file of the line pattern exhibited by as many known substances as possible.
This is accomplished for each substance by painstakingly observing the line pattern exhibited by
a highly purified sample of the given substance under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.
By comparing the line pattern exhibited by a sample of unknown composition with the
spectroscopic fingerprints from known substances, scientists can identify which substances are
producing the pattern of lines observed for the unknown sample. The use of spectral line
patterns in chemical analysis is a most powerful technique and in fact during the last half of the
nineteenth century led to the discovery of a thenunknown chemical element. In 1868 the
French and English astronomers Pierre Janssen and Norman Lockyer discovered lines in the
spectral line pattern of the sun which could not be identified with any earthly counterpart
substances known at the time. Lockyer became convinced that the unidentifiable lines were
from a new chemical element which he called helium, a Greek word meaning element of the
sun. This bold assertion was confirmed nearly 30 years later when in 1895 the Scottish chemist
William Ramsay was able to isolate this same element here on earth, thus dramatically affirming
the validity of the technique as well as the principle of universality.
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 135




THE DOPPLER EFFECT
If there is relative motion between a source of wave motion and an observer, the observer
will not see the wavelength emitted by the source, but rather a wavelength that is different in
value, depending on the relative motion involved. If the relative motion between the source and
the observer is one of recession, the wavelength perceived by the observer will be larger or
longer than that emitted from the source. On the other hand if the relative motion between the
source and the observer is toward the observer, the wavelength perceived by the observer will
now be smaller or shorter than that emitted from the source (Fig. 5.11). This phenomenon is
known in physics as the Doppler effect, and has as its most familiar examples the observed
changes in sound wave frequencies of approaching and receding sound producing vehicles such
as automobiles, aircraft, etc.
Since light behaves as a wave motion, we also observe the Doppler effect in light sources
as well. The only contribution to the Doppler effect made by an objects velocity, however, is
that part of the velocity which is directed along the line of sight between the source and the
observer. This component of velocity is called the radial velocity and for light waves is given by
the following relationship

V
r
=
\
|
.
|
observed wavelength laboratory wavelength
laboratory wavelength
(speed of light)

or
136 Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter



V
r
=
\

|
.
|
|

obs

lab

lab
c =

lab
c

The observed wavelength is that which is perceived as coming from a source moving with the
radial velocity V
r
, while the laboratory wavelength is that which would be observed from that
same source if it were at rest in a laboratory. The dimensionless quantity /
lab
is called the
Doppler shift of the object. If the observed wavelength of an object is longer than the laboratory
wavelength, then the relative motion of the source is away from the observer, the radial velocity
has a positive value, and the objects spectrum is said to be redshifted. On the other hand, if
the observed wavelength of an object is shorter than the laboratory wavelength, then the relative
motion of the source is toward the observer, the radial velocity has a negative value and the
objects spectrum is said to be blueshifted.
To determine the direction and magnitude of an objects radial velocity, the observed
wavelength emitted by a moving object is compared with the wavelengths unshifted or
laboratory value and V
r
is then calculated using the above relationship. A radar gun, for
example, operates by emitting a known wavelength which reflects off the object whose radial
velocity we wish to measure. The return echo now has a different wavelength imported to it
as a result of the relative motion between the radar gun and the moving object, and is used to
calculate the value of the objects radial velocity. It is in this fashion that velocities of objects as
diverse as an automobile traveling over the speed limit, a baseball thrown by a major league
pitcher, or a moving jet plane can be measured. As we shall see, astronomers have also made
extensive use of this same Doppler effect in obtaining information about topics ranging from the
earths orbital motion about the sun to the overall nature of the entire observable universe.
Chapter 5: The Physics of Astronomy: Energy, Light, and Matter 137





135







CHAPTER 6


VIEWING AND RECORDING FROM
AFAR





THE TELESCOPE IN GENERAL
With the invention of the telescope in the early years of the 16th century, astronomers
began a marvelous journey of discovery which continues to this day. Armed with a plethora of
telescopes located on the earths surface and in outer space, astronomers have, over the past four
centuries, uncovered a universe that is vast and complex beyond anything that possibly could
have been imagined by the naked eye observers of antiquity and the middle ages.
As its name suggests, the telescope permits its user to view from afar. Such an enhanced
view of distant objects is accomplished in several ways. In the most familiar aspect of this
enhancement the telescope is able to create images in which a given object appears to be closer to
the observer, thereby providing a much greater degree of specific detail for the observer. Thus
when viewed through a telescope, fuzzy patches of light are transformed into nebulae, star
clusters, and galaxies, planets exhibit detail such as ring systems, orbiting satellites, and oblate
shapes, and the comparatively featureless naked eye moon explodes into a treasure trove of
topography.
136 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



In addition to the increase in the detail which can be observed in the image of a given
object, the overall brightness of the object is considerably enhanced over the apparent brightness
of the same object viewed without the benefit of the telescope. Thus objects which are too dim
to be seen with the naked eye are now in effect brightened up by the telescope to the extent that
they are now readily viewed. Since, as we have seen, the apparent brightness of an object
depends inversely on the square of its distance, the ability of a telescope to brighten images
essentially allows the astronomer to peer more deeply into space to detect and observe ever more
distant objects.
The twentieth century has also seen the development of a third aspect of the telescopes
ability to enhance our views of the heavens. Historically telescopic observations were confined
almost entirely to the visual region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As new regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum were discovered and investigated, however, astronomers began to
design telescopes which could image and analyze the nonvisual electromagnetic waves
emanating from celestial sources. The first such step came in the 1930s when an American
electronics engineer named Grote Reber built the first radio wave detecting telescope or radio
telescope and turned it skyward. The coming of the Space Age in 1957 allowed astronomers to
view the heavens from above the earths atmosphere, thereby providing access to those parts of
the electromagnetic spectrum such as xrays and gamma rays which, from the standpoint of our
existence on the earth, are thankfully blocked out by the earths atmosphere. Telescopes
designed to detect such radiant energy have since been built and orbited about the earth and have
made discoveries that rival those of Galileo in terms of their impact on our view of the heavens.

Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 137



Image Formation in a Telescope
In describing the details of how a telescope is able to form images of distant objects, it is
useful to represent light as a ray or beam. If unimpeded, light rays will travel in straightline
paths from source to observer. For distant celestial objects this "ray" effect is similar to a
rainstorm in which an infinitude of parallel light rays are striking the earth over a given area,
each ray of which carries the entire amount of information regarding the image. Thus, you can
look at the moon with one eye and then the other and still see the entire moon in each instance.
Because light rays from celestial objects are falling onto the earth parallel to each other,
astronomers must somehow alter the direction of such rays if they are to be collected and formed
into a useful image.
Fortunately, two phenomena exist in nature which result in the deflection of light rays.
One of these occurs when a beam of light "bounces" off a smooth surface or is "reflected" off that
surface. These reflections occur in such a way that the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection are equal. The phenomenon of "refraction" occurs when a light beam moving in one
medium crosses an interface with a second medium at some angle of incidence. Instead of
continuing in its original path as it crosses the interface, the light beam will be bent or refracted
in a manner that depends on the properties of the materials on either side of the interface.
Usually light that is reflected or refracted in nature results in a distorted image such as the
view of a river bottom through turbulent, swiftly flowing water or the view of a distant landscape
on a hot day. However, by shaping or "figuring" a refracting or reflecting surface such as a lens
or mirror in just the proper fashion, it is possible to bring a set of incident, parallel light rays from
a distant point source to a sharp focus. The point where the image is formed is called the focus
138 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



or focal point, and the distance between the lens or mirror and the focal point is the focal length
of the lens or mirror. Any observed point source is imaged as a point at the focal point, but if an
extended source such as a planet, nebula, or star cluster is observed, the image is formed on a
plane called the focal plane of the lens or mirror. Each ray that strikes the lens or mirror
conveys the entire image of the object and the effect of covering part of the lends or mirror will
be only to cut down on the total light which forms the final image.
The refracting telescope employs a lens, called the objective lends at the front of a tube as
the lightgathering and image forming element. The image is formed at the rear of the tube and
can be inspected visually by means of a second, smaller eyepiece lens or recorded
photographically by placing a photographic plate in the focal plane of the objective lens.
In a reflecting telescope a concave mirror serves as the lightcollecting and imageforming
element. In this case, however, the image formed by the "primary" mirror lies between the
object being observed and the mirror, thus generally requiring the use of "secondary" mirrors to
locate the final image at a position convenient for observation.
The simplest design for a reflecting telescope is the prime focus reflector. In this system
no secondary mirrors are used and the image is formed in the middle of the tube. If the area of
the detector is not too large, then the corresponding light loss as a result of light blockage from
the detector will be acceptably small. If, however, the area of the detector is larger than about
ten percent of the area of the primary mirror, the light blockage becomes unacceptable, and it is
necessary to employ alternate designs for light collection in a reflecting telescope. One
approach in this regard is to make use of much smaller size secondary mirrors which serve to
relocate the final image at a position outside of the incoming light beams. In the socalled
Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 139



"Newtonian" reflector this is accomplished by means of a small, flat mirror mounted at a 45
angle. The light is thus brought to focus outside the telescope tube. Because of its relative
simplicity and convenience of viewing, the Newtonian design is employed most extensively in
small aperture amateur reflecting telescopes.
A second method of light diversion is preformed by mounting a small convex mirror at the
center of the telescope tube. This mirror reflects the light from the primary mirror back down
the tube. A small hole in the primary mirror allows the light rays to come to focus at a point
behind the telescope tube. Such a telescope system is referred to as a Cassegrain reflector. The
Cassegrain reflector allows the astronomer to work at the base of the telescope and is widely used
for medium sized observatory instruments.
Because reflectors and refractors employ different methods of lightgathering and image
formation, each type of telescope has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Refractors
can be constructed so as to minimize image distortion, provided that the incident light is
monochromatic. Thus, the refractor finds wide use in planetary and lunar astronomy as well as
in the field of astronomy which deals with the accurate measurement of stellar positions.
However, refractors are troubled by color distortions or "chromatic aberrations" and also require
lenses of flawless glass, shaped on two sides, and which can be supported only about their outer
edges. These requirements become prohibitive if a largeaperture refractor is to be constructed,
since it is exceedingly difficult to cast and shape a large, flawless piece of glass. Such a lens
would also tend to sag slightly if supported only around its rim, thus, producing a small distortion
of its optical surface. The largest refractor in the world is the 40inch diameter refractor at the
Yerkes Observatory in Williams Bay, Wisconsin.
140 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



A reflector, on the other hand can be constructed so that the primary mirror is supported not
only along its rim, but from the back as well without loss of the telescope's ability to gather and
focus light. In addition, a mirror needs to be shaped only on one surface. Thus, a reflector does
not require a flawless piece of glass and can be made much larger than a refractor. The largest
single mirror reflector in the world is the 6meter (236inch) diameter telescope in the Caucasus
Mountains in the southern part of the Russian Federation. A number of recently developed
socalled "new generation" telescopes have segmented primary mirrors which are made up of a
set of smaller telescope mirrors. Examples of such segmented mirror systems are those of the
twin Keck Telescopes in Hawaii, each of which has a diameter of 10 meters and is composed of
36 hexagonalshaped mirror segments. Reflectors are able to focus multicolored light beams,
but are not able to precisely focus rays of light that are not near the center of view. Because of
their size and lack of color distortion, reflectors are used in spectroscopy and photometry projects
where colorcorrected images and image brightness are extremely important. Most large
reflectors have a set of secondary mirrors that allow the observer to change from one type of
reflecting telescope to another. This, or course, makes the reflector a much more versatile
instrument than the refractor, for which optical design must remain largely unchanged.

Image Brightness
The image brightness generated by a given telescope is a most important parameter because
it greatly determines the quality and types of measurements which can be made on a given
celestial object. In general, the image brightness is given by

Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 141



brightness =
total power collected by the telescope
total area of formed by the telescope
.

The total power collected by the telescope is equal to the product of the apparent brightness
B of the object being observed and the total aperture area of the telescopes primary lens or
mirror. Since virtually all telescope lenses and mirrors are circular in shape, we may write that

total power collected = B area = B
(diameter)
2
4
=
B
4
(diameter)
2


assuming no light losses within the telescope.
When viewing celestial objects, there are two classes of images which can be produced by
the telescope. The first of these are the unresolved images or socalled point source images.
These images arise from objects are so small and/or so far away that the telescope cannot resolve
a definite shape, and thus such objects exhibit images which have a starlike appearance when
viewed through the telescope. Examples of point sources are the stars themselves, small
asteroids, planetary satellites and the like. For the purposes of this course we will assume that
the image area for any point sources image formed by any telescopes has a constant value. The
image brightness for a point source therefore is given by


brightness
(point source)
= (constant) (diameter)
2
.

If we have two different telescopes, the ratio of their image brightnesses is given by
142 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar






brightness
(telescope 1)
brightness
(telescope 2)
=
\

|
.
|
|
diameter
telescope 1
diameter
telescope 2
2
. (point source )

For example, a 2inch spyglass will be able to generate a point source image brightness that is
100 times more than that of the human eye with an average diameter of 1/5 inch since



brightness
(spyglass)
brightness
(eye)
=
(2)
2
(1/5)
2
=
4
1/25
= 100 .


When an objects shape can be resolved in a telescope, the resultant image is said to be an
extended source image. Examples of such images include planetary disks, nebulae, star clusters,
and all but the most distant galaxies. For extended source images the area of the image formed
by the telescope is proportional to the square of the focal length of the primary lens or mirror of
the telescope. The image brightness for an extended source can thus be written as


brightness
(extended source)
= (constant)
\

|
.
|
|
diameter
focal length
2
.

Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 143



If we have two different telescopes, the ratio of the image brightnesses produced for extended
sources is given by


brightness
(telescope 1)
brightness
(telescope 2)
=
\

|
.
|
|
diameter
telescope 1
diameter
telescope 2

focal length
telescope 2
focal length
telescope 1
2
.

The ratio of the focal length of the telescopes primary lens or mirror to its diameter is a
dimensionless quantity called the fratio of the telescope. The fratio can be thought of as a sort
of brightness indicator for the extended source images produced by a given optical instrument,
and as such is extremely useful not only in astronomy but also in more everyday applications
such as camera optics.

Image Resolution
The ability of a telescope to resolve detail in an image is referred to as its "resolving
power." Because of the wave nature of light, images formed by a telescope are slightly blurred
out by a phenomenon called diffraction. In particular, a point source of light is never imaged as
a true point in a telescope but rather as a minute spot surrounded by a series of faint concentric
rings. This central spot is called a diffraction disk and its diameter depends on the wavelength
of the light being observed and the size of the telescope aperture. Any detail in the image that is
smaller than this diffraction disk cannot be resolved or observed with that telescope.
It can be shown that this theoretical resolving power of a telescope is given by

144 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



resolving power = constant

)
`

diameter of primary lens mirror


wavelength of light being observed
.

If we have two different telescopes observing at the same wavelength or light, the ratio of their
theoretical resolving powers is then



theoretical resolving power
(telescope 1)
theoretical resolving power
(telescope 2)
=
diameter telescope 1
diameter telescope 2
.

For example, a 2inch spyglass has a theoretical resolving power that is ten times that of a
1/5inch diameter human eye since


theoretical resolving power
(spyglass)
theoretical resolving power
(eye)
=
2
1/5
= 10 .

The theoretical resolving power of a given telescope represents the ultimate limit placed by
the wave properties of light on the ability of a telescope to detect detail in a given image. In
reality, however, a telescopes ability to resolve detail is far more likely to be affected not only by
smallscale lens and mirror observations in the optics of the telescope, but also by various
motions present in the earths atmosphere. This later phenomenon is referred to by astronomers
as the seeing conditions or seeing and is in essence a measure of the steadiness of the earths
Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 145



atmospheric layers along the line of sight to the object being observed. If seeing conditions are
poor, an unsteady atmosphere plays havoc with any light passing through and creates a blurred,
low resolution incoming image long before the light from that image reaches the telescopes
aperture. This phenomenon is perhaps most familiar to us in the twinkling effect it produces on
the light from the distant stars. Since seeing conditions have the greatest impact on the actual
resolving power of a telescope, astronomers take great care to locate their earthbased telescopes
at observing sites where the steadiness of the atmosphere is as large as possible, such as at the
summit of the 14,500 foot high hopefully extinct Mauna Kea volcano in Hawaii.
Astronomers have also devised techniques, such as speckle interferometry, in which the
theoretical resolving power of a telescope can be attained even under relatively poor seeing
conditions. The simplest, but by far the most expensive way to surmount the problems created
in image resolution by the earths atmosphere, is by doing just that, placing telescopes in near
earth orbit which are safely above the earths atmosphere. The mot publicized of such
instruments is the Hubble Space Telescope which is, by terrestrial standards, a modest 3 meters
in diameter, but which has produced the highest resolution views of outer space objects so far
attained, owing to the fact that it does not have to contend with seeing conditions.
Somewhat related to the resolving power of a telescope is a quantity called magnification.
Magnification can be defined as the amount that a given telescope can enlarge an image, or
alternately, the amount that a telescope appears to being an objects image closer to the observer.
Thus if a given telescope magnifier 20x, the object, when viewed through that telescope will
appear 20 times larger or 20 times closer to the observer. There is no mention of image quality
in this definition, and a poor quality image can be magnified just as surely as a high quality
146 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



image. For this reason, a high magnification can produce a spectacular result if employed on a
high quality image, but will make no significant difference for a poor quality image. The
magnification can be related to the dimensions of a telescope as follows:

magnification =
focal length of primary lens mirror
focal length of eyepiece
.

The magnification is thus a dimensionless ratio which represents the ratio size of the object when
viewed through the telescope to that viewed without the telescope. Since the magnification of a
telescope depends on the focal length of the eyepiece used, the magnification of the telescope can
be altered by simply changing eyepieces. Most telescopes have several eyepieces which can be
interchanged for viewing different types of objects under various sky conditions.

NonVisual Telescope
The discovery of a wide range of nonvisual form of electromagnetic energy has led
astronomers over the past several decades to devise methods and instruments to detect and
measure whatever emanations of such energy that might be produced by celestial objects.
Unfortunately almost all of this energy is protectively blocked by various processes in the earths
atmosphere and is thus effectively denied to groundbased instruments. The earths atmosphere
does, however, permit the passage of some forms of nonvisual electromagnetic energy. In
addition to all of the visible light region, the earths atmosphere is transparent in the
longwavelength ultraviolet region, various wavelength bands or windows in the infrared
region, and a considerable wavelength range in the radio region.
Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 147



Ground based astronomical investigations of this latter region began in the 1930s and have
since blossomed into a worldwide network of radio telescopes each of which collects and focuses
incoming radio waves by means of a large parabolic disk, much as the concave mirror of a
reflecting telescope collects and focuses incoming visible light. To increase the resolution of the
radio images of celestial objects, radio astronomers have hooked up networks and arrays of radio
telescopes in such a way that the entire array has the same theoretical resolving power as a simple
radio dish having a diameter equal to the size or baseline of the array. Since radio waves are
virtually unaffected by atmospheric seeing, the resulting radio images of celestial objects exhibit
spectacular detail when observed by this technique.
With the onset of the Space Age in 1957 astronomers could now investigate regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum which had before been denied to them as earthbased observers. In
the decades since, astronomers have orbited a variety of nonvisual telescopes and detectors
which have mapped the sky and conducted detailed observations on a multitude of individual
objects in the wavelength regions of the gamma rays, xrays, high energy ultraviolet rays, and in
those wavelength bands of the infrared region which cannot be viewed from the earths surface.
As a result of such observations, astronomers have uncovered a myriad of amazing and often
puzzling celestial objects, many of which will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

DATA ACQUISITION AND RECORDING
In previous sections we have described how astronomers make use of telescopes of various
designs to enhance their view of the heavens in a number of useful ways. The images produced
by astronomical telescopes, however, are scientifically useless unless they can be recorded in
148 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



such a way as to make possible their measurement, analysis, and interpretation not only by the
initial observer, but by subsequent investigators as well. In what follows we will now describe
the basic techniques by which this task is accomplished.

Visual Observations
The oldest, simplest, and most direct form of data recording in astronomy is accomplished
by human beings looking at and analyzing the image formed by the telescope. Until the latter
decades of the last century, such visual observations constituted the only game in town insofar
as image recording and analysis were concerned, and yet human beings were able to make an
impressive array of astronomical discoveries. This was due to the fact that the human eye is a
most extraordinary and versatile sensing device. With it we are able to detect detail and color in
the images we see, change focus from lecturer to lecture notes in class, and can respond to a
range of light intensities that extends over some nine orders of magnitude or a ratio of 10
9
from
the brightest to the faintest intensities we can detect. The human eye can also respond to stimuli
over very short time scales, thus making possible such effects as speed reading, subliminal
messages, etc. The human eye even has tear ducts which serve to cleanse it and a lens cap to
cover and protect it when not in use! It is not surprising then that the human eye/telescope
combination participated in a myriad of astronomical discoveries and measurements from 1609
to the middle of the last century, some of which include craters on the moon, the rings of Saturn,
polar caps on Mars, binary and multiple star systems, and spiral structure in galaxies.
Unfortunately, as impressive as the human eye is as a sensor and detector, it has a number
of serious limitations which can cause considerable difficulties if we attempt to push the eyes
Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 149



limit of accuracy past these limitations. For example, the eye can be fooled by a number of
optical illusions in which a given figure or object appears to the human eye to have properties
which are in fact different from those which actually exist. Because of its intimate link to the
brain, the human eye can and often does fall prey to the brains subjectivity, in which observer
sees an object not as it actually exists, but as that observer expects or wants to see it. Perhaps
the most striking example of such subjectivity in astronomical observations occurred at the turn
of the century when astronomers became embroiled in a controversy over the possible existence
of linear features on the surface of the planet Mars which were popularly referred to as canals.
Observers such as E. E. Barnard at Mt. Wilson Observatory claimed the canals did not exist, but
instead were spots on the planet which the human eye connected into linear features. The Italian
astronomer G. V. Schiaparelli, who was the first to report seeing the canals in 1877, felt the
canals existed, but were natural in origin similar to the ray systems associated with many of the
impact craters on the moon, and the cracks, fault lines, and the like seen here on the earth.
Percival Lowell, on the other hand, took the view that the canals were just what their name
suggested and in fact believed them to be a vast network of waterways designed and built by a
Martian civilization in order to bring water from the melting polar ice caps down into the lower
latitude desert regions on the planet. The sketches of the Martian canals made by each of these
individuals clearly posses an appearance consistent with each astronomers personal views
regarding the nature of these features. Three differing views of the Martian canals thus
translated into three versions of what these observers thought they saw when viewing the Martian
surface, despite the fact that we would expect that surface to be the same for all observers. The
transcription of visual observations also can present some problems as well. One possible
150 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



technique is to write a word description of what was seen through the telescope, but anyone who
has seen their favorite fictional character from written novels or plays come alive in movies or
on television is often disappointed when the producers view of that character is not yours. A
more common approach to recording visual observations is to make a drawing of the object in
question. Unfortunately there is a wide spectrum of artistic talent in human beings, and
sketched renditions of the same object by different observers produce somewhat divergent
results. There is thus a limit to the accuracy that can be assigned to visual observers and visual
observations.
Photographic Observations
In the middle of the last century, a process was discovered in which a record of a given
image could be obtained through the use of chemical reactions. This process is referred to as
photography and finds a wide range of uses in contemporary society. The photographic process
begins by exposing the picture we wish to capture to a chemical layer called an emulsion. The
emulsion in turn has been coated onto some sort of backing material such as glass, plastic, Mylar,
etc. The chemicals that make up the emulsion are photosensitive, i.e., they will change their
chemical properties when struck by light. Furthermore the degree to which these changes occur
varies directly with the intensity of the light that strikes the emulsion. Thus a photographic
emulsion that is exposed to a source of light having a variety of light intensities will regionally
respond in a way proportional to those intensities. Once the emulsion is exposed, the
photographic image is obtained by developing the emulsion through a series of chemical
reactions, usually developer, stopbath, and fixer. Most often such development results in a
negative in which the regions that were bright in the original scene show up dark in the negative
Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 151



and vice versa. Positive photographic images can be made from such negatives by shining a
light source having a uniform intensity through the negative onto photographic paper which has
also been coated with a light sensitive emulsion. The dark areas on the negative inhibit the
flow of the uniform light to the photographic paper while the light areas permit it to pass. When
the exposed photographic paper is developed, the image areas that were dark on the negatives are
now light on the print and vice versa. In other words, the image on the photographic print has
the same bright and dark areas as did the original scene that was photographed. This process
can be extended to color photography through the use of a multilayered emulsion in which
images are recorded in varying degrees on emulsions sensitive to each of the subtractive primary
colors of blue, yellow, and red. Polaroidtypes of photographic processes in effect eliminate
the middle man by creating a positive print directly from the image being photographed.
Images created in the photographic process clearly have a far greater consistency and
reproducibility from observer to observer than their visual counterparts. Photographs taken of a
given celestial object by ten different observers, for example, will be almost identical to each
other, while drawings of that same object made by those same ten observers using visual
observations will display a considerable range of disagreement and discrepancy. As a result, for
over a century photographic observations have been a mainstay source of accurate observational
data for the astronomer in virtually every branch of astronomy.
In addition to the consistency of observations, the photographic process has an additional
benefit for the observational astronomer. Any of us who has over or underexposed a
photograph taken of some terrestrial scene or person, has been somewhat rudely introduced to the
fact that the chemical changes produced by light striking a photographic emulsion continue to
152 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



occur as long as the light is striking that emulsion. The response of a given emulsion to a given
shot thus depends on the inherent image brightness of the image being photographed and the
time interval over which that emulsion has been exposed to the image. It is thus useful to
introduce the concept of a photographic exposure which is defined as follows:

photographic exposure = image brightness exposure time .

The degree to which a given emulsion will respond to a given shot depends directly on the
amount of photographic exposure. Thus a photograph can be underexposed by either or both
having an image brightness that is too faint or an exposure time that is not long enough. While
this property of the photographic process may cause considerable frustration in getting the right
exposure for an everyday photograph, the ability of a photographic image to be enhanced through
the use of longer exposure times is of considerable value and importance to the astronomer. By
using longer exposure times, astronomers can enhance the level of visibility the photographic
images of celestial objects which otherwise could not be viewed directly by the human eye, even
when observed through the worlds largest telescopes.
Obviously the photographic process can be adjusted through the use of faster or slower
responding photographic emulsions, different developing processes, film sensitization
techniques, etc., but these topics will not be considered here.

Electronic Observations
Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar 153



In the years since the Second World War a third type of astronomical data recording device
has arisen which in just a few short decades has become the most versatile and useful of all. It
has been known since the turn of the century that certain substances will emit electrons from
their surfaces when exposed to light rays. Moreover the rate at which electrons are emitted
varies directly with intensity of the light striking the surfaces of such photoemissive materials.
If a positively charged anode is placed in the vicinity of a photoemissive surface, they can be
collected at the anode and then pumped around a circuit which leads back to the photoemissive
surface. As the electrons flow through such a circuit, the rate of flow or current can be
amplified, cleaned up, and analyzed in a variety of ways using a variety of devices such as
image tubes, videotape, magnetic tape, and so on. In addition to recording data through the flow
of photocurrents, astronomers can also record images electronically through the use of a detector
called a chargecoupled device or CCD. The CCD is a thin wafer of silicon or some other
appropriate substance which has been divided into an array of tiny light sensitive squares called
picture elements or pixels. When light strikes the CCD array, an electric charge builds up in
each individual pixel which is proportional to the energy intensity of the light that strikes that
pixel. When the observation is completed, the various charge levels are drained in an orderly
fashion from the pixels in the array and the results fed into a computer for later analysis.
Regardless of the method in which the signal is produced, however, we have the basic
relationship that

electronic signal = constant image brightness .

154 Chapter 6: Viewing and Recording From Afar



Thus if a given electronic signal is 30 times larger than a second electronic signal, we may
conclude that the brightness of the first image is also thirty times that of the second.
Because of the tremendous advances in electronic technologies, electronic observations
now simultaneously possess the advantages of visual and photographic observations. Such
observations have the instantaneous response possessed by the human eye and yet have the
ability to record highly consistent and reproducible images. Electronic images can be built up
and stored in just the same way that a photographic emulsion can build up its images over time.
Electronic images can be processed and enlarged by computers in ways not possible with visual
or photographic observations. Electronic detectors are ideal for observations of objects radiating
energy in those regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which cannot be detected with the
human eye or by photographic emulsions. Perhaps the most impressive aspect of electronic
imaging processes, however, is the fact that unlike visual or traditional photographic images,
those produced electronically can be converted into telemetry transmission and sent over millions
of miles of space. This characteristic permits the space scientist to load an electronic imaging
package onto a spacecraft such as the Voyager, Pioneer, or Mariner and send it off to remote
and/or inaccessible regions of the solar system without having to worry about life support
systems for a crew of human astronauts, or indeed even recovering the spacecraft at all. Over
the past forty years it has been this type of data acquisition, transmission, and analysis process
that has provided us with the spectacular images and information that have characterized the
spaceage universe.


155







CHAPTER 7


THE EARTHMOON SYSTEM





THE EARTH
As our home planet, the earth has been studied for far greater detail than any other
astronomical object, so much so in fact that a number of earth sciences, including geology,
oceanography, seismology, and atmospheric science have developed into distinct sciences of
their own . Despite the impressive array of knowledge that has been discovered and deduced
about the earth, many key and fundamental questions concerning our home planet remain
unanswered.

Revolution of the Earth
The movement of the earth about the sun, or the earths revolution can be unambiguously
demonstrated in a variety of ways. Historically the first unambiguous demonstration of the
earths orbital motion about the sun came in 1675 when the Danish astronomer Olaus Roemer
found that the winking out of the light from Jupiters satellites as they entered the shadow of
the planet took much longer to reach his telescope when Jupiter was nearly in conjunction with
the sun than when Jupiter was in opposition to the sun.
156 Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System



Such results could only be explained if light itself traveled at a very high, but nonetheless finite
speed through space and the earth revolved about the sun.
A half century later the English astronomer James Bradley discovered that the earths
motion through space causes light from the distant stars to be intercepted in such a way that the
direction from which that light appears to originate is slightly displaced in the direction toward
which the earth is moving. This effect, called the aberration of starlight, is similar to that which
occurs when a car is driven through vertically falling snowflakes in a snowstorm. As the car
moves through the vertically falling snowflakes, the direction from which they appear to the
driver to strike the cars windshield from the direction toward which the car is moving. As the
earth orbits the sun, the observed positions of stars seen to oscillate back and forth due to the
interaction between the earths orbital velocity and the speed of the approaching starlight. The
angle of aberration produced by this interaction is the same for each and every star and has a
value of 20.5 arcseconds.
Although the existence of the previously discussed parallox effect had been predicted to be
a consequence of the earths revolution about the sun from the time of Aristorchu onward, it
would not be until around the year 1840 that astronomers would finally be able to observationally
verify that such an effect did indeed exist, thus removing the last shred of doubt concerning the
earths orbital movement. The initial measurements of stellar parallax angles will be discussed
more completely in a subsequent chapter.
Later on in the 19th century, yet another unambiguous demonstration of the earths motion
around the sun came with the discovery of the radial velocity effect. As the earth orbits the sun,
its motion carries it alternately toward and away from a given star lying in the earths orbital
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 157



plane. Because of this relative motion between the earth and the star, the Doppler effect will
cause positioning of the lines of the stars spectrum to be alternately shifted toward longer or
shorter wavelengths, thus producing a perceived one year periodic variation in the stars observed
radial velocity. This annual periodicity in a stars observed radial velocity is called the radial
velocity effect and once more can only be explained by the earths orbital motion about the sun.
Detailed measurements of the earths orbital motion indicate that the earth revolves about
the sun in a slightly elliptical orbit that carries it from a distance of about 147 million kilometers
out to about 153 million kilometers at an average speed of some 30 kilometers per second. The
mean distance between the earth and the sun defines a convenient unit of distance in astronomy
called the astronomical unit. In order to be useful, however, the astronomical unit must be
expressed in terms of an earthbased unit such as the meter, kilometer, mile, etc. To this end
astronomers have devised a number of techniques for determining the length of the astronomical
unit. Perhaps the simplest and most accurate technique in this regard is to carefully monitor the
telemetry from deep space probes moving in known orbital trajectories independent of the earth.
If the probes orbital trajectory is known, then its line of sight distance from the earth in
astronomical units can readily be obtained from the principles of celestial mechanics. Radio
contact with the probe allows astronomers to simultaneously obtain the line of sight distance to
the probe in meters, since radio waves travel to and from the probe at the speed of light.
Because the value of the speed of light is one of the most accurately determined constants in the
physical world, the accuracy which the astronomical unit has been determined is correspondingly
high as well. One astronomical unit is thus equal to precisely 1.495978061 10
11
meters.
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The Earths Rotation
In addition to revolving around the sun, the earth rotates or spins about an axis through its
center. Intuitively, the rising and setting of stars is explained far more easily by assuming that
the earth rotates beneath them than to assume that these stars revolve about the earth, thereby
requiring them to traverse orbits light-years in circumference in a matter of only a few hours.
The Foucault pendulum, which is displayed in the lobbies of many science museums and
planetariums, is often used to demonstrate the rotation of the earth. Because the pendulum is
subject only to the force of the earths gravity, no horizontal forces are acting on it and its motion
should be confined to a vertical plane having a fixed orientation. Nevertheless, the Foucault
pendulum will knock down in succession a series of small pegs placed in a circle about it. The
only explanation for such behavior consistent with the laws of motion is to assume that the earth
is rotating beneath the pendulum. In fact, it can be shown that the earth rotates beneath any
object moving above its surface. To an observer on the earths surface, the motion of such an
object will appear to break or deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere. This behavior is called the Coriolis effect and is most familiar as
the agent by which the earths cyclonic wind patterns are produced.
There are several interesting consequences of the earths rotation, one of which is a slight
degree of polar flattening. The prevailing trade winds of the middle latitudes and cyclonic
storms are attributable directly to the earths rotation. The orientation of the earths axis of
rotation is also known to wander relative to the earths land masses within a small square-shaped
area about 30 meters or so on a side. This effect, called wandering of the poles, is believed to be
due to slight changes in the mass distribution of the earth from atmospheric motions, volcanism,
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 159



and other phenomena. There is growing evidence that the poles (or the land masses) may have
moved significantly during the earths geological history.
The axis rotation of the earth is oriented in such a way that the equatorial plane is tilted at
an angle of 23 to the earths orbital plane or ecliptic. As the earth moves through space, the
axis of rotation maintains an almost constant orientation, and as a result, the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres alternately receive the more direct rays of the sun. Thus, each
hemisphere is subjected to a set of seasons ranging from the winter season of short days and cold
weather to the summer season of long days and warm weather. Whatever season a given
hemisphere is experiencing, the opposite hemisphere will be simultaneously experience the
opposite season.
The earths axial tilt is also responsible for the phenomenon known as the midnight sun, in
which at high latitudes, during a given hemispheres spring and summer seasons, the sun is
constantly above the observers horizon. The midnight sun can be observed in the regions
between the Arctic Circle (66 north latitude) and the North Pole and between the Antarctic
Circle (66 south latitude) and the South Pole. The polar zone not experiencing the constant
light of the midnight sun has a corresponding period of darkness.
Because the earths rotation is strongly periodic, humans have, as we have seen, sought to
use it as a means of reckoning time. One rotation of the earth on its axis relative to the sun is
called a solar day, and a sidereal day, if the rotation is measured relative to the fixed stars. As a
result of the earths orbital motion, the solar day is slightly longer (about 4 solar minutes) than
the sidereal day. Because the earth also revolves about the sun, to an earth-based observer the
sun appears to move in an easterly direction among the stars at a rate of just under 1 per day.
160 Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System



Thus, the interval of time corresponding to the solar day, which uses the sun as a reference, is
slightly longer (about 4 solar minutes) than the sidereal day, which uses a fixed point (vernal
equinox) on the celestial sphere as a reference.

General Physical Characteristics
From observations of the earths shadow during lunar eclipse, the ancient Greeks were able
to deduce the spherical nature of the earth. Its diameter was first determined by the Greek
mathematician Eratosthenes in about 250 B.C. At noon on the first day of summer, Eratosthenes
measured the angle between the suns rays and the obelisk at Alexandria in Egypt, and noted that
the sun simultaneously shone down a well at Syene, some 800 km to the south, indicating that it
was exactly at Syenes zenith point. By assuming that the suns rays are parallel as they strike
the earth and employing simple geometric principles, Eratosthenes was able to calculate the
circumference of the earth accurately to within a few percent (Fig. 7.2). Extremely
high-precision measurements of the earths surface made in recent years by satellites and various
ranging techniques indicate that the earth, with some minor anomalies, is an oblate spheroid
having polar and equatorial diameters of 12,714 and 13,756 km, respectively, and thus a degree
of flattening of about 1/300.
Studies of satellite motions about the earth and the use of the harmonic law indicate that the
earth as a mass of about 6 10
24
kg. This value, when combined with the earths linear size,
yields a value of 5500 kg/m
3
for the mean density of the earth and a value of 9.8 (m/sec)/sec for
the acceleration of gravity at the earths surface, a quantity that is often referred to as one g.
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 161



The earth has an overall magnetic field that behaves as if it were a bar magnet buried within
the earth tilted at an angle of 17 to the earths axis of rotation. The strength of this field varies
with position, but at the earths surface along the magnetic equator or halfway circle between
the earths magnetic poles, the magnetic field strength is about 5 10
5
Teslas or several hundred
times weaker than a typical bar magnet toy. The existence of this field has resulted in the
formation of a region about the earth call the magnetosphere which will be discussed in a later
section.

The Earths Interior
The average density of the material on the earths surface is about 2700 kg/m
2
. The overall
mean density of the earth, however is 5500 kg/m
3
. This discrepancy an be accounted for only by
assuming the presence of much denser material in the earths interior. Until the end of the
nineteenth century, little else could be deduced concerning the state of the earths deep interior.
The study of earthquakes has provided a considerable amount of information about the
earths interior. Two types of shock waves, P or primary waves and S or secondary waves,
emanate from an earthquake. The P waves are longitudinal, high-velocity waves that can travel
through liquids as well as solids. The slower-moving S waves, on the other hand, are transverse
waves that are not capable of traversing a liquid medium. From the differential passage of these
two types of shock waves through the earths interior, as recorded by observing stations around
the world, seismologists have been able to piece together a picture of the conditions in these
regions of the earth. A schematic diagram of the earths interior is presented in Fig. 7.3.
162 Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System



The center of the earth is occupied by a solid nickel-iron core that has a diameter of some
2700 km and is surrounded by a spherical layer of molten nickel and iron 2100 km thick. The
temperature of the core is believed to be several thousand Kelvins. Enveloping the core is a
2900 km thick plastic envelope of silicon dioxide called the mantle. It is believed that as the
earth spins on its axis, frictional interactions occur between the liquidsolid boundaries of the
earths interior. These frictional interactions create current loops of free electrical charges
within the earth which in turn produce the earths magnetic field. This phenomenon is referred
to as the dynamo effect and accounts for many, but not all of the observed characteristics of the
earths magnetic field.
The earths crust surrounds the mantle and ranges in thickness from abut 5 km at the
bottom of the oceans to over 32 km at locations inland. As the outermost layer of the earth, it
exhibits the effects of complicated geological forces, such as the formation of volcanos and the
raising of mountain ranges. Most fascinating of all, however, is the discovery that the
continental land masses have, over geological history, moved not only relative to the
geographical poles, but also relative to one another. This movement, called continental drift,
was first suspected in 1910 by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener, who noticed that the
coastlines of the various continents fit together like pieces of a gigantic jigsaw puzzle. The
eastern coast of South America, for example, fits into the right-angle bend of the West African
coastline that forms the Gulf of Guinea. Present evidence seems to indicate that all the
continents were once joined into two enormous land masses located in the earths tropic zones.
Geologists have named these supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwanaland. It is now known
that the earths crust is segmented into nine major crustal plates which float on the more viscous
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 163



mantle (Fig. 7.4). Geological activity including uplifting of mountain ranges, earthquakes, and
volcanos can be largely explained by the interactions of these plates such as collisions and
sideswipes on both long- and short-term time scales.
The Earths Surface
The earths surface is the interface between the top layer of the crust and lowest layer of the
atmosphere. The surface of the earth possesses a wide range of features that have been formed
and shaped not only by geological forces from the interior, but also by various types of erosive
processes on the surface itself. The age of the earth can be estimated from the degree to which
certain radioactive materials in the crust have decayed into other substances. Such
measurements indicate the earths surface first solidified some 4.5 billion years ago.
The average composition of the earths surface has been reasonably well determined and is
found to consist of 46 percent oxygen, 28 percent silicon, 8 percent aluminum, 5 percent iron,
4 percent calcium, 3 percent sodium, 3 percent potassium, 2 percent magnesium, and lesser
amounts of the remaining chemical elements.
The earth is very uncommon if not unique among known planets and larger satellites in that
a significant portion of its surface is covered with a liquid, in the earths case in the form of vast
oceans that started to form about 3 to 4 billion years ago. This layer of water, sometimes called
the hydrosphere, currently covers some three-quarters of the earths surface to depths of
10 kilometers or more and possesses about 1/4000 the mass of the entire earth.

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The Earths Atmosphere
The earth is surrounded by a gaseous atmosphere roughly 640 km thick and composed of
78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and trace amounts of argon, water vapor, carbon dioxide,
and other gases.
The earths atmosphere is a constant source of frustration to the earth-based astronomer.
Clouds often severely limit or destroy completely the ability to observe, atmospheric motions
produce a blurring effect on the quality of celestial images, and the atmospheres variable
refractive effects wreak havoc on attempts to determine stellar positions accurately. In addition,
the atoms and molecules in the atmosphere absorb, scatter, and reemit radiation, thus not only
denying to the astronomer large regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as the ultraviolet
and infrared wavelengths, but also preventing the observation of any object fainter than the level
of airglow brightness. Despite such inconvenience caused by the earths atmosphere, the
astronomers very existence would, of course, not be possible were it not for its presence.
The troposphere is the lowest, densest layer of the earths atmosphere. At sea level it
exerts a pressure of 100,000 Newtons/m
2
and has a mean density of about 10
3
that of water. It
is in this 16-km layer that virtually all of the worlds weather phenomena occur. In the upper
layers of the troposphere, rapidly moving air currents known as jet streams encircle the globe.
The jet streams are variable in nature and move at velocities as high as 320 km/hr. They are
known to have a profound effect on the weather patterns closer to the earths surface, but the
exact nature of this effect and the causes for their observed variability are poorly understood.
Above the troposphere is a 64-km-thick layer called the stratosphere. At the base of the
stratosphere conditions exist for the formation of the ozone molecule (O
3
). This ozone layer, as
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 165



it is called, is an efficient absorber of most of the dangerous shorter-wavelength ultraviolet waves
that impinge on the earth. The temperature in the stratosphere above the ozone layer remains at
a constant 218K up to an altitude of about 40 km and then begins to rise to about 265K at the
base of the ionosphere, 80 km above the surface of the earth.
The ionosphere extends 640 km above the top of the stratosphere. In this layer of the
atmosphere, short-wavelength photons and high-energy atomic particles from the sun and
interplanetary medium strike the atoms and molecules of the atmospheric gases there, stripping
the electrons from a good percentage of the atoms. The atoms and electrons quickly recombine,
but are almost at once reionzed by the same process. At any time a certain percentage of the
atmospheric atoms and molecules will thus always be ionized. The result is the formation of a
layer of charged particles or ions from which the ionosphere derives its name. The ionosphere
reflects radio waves having wavelengths longer than about 10 meters and shorter than about
0.1 meters, making possible worldwide radio communication. Meteoroids striking the earths
atmosphere are destroyed by friction as they pass through the ionosphere. It is also in this
region that auroras are produced. Bursts of high-energy atomic particles from the sun striking
these layers of the atmosphere excite the electrons in the atoms of the atmospheric gases to
higher energy levels. As these atoms deexcite, they reemit photons in the visible region that are
observable as the everchanging and beautiful aurorae. The earths magnetic field lines present
in the regions above the ionosphere force these particles to hit the atmosphere in the vicinity of
the magnetic poles. Thus, the aurorae or northern or southern lights are most frequently
observed in the high latitudes of the earth nearest the magnetic poles.
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The exosphere, the last of the earths atmospheric layers, extends from 720 km outward to
over 4800 km from the earths surface. It is characterized by a very low density of particles and
marks the region where atoms and molecules from the earths atmosphere can escape into space.
Intermingled with the exosphere is a region called the magnetosphere. As the particle
wind from the sun encounters the earths magnetic field, it creates a shock wave about 15 earth
radii toward the sun behind which lies the earths magnetosphere. The magnetosphere is the
result of complex physical processes involving high energy particles, plasmas, and the earths
magnetic field. Satellites have mapped out the magnetosphere and the overall result is shown in
Fig. 7.5. Perhaps the most remarkable aspect of the magnetosphere is the existence of
donut-shaped regions called the Van Allen belts, in which charged particles coming from the sun
are trapped by the earths magnetic field into two major regions of high velocity, high energy
particles. The inner Van Allen belt is located between 3200 km and 5900 km above the earths
surface and contains higher energy, higher velocity trapped particles, while the outer Van Allen
belt extends from about 21,000 km out to 27,000 km away from the earth and is populated by
relatively lower energy, lower velocity particles.

The Biosphere
Although all of the matter on earth and elsewhere in the universe are composed of atoms of
the same basic chemical elements, a type of matter exists that possesses an additional quality,
which is most extraordinary and remarkable. It is the quality we call life.
Matter that is said to be living is distinguished from matter that is nonliving or
inanimate in terms of five socalled life activities. Any substance that can move, grow in
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 167



size, take in food or other substance, respond to stimuli, and reproduce itself is defined as
living matter. To be regarded as living, a given object must exhibit all of these life activities.
An automobile, for example, can move, eat, and respond to the stimulus of ones foot on the
break or accelerator, but is not regarded as a living thing, because it doesnt grow in size or
reproduce itself.
To date the only location in the universe where living matter is positively known to exist is
within a thin shell about the earth called the biosphere, which extends from the deepest valleys of
the earths oceans to the earths highest mountain summits. Many of the most profound and
fascinating questions in all of science relate to the earths biosphere of living matter. If, as most
scientists believe, life on earth somehow originated as the result of physical processes, there is a
very high probability that similar processes have been at work to create living matter elsewhere
in the universe. In spite of all of our scientific efforts to the contrary, the locations of these
possible elsewheres and the types of living matter that may have been spawned in them
continue to be confined to the realms of science speculation and science fiction.

THE MOON

The earths moon is the largest satellite of any of the terrestrial planets--Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars, and in fact is rivaled only by the larger satellites possessed by the gas giants.
Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune. Because the moon is relatively close to the earth, astronomers
have learned more about it than any other extraterrestrial object. It was toward the moon that
radar signals were first beamed, thus making it the first celestial object to be contacted by human
technology. Since then, instrument-laden unmanned space probes have hit, missed, and circled
168 Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System



the moon, and in July 1969 the Apollo astronauts first touched down on its surface. The
experiments set up and left behind by the Apollo astronauts and the samples of the lunar surface
brought back to earth have confirmed the picture of a rugged, lifeless world that has continued
relatively unchanged since the birth of the solar system.
Motion
The moon orbits the earth in a somewhat eccentric ellipse at a mean distance of 384,00 km.
The period required to complete one such revolution relative to the fixed stars is called the
sidereal month and is 27.3 days long, whereas a single revolution of the moon with respect to the
sun is called a synodic month and is 29.5 days long. Because it takes the moon much less time to
move about the earth than it takes the earth to move about the sun, the moon presents different
aspects of its illuminated surface to the earth. The result is the previously discussed series of
phases in which the moons visible shape changes from a slender crescent near the time of new
moon to a full circle at the time of full moon. The synodic month is thus also equal to the period
required for the moon to pass through a complete cycle of phases.
As a result of the perturbations, or small-scale effects, caused by the gravitational pull from
the sun and the earths equatorial bulge, the orientation of the lunar orbit in space changes
slowly. The perigee point, or point of the moons closest approach to the earth, for example,
precesses in an easterly direction about 40 per year, and the points of intersection between the
lunar orbit and the ecliptic or nodal points precess in a westerly direction at a rate of slightly
under 20 per year.
A second consequence of the earths gravitational pull on the moon is that the moon is
gravitationally locked in on the earth in such a way that the same side of the moon is constantly
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 169



facing the earth. Various geometrical physical effects called librations permit earth-based
astronomers to observe about 60 percent of the lunar surface. The remaining 40 percent was
denied to the astronomer until the space age when lunar orbiters sent back detailed photographs
of the back side lunar topography.
General Properties
The mean distance to the moon has been measured by a variety of methods, including laser
ranging, radar echoes, and geocentric parallax, and is found to be some 384,000 km from the
earth. This value, combined with the moons apparent angular diameter of yields a linear
diameter of 3460 km for the moon or about one-fourth that of the earth. The lunar mass can be
obtained from its gravitational effects on the motions of the earth and from a careful study of the
behavior of spacecraft such as the lunar orbiters and Apollo modules when moving in the lunar
gravitational field. The mass of the moon is found to be 1/81 that of the earth or about 7 10
22

kilograms.
The moons mean density is 3300 kg/m
3
, which is nearly the same as the density of its
surface material and very similar to the mean density of the earths crust. From the mass and
radius of the moon, the acceleration due to gravity at the lunar surface is found to be about
1.6 (m/sec)/sec or one-sixth that of the earth.

The Moons Interior
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Seismographs placed on the moon by the Apollo astronauts indicate the moonquake activity
in the lunar interior is much less frequent and severe than corresponding activity on the earth.
The lack of a measurable general magnetic field on the moon and the fact that its surface density
is not appreciably different from its overall density preclude a lunar version of a liquid, metallic
core. The lunar orbiters and Apollo missions indicate the existence of concentrations of mass,
or mascons, buried beneath the lunar surface. The origin of the mascons is not clear; they could
be buried meteorites or volcanic plugs. Regardless of their origin, however, their existence rules
out even a molten core of nonmetallic materials, because the mascons would sink to the center of
the moon if the lunar interior were molten. Thus, the limited data available on the lunar interior
indicate that it is a relatively cool region having no major metallic component or geological
activity.

The Surface of the Moon
The moons surface presents a wealth of detail, much of which can be viewed through even
a small telescope. Visible to the naked eye are the maria, large, relatively smooth, dark areas
that are probably huge lava flows that have long since cooled. In addition to the dark areas, the
naked eye can detect the much rougher brighter areas that are sometimes called continents. Of
some interest is the fact that over 60 percent of the side of the moon facing the earth is covered
by the maria, whereas less than 10 percent of the extremely rugged back side of the moon has
such features. This is believed to be the result of a gravitational tidal lock in which the higher
density maria of a geologically young moon were aligned in the earth-facing orientation we see
today.
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 171



A close-up view of the moon reveals a surface riddled with craters. These craters range in
size from depressions fractions of an inch across to gigantic walled plains over 160 km in
diameter, which are believed to be ancient impact craters that have since filled up with lava.
Some of these craters exhibit systems of rays that extend dozens of miles across the lunar
surface, strongly suggesting that the given crater was formed by an impact of tremendous
magnitude.
The lunar landscape is also dotted with a large number of mountain ranges and individual
peaks. From the lengths of the shadows cast by these features, astronomers and other space
scientists have determined that these mountains often reach 6000 meters or more above the
surrounding terrain. Winding their way through the mountains and craters like ancient river
beds are the channel-like depressions called rilles. Despite their appearance, it is clear that the
rilles are not due to the action of flowing water, but more likely have arisen from lava flows or
possibly venting of gases from the lunar interior. Fault lines, such as the Straight Wall, similar
to those observed on earth have also been found at several places on the lunar surface. Other
regions are sprinkled with humped features called domes.
Exploration of the lunar surface in a few selected sites by Apollo astronauts has given
astronomers and geologists only a tantalizing close-up glimpse of the moon. From these
glimpses, the moon appears to be a completely lifeless body coated with a glassy layer of dust a
few inches thick, which is believed to be the result of millions of years of meteoric impacts.
Analyses of the samples of lunar soil and rocks brought back to the earth indicate that whereas
the moons crust has roughly the same relative composition of elements as the earths, some
mineral combinations of these elements are unique to the lunar surface. The lunar material is
172 Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System



also found to be much older than anything found on the earth. Dating of lunar samples by
geologists indicates that some rocks and grains of dust are as much as 4.7 billion years old, or
very nearly as old as the solar system itself.
It is generally agreed that the lunar surface has been shaped and formed by both meteoric
impact processes (craters, ray systems, etc.) and volcanic processes (maria, fault lines, domes,
etc.). The limited studies of the lunar interior, however, point to the idea that the moon is now
geologically dead and that volcanic processes, although they played a significant role in shaping
the lunar surface in the moons younger days, have virtually no effect at present. Because of the
lack of water or air on the moons surface, the moon has not been subjected to the wind, rain, and
running water that have been major factors in shaping the earths surface.

The Moons Lack of Atmosphere
Astronomers have long been aware that the moon lacked a significant atmosphere. The
low lunar albedo, the lack of any spectral lines other than those of the sun in the lunar spectrum,
the lack of dimming or extinction of the brightnesses of objects about to be blotted out or
occulted by the edge of the moons disk, and the low velocity required for gases to escape the
moons surface all pointed to the fact that the moon possessed no atmosphere, a fact verified
directly by the Apollo astronauts.

Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 173



The Origin of the Moon
The most successful explanation to date for the origin of the moon hypothesizes that a
young earth was struck at a grazing angle by an interplanetary planetesimal at least half the size
of the earth. In the course of the collision the planetesimal was partially vaporized. This
vaporized material formed into a hot disk about the earth which then ultimately coalesced into
the moon. This scenario has been successfully computer simulated and seems to explain both
the chemical abundance differences that exist between the earth and moon as well as the
dynamical problems associated with other types of orbital capture mechanisms.

THE EARTH-MOON RELATIONSHIPS
In terms of size and mass, the moon is larger, relative to its primary, than any other satellite
in the solar system. As a result, the moon exerts a number of significant effects on the earth.

174 Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System



Tides
Most important of the earth-moon relationships is the raising of tides in the earths oceans.
Because the force of gravity on a particular mass varies inversely with the square of the distance
of the attracting mass, the moon pulls on various sections of the earth in varying degrees
depending on the distance between the section and the moon. As a result of this differential
force there is a stretching effect or tidal distortion which causes the shape of the earth to become
slightly elongated. Now the earths surface is actually more rigid than steel and hence responds
very little to this tidal distortion. The water at the surface of the earth, however, readily flows
across the earths surface as a result of tidal forces and piles up into two tidal bulges, one on the
side of the earth nearest the moon and the other on the side farthest away. As the earth spins on
its axis, the deep and shallow regions of the water or the high and low tides will appear at a given
location about twice every rotation period of the earth.
The sun exerts a similar but smaller set of tidal forces over the earths surface. When the
earth, moon, and sun are aligned, as at the time of new moon or full moon, the tidal bulges
produced by the sun and moon reenforce one another and the highest tides, called spring tides,
occur. At the time of either quarter moon, the tidal bulges produced by the sun and moon are at
right angles to one another and the water depth is more evenly distributed over the earths
surface. These tides, called neap tides, are the lowest possible tides that can occur. The exact
amount that a tide is raised at a given location also depends on the geography of the region.
Thus, in the Bay of Fundy in eastern Canada, which is a fairly confined body of water, tides of 20
meters or more can occur, whereas the watery expanse of the middle of the ocean, the tides will
amount to only a meter or so.
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 175




Precession
In addition to producing the tides, the gravitational pull of the moon exerts an effect on the
earths motion called precession. As previously noted, the earths equatorial bulge is tilted at an
angle of about 23 to its orbital plane. The moons gravitational field attempts to straighten
up the earths axis of rotation, but because of the earths rotation rate, the response of the
rotation axis is to slowly change its orientation, or precess, much as a tilted, rapidly spinning top
will alter its axis of rotation. The sun produces a similar effect, and the combined precession
resulting from the action of the sun and moon, called lunisolar precession, causes the north
celestial pole to move among the northern stars in a circular path 47 in diameter once every
26,000 years. The difference in orbital planes of the moon and the earth, the varying distances
of the sun and moon, and the gravitational action of the other planets all produce slight
departures from this circular motion. The combined effect of the first two factors is referred to
as nutation; the latter effect is called planetary precession. The combined effects of lunisolar
precession, nutation, and planetary precession is known as general precession. The general
precession of the north celestial pole relative to the fixed stars also causes the vernal equinox
point to move along the ecliptic at a rate of 50 arcseconds per year. This motion in turn causes
the celestial position coordinates of a given object to gradually change in time and thus must be
corrected for whenever a celestial position is calculated.

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Eclipses
As the earth and moon move through space their solid, spherical shapes general shadow
cones, which consist of a dark umbra and a somewhat lighter penumbra. Once in a while, the
earth, new moon, and sun become aligned in such a way that the earth passes through the shadow
cone of the moon. Such an event is called an eclipse of the sun. An eclipse of the moon occurs
when the full moon passes into the shadow of the earth.
Because the moons orbit is inclined about 5 to the ecliptic, eclipses of the sun and moon
do not occur at each and every new moon or full moon, but only when the sun and moon
simultaneously arrive at one of the intersection points or nodes between the lunar orbit and the
ecliptic. If the arrival occurs at the same nodal point, a solar eclipse will occur, and if the arrival
occurs at opposite nodal points, a lunar eclipse will occur. The number, type, and duration of
possible eclipses in any given year depend on a wide variety of factors, including the orientation
of the lunar orbit and the angular diameters of the sun and the moon. The conditions that lead to
a particular kind of eclipse, however, are periodic in nature and will thus repeat themselves in
various cycles or families of eclipses that all have very nearly the same characteristics. The
most famous of these eclipse cycles is the saros cycle, which was known to a number of the
ancient cultures. In this cycle, similar solar eclipses will occur successively about once every 18
years.

For observers located at any spot in the lunar shadow cone, the sun will appear to be blotted
out, or eclipsed, in varying degrees. Observers located in the umbra of the moons shadow see a
total eclipse of the sun, whereas those in the penumbra will see a partial eclipse. In some
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 177



instances the convergent point of the moons shadow cone fails to reach the surface of the earth,
and an annular or donut-shaped eclipse is observed.
During the early stages of a total solar eclipse, the dark, curved edge of the lunar disk
appears to engulf more and more of the suns disk. As the last rays of sunlight are blotted out,
they appear to peek out from the edge of the moon, giving rise to the so-called diamond ring
effect. This single gemstone of light is then quickly replaced by a phenomenon known as
Baileys beads, a series of flowing bright spots that result from the last vestiges of sunlight
shining through the gaps in the rugged topography at the edge of the lunar disk. Moments later,
the entire solar disk is covered by the moon, and the lunar disk is surrounded by the soft glow of
the solar corona, the outermost layer of the suns atmosphere. During this total phase, or
totality, the corona shines with the light of the full moon. After a few minutes, these events
reverse themselves as the sun reemerges from behind the lunar disk.
During a total solar eclipse, the suns visible disk, or photosphere, is blotted out by the
moon, permitting the astronomer to study the less luminous outer layers of the solar atmosphere,
especially the corona. In addition, the properties of the upper layers of the earths atmosphere,
in particular the ionosphere, can be observed during conditions of sudden temperature drops, thus
affording a better understanding of these regions above the earth. Most intriguing of all,
perhaps, is the possibility that the gravitational bending of starlight predicted by relativity theory
for star images in the vicinity of the sun can be measured during the total phase of a solar eclipse.
Attempts to measure it have indicated that the bending is indeed present, but have not yielded a
very accurate value for the deflection.
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Eclipse paths, or zones on the earth within which a particular solar eclipse may be observed
as total, are seldom over a few dozen miles wide or longer than a few hundred miles. Even in
the path of totality under the most favorable conditions, an observer in a fixed location can view
only about 7 minutes of totality, and in most instances, the length of totality is much shorter.
In recent years, astronomers have sought to increase the observed length of totality by flying
above any cloud cover and racing the moons shadow down the eclipse path in high-altitude,
high-velocity jet aircraft, thus gaining more time in which to perform their observations and
experiments.
Lunar eclipses are either partial or total, never annular. During a total lunar eclipse, the
curved shadow of the earth slowly creeps across the face of the full moon. At total phase,
however, a certain amount of sunlight is refracted around the edges of the earth by the terrestrial
atmosphere, causing the moon to glow a dull coppery color. Unlike solar eclipses, lunar eclipses
are of comparatively little use to the astronomer, save for the precise determination of the
positions of the earth and moon relative to the sun, at a precise time.

Human Behavior
Chapter 7: The EarthMoon System 179



A wealth of material has been written on the supposed effects of the moon on human
behavior. Perhaps the most familiar of these are the werewolf legends in which otherwise
normal and sensitive humans are transformed by the light of a full moon into vicious killer
beasts. The list of supposed lunar effects is an impressive one indeed and the idea is deeply
ingrained in the psyche of our society. A night illuminated by the light of a full moon is, for
example, universally regarded as being far more romantic than one in which the moon is not
visible due to clouds, etc.
For the astronomer it is difficult to imagine a mechanism by which such influences could
be exerted. It has been suggested for example, that the moon could exert a tidal force on the
waters of the human body. If one calculates the tidal force exerted by the moon on a given
human being, we find that such a force pales when compared to a similar tidal force that would
be exerted by another nearby human being, and that all of these forces would be vanishingly
small. Attempts to directly detect correlations between the moons phase, especially the full
moon, and human behavior have resulted in either null results or positive correlations which
cannot be replicated by other investigators.


179







CHAPTER 8


THE TERRESTRIAL PLANETS





The triumph of the heliocentric system in the seventeenth century firmly established the
earth as one of several planets swinging about the sun in vast orbits millions of kilometers in
diameter. Since that time, three additional planets have been discovered by telescopic means,
bringing the total of known planets orbiting the sun to nine.

MERCURY
Most elusive of the naked-eye planets is Mercury. Although it is as bright as the brightest
stars in the sky, Mercury is seldom observed in total darkness because of its large orbital speed
and close proximity to the sun. Despite the difficulties involved with earth-based observations
of Mercury astronomers, even before the space age, managed to assemble a fairly impressive
array of data concerning this tiny world.

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Motion
Mercury moves in a slightly flattened elliptical orbit about the sun at a mean distance of
58 million km once every 88 days, thus making it the closest planet to the sun. Because its orbit
lies entirely within that of the earth, Mercury exhibits a complete set of phases similar to those
observed for the earths moon. Mercury shows phases, however, because we view its sunlit side
from various angles as it circles the sun. Venus displays the same effect, and this observation
prompted Galileo to assert correctly that both planets circled the sun. On occasion, Mercury
passes directly between the earth and the sun. Such an event, called a transit, occurs for
Mercury in intervals of 3, 7, 10, or 13 years.
Mercurys orbital motion is of considerable interest to astronomers because the line joining
the near and far points of the orbit, the line of apsides, slowly shifts its orientation in space, or
precesses. Approximately 43 arcseconds per century of this motion cannot be accounted for in
terms of classical mechanics. One attempt to do so led to the discovery and subsequent
rejection of a planet prematurely named Vulcan lying between the orbit of Mercury and the sun.
It is now known that the precession in Mercurys orbital orientation is due to a small effect in the
planets motion that can be predicted and calculated from relativity theory. There have been
recent suggestions that some of the precessional motion is due to a slight flattening of the solar
disk, in which case certain aspects of relativity theory would have to be altered. Because of the
extreme difficulty in measuring some of the effects involved, this issue is still in doubt.
A second aspect of Mercurys motion, its rotation, has also been the subject of debate. In
earlier years visual observations of the planets somewhat indistinct markings had for many years
led to the conclusion that Mercurys rotational period was the same as its orbital period and that
Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets 181



the planet always kept the same hemisphere facing the sun, much as the moon faces the earth.
Radio and radar observations made in the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s revealed a
somewhat different picture of Mercurys rotation. The dark-side temperature of Mercury
obtained at radio wavelengths was much higher than would be expected if the dark side were
perpetually facing away from the sun. Moreover, radar beams reflected from the planets edges
exhibited a Doppler shift that could be accounted for only if the planet were spinning on its axis
once every 59 days or so. Subsequent investigations have also shown that some of the features
used visually to determine Mercurys rotation rate may have been misidentified. Data from
space probes and radio astronomers indicates that the rotation period of Mercury is 58.65 days.

Satellites
Mercury has no known natural satellites.

Physical Properties
Mercury is the smallest of the known planets and has a measured diameter of some
4840 km. Because it has no satellites, its mass must be determined from its gravitational effects
on closely passing objects such as comets, asteroids, and space probes. Such studies yield a
mass for Mercury of about one-twentieth of an earth mass. The mean density or total mass/total
volume of Mercury is then found to be 5400 kg/m
3
. The reflecting power or albedo of Mercury
is very low (about 0.06) and suggests that Mercury possesses an airless, rugged surface like that
of the moon.
182 Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets



Owing to its proximity to the sun, Mercury has a rather high surface temperature. It also has
a weak gravitational field. This combination led astronomers to believe that whatever atmosphere
Mercury may once have had has long since boiled off into space. This fact has been
observationally confirmed in a variety of different ways.
Visual observations of the planets surface show hints of dusky features similar to the lunar
maria, and observations of reflected radar signals from Mercury can best be accounted for by
assuming that the planets surface is very rough. This latter observation has been confirmed by
space-probe photographs of the planets surface. Additional data from space probes indicate
that Mercury possesses a weak magnetic field, about 1/100 as strong as that of the earth. There
is also considerable evidence the Mercury contains a rather large iron core, about 3600 km in
diameter, which is in turn surrounded by a 630 km thick mantle composed primarily of silicates.

VENUS
Aside from the sun and the moon, the most beautiful and impressive celestial object that
can be seen with the naked eye is Venus. Until the last half of the 20th century the planet was
almost literally shrouded in mystery, due to the dense and opaque cloud layers that surround its
surface.

Motion
Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets 183



Venus moves in an almost perfectly circular orbit once every 225 days at a distance of
108 million km from the sun. Venus thus can come closer to the earth (41 million km) than any
other planet. Venuss orbit, like Mercurys, lies entirely within that of the earth, and hence the
planet displays a complete set of phases which are readily observable in even a small-aperture
telescope. Like Mercury it also is able to transit the suns disk. Transits of Venus usually occur
in pairs about every 120 years. The last such pair occurred in 1874 and 1882, and the next pair
is due in 2004 and 2012.
Venuss surface is shrouded in clouds, thus precluding direct visual measurement of its
period of rotation. Radar measurements of the Doppler effect in the radar signals reflected from
the edges of the planet indicate that Venus spins on its axis once every 243 days. Because the
planets sidereal period is only 225 days, the sun slowly rises in the west and sets in the east as
Venus plods through its retrograde rotational motion.

Satellites
Venus, like Mercury, has no known natural satellites.

Physical Properties
Venus is some 12,000 km in diameter or only slightly smaller than the earth. Although
Venus has no known natural satellites, its mass, like that of Mercury, can be determined from its
gravitational effects on celestial objects that pass relatively close. Particularly good values for
the mass have been determined from the effects of Venuss gravity on various space probes.
The mass so obtained is 0.82 earth mass. The mean density of Venus is thus some 5300 kg/m
3
.
184 Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets



When viewed through a telescope, Venus displays no permanent markings, but only a series
of dusky patches that change rapidly from day to day in both size and shape. This fact,
combined with a very large observed albedo (0.76), indicates that Venus possesses a dense,
opaque atmosphere. Spectroscopic observations made from both the Earth and space probes
show that Venuss atmosphere is 96 percent carbon dioxide and 3.5 percent nitrogen. The
remaining half-percent is made up of a number of other gases including sulfur dioxide, water
vapor, argon, and several acid compounds. Data from soft-landers indicate that at the surface of
Venus the pressure is 90 times that of the earths atmosphere at sea level or a pressure equivalent
to that at an ocean depth of 3000 feet! The surface temperature of Venus is about 750 K, nearly
that measured for the surface of Mercury. It is believed that this high degree of heating is the
result of the trapping of solar radiation in Venuss atmosphere by means of the so-called
greenhouse effect. Despite the opacity of the atmosphere in the visible and infrared regions of
the spectrum, longer-wavelength radio and radar waves can pass relatively unimpeded through
the cloud layers. As a result astronomers have been able to map the surface of Venus with a
high degree of precision. The surface of Venus consists of a wide variety of geological features,
including mountains, highlands, rolling plains, impact craters, and volcanoes. The interior of
Venus is probably similar to that of the earth. Perhaps because of the slow rotation of Venus, no
comparable magnetic field or magnetosphere has been produced.

Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets 185



THE EARTH
Because we have already discussed the Earth-Moon system in considerable detail, only a
brief description of our home planet and its satellite will be presented here for purposes of
comparison with other worlds in the solar system.

Motion
The earth moves in a slightly elliptical orbit at a mean distance of 150 million km from the
sun. The time required for the earth to complete a revolution of the sun is defined as one
sidereal year. The earth also spins on its axis, and the time it takes for one complete rotation is
defined as the day. Both of these units of time are used in measuring the motions of the other
planets.

Satellites
The earth has only one satellite, the moon, which is so large with respect to the earth that
the earth-moon system is often regarded as a double planet.

Physical Properties
Satellite observations indicate that the earth is essentially an oblate spheroid 12,714 km in
diameter at the poles and 12,756 km at the equator, and has a mass of about 6 10
24
kilograms or
about 3 10
6
solar mass.
The albedo of the earth is about 0.35. To an extraterrestrial observer, this would suggest
the presence of a significant atmosphere, which would be confirmed by observations of an
186 Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets



extensive cloud cover over much of the earths surface. The earths atmosphere is composed of
nitrogen (78 percent), oxygen (21 percent), argon (0.9 percent), and trace amounts of water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and a number of other gaseous substances.
A unique feature of the earth is the fact that nearly three-fourths of its surface is covered by
water ranging in depth from a few meters to over 10 km.
The solid surface of the earth consists of high, rugged mountain ranges, flat plains, great
deserts, and a pair of polar ice caps thousands of feet thick. Moreover, the earths surface is still
very active geologically, as evidenced by the relatively frequent occurrence of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and other upheavals.

MARS
No object in the night sky has inspired more interest and controversy than the planet Mars.
Its distinctive red-orange color reminiscent of fire and blood was probably a factor in its
ages-long association with war. Since the announced discovery of the martian canals over a
century ago, Mars has inspired a magnificent modern mythology, owing to the fact that it is the
one object in the solar system, aside from the earth, for which there is a reasonable possibility
that life forms may be present.

Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets 187



Motion
Like the orbit of Mercury, the Martian orbit is somewhat eccentric and carries Mars from
roughly 200 million km out to 250 million km from the sun over a period of some 687 days. At
times of opposition the distance between Mars and the earth can thus range anywhere between 50
and 100 million km, and the oppositions of especially close approaches to the earth, which occur
at 15- to 17-year intervals, are called favorable oppositions.
From direct observations of features on Mars visible surface, the planets rotation period is
found to be 24
h
37
m
, or slightly longer than that of the earth. Like the earth, Mars has an axial tilt
of about 24, which gives rise to a similar set of seasons, albeit nearly twice as long as those on
the earth.

Satellites
Mars has two natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos, which were discovered in 1877 by
Asaph Hall. They circle their primary at 9300 km and 23,400 km from the center of Mars with
respective sidereal periods of 7
h
39
m
and 30
h
18
m
. Photographic data obtained by space probes
show both satellites to be dark, cratered chunks of rocky material which are somewhat oblong in
shape. Phobos is about 20 28 km in size, and Deimos has dimensions of only 10 16 km.

Physical Properties
Mars diameter is 6760 km. From the motions of its satellites and from its gravitational
effects on space probes, its mass is calculated to be one-tenth that of the earth. The mean
density of Mars is 3900 km/m
3
, and the mean surface temperature is some 250K.
188 Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets



Mars is the only planet in the solar system whose surface is readily accessible to
earth-based astronomers. Telescopically, Mars displays a reddish disk interlaced with
irregularly shaped dark areas. Also observed are white polar caps, each of which increases in
size in the Martian autumn and winter for the given hemisphere and recedes in the spring and
summer.
Marss albedo (about 0.15) indicates that at best a thin atmosphere surrounds the planet.
More detailed observations of Mars show that its atmosphere is about 1/100 as dense as that of
the earth. The Martian atmosphere is also known to contain mostly carbon dioxide and some
nitrogen and argon. Trace amounts of oxygen and water vapor have also been detected. The
Martian atmosphere is capable of raising gigantic windstorms with velocities of more than
480 km/hr that extend over almost the entire surface for weeks at a time. It is believed that such
windstorms have been the most important agent in carving and eroding the present surface of the
planet.
Closeup shots of the Martian surface taken by space probes reveal a wealth of geological
features. Most spectacular, perhaps, is an enormous Grand Canyon rift valley dozens of
kilometers wide and over 7000 meters deep which stretches more than 3200 km across the
Martian equatorial regions. Also to be seen are volcanic caldera as large or larger than any
found on the earth, numerous impact craters, and the long sinuous valleys resembling the lunar
rilles. The rille-like features are especially interesting because, unlike those found on the moon,
they could well have been created by flowing water relatively recently in Marss geological
history. The Martian polar caps are almost certainly a combination of ice and frozen carbon
dioxide, or dry ice: they are roughly 1 km thick and about 640 km in diameter during the Martian
Chapter 8: The Terrestrial Planets 189



winter. The famous canals of Mars do not appear on space probe shots and are thus generally
held to be optical illusions resulting from the inability of earth-based telescopes to resolve greater
detail on the planets surface, although a few can now be identified as natural topographical
features.
Viking analyses of the Martian soil have shown it to be rich in iron (13-15 percent), silicon
(14-24 percent), calcium (3-5 percent), aluminum (2-5 percent), and titanium (1/3-1/2 percent).
Tests designed to detect life on Mars indicate that the Martian soil is chemically active.
Whether this activity is due to the presence of life forms or to some other type of chemical
response has not yet been totally and unambiguously resolved.
The relatively low mean density of Mars suggests that its interior is somewhat different
from the other terrestrial worlds. From theoretical models, astronomers have hypothesized that
Mars has a core 2100 km in diameter which is composed of a mixture of iron and iron sulfide.
The mantle is about 2350 km thick and is probably composed of iron oxides and iron-magnesium
silicates.


191







CHAPTER 9


THE GAS GIANT PLANETS





JUPITER
In contrast to the compact, low-mass, high-density terrestrial planets out to and including
the planet Mars, the worlds beyond Mars are characterized by relatively large masses, large
diameters, and very low densities. Typical of these gas giants is the largest planet in the solar
system, Jupiter.

Motion
Jupiter moves about the sun once every 12 years in a nearly circular orbit with a radius of
5.2 AU or about 778 million km. No permanent surface features can be detected on Jupiter,
owing to its deep, opaque atmosphere. Observations of the Doppler effect in the light reflected
from the extremities of the planet indicate that, on the average, the planet completes a single
rotation once every 9
h
55
m
, but does not rotate as a rigid body. Because of this extremely rapid
rate of rotation, the planet is flattened to about one part in fifteen. The earth, by contrast, is
flattened to about one part in three hundred.
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Satellites
Because of its enormous mass, Jupiter has assembled an impressive entourage of sixteen
known satellites, including the four so-called Galilean satellites that were first discovered by
Galileo in 1609 and were used at that time to provide strong indirect support for the heliocentric
theory. Two of these satellites, Ganymede and Callisto, are actually as large as or larger than the
planet Mercury. Callisto and Ganymede, the outermost of the Galilean satellites consist of a
mixture of rock and ice and may possess liquid water mantles. Their surfaces are also heavily
marked by impact craters. Europa has only a few impact craters on its surface and a much lower
ice content than either Callisto or Ganymede. Io is the innermost Galilean satellite of Jupiter,
and because of Jupiters tidal forces, Ios surface is covered with actively erupting volcanoes
which can spew material as high as 100 km above Ios surface. Five of the outermost satellites
have orbits that are highly inclined to Jupiters orbital plane and are moving in a retrograde
direction. It is generally believed that these satellites are asteroids that have been gravitationally
captured by the massive Jupiter.

Rings
Jupiter is girded by a thin system of ring sheets which extend from the cloud tops of Jupiter
out to 130,000 km from Jupiters center.

Physical Properties
From the motions of Jupiters satellites and the planets gravitational effect on other planets
in the solar system, astronomers have found that Jupiter is 318 times more massive than the
Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets 193



earth, a mass that is greater than that of all the other planets combined. Jupiter also possesses
the greatest diameter (142,700 km) of any planet in the solar system. Despite its large mass,
however, Jupiters mean density is only about 1.3 times that of water, a fact which suggests that
the planet is composed primarily of lighter materials, especially hydrogen and helium. It is
believed that the pressures that exist in the deeper layers of Jupiter are sufficient to compress
both hydrogen and helium into their respective liquid and metallic states . Thus, unlike the sun,
which is known to be gaseous throughout, Jupiter most likely has a solid core. One interesting
observation in this regard is the discovery that despite a low (130K) outer temperature and an
albedo of 0.5, Jupiter actually radiates twice as much energy into space as it receives from the
sun, prompting some astronomers to speculate that Jupiter may be slowing contracting and
releasing gravitational potential energy in the process. A more likely explanation, however, is
that Jupiter is gradually releasing its internal energy of formation over several billions of years.
Most intriguing of all, however, is Jupiters atmosphere which, from spectroscopic
observations, is found to consist primarily of hydrogen and helium with lesser amounts of gases
such as ammonia, water, ethane, and acetylene, among others.
Jupiters atmosphere is known to be in an exceedingly active state. High-velocity
atmospheric currents similar to the jet streams on the earth superimposed on a welling up and
sinking circulation are believed to be responsible for the series of ever-changing bands that are
observed to run parallel to the planets equator. In 1955, the planet was found to emit radio
radiation which, unlike radio radiation arising from a normal blackbody, increased in intensity
with increasing wave-lengths. Much of this nonthermal radiation can be accounted for by
charged particles from the interplanetary medium being trapped and accelerated by a Jovian
194 Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets



magnetic field over 1500 times as strong as our own terrestrial field. Spacecraft sent to Jupiter
have revealed the existence of a huge magnetosphere, similar in structure to that of the earth, but
with dimensions and particle densities hundreds of times larger.
Atmospheric disturbances are also observed to appear suddenly on the planets disk and
dissipate over several weeks or months. The most famous of these is the so-called Great Red
Spot, an oval-shaped area in Jupiters southern hemisphere that has been known to exist for as
long as telescopes could detect its presence. Over the years, the color of this feature has
changed in an irregular fashion from a brick red to a light pink, and in some years has become
almost invisible. It is now known that the Great Red Spot is in effect an enormous cyclonic
storm similar to a hurricane, which has been raging for centuries.

SATURN
The gas giant next distant from the sun is Saturn, which appears as a golden first magnitude
object to the naked eye. Early low resolution telescopic views of the planet revealed what
appeared to be ears, handles, or other appendages attached to the planet. It was not until
1655 that a Dutch scientist named Christian Huygens was able to clearly resolve these features as
a set of rings which encircle Saturn but are detached from it. When viewed through even
modest telescopes, Saturn and its ring system constitute one of the most beautiful objects in all of
the heavens.

Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets 195



Motion
Saturn moves in an almost circular orbit with a radius of 9.5 AU or nearly 1.43 billion km.
One sidereal period takes 29 1/2 years to complete. As in the case of Jupiter, Saturns rate of
rotation is best determined from the Doppler shifts present in the light reflected from the planet.
By this means, Saturn has been found to possess an average rotation period of about
10 1/2 hours, which also varies with latitude. Saturn is flattened at the poles even more than
Jupiter and has an observed oblateness of about one part in ten.

Satellites
Saturns large mass has enabled it to retain a system of twenty known satellites, the largest
of which is Titan, an object that, like Ganymede, is larger than the planet Mercury. Titan is
known to possess an atmosphere; spectroscopic analysis has shown it to contain primarily
methane and nitrogen. The conditions of temperature and pressure at the surface of Titan
suggest that methane can exist there as a gas, liquid, and solid, much as water can exist in the
same states on the earths surface. Titans atmosphere is both opaque and extensive, and its
interactions with Titans solid surface and/or surface liquid bodies remains a topic for
speculation.
The satellite Iopetus has a diameter of about 1460 km and is remarkable in that one
hemisphere of this satellite is ten times more reflective than the other, owing perhaps to a
soot-like deposit on the dark hemisphere.
Another satellite, Enceladus, has a diameter of 500 km and an albedo nearly equal to 1.0,
which means that essentially all of the light incident on this object is reflected back into space.
196 Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets



Explanations for such a high reflectance ability range from water volcanoes on the surface of
Enceladus to constant cratering of the surface by ice particles from Saturns rings.
The satellite Phoebe lies nearly four times farther away from Saturn than the outermost of
all the rest of Saturns satellites, and orbits backward at an angle nearly perpendicular to the
orbits of the rest of Saturns satellites. Its very dark surface, location, and peculiar orbit suggest
that Phoebe may in fact be a captured asteroid of some sort.

Rings
Saturns hallmark is, of course, its spectacular ring system. The rings are concentric about
Saturn and range in size from about 66,000 km out to nearly 170,000 km from the center of
Saturn. Like the rings of the other gas giant planets, Saturns rings are composed of an
infinitude of individual ice and dust particles ranging from a few millimeters up to several meters
in size. Each particle moves in an individual orbit about Saturn and is subjected to a number of
forces including tidal and gravitational forces from Saturn and its satellites, gravitational forces
and from other particles in the rings, and various electrostatic and electromagnetic forces. As a
result, Saturns ring system exhibits a complex structure of ringlets, half-ringlets, braided
ringlets, and gaps, none of which are completely understood by astronomers.

Physical Properties
Both in size (120,800 km) and mass (95 earth masses) Saturn ranks second in the solar
system. Its density, however, is the lowest of the planets and is only 0.76 that of water. Thus,
Saturn would float provided a sufficiently large body of water could be made available.
Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets 197



Saturns interior is thought to consist of an ice-rock core, not as dense or a s small as that of
Jupiter, which is surrounded by a mantle of liquid metallic and molecular hydrogen . As in the
case of Jupiter, Saturn radiates more energy than it receives from the sun. In Saturns case,
however, it is thought that gravitational energy released by helium atoms as they sink through the
lighter hydrogen atoms of Saturns mantle provides the most likely source of the excess energy.
Saturns albedo (0.5) and spectroscopic analysis indicate that its atmosphere is similar to
that of Jupiter, although for Saturn ammonia lines are absent, presumably because at Saturns
mean temperature (110K) the ammonia is frozen out. Atmospheric bands exist on Saturn but
are less distinct than those on Jupiter because Saturns cloud layers are less compacted by gravity
and hence are more obscuring of the lower atmospheric structure. Only a few disturbances have
been observed to occur in Saturns atmosphere, the most famous of which was the Great White
Spot, a feature that appeared prominently for several months in 1933 and then dissipated.
Saturn has a significant magnetic field and magnetosphere, but neither are as strong nor as
extensive as those of Jupiter.

URANUS
198 Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets



Until 1781, Saturn was the outermost of the known planets. In March of that year, the
English astronomer Sir William Herschel, while conducting star counts in the constellation
Gemini, came upon a small disk-shaped object that moved relative to the fixed stars on a
night-to-night basis. Herschel at first thought he had discovered a comet, but further observation
indicated that the object was in fact a planet. Just barely visible to the naked eye, it had
previously been sighted and recorded a number of times as a star. Thus, Uranus was the first
planet to be discovered by means of the telescope.

Motion
Uranus moves in a slightly elliptical orbit at a distance of 2.9 billion km from the sun and
takes 84 years to complete a single revolution. When viewed from earth, its greenish disk
exhibits little more than indistinct markings and hence, the only earth-based method by which its
rotational period can be measured is from the Doppler shifts present in the light reflected from
the planets edges. Space probes, however, have permitted a better view of the planet and the
planet is now known to rotate once every 17
h
14
m
. One unusual aspect of Uranuss rotation is
that its equator is inclined at nearly 90 to its orbital plane, thus allowing astronomers to view
Uranus pole-on on some occasions and equator-on in others.

Satellites
Uranus has fifteen known satellites, the largest of which is about 1600 km in diameter.
Five of the satellites have diameters ranging between 1000 km and 1600 km in size. These
Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets 199



objects exhibit a variety of interesting topographic features formed by meteoric impacts and
geologic processes.

Rings
Uranus is surrounded by a system of eleven rings having diameters ranging from 72,000 km
up to 100,000 km. The system includes ringlet features similar to those found in Saturns ring
system, a broad, flat dust ring, and several rings that are not perfectly circular in shape.

Physical Properties
From the motions of the satellites, the mass of Uranus is found to be about 15 earth masses,
and the planet has a diameter of some 50,000 km. The interior of Uranus is believed to be quite
different from the interiors of Jupiter and Saturn. The core of Uranus is thought to have a
diameter of about 8000 km and is composed of silicate rock. The mantle is an ice-liquid
mixture of water, ammonia, and methane which is roughly 10,000 km thick.
Overlaying the mantle is a roughly 10,000 km thick atmosphere composed primarily of
hydrogen with lesser amounts of helium and methane.
Uranus has a magnetic field whose magnetic axis is aligned some 60 from the planets
rotational axis and is offset from the planets center by nearly 1/4 of the planets radius.
Interestingly, in spite of the peculiar orientation of the planets magnetic and rotational axes
relative to the planet itself, the overall magnetic field and magnetosphere or Uranus are roughly
aligned in the same fashion relative to the planets orbital plane as in the cases of the magnetic
200 Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets



fields and magnetospheres of other planets. The magnetic field strength and extent of the
magnetosphere for Uranus are intermediate between those of Jupiter and the Earth.

NEPTUNE
Within a decade after the discovery of Uranus, astronomers and mathematicians eagerly
computed the new planets orbit and found, much to their dismay, that Uranus did not move
according to prediction, even when the gravitational effects of the planets were taken into
account. By 1840, the disagreement between observation and prediction had soared to over two
minutes of arc, an unacceptable discrepancy for the telescopic age. In an attempt to resolve the
dilemma, two mathematicians, John Adams of England and Urbain Leverrier of France,
simultaneously but independently predicted the existence of a new planet orbiting the sun beyond
the planet Uranus whose gravitational effects were responsible for the observed discrepancy. On
the night of September 23, 1846 Johann Galle, an astronomer at the Berlin Observatory found the
new planet, subsequently called Neptune, within a degree of the position predicted for it. Thus
occurred one of the major triumphs of modern theoretical science.

Motion
Neptune orbits the sun in the most nearly circular orbit of all the planets. At a distance of
4.5 billion km from the sun, Neptune requires 165 years to complete a single revolution. Using
space probe data, Neptunes rotation period is found to be 16
h
03
m
.

Satellites
Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets 201



Neptune has eight known satellites. The most impressive of these is the 2700 km diameter
satellite Triton. Triton possesses a very thin atmosphere and a wealth of interesting surface
features, including polar ice caps, frozen seas, erupting ice volcanoes, and a number of as yet
unexplained topographical features. The density of Triton is that of an ice-rock mixture and is
similar to objects such as Pluto (next section) found in more remote regions of the solar system.
This fact, coupled with the unusual backward orbital motion of Triton about Neptune strongly
suggests that Triton may in fact be a captured object.
A second satellite of Neptune worthy of note is Nereid which moves in a highly elongated
elliptical orbit which carries it from 2.1 million km out to nearly 16 million km from Neptune.
With a relatively small and suitable gravitational perturbation, Nereid could escape Neptunes
grasp with comparative ease.

Rings
Like the other gas giant planets, Neptune also possesses a ring system consisting of three
distinct ringlets , a broad flat plateau ring, and an inner belt of particles which extends almost
to the outer layers of Neptunes atmosphere. One of the ringlets seems to have a variable
density which gives it a lumpy appearance.

Physical Properties
In many respects Neptune is a near-twin to Uranus. Neptune is 17 times as massive as
earth and has a diameter of 49,000 km. Its mean density (2300 kg/m
3
), like that of Uranus, is
202 Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets



higher than those of Jupiter and Saturn, again suggesting an interior consisting of a rock core and
icy mantle whose dimensions are similar to those for Uranus.
The albedo (0.62) is very close to that of Uranus, and as in the case of Uranus, methane and
hydrogen have been detected spectroscopically in the Neptunian atmosphere. Thus,
observational evidence indicates that the atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune are quite similar.
Unlike Uranus, however, Neptune displays distinctive cloud structure and formations. One such
feature, called the Great Dark Spot, was observed by the Voyager II spacecraft in 1989.
Interestingly, Hubble Space Telescope photographs taken of Neptune several years later show
that the spot has disappeared. Unlike Uranus, but like its gas giant brethren Jupiter and Saturn,
Neptune somehow radiates more energy than it receives from the sun. It is believed that this
process is somehow responsible for the presence of cloud structure in the atmosphere of Neptune
while such structure is almost completely absent in the atmosphere of Uranus. Neptunes
atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen with lesser amounts of hydrogen compounds
such as methane. Like Uranus, Neptunes bluish coloration arises from the absorption of the
reddish rays from the sun by the methane, leaving the blue light to the reflected and realtered
back into space.
Neptune also has a weak magnetic field and associated magnetosphere. As in the case of
Uranus, the magnetic axis of Neptune is tilted at a significant angle, about 55, relative to the
planets rotational axis, and the magnetic axis itself is offset from the planets center by about 1/4
of the planets radius.

Chapter 9: The Gas Giant Planets 203



OTHER SOLAR SYSTEM PLANETS
With the discovery in historical times of additional planets in the solar system, the obvious
question is whether or not even more planets are to be found orbiting the sun.
The existence of one such planet orbiting between the sun and the planet Mercury was
hypothesized in 1859 by Leverrier, and the planet was even given the name Vulcan. It was all
premature, however, as all attempts to find the planet ended in failure and the irregularities in the
motions of the planet Mercury upon which Leverrier had based his calculations are readily
explained by relativity theory.
A number of hypothesized planets have been proposed which lie outside of the orbit of
Neptune. Perhaps the most prominent example in recent years was the once-more prematurely
name planet Nemesis whose effects on the material in the outermost regions of the solar
system were presumed to cause comets to rain down onto the innermost regions of the solar
system. Many of these objects then collided with the earth, thus providing an explanation for
the record of impact cratering and mass extinctions of life which exist in the record of the earths
geological history which is to be found in the strate of the earths crustal layers. Extensive
searches for Nemesis have, like its Vulcan counterpart, failed to locate the hypothesized object.
In short, no one to date has been able to duplicate the feat of Adams and Leverrier in which
a planet proposer has been able to direct an observational astronomers telescope toward a
designated position the sky and find the planet as advertised.

OTHER SOLAR SYSTEMS
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Partly because of its bearing on the question of life in the universe, the existence of other
solar systems is a topic of continuing speculation and considerable interest. Unfortunately, the
distances to even the nearest stars are so vast that an earth-sized planet in the vicinity of 1 AU
from its local sun would be totally undetectable by direct observation with present
instrumentation. Several nearby stars, however, exhibit a gravitational wobble in their motion
due to the presence of one or more unseen or dark companions. These motions can be detected
by carefully observing the translational movement of stars through space or by observing
small-scale changes in a stars radial velocity. As a result of such observations several stars in
the vicinity of the sun are now believed to possess one or more orbiting companions which have
masses comparable to the larger gas giant planets in our solar system.


205







CHAPTER 10


THE INTERPLANETARY MEDIUM





The first evidence that the space about the sun and planets is not a complete void was the
observation of meteorite falls. These stones from heaven were reported at various times from
the seventh century B.C., but it wasnt until early in the nineteenth century that their
extraterrestrial nature was clearly recognized. Falling or shooting stars, now called meteors,
were also routinely observed. Even more spectacular were the comets, apparitions that appeared
in the sky, blossomed for a few days or weeks, and then disappeared, leaving a trail of gaseous,
dusty debris. Early in this century it was also discovered that the earth is subjected to a flux of
ionizing particle radiation, the cosmic rays, which originate outside of the earths atmosphere.
From all of these observations a picture has evolved of a vastly complex interplanetary medium
consisting of gas, dust, and chunks of ice, stone, and metallic material as large as several hundred
kilometers in diameter.

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PLUTO AND THE KUIPER BELT
Even after the successful prediction of the existence of the planet Neptune, the observed
motions of both Uranus and Neptune failed to agree exactly with predictions. This discrepancy
led several astronomers around the turn of the century to predict the existence of yet another
planet beyond the orbit of Neptune. The search for the predicted planet did not yield the quick
results that were obtained in the case of Neptune, and many astronomers began to doubt whether
such a planet existed. Percival Lowell, however, was particularly tenacious, and after his death
the observatory he founded in Flagstaff, Arizona, carried on the search photographically until
finally in 1930 a young assistant, Clyde Tombaugh, found the long soughtafter planet as a
15thmagnitude object in the constellation of Gemini.

Plutos Motion
Plutos orbit is unusual in several respects. First of all, its inclination to the c/ecliptic (17)
is higher by a factor of 2 than that of any other planet. Plutos orbital eccentricity (0.25) is also
the largest of the planets, and as a result, although its mean distance from the sun during its 248
year journey is about 5.9 billion km, or roughly twice the distance between the sun and mars.
There is, however, a strong possibility that at some time in the past history of the solar system,
the two planets were much more closely associated and that Pluto may have been a satellite of
Neptune.
Pluto is barely discernible even when viewed through the largest telescopes, and thus its
rotation rate cannot be measured from markings on its surface. Moreover, its intrinsic faintness
precludes the use highdispersion spectroscopy to measure a Doppler shift. Photoelectric
Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium 207



measurements have shown, however, that the brightness of Pluto decreases significantly every
6.4 days, suggesting that a darker area on the planets surface faces the earth once every rotation
period.

Plutos Satellite
Pluto has one satellite called Charon. It orbits the planet once every 6.4 days at a mean
distance of about 20,000 km. This object has a measured diameter of 1190 km (see below).

Plutos Physical Properties
Despite its remoteness much is known about Pluto. Direct observations from earth using
high resolution instruments and observations of a series of mutual eclipses of Pluto and Cheron
have yielded accurate diameters of 2300 km for Pluto and 1190 km fro Charon. Mass
calculations from the motion of Charon indicate that the mass of Pluto is approximately 0.002
that of the earth. Plutos mean density of about 2000 kg/m
3
suggests that the object is a mixture
of ice and rock.
Spectroscopic analysis reveals that Pluto probably has a methane frost surface and a thin,
extended atmosphere of methane and perhaps nitrogen. It is thought that this atmosphere will
freeze out onto the surface a Pluto moves farther away from the sun.

The Kuiper Belt
In all aspects, Pluto seems to have the characteristics not of the gas giants that roam the
outer reaches of the solar system, but rather of their satellites. More recent discoveries indicate
208 Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium



the Pluto is but one of many similar such objects which inhabit the TransNeptunean region of
the solar system called the Kuiper Belt. The Kuiper Belt is a disk of material which lies in the
plane of the solar system and extends outward from about 30 to several hundred AU from the
sun. Bodies in this region can perhaps be best described as dirty snowballs, icedust
aggregates ranging in size from about 1000 km in size downward. Several dozen such objects
have been discovered in this region of the solar system, and it has been speculated that the
Plutolike object Charon orbiting between Saturn and Uranus may have also been a onetime
inhabitant of the Kuiper Belt as well.

COMETS
From time to time an apparition appears in the night sky which has the appearance of a
fuzzy star followed by a tail. Such objects are called comets. Because of their spectacular and
sudden appearance, comets were, for centuries, regarded as omens of evil and catastrophic
events. Aristotle claimed that comets were atmospheric phenomena similar to aurorae and
shooting stars. In 1577, however, Tycho Brahe carefully observed a bright comet, and failing to
detect a parallax angle for this object, concluded that it was much more distant than the moon
and was hence an interplanetary object. The interplanetary nature of the comets was established
a century later when Edmund Halley, a close friend of Isaac Newton, used Newtons laws of
motion to describe cometary orbits and even successfully predicted the return of the bright comet
that now bears his name.
Since Halleys time, astronomers have found that virtually all comets move in highly
flattened elliptical orbits whose aphelion points can range up to thousands of astronomical units
Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium 209



from the sun. In addition, the orbits are randomly oriented with respect to the sun, so that every
direction of approach for a given comet is equally probable. If comets were interstellar in
nature, they would not move in closed ellipses, but in parabolic or hyperbolic encounter orbits
and would enter the solar system primarily from the direction toward which the sun is moving in
space. Thus, astronomers have concluded that comets are a part of the solar system.

Observed Structure of Comets
Comets are discovered at a rate of about five or six per year. Most of them are faint,
telescopic objects; prominent comets visible to the naked eye appear only about once in a decade.
Comet heads consist of a diffused coma which may contain a bright, star-like nucleus.
Space-age observations of comets indicate that comet heads are also surrounded by enormous
spheres of hydrogen gas up to 10 million km in diameter. The actual heads of comets can range
up to several hundred thousand kilometers in diameter. Most comets develop tails as they
approach the sun. Tails have been observed that extend over 160 million km in space.

Mass of Comets
Despite their great linear sizes, comets are objects of extremely low mass. Attempts to
measure their gravitational effects on the orbiting planets of the solar system have permitted
astronomers only to place limits of no more than 10
7
earth masses. Space probe encounters
with Halleys Comet in 1986 indicated a mass for that object of about 10
10
earth masses. Such
measurements also indicate that the mean densities of comet nuclei are about half the density of
ice.
210 Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium



Spectra of Comets
Although spectra vary considerably from comet to comet, several basic stages in cometary
spectra have been observed in the last few decades. Spectra taken of comets at great distances
from the sun reveal that the light emitted by the comet is essentially reflected sunlight, indicating
that at these distances the comet contains mostly solid dust and ice particles and little or no
gaseous material. At distances of less than about 3 AU, comets display spectra with emission
lines of CN, C
2
, OH, and NH as well as numerous other substances in lesser abundances. These
molecules are fragments of the large molecules of methane, ammonia, and water that have been
excited by the suns ultraviolet radiation, dissociated and in some instances recombined into
other molecules. If the comet is a sun gazer and reaches the outer limits of the solar
atmosphere, the excitation of the atoms in the comet is much more pronounced, and bright lines
of single elements such as silicon, sodium, and iron appear. The components of some comet
tails exhibit a reflected solar spectrum and are thus believed to be composed primarily of dust.
Other tail components exhibit various emission lines that suggest a predominance of ionized
gaseous material. Still others have a composite emission-line and reflected spectrum, which
indicate a tail having both gas and dust components. A comet may thus have a system of two or
more tails, some of which are gaseous and others of which are dust.

Life Cycle of Comets
It is generally believed that comets having periods longer than about 30,000 years originate
from a spherical shell of material called the Oort cloud between 1000 and 30,000 AU from the
sun which is composed of the dust, ice, and frozen gas remnants of the material out of which the
Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium 211



sun and planets were formed. Short period comets are believed to originate in the Kuiper Belt,
the previously mentioned disk of material which lies in the plane of the solar system and extends
outward from about 30 AU from the sun.
A comet begins its life when one of these dirty snowball aggregates is slowed down,
perhaps by the attraction of another such object, one of the outer planets, or a passing star, and
falls toward the sun. When this collection of matter reaches the inner portions of the solar
system, the frozen ices and gas sublime to form a glowing atmosphere (the coma) about the main
body (the nucleus). As a comet approaches the sun, some of the coma is forced out of the head
by the solar wind and by radiation pressure into a luminous tail which grows in length as the
distance between the comet and the sun decreases. Caught up in the solar wind, the comet tail
always points radially away from the sun, or in the case of the dust tails, curve away from the
sun.
As a comet leaves the sun, the tail grows less luminous and begins to dissipate. In some
instances a comet is slowed down by an encounter with one of the gas giants and falls back
toward the sun in a much smaller orbit, its aphelion point being in the vicinity of the retarding
planets orbit. Such a comet is called a periodic comet.
After several hundred perihelion passages the material lost to a comet from the formation of
the coma and tail reaches a significant fraction of its total mass, and the comet begins to
disintegrate. For example, Bielas comet, with a period of 7 years, was observed to split in two
in 1846. Both components returned in 1852. Since that time, however, Comet Biela has not
bee seen. Once a comet disintegrates, the remnants move along the comets orbit as a meteoroid
swarm which gradually dissipates into the interplanetary medium.
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THE ASTEROIDS
Lesser bodies of the solar system are not distributed throughout the interplanetary medium
but are concentrated in the region between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter called the asteroid belt.
The vast array of meteoroid chunks that have all or part of their orbital paths in this region are
known as asteroids.

Discovery of Asteroids
In 1766 the mathematician Johannes Titius formulated the following scheme for
remembering the distances to the planets: Set down the progression 0, 3, 6, 12, and so on, in
which the next element of the progression after 3 is obtained by doubling the previous one. By
adding 4 to each element and then dividing the result by 10, one obtains the approximate
distances of each of the planets from the sun in astronomical units (Table 10.1). This
progression is called Bodes law after Johann Bode, who made frequent reference to it.
However, it is not a law, but only a useful relationship, for it predicts the existence of Uranus but
not of Neptune or Pluto. It also indicates the existence of a planet between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter. The discovery of Uranus in 1781 at the distance predicted by Bods law spurred
astronomers to search the skies for the missing planet between Mars and Jupiter. On the night
of January 1, 1801, a Sicilian astronomer named Giuseppe Piazzi accidentally discovered a
planet-like object circling the sun at the predicted 2.8 Au. This new object was called Ceres and
was believed to be the planet they sought. Much to the surprise of astronomers, however, a
second asteroid, Pallas, was discovered a little over a year after Piazzis first observations of
Ceres. Two more asteroids, Juno in 1804 and Vesta in 1807, were discovered before the end of
Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium 213



the decade. By the end of the nineteenth century the total number of known asteroids was well
over 300, and at present some 5000 asteroids have reasonably well-determined orbits. It is
estimated that tens of thousands of asteroids are within the reach of the worlds great telescopes.

Table 10.1. Bodes Law and the Corresponding Planetary Distances
______________________________________________________________________________
Distance to Sun from Actual Planet-Sun
Progression Bodes Law Planet Corresponding to Distance
Element (AU) Progression Element (AU)
______________________________________________________________________________

1 1/10(4 + 0) = 0.4 Mercury 0.39
2 1/10(4 + 3) = 0.77 Venus 0.72
3 1/10(4 + 6) = 1.0 Earth 1.0
4 1/10(4 +12) = 1.6 Mars 1.6
5 1/10(4 +24) = 2.8 Asteroids 2.8 (mean)
6 1/10(4 +48) = 5.2 Jupiter 5.2
7 1/10(4 +96) = 10.0 Saturn 9.5
8 1/10(4 +192) = 19.6 Uranus 19.2
9 1/10(4 +384) = 38.8 Neptune 30.6
10 1/10(4 +768) = 77.2 Pluto 39.4
______________________________________________________________________________



Physical Properties of Asteroids
Of all the known asteroids, only four have measurable angular diameters and hence linear
diameters that can be determined directly. These are Ceres (700 km), Pallas (460 km), Vesta
(380 km), and Juno (220 km). The sizes of the remaining asteroids are estimated from their
apparent brightnesses by assuming that their albedos are about 0.1, the observed average albedo
for the four asteroids mentioned above. An asteroids apparent brightness, then, depends on its
distance from the sun, its distance from the earth, and its cross-sectional area. The
cross-sectional area of the asteroid is equal to (radius of asteroid),
2
and the radius and
214 Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium



diameter of a given asteroid can easily be calculated if the earth-asteroid and the sun-asteroid
distances are known. Astronomers have found that there are about fifteen asteroids with
diameters greater than 160 km, 400 or so with diameters greater than 16 km, and several
thousand with diameters greater than 2 km.
Asteroid masses are roughly estimated by assigning to them the density of the material
indicated by the asteroids reflective properties (stone, stone-iron, or iron) and multiplying this
density by the volume for a sphere or whatever other shape the given asteroid may have. Using
this method, asteroid masses are found to range downward from about 10
4
earth mass, and the
total mass of all the asteroids is estimated to be about 1/1600 that of the earth.
A great many asteroids are irregular in shape, as evidenced by the large variations in their
light curves and, in some cases, by direct photographs. Systematic photometric observations of
the asteroids reveal that these objects come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes and rotate with
periods ranging from 2 to 20 hours.

Orbits of Asteroids
Because asteroids are low-mass objects, it is relatively easy for them to be perturbed out of
a given orbit by the gravitational action of the planets, especially Jupiter. Thus, although most
of the asteroid orbits are ellipses that lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and are
reasonably well confined to the plane of the solar system, others exhibit some highly interesting
effects. Some asteroids, such as the Trojans, are gravitationally trapped into a fixed position
relative to the sun and Jupiter and are carried ahead and behind the gas giant as it orbits the sun.
Others seem to be even more strongly trapped by Jupiters gravity and are now orbiting Jupiter as
Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium 215



satellites. Still others travel great distances away from the asteroid belt. The path of the
asteroid Hidalgo reaches out to the orbit of Saturn, and that of Icarus passes within 32 million km
of the sun, well within Mercurys orbit. On occasion, some asteroids pass very close to the earth
and over the earths geological history, have actually struck our planet. It is surmised, for
example, that Meteor Crater (Barringer Crater) in Arizona was formed by the impact of one such
asteroid approximately 20,000 years ago, and that the end of the age of the dinosaurs 63 million
years ago was the result of a catastrophic collision with a large asteroid. Currently several dozen
asteroids called near earth asteroids can pass within a relatively close 5 million miles of the
earth.
The repeated gravitational action of Jupiter on the asteroids has cleared a series of zones
within the asteroid belt called Kirkwoods gaps. The gaps are located at mean distances that,
from Keplers harmonic law, correspond to sidereal periods that are even fractions such as
one-half, one-third, or one-fourth of Jupiters sidereal period. These gaps are analogous to the
major divisions observed in Saturns rings.

Origin of Asteroids
There are several theories concerning the origin of the asteroids. One theory is that they
are remnants of one or more planetoids about the size of the moon that were fragmented either by
the tidal action of Jupiters gravity or by collisions with one another. Another theory speculates
that the asteroids are the fragments of a planet that for some reason was unable to form along
with the other planets of the solar system.

216 Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium



METEORS AND METEORITES
As the earth moves through space, it encounters a great many solid particles called
meteoroids. Any meteoroid that happens to be in the earths way will be drawn toward it by the
force of gravity. The friction between the rough surface of the rapidly moving (12-72 km/sec)
meteoroid and the molecules in the earths atmosphere heats up the meteoroid to several
thousand degrees and causes it to vaporize. The light from this event is observed as a falling
star, shooting star, or meteor. The brightness of meteors can vary considerably with the velocity
of the incoming meteoroid, and with the meteoroids composition. When a very energetic
interaction occurs between a meteoroid and the earths atmosphere, the resulting meteor will be
particularly bright, often attaining the brilliance of a full moon. Such meteors are called
fireballs. Bolides are meteors that explode with an audible sound.

Meteor Showers
Periodically the earths orbital motion brings it into contact with the remnants of
disintegrated comets. When this occurs, the earths atmosphere is bombarded with thousands of
particles, each of which is visible as a meteor. Such a display of meteors is referred to as a
meteor shower. Some meteor showers rank among the most spectacular of all the celestial
events. Large meteor showers occurred, for example, when the earth encountered the remnants
of the ill-fated Comet Biela in 1872 and again in 1885. More recently, impressive displays of
Leonid meteors occurred in November 1966 and of Draconid meteors in October 1946. Such
displays, however, are comparatively rare. The cometary debris usually encountered by the earth
is distributed fairly evenly along the comets orbit, with the result that the shower occurs
Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium 217



regularly each year, but with fewer meteors per unit time. The most reliable meteor showers of
this type are Perseids in August and the Geminids in December (Table 10.2).
The particles giving rise to meteor showers move parallel to one another in space.
However, as they strike the earths atmosphere they appear to diverge from a point called the
shower radiant, much as a pair of parallel rails seem to radiate from a distant point. The shower
usually takes its name from the constellation in which this radiant point is located. For example,
the Leonids appear to radiate from the center of the sickle of the constellation Leo, the Draconids
from the head of the constellation of Draco the Dragon and so on.

Table 10.2. Some Annual Meteor Showers
______________________________________________________________________________
Date of Maximum Usual Number of
Shower Number of Meteors Meteors per Hour
______________________________________________________________________________

Quandrantids Jan. 3 30
Lyrids Apr. 21 15
Perseids Aug. 11 50
Draconids Oct. 9 10
Orionids Oct. 20 15
Taurids Oct. 31 10
Taurids Oct. 31 10
Leonids Nov. 16 15
Geminids Dec. 13 50
______________________________________________________________________________



Sporadic Meteors
Meteors that do not occur in showers are called sporadic meteors because they appear at
random and do not seem to radiate from any single point. Moreover, their orbital paths prior to
entry into the earths atmosphere are randomly oriented in space.
218 Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium



Meteorites
If conditions are right, a sporadic meteoroid, or part of one, can successfully traverse the
earths atmosphere and strike the surface. Such a chunk of interplanetary material is called a
meteorite. Meteorites are generally grouped into three classes, the irons (siderites), the stones
(aerolites), and the stone-iron (siderolites). Iron meteorites consist of approximately 90 percent
iron, 9 percent nickel, and 1 percent other substances, a composition not dissimilar to that
thought to exist in the earths core. When sliced and polished and etched with acid, the irons
exhibit a unique crystalline structure known as the Widmanstten figures. Stony meteorites have
a predominantly silicate composition much like the earths crust and as such, their identification
as meteorites is much more difficult than for the irons. Rarest of all the meteorites are the
stony-irons, which are composed of a mixture of almost equal amounts of iron and stony
meteorite material.
Perhaps the most interesting aspect of meteorites involves the detection of amino acids in a
number of such objects. These amino acids are remarkable in that they have a slightly different
chemical structure from those found on Earth. These results strongly suggest the existence of
extraterrestrial processes capable of building the complicated molecules needed for life as we
know it.
Meteorites can reach considerable size. The largest known meteorite lies in the Kalahari
desert in southwest Africa and weighs some 60 metric tons. Throughout the world meteoritic
craters of considerable size, such as the one in northern Arizona, bear witness to the fact that
every so often the earth is struck with enormous impact by meteorites hundreds or more meters in
diameter.
Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium 219



Round, glassy objects called tektites have been found in several regions of the earths
surface. Their composition is not like that of the meteorites, and although they are generally
believed to be extraterrestrial in nature, there is much about these objects that is most
controversial.

INTERPLANETARY DUST
Tiny dust-like particles have been observed and collected in the upper atmosphere by
balloons, rockets, and aircraft and in the interplanetary medium by deep-space probes. These
particles, only a few microns in diameter (1 micron = 10
4
cm), seem to be composed of the same
materials as meteorites, revolve around the sun in individual orbits, and have a density of about
200 particles per cubic kilometer.

Micrometeorites
When interplanetary dust particles come into contact with the earths atmosphere, they are
decelerated and thus do not heat up and vaporize as a meteor does. Rather, they float to the
surface of the earth comparatively unaltered, much as dust settles after a wind storm. These
particles, too small to be observed as meteors, are referred to a micrometeorites.

Zodiacal Light
On a dark, clear night it is sometimes possible to observe a faint band of light near the
horizon. This band, called the zodiacal light, is symmetrical with respect to the ecliptic and
220 Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium



increases in intensity with decreasing angular distance from the sun. The zodiacal light is
thought to be due to the scattering of sunlight by interplanetary particles.

The Gegenschein
The gegenschein, or counterglow, is a faint, diffuse patch of light that can be seen almost
exactly opposite the sun on a dark, clear night. Like the zodiacal light, the gegenschein is
believed to be due to the reflection of sunlight by interplanetary dust particles.

INTERPLANETARY GAS
There is evidence that gas as well as dust exists in the interplanetary medium. This gas is
composed primarily of protons and electrons and has a density of 1 to 5 particles per cubic
centimeter. Solar phenomena, including flares, coronal streamers, and the solar wind are
believed to be the source of most of the interplanetary gas. Other high-energy particles found in
interplanetary space may originate within our galaxy from supernovae explosions or flare-type
particle ejections from distant stars. The high-energy particles emanating from the sun as well
as from outside the solar system are often referred to as cosmic rays.

THE ORIGIN OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM
The origin of the system of planets has long been debated in the scientific community. In
one text on the solar system, the authors list no less than 21 theories that have, at one time or
other, been advanced for the origin of the planetary system. Part of the problem lies in
determining what aspects of the solar system that are observed are in fact related to its formation.
Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium 221



It is almost certain that the planar symmetry of the solar system, the uniformity of the direction
of the rotations and revolutions of the planets and their satellites, and the existence of dens,
compact planets and their satellites, and the existence of dense, compact planets near the sun and
huge, tenuous planets farther away are among these factors, but others, such as the geometric
progression of planetary distances called Bodes law may not be significant. Out of all these
theories, however, two general approaches to the problem have emerged: encounter hypotheses
and nebular hypotheses.

Encounter Hypotheses
All of the encounter hypotheses have the sun either colliding with or experiencing a tidal
interaction of some sort with an interloping object that pulls from the sun or itself contributes the
material that goes into the formation of planets. Among the objections to such theories are that
(1) the vast distances between stars and the low relative motions between our sun and the nearby
stars render such encounters extremely unlikely, (2) once the material is pulled into space it is
theoretically impossible to account for the fact that the material contracts into planets instead of
simply dissipating into the interplanetary medium, and (3) the encounter theories do not attack
the problem of the suns origin. Such hypotheses have thus been dismissed by solar system
scientists.

Nebular Condensation Hypotheses
More in keeping with the current ideas of stellar evolution are the so-called nebular
hypotheses, in which the sun and the members of the solar system are formed by the gravitational
222 Chapter 10: The Interplanetary Medium



contraction of a great interstellar cloud of gas and dust. Early versions of the nebular hypothesis
, in particular those of Kant (1775) and Laplace (1796), had difficulty explaining the fact that the
bulk of the rotational momentum of the solar system resides in the planets rather than in the sun,
nor could they account for the irregularities in planetary motion. Moreover, they could not
explain why planets would be formed from gaseous clouds, which have a tendency to disperse.
In 1950, astronomer G. P. Kuiper surmounted many of these difficulties with his protoplanet
hypothesis. By assuming the appropriate combination of gas and dust and taking into account
the fluid dynamics associated with turbulent clouds, Kuiper found that fragments of the solar
nebula, which he called protoplanets, would be formed. These in turn would coalesce into the
planets, satellites, and meteoroids of the solar system. This theory is especially attractive
because it not only accounts for the cometary material in the Oort Cloud and Kuiper Belt, but
more importantly, regards the solar system as just one manifestation of the physical processes by
which individual stars, binary and multiple systems of stars, and other planetary systems known
to exist in the vicinity of our sun were all formed.


223







CHAPTER 11


THE SUN





As the center of the solar system, the sun is not only larger and more massive than all the
planets combined but is also the source of the light and energy by which the planets are
illuminated. In the last century it was recognized that the sun is the nearest example of a distinct
class of celestial objects that we see in the night sky as the stars, and that are essentially balls of
incandescent gas whose energy is generated by large-scale nuclear processes.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE SUN
Using principles of mathematics and physics as well as a variety of instruments designed to
safely observe the sun past the large solar apparent brightness, astronomers have been able to
determine with some precision the overall dimension and physical characteristics of the sun.

The Solar Diameter
The sun exhibits an angular diameter of about 30 seconds of arc as seen from the earth.
Since the earth-sun distance is known, the linear diameter of the sun can be obtained; it is
13.92 10
5
km.
224 Chapter 11: The Sun



The Solar Mass
The motion of the earth about the sun provides the most accurate means for determining the
solar mass. By using Keplers harmonic law expressed in meter-kilogram-seconds (MKS) units,
the solar mass is found to be 2 10
30
kilograms or 330,000 times that of the earth.

The Solar Luminosity
The amount of power striking the surface of the earth per unit area is called the solar
constant and has a measured value of 1360 watts/m
2
. If the solar constant is multiplied by the
total surface area of a sphere having a radius equal to the earth-sun distance, then the product is
equal to the solar luminosity, L

, or the total energy generated by the sun per unit time. The
solar luminosity thus determined is 4 10
26
watts.

The Solar Temperature
The mean temperature of the suns outer layers can be estimated in a variety of ways,
including the use of Wiens law, Stefans law, Plancks law, and the relative intensities of
absorption lines in the solar atmosphere. In all cases, the mean temperature of the suns
atmosphere is found to be in the vicinity of 5800K.

The Rotation of the Sun
The sun, like the planets, spins on its axis. The rate of rotation is measured by observing
either the rate at which sunspots move across the visible face of the sun or from the Doppler
shifts present in the light radiating from its edges. Results from such studies indicate that the
Chapter 11: The Sun 225



sun does not rotate as a rigid body, but spins faster at its equator (once every 25 days) than at
points near its poles (once every 35 days).

The Solar Magnetic Field
The sun processes a very weak magnetic field which is thought to be similar to that of the
earth, both in terms of the general shape of its field lines and its overall magnitude. The
relationship between this general field and the stronger, more localized magnetic fields that are in
part responsible for sunspots, flares, and other aspects of solar activity is not yet clear.

THE SOLAR INTERIOR
226 Chapter 11: The Sun



The sun has been shining at or near its present rate for approximately 4 billion years. Its
tremendous energy output cannot be accounted for by any classical method of energy production
such as chemical, gravitational, or rotational processes. The dynamics of the suns energy
generation, as well as that of the distant stars, puzzled astronomers and physicists into the early
part of this century, at which time Albert Einstein demonstrated in his theory of special relativity
that matter and energy are related by the familiar equation E = mc
2
, where c is the speed of light.
The conversion of even a small amount of material into its equivalent energy can result in an
energy release sufficiently large to account for the intensity and duration of solar luminosity.
Nuclear energy is released either by breaking apart atoms (nuclear fission) or by fusing light
atoms into heavier atoms (nuclear fusion). Because elements such as uranium and plutonium
that are capable of sustaining fission reactions have extremely low cosmic abundances, nuclear
fission cannot be responsible for the suns energy generation. On the other hand nuclear fusion
processes in which hydrogen, the most abundant of the elements in the sun, is transformed into
helium, the next most abundant element in the sun, are now known to provide the source of the
suns energy production. Such a fusion reaction can be accomplished by means of either the
proton-proton (PP) cycle,

H
1
+ H
1
H
2
+ positron + neutrino
H
2
+ +H
1
He
3
+ energy (ray)
He
3
+ He
3
He
4
+ H
1
+ H + energy

or the carbon (CN) cycle,


Chapter 11: The Sun 227



C
12
+ H
1
+ N
13
energy (ray)
N
13
C
13
+ positron + neutrino
C
13
+ H
1
N
14
+ energy
N
14
+ H
1
O
15
+ energy
O
15
N
15
+ positron + neutrino
N
15
+ H
1
O
16
C
12
+ He
4



The superscripts denote the atomic weights of the elements involved. A positron is an electron
having a positive electric charge and a neutrino is a mysterious particle in nuclear physics that
has no mass or electric charge but is capable of carrying energy and can slip through matter like a
nuclear phantom.
Theoretical calculations indicate that the temperature at the center of the sun is 10 to
20 million degrees Kelvin and the pressure is over 400 billion times that of the earths
atmosphere. Under such conditions fusion by both the proton-proton cycle and the carbon cycle
can occur. Further investigations have shown that the proton-proton cycle accounts for
80 percent of the suns radiant energy and the carbon cycle for the remainder. Because the
temperature and pressure in the suns interior become less extreme at grater distances from the
center (for example, at a distance of R

/2 from the center of the sun, the temperature drops to


3 million degrees Kelvin and the pressure to less than 1 billion atmospheres), it is assumed that
virtually all of the fusion processes within the sun occur at or very near the center. The energy
generated in the center slowly makes its way outward in the form of photons that are absorbed
and reemitted by the highly ionized atoms in the suns deep interior. At a distance of 0.8 R


from the center, gigantic convection currents carry this radiant energy the remaining distance to
228 Chapter 11: The Sun



the surface of the sun. The tops of these convection currents are observable as the solar
granulation and give the suns outer layers their mottled or granulated appearance.

THE SOLAR ATMOSPHERE
Because of the suns large apparent brightness, astronomers have designed a number of
instruments and techniques which can resolve detail in the suns bright outer layers without
producing image brightnesses which could cause damage to a detecting device. Astronomers,
for example, can project the suns image safely onto a screen for examination or make use of
neutral density filters which cut down the suns image brightness. One instrument, called the
spectrophotometer, creates the suns image at the wavelength of a specific absorption line such as
the Balmer alpha line of the element hydrogen at 656 nanometers. Such images provide
astronomers with an invaluable amount of information about the suns outer layers. Other
observations of the suns atmosphere can be made during times of total solar eclipse, when the
suns visible disk is blotted out by the moon or by means of an instrument called a coronagraph,
in which the uns disk is eclipsed by an occulating disk placed within the optics of the
instrument. Using these observational techniques, astronomers have found that the solar
atmosphere consists of three distinct regions: the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the
corona.

The Photosphere
As the distance from the suns center increases, the temperature and pressure of these
interior layers decrease until the gaseous convective currents can no longer be maintained. The
Chapter 11: The Sun 229



end of the convection zone roughly marks the boundary between the solar interior and the suns
lowest atmospheric layer, the photosphere. The light emanating from the photosphere (light
sphere) defines the suns visible disk. Its spectrum contains hundreds of absorption lines that
reveal the presence of more than seventy elements and molecules in the photospheric gas. In
addition to line absorption, the photosphere spectrum shows continuous absorption, the source of
which is the negative hydrogen ion, a hydrogen atom that for a very short time picks up a free
electron and thus has a negative charge. As negative hydrogen ions form and dissociate, the
continuum radiation is absorbed and reemitted in a random fashion until it finally reaches the end
of the photosphere and escapes into space.
The light coming from the center of the solar disk appears brighter than that coming from
the edges. This phenomenon, referred to as limb darkening, arises out of the fact that the light
observed at the center of the sun originates in the deeper, hotter regions of the photosphere and
that observed at the edges originates in the higher, cooler regions. A detailed study of the
limb-darkening effect has allowed astronomers to develop a reasonably accurate picture of the
physical conditions present in the photosphere. The temperature at the top of the photosphere is
found to be about 4500K; it increases to 8000K some 400 km into the suns interior. The
photospheric pressure increases over the same interval from about 10
2
atmosphere to just under
1 atmosphere.

The Chromosphere
Just above the photosphere is the chromosphere (color sphere), a layer about
16 thousand km thick whose density decreases with increasing altitude but whose temperature
230 Chapter 11: The Sun



increases dramatically over the same interval from 4500K to over 100,000K. For many years
observations of the chromosphere could be made only in the few seconds preceding a total
eclipse of the sun. At this time the photosphere is covered, and a reddish crescent of light from
the chromosphere can be briefly observed. The spectrum of this light, called a flash spectrum,
exhibits elemental abundances much the same as those found in the photosphere. Because of
the higher temperatures, however, atoms in the chromosphere are in much higher states of
ionization and excitation and thus display slightly different sets of spectral lines. It was in the
chromospheric spectrum that the element of the sun, helium, was first discovered, years before
it was isolated and identified here on the earth.
The difficulty of observing the chromosphere has been overcome by the invention of the
coronagraph, a device in which the sun is eclipsed by optical means, thus permitting a more
leisurely study of this region than is possible during an eclipse. The chromosphere can also be
studied by use of a spectroheliograph, which allows the sun to be photographed in the light of a
very narrow spectral line such as the hydrogen alpha line at 656.3 nanometers.
In the upper region of the chromosphere can be seen a series of bright jets called spicules.
These jets shoot through the chromosphere to heights of several thousand kilometers above the
photosphere at velocities of 15 to 25 km/sec. Although each spicule lasts only from 2 to
5 minutes, about 100,000 of these features can be seen evenly distributed around the solar limb at
one time, giving the appearance of a brush fire. It is thought that the spicules are involved in the
transport of energy through the chromosphere as\d as such are closely related to the solar
granulation in the lower photosphere.
Chapter 11: The Sun 231



It is also in the chromospheric layer of the solar atmosphere that protons and electrons as
well as trace amounts of heavier nuclei are boiled off the sun and thrust into the interplanetary
medium. As these particles leave the sun they are thermally accelerated by the high coronal
temperatures and eventually reach speeds of several hundred kilometers per second. This
continual ejection of high-velocity atomic particles into the interplanetary medium is commonly
referred to as the solar wind. It has been measured extensively by artificial satellites as well as
by deep-space probes.

The Corona
During the total phase of a solar eclipse, the sun is surrounded by a pale glow of light
called the corona (crown). The corona is the outermost region of the solar atmosphere and
extends thousands of kilometers into space. It often displays a complicated structure of
streamers, which suggests the presence of strong localized magnetic fields.
The outer portion of the corona, or F corona, exhibits a reflected-absorption line spectrum
and is thought to be due to an inner extension of the interplanetary dust that gives rise to the
zodiacal light at greater distances from the sun. The inner portion of the corona or K corona,
exhibits a spectrum consisting of a number of emission lines superimposed on a weak
continuum. For many years these lines defied identification and were thought to arise from yet
another undiscovered element, coronium. However, the coronium lines were shown to arise
from atoms of iron, nickel, and calcium from which 13 or more electrons have been stripped.
The coronal temperature required for such a high degree of ionization is roughly 2 million
degrees Kelvin, a value that is confirmed by analyses of the profiles of the emission lines. The
232 Chapter 11: The Sun



density of the corona, however, is little more than that of the interplanetary medium, a density so
low that despite the high coronal temperature the total thermal energy emitted by the corona is
small compared to that which arises from the lower-temperature, but much higher-density
photosphere. The means by which the corona is heated to such a high temperature is thought to
be related to the deposition of large amounts of energy from the denser convective layers of the
sun at the base of the corona by the granulation and the spicules.

SOLAR ACTIVITY
Sunspots have been known since the time of Galileo and possibly even earlier. In 1838 it
was discovered that the number of spots visible on the sun varies in an 11-year cycle. More
detailed investigations have revealed a wealth of solar activity whose frequency and intensity
are closely correlated with the sunspot cycle. Thus, astronomers often refer to the sun as the
quiet sun at times of sunspot minima and the active sun at times of sunspot maxima. The
physical processes by which the various aspects of the solar activity cycle occur and their
relationship to one another are, to date, not completely understood by astrophysicists.

Sunspots
Sunspots appear, disappear, and change their size and shape as they advance across the
suns disk. Sunspots are about 1500K cooler than the surrounding solar gas and hence appear
darker. The lower temperature of sunspots is thought to be due to the reduction in energy flow
to these areas by the strong magnetic fields associated with them.

Chapter 11: The Sun 233



Faculae and Plages
Often a region develops on the solar surface that has the appearance of a bright, granulated
cloud. These regions, called faculae, usually develop in the vicinity of sunspots or in regions
with stronger than average magnetic fields. When viewed in a spectroheliograph, such features
are called plages. It is assumed that the faculae and plages are regions where the chromospheric
gas is changing its state of ionization and/or excitation, thereby emitting photon radiation.

Prominences and Filaments
Periodically huge jets of gas will, in a matter of minutes or hours, shoot thousands of
kilometers into space from the edge of the suns surface. These jets, called prominences, are
often twisted and bent by magnetic fields and taken on different shapes. Prominences are
usually observed at times of sunspot maxima, but, like other aspects of solar activity, they
sometimes occur at times of sunspot minima. Prominences that are not at the solar edge project
onto the solar disk as dark, wispy features called filaments.

Flares
Flares are the most impressive manifestations of solar activity. Sometimes a highly
localized area of the sun suddenly brightens up over a period of a few minutes. Associated with
this event are a wide variety of emissions, including X rays, radio bursts, and high-velocity
atomic particles. Such outbursts can have a considerable impact on the earth and its atmosphere,
and among other effects, can produce partial communications blackouts and aurorae.

234 Chapter 11: The Sun



Other Changes
A number of other changes in the solar atmosphere are related to the solar activity cycle.
At sunspot maximum, the corona is almost completely symmetrical about the solar disk and
extends out at a considerable angular distance; at sunspot minimum, it takes on a more flattened
appearance and exhibits weak polar rays. The variation in the strength of certain lines in the
spectrum of the solar corona is in phase with the solar activity cycle.
Most interesting of all, perhaps, is the fact that certain changes in the earths environment
seem to be related to the solar activity cycle. For example, botanists have found that the spacing
in tree rings, indicative of tree growth rates and hence climatic conditions, can be correlated with
the solar activity cycle. Because there are so many other variables, however, such potentially
important correlations between the solar cycle and the earths environmental conditions are,
unfortunately, of a very indirect nature.


235







CHAPTER 12


THE STARS





PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STARS
From the initial realization that Earth orbits about the Sun, astronomers simultaneously
surmised that the stars necessarily had to be situated at enormous distances from the Sun, or
otherwise the nearest of them would exhibit relatively large parallax angles as Earth proceeded in
its orbital motion. For more than two centuries after the invention of the telescope, astronomers
efforts to measure the parallax angles of the distant stars came to naught. When the first
parallax angles were finally measured in the middle of the last century, they confirmed the long
suspected fact that the stars were orders of magnitude more distant than the outermost planets.
Thus, the nearest star, called Alpha Centauri, is found to be located at a distance of some
4 10
16
meters from the Sun, or about 6000 times further away than the last known planetary
outpost of the Solar System. On the same scale, if the Earth-Sun distance were 1 meter, the
distance between Earth and Alpha Centauri would be 270 kilometers!
236 Chapter 12: The Stars



Stellar Distances
Because stellar distances are so large, the parallax angles measured to obtain them so small,
astronomers employ a unit of distance called the parsec which is defined as the distance to a star
having a parallax angle of one arcsecond or 1/3600 of a degree. Using these units, the
relationship between the distance to a star in parsecs and its parallax angle in arcseconds is
simply

distance (parsecs) =
1
parallax (arcseconds)
.

With suitable conversion calculations, we can show that one parsec is equal to about
3.1 10
16
meters and one arcsecond is about 4.8 10
6
radians. Astronomers also employ a unit
of distance called the light year, which was defined earlier as the distance a photon of light can
travel in one year moving at a rate of 300,000 km/sec. One light year is thus equal to about
9.5 10
15
m or about 0.3 parsec.

Stellar Luminosities
Despite the fact that the stars are at such large distances, about 5000 of them are bright
enough to be seen with the naked eye. Clearly, for stars to appear as bright as they do at the
distances at which they are located, the stellar energy outputs required are comparable to that of
the Sun. For example, the observed intensity of the light coming from the star Alpha Centauri is
approximately 3.0 10
8
watts/m
2
. From the measurements of the parallax angle of Alpha
Chapter 12: The Stars 237



Centauri, the distance to this star is about 1.3 parsec or about 4.1 10
16
meters. If we calculate
the total power output or luminosity of Alpha Centauri into all directions of space, we obtain


power of Centauri = ( ) 3.0 10
8
4 ( ) 4.1 10
16 2
watts
= 6.34 10
26
watts


or about 1.6 times that of the Suns luminosity. Similar calculations for other stars reveal a
rather large range of values for stellar luminosities. Stars exist that produce energy at a rate over
one million times that of the Sun, while others have a luminosity that is barely a millionth that of
the Sun. Thus, the Suns luminosity is about average, not remarkably large nor small as stars go.
Because the Sun seems to be a typical star in terms of its energy production as well as its
other physical characteristics, astrophysicists most often measure stellar properties in terms of
solar units. Thus, the Suns luminosity of 3.84 10
26
watts is defined as one solar power unit
or one solar luminosity. A star having a power output of seven solar luminosities would be
radiating a total power of 7 3.84 10
26
watts = 26.9 10
26
watts. Similar solar units are
defined for the mass, radius, and photospheric temperature. In this system, one solar mass unit
is defined as 2.0 10
30
kg, one solar radius unit is equal 6.5 10
8
meters, and one solar
photospheric temperature unit is equal to 5800 K.

Stellar Temperatures
Temperatures of stars can be obtained from intensity spectra and by employing either
Wiens law or the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Early in this century, it was discovered that the
238 Chapter 12: The Stars



patterns of absorption lines in stars of differing temperatures can be arranged into the sequence of
spectral types as shown in because as the temperature of a given gaseous mixture changes, the
energy levels occupied by the electrons of the gas will change as well. Thus, an electron in a
given energy level will drop down or thermally deexcite to a lower level at a lower temperature
or thermally excite up to a higher level at a higher temperature. As a result, the wavelength
pattern of spectral lines that atoms in a given gas can absorb is controlled in large measure by the
temperature of the gas. We can make use of this fact to obtain stellar temperatures readily by
simply comparing the spectral line patterns of a star whose temperature is unknown with the
spectral sequence of stellar temperatures determined from standard stars having
well-determined temperature values from Wiens law and the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The
standard star line spectrum that most closely matches the patterns of lines in the spectrum of the
star of unknown temperature is assumed to have the same temperature as the unknown star.
This process is referred to in astronomy as the method of spectral classification. Almost all
stars have photospheric temperatures in the range of 2,000 k to 50,000 K.
At the stars visible disk or photosphere the total energy intensity I
TOTAL
of the radiation
passing outward through the photosphere is

I
TOTAL
=
L
4R
2


where L is the luminosity of the star and R is its radius. If the photosphere has a temperature T,
we have from Stefans law that

Chapter 12: The Stars 239



I
TOTAL
= T
4

and hence

L = 4R
2
T
4


If we write this equation for the sun () and a star (_), we obtain


L
*
= 4R
2
*
T
4
*
L

= 4R
2

T
4



Dividing these equations yields


L
*
L

R
*
R

T
*
T

4


If the luminosity and temperature of a given star have been determined, then it is possible to
calculate the radius of the star using the above equations. Calculations of stellar radii done in
this fashion have produced the amazing result that stars can range in size from a fairly large
metropolitan area such as New York or Los Angles up to the diameter of the entire solar system!

Stellar Masses
240 Chapter 12: The Stars



Stellar masses are determined from observing the orbital motions of binary stars and
making use of the harmonic law. If the distance of a binary system from the earth is known and
the angular separation between the two stars is observable, then the linear size of the orbit can be
calculated. If the mean distance is converted into astronomical units and the sidereal period of
the system is measured in years, then from the harmonic law we have


(mean distance)
3
(sidereal period)
2
= Mass 1 + Mass 2

where the mass of each of the stars is measured in solar mass units. For binary star systems
neither mass can be neglected and only the sum of the masses can be determined in this way.
Often, however, careful studies of the binarys radial velocity and proper motion reveal small
oscillating motions of each star about the systems center of mass, or barycenter. The two stars
motions about the barycenter are such that the product of the mass and the distance to the
barycenter is the same for both stars. By measuring the relative amplitudes of these oscillating
motions, astronomers can determine the mass ratio Mass 1/Mass 2 of the system. The individual
masses can them be readily obtained by algebraically solving these two equations for Mass 1 and
Mass 2. In some instances one of the stars, such as a solar-type star, can be assigned a value for
its mass, thereby permitting the determination of the second stars mass.

Stellar Rotation
It has long been recognized that the sun rotates on its axis at a rate of about once every
27 days, but it was not until the early decades of this century that astronomers were able to
Chapter 12: The Stars 241



assemble evidence that the distant stars also rotate, and often at enormous velocities. The most
direct evidence for stellar rotation is found among the eclipsing binary stars. For some of the
eclipsing systems it has been noted that the radial velocity curve of the eclipsed star will exhibit
an anomalous single oscillation from the mean curve at the exact time of the eclipse. This
behavior is referred to as the Rossiter effect and is explained by the fact that as the eclipsing star
covers up first one half of the rotating star and then the other, the observer sees in turn that half
of the star that is rotating toward (or away) and then that half rotating away from (or toward) the
observer. The net perceived result is a single Doppler oscillation superimposed on the normal
radial velocity curve.
Larger rotation rates also tend to impart a washedout appearance to spectral lines, which
become larger with increasing rates of rotation. Because the angular inclination i of the axis of
rotation of the star relative to the observer cannot be determined for the distant stars, one can
only determine the value of V
rot
sin i, or the component of the rotational velocity V
rot
that is
directly toward or away from the observer. The most rapidly rotating stars are the B and early A
(A0A5) stars, some of which must be on the verge of rotational disruption because of their
extremely high rates of rotation. Stars cooler than G0, such as the sun, are observed to have
considerably reduced rotational velocities.

Stellar Magnetic Fields
When certain atoms are placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field causes the electronic
energy levels to split into two or more sublevels, each of which is capable of participating in
electronic transitions. This splitting of energy levels in the presence of a magnetic field is a
242 Chapter 12: The Stars



phenomenon called the Zeeman Effect and manifests itself in the creation of complex spectral
line patterns in the presence of a magnetic field. The degree to which the energy levels and
hence the resulting line patterns are split is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field which is present. Thus astronomers can deduce the intensity of stellar magnetic fields by
measuring the degree to which Zeeman line splitting is observed. In this fashion astronomers
have found that stellar magnetic fields range from nearly zero to intensities millions of times that
of the earths magnetic field.

The HertzsprungRussell Diagram
Although one might expect a relative uniform distribution of the types of stars which can be
generated from all the possible combinations of the variety of stellar physical characteristics, it is
observed that certain combinations of these physical characteristics occur far more frequently
among the stars than others. These results can be partially summarized in a plot of the
temperature of a star versus its luminosity called a HertzsprungRussell or HR diagram after is
codiscoverers, E. Hertzsprung of Denmark and the American Henry Norris Russell.
Sometimes such a plot is referred to as a spectrumluminosity diagram or a colorluminosity
diagram.
The areas of the HR diagram where the largest number of stars are found are the main
sequence and the giant branch. The sun occupies a position on the main sequence below and
slightly to the left of the giant branch. Because these points on the HR diagram are
experimentally determined over such a short time period relative to the lifetimes of stars, they
represent a frozen picture of stars in their various stages of evolution, much as a photograph
Chapter 12: The Stars 243



taken of a garden or forest is a frozen picture of the state of the plants present at that time. For
this reason, their study of the various facets of the HR diagram is of considerable importance in
understanding how stars evolve during their life cycles.

PECULIAR STARS
In addition to the more or less typical stars, there exist several thousand stars whose
properties are quite unusual. Such objects are believed to represent various stages in the lives of
stars and thus can provide a better understanding of stellar life cycles.

Stars Having Unusual Abundances of Elements
Spectroscopic analysis of stellar atmospheres shows that stars are composed primarily of
hydrogen (about 90 percent by number of atoms) and helium (about 9 percent by number of
atoms). The relative abundances of the elements heavier than helium are roughly the same as
those found in solar cosmic rays, the earths crust, and meteorites. A few stars, however, exhibit
significant variations from the typical relative abundances, and because it is not likely that these
abundance anomalies were present in the material from which the star was formed, they are
assumed to have arisen from nuclear processes occurring during the stars lifetime. Thus, a
study of these abundance anomalies and the nuclear processes that could give rise to them yields
important clues as to the nature of the deep interior of a star, especially a star in an advanced
stage of its life cycle.
A few stars exhibit most of the spectral characteristics of B stars but have lines of hydrogen
that are weak or completely absent; these stars also exhibit an enhancement of the lines of
244 Chapter 12: The Stars



helium. It may be that the hydrogenrich outer layers of the star have been blown off, thus
baring the heliumrich inner layers. Another possibility is that the two regions have become
throughly mixed by convection and the relative hydrogen abundance has decreased in the outer
layers while the relative abundance of helium has increased.
Perhaps the most puzzling of all the objects with abundance anomalies are the peculiar A
stars. These objects have spectra resembling those of normal A stars, but also display very
strong lines of the more common metals such as silicon, chromium, and strontium and of the rare
earth elements such as europium. Moreover, the strengths of these lines vary from time to time.
Peculiar A stars may also exhibit strongly variable magnetic fields, some of which change their
magnitudes by thousands of gauss in a matter of a few days.
Positioned on the HR diagram near the main sequence and the F stars are the metallicline
stars. These objects exhibit the same continuum distributions and gross spectral characteristics
as the A and F stars but contain metallic lines characteristic of somewhat cooler stars. These
objects all seem to possess large amounts of turbulence and all are spectroscopic binaries.
In the region of the late G and early K giants and supergiants are the barium stars. Not
only are the barium lines enhanced for these objects, but also the lines arising from other heavy
metals such as zirconium and lanthanum, thus suggesting an overabundance of these substances
relative to the light metals such as vanadium, titanium, and iron.
In the normal cool red giants, the molecular bands of the light metal oxides, in particular
titanium oxide and vanadium oxide, dominate the spectrum. Carbon stars are a class of cool
stars having luminosities similar to those of the normal red giants but whose spectra are
characterized by bands arising from molecules containing carbon, especially C
2
, CH, and CN.
Chapter 12: The Stars 245



The S stars, like the carbon stars, are found in the region of the red giants on the HR
diagram. Their spectra, however, are dominated by the molecular bands of heavy metal oxides
such as zirconium oxide and lanthanum oxide. Quite often the carbon starts and S stars are also
intrinsic variables having light variations similar to those exhibited by the Mira variables and the
irregular variables, to be discussed below.

Intrinsic Variable Stars
Binary stars that vary in brightness because they eclipse each other are sometimes called
eclipsing variables, and are in effect geometric accidents whose orbital planes happen to be
aligned in such a way that we here on the earth observe them to eclipse. Intrinsic variable stars
are those whose brightness varies as a result of actual variations in their luminosities. About
30,000 such stars are known at present. There are two main types of intrinsically variable stars:
pulsating variables and eruptive variables.
Pulsating Variables. Nearly 20,000 intrinsic variables vary in brightness as a result of
pulsations that occur in their atmospheric layers. The existence of such pulsations can be
verified by observing the correlation between the measured brightness of the variable and its
observed radial velocity.
The cepheid variables, named for their prototype, Delta Cephei, are F and G supergiants
that have nearly constant periods of pulsation ranging from 1 day to more than 50 days. During
these pulsations, the cepheid rises rapidly to its maximum brightness and more slowly dims to its
minimum light. Typically, the radius is altered by about 10 percent during this cycle with
corresponding changes in the luminosity and surface temperature.
246 Chapter 12: The Stars



The cepheids can be divided into two categories: type I, or classical, cepheids, which are
the brighter cepheids and are found in the regions of high gas and dust content along the Milky
Way plane; and type II cepheids, or W Virginis stars, which are fainter and have a roughly
spherical distribution around the nucleus of the Milky Way.
An important property of the cepheid brightness variation is that the period of the light
variation for a given cepheid variable can be mathematically expressed in terms of the average
luminosity of that cepheid. This relationship is called the periodluminosity law. Because of
their large intrinsic brightnesses, distinctive light variation, and adherence to a welldefined
periodluminosity law, cepheid variables are used extensively as distance indicators. Such stars
in galaxies and star clusters are first identified from the characteristic nature of their light
variation. The period of the light variation is then measured and the corresponding average
luminosity calculated from the periodluminosity law. The average luminosity and the apparent
brightness of the object, which is easily determined, provide enough information to compute the
cepheids distance. Care must be taken to identify correctly type I and type II cepheids, since the
one to two magnitude difference in their absolute magnitudes can lead to a distance
determination that is off by as much as a factor of 2.
Below the cepheids in the HR diagram and similar to them in properties are the RR Lyrae
stars. However, their periods of light variation are much shorter, being in the range of 0.1 to
1.0 day. The absolute magnitude of RR Lyrae stars does not exhibit the periodluminosity
relation as does that of the cepheids, but their mean absolute magnitude of 0.0 is roughly what
would be expected for a type II cepheid variable having the same period of light variation. The
Chapter 12: The Stars 247



space distributions of the type II cepheids and RR Lyrae stars are also similar, and it is assumed
that these objects are closely related.
Most numerous of the variable stars are the longperiod or Miratype variables. These
objects are very cool red giants and supergiants with periods of light variation that range from 70
to more than 1000 days. However, their periods are not constant like those of the cepheids, and
maximum or minimum light can occur weeks before or after the dates predicted from the mean
light curve. Because the temperatures of the Mira variables are often so low (less than 2500K),
they tend to radiate most of their energy at the invisible infrared wavelengths at the
lowtemperature phases of their cycles. Thus the star appears to vary greatly in brightness in the
visible range not only because of changes in overall luminosity but also because the region of
highest energy output shifts back and forth between the visible and infrared. Thus o Ceti, or
Mira, the prototype of this class of star, can vary in visual brightness from a prominent 2nd or
3rdmagnitude star to a 9thmagnitude star that can be viewed only with optical aid. The Mira
variables also display a complicated series of changes in spectra during their light cycles which
are not yet fully understood.
Closely related to the Mira variables, the red semiregular variables exhibit a similar overall
periodicity but display shortterm unpredictable changes. The range of light variation in the
semiregulars also tends to be smaller than that to the Miras.
Irregular variable stars exhibit no periodicity whatsoever. Their observed properties, such
as their color and spectra, strongly suggest that they are related to the Miras and the semiregulars.
The T Tauri stars, usually found in star clusters and associations having high gas and dust
content, also exhibit shortterm irregular variations in brightness. Their spectra are an unusual
248 Chapter 12: The Stars



combination of emission lines of hydrogen and metals on an odd background continuum that
suggests an object intermediate between stars and nebulosity. It is believed that the T Tauri stars
represent a protostar stage of a stars development and that the light variations reflect anomalies
in the gravitational contraction process.
Eruptive Variables. In addition to the pulsating variables, there are stars called eruptive
variables that exhibit sudden and erratic outbursts of light. Often such outbursts of visible light
are accompanied by ejections of gas shells and bursts of radio radiation.
At the lower end of the main sequence, located among the M dwarfs, are the flare stars or
UV Ceti stars. These objects can increased their brightness by several magnitudes over a matter
of minutes. During these outbursts astronomers have observed radio emission as well as sudden
changes in spectra that are reminiscent of the behavior of solar flares; indeed, the total energy
associated with these events, about 10
30
ergs/sec, is comparable to that emitted by the largest
solar flares. The available evidence thus indicates that these events are probably flaretype
phenomena that, because of the low luminosities of the Mdwarfs, can be observed at interstellar
distances.
Novae and Supernovae. Most spectacular of the variable stars are the gigantic stellar
explosions called novae and supernovae. Beginning as hot, smallsized stars below the upper
main sequence, novae over a matter of a few hours or days increase their luminosity by 6 to
10 magnitudes to attain an absolute magnitude as high as 10, then over weeks or months fade to
their original brightnesses. Novae also eject gaseous shells into space at velocities of more than
1600 km/sec; these shells can be detected spectroscopically. Months or years after the outburst,
an expanding shell of nebulosity can often be detected photographically.
Chapter 12: The Stars 249



Supernovae are much rarer than novae and can attain luminosities comparable to the total
power output of an entire galaxy! The most famous supernova occurred in 1054 and was
recorded by Chinese observers. The vestiges of this event are visible to this day as the Crab
nebula in Taurus, a complicated physical system that is a strong source of radio waves and
contains a small, extremely compact stellar remnant called a pulsar.
The P Cygni stars are among the hottest of the eruptive variables and typically possess O
and hot Bstar spectral characteristics. Their light variations are slow and erratic, but
qualitatively resemble those of novae. The P Cygni stars also exhibit weak emission lines in
their spectra, and it is believed that they are ejecting material into the interstellar medium in the
form of gas shells.

Stars of Unusual Structure
Although most stars have an interior and atmospheric structure much like that of our sun,
there are stars whose structures differ markedly from those of the main sequence. Through
careful studies of these structurally different stellar types, astronomers have gained considerable
insight into the dynamics involved in a stars evolution.
Stars with Extended Atmospheres. Stars with expanding gas shells are said to have
extended atmospheres. These are the shell stars, Bemission stars, WolfRayet stars, and the
socalled planetary nebulae.
Among the B stars are objects whose spectra display brightemission lines of hydrogen and
narrow darkabsorption lines that indicated extremely rapid rotation. It is thought that because
of this rapid rotation, material has been ejected from the equatorial region of the star, forming
250 Chapter 12: The Stars



rings or shells of gas about it. Such gas shells would be the source of the observed
brightemission lines. The study of such stars may help to unravel the processes by which mass
loss occurs.
In addition to the shell stars, there are about 4000 class B stars whose spectra exhibit
emission lines of hydrogen and possibly other elements as well. These stars are called Be or
Bemission stars, and it is believed that, as in the case of the shell stars, the characteristic
emission lines arise from ejected material. Be stars are generally found to have extremely high
rotation rates, and astronomers have speculated that the mass ejection and rapid rotation rates in
these stars are directly related, as they are in shell stars. The chief difference between these stars
and the shell stars is that the latter contain a significantly greater amount of material in their
surrounding envelopes and hence exhibit their characteristic sets of narrowabsorption shell
lines.
Occupying a lofty position in the hierarchy of stellar surface temperatures are the
WolfRayet stars, formerly considered a subclass of the O stars but now classified as W stars.
the WolfRayet stars exhibit broademission lines, usually of nitrogen or carbon. On the violet
edge of each emission line is a sharp absorption line not unlike that observed for novae and
indicative of the presence of a rapidly expanding gaseous shell. Surface temperatures of
WolfRayet stars have been estimated to be as high as 100,000K.
The socalled planetary nebulae are the largest of the stars with extended atmospheres.
They consist of a hot, central star surrounded by a slowly expanding gaseous shell that can be as
large as a lightyear across. Some are observable telescopically as small planetlike disks of
light, from whence comes their name. The temperatures of the central stars of the planetary
Chapter 12: The Stars 251



nebulae rival or even exceed those of the WolfRayet stars, occasionally reaching values of well
over 100,000K. However, the planetary nebulae display much less violence in their dynamics
than do the novae and WolfRayet stars, although they appear to have ejected much greater
amounts o material into their surrounding shells.
The normal red giants are stars of spectral classes ranging from late G to late M and of high
luminosities that place them well above and to the right of the main sequence of the HR
diagram. Although red giants do not exhibit any significant element abundances of light
variations, they do possess highly tenuous and extended atmospheres that reach hundreds of
millions of kilometers into space. For example, if the red supergiant Antares in the constellation
Scorpius were placed at the center of the solar system, all the planets out to and including Mars
would be orbiting within the confines of its atmospheric layers.
Compact Stars. In contrast to stars with extended atmospheres are the compact stars,
whose masses occupy almost inconceivably small volumes of interstellar space.
In 1844 Friedrich Bessel of Germany discovered a wobbling effect in the motion of the star
Sirius and correctly attributed it to the gravitational effect of an unseen companion of about one
solar mass. In 1862 the predicted companion was observed visually and eventually found to be
a hot, but surprisingly faint star having a radius about that of earth. Many objects similar to
Siriuss companion have since been discovered and constitute an important class of stars known
as the white dwarfs. These stars are assumed to be at the end of their life cycles, incapable of
any further nuclear energy generation and compacted by an unchecked gravitational collapse.
Theorists have long speculated on the possibility of a stellar gravitational collapse of such
magnitude that it could crush the protons and electrons of a stars atoms into neutrons. Such a
252 Chapter 12: The Stars



collapse would produce an object even more compact and dense than a white dwarf. Under such
conditions the electrons and protons in the star are gravitationally crushed and compacted into
neutrons. Most astronomers thought that if such objects, called neutron stars, existed, they
would be difficult to detect at interstellar distances. In 1967, however, radio astronomers at
Cambridge University in England announced the discovery of several sources that emitted radio
pulses in a highly regular fashion, with periods from 1/30 to more than 3 seconds. These objects
were named pulsars. In light of recent theoretical and observational investigations, it appears
that pulsars are indeed compact neutron stars that are spinning on their axes with rotational
periods ranging from a few seconds to a few hundredths of a second. The intense, periodic radio
beams emanating from the pulsars is thought to be the result of interactions between charged
particles in the pulsars outer layers, the pulsars very rapid rotation, and the enormous magnetic
fields possessed by these objects.

STAR CLUSTERS
Although the distribution of stars in space appears roughly uniform to the naked eye, a
few collections of stars such as the Pleiades and Hyades in Taurus and the Beehive in Cancer
are readily discernible. The telescope reveals hundreds more of these aggregates, each of which
is bound together by gravity. Because these clusters are composed of large numbers of stars
whose lifetimes began at the same point in cosmic history, they have much to tell us about how
stars live out their lives.
Two types of star clusters have long been recognized: the open or galactic clusters found
along the plane of the Milky Way, and the tightly knit global clusters that are found on the Milky
Chapter 12: The Stars 253



Way plane and in other parts of the galaxy as well. In the 1940s yet another type of cluster, the
sprawling stellar association, was recognized.

Globular Clusters
Most impressive of all the star clusters are the 300 or so known globular clusters. These
clusters resemble a bacterial culture when viewed or photographed through a telescope;
thousands of individual stars are visible. Estimates of the actual numbers of stars present are
difficult to make, owing to the close packing at the center (10
2
to 10
3
stars/parsec
3
), but a
globular cluster is thought to have several hundred thousand members, most of which are too dim
to be detected from earth.
The globular clusters are so remote from earth that somewhat different methods of distance
determination are used than those employed for the galactic clusters. Astronomers have
discovered that W Virginis stars and RR Lyrae stars are often found among the stars comprising
the globular clusters. Since the intrinsic absolute magnitudes of these stars can be determined
from their pulsation periods, the distance to the globular cluster can be calculated from the
distance modulus formula. Unfortunately, a significant number of globular clusters are so
distant that individual stars are unresolvable and hence techniques using stellar distance
indicators cannot be employed successfully. However, the angular diameters of such clusters
can be measured, and by assuming an average linear diameter of about 50 parsecs for the cluster
(a value based on data obtained for nearby globular clusters), the distance to more remote
systems can at least be estimated.
254 Chapter 12: The Stars



Distance determinations of the globular clusters indicate that these objects are at enormous
distances, thousands of parsecs in some cases, from the sun. Early in this century the American
astronomer Harlow Shapley established that globular clusters are flung throughout the outer
regions or halo of the Milky Way in a roughly spherical distribution relative to the galactic center
and thus are not independent of the Milky Way system.

Galactic Clusters
The galactic clusters are by far the most numerous of the known star clusters. More than
800 are presently known, and there may be hundreds more in existence that have escaped
detection because of their obscuration by the gas and dust clouds of the Milky Way. The stars in
a galactic cluster are usually loosely packed, and the membership can range from less than 50
stars up to several thousand. Although their linear diameters rarely exceed 10 parsecs, galactic
clusters are relatively close to the sun and often cover a considerable area of the sky. The
likelihood is thus high that a given grouping will contain a certain number of field stars, that is,
stars not in the cluster, but in the same line of sight as the cluster. The only recourse for the
astronomer is such a case is to check both the proper motion and radial velocity of the suspected
cluster member. If the motions of the object are the same as those of known cluster members,
then it is highly probable that the object is indeed a member.
Distances to galactic clusters can be obtained by several methods, including the method of
spectroscopic parallax, the use of the colormagnitude diagram, and the socalled moving cluster
method.
Chapter 12: The Stars 255



In the spectroscopic parallax method, a star or stars of known luminosity are located in the
cluster and their apparent brightnesses measured. A comparison of the apparent brightness,
which is usually corrected for interstellar absorption, and the known intrinsic brightness yields
the distance to the cluster.
In the colormagnitude method an observationally determined apparent brightness main
sequence is compared with the intrinsic luminosity main sequence from the HR diagram. Such
a comparison in effect yields a contrast between the apparent brightness of the stars in the cluster
with their intrinsic luminosities, from whence the distance to the cluster can be readily obtained.
If the star cluster is close enough to the earth, as is the Hyades cluster in the constellation
Taurus, it may be possible to obtain a radiant point for the cluster motion very similar to that
described for a meteor shower. The mean radial velocity of the cluster members can be obtained
as well as the coordinates of their geometric center and radiant point. From this information,
astronomers can obtain the radial velocity component Vof the cluster. Using these results, the
mean tangential component T of the clusters motion (in kilometers per second) can be
calculated, from which the distance r (in parsecs) can be determined from the relation

r =
T
4.74


where is the mean proper motion of the cluster members in arcseconds per year.
256 Chapter 12: The Stars



Once the distance to a galactic cluster having known celestial coordinates is obtained, its
position in threedimensional space can be readily determined. From such analyses, the galactic
clusters are found to lie along the plane of the Milky Way, and as such, comprise an integral part
of the galactic disk.

Stellar Associations
In the middle of this century astronomers recognized that there are certain classes of stars
that are not relatively close together and yet are not randomly distributed across the sky.
Investigations of the motions of these stars confirmed that these groupings, called stellar
associations, are very loosely knit groups of stars ranging in size from 20 to 200 parsecs and
containing between 10 and 100 stars. Membership in these systems is even more difficult to
establish than in the case of the galactic clusters, owing to the large area of sky that is often
covered by the association. For example, the Orion association, whose radiant lies in the
constellation Orion, may have members as far away as the constellation Auriga.
Associations are generally composed of O and B stars, in which case they are called OB
associations, or T Tauri stars, in which case they are called T associations. A few associations
contain all these three types of stars and are thus combinations of OB and T associations. In
such instances the association is denoted by the type of star that constitutes the majority of its
membership.
Distances to associations are usually determined by measuring the spectroscopic parallaxes
of their individual members or by the use of the moving cluster method described for the galactic
Chapter 12: The Stars 257



clusters. Because of the great luminosity of the component O and B stars, associations at even
greater distances than galactic clusters, often as far as 1000 or 2000 parsecs, can be detected.
Like galactic clusters, associations lie along the Milky Way plane. In fact, associations are
so closely allied with the gas and dust of the Galaxy that they have often been used to trace the
galactic spiral structure.


259







CHAPTER 13


THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM





The variety of material in the interplanetary medium strongly suggests that the space
between the stars, the interstellar medium, may be similarly occupied. Although this view was
strongly supported in the last century by the discovery of great nebular clouds along the Milky
Way plane, it was not until well into the present century that astronomers had the necessary
instrumentation to investigate the interstellar medium. Radio telescopes, photoelectric
equipment, and a number of other devices have revealed the presence of both gas and dust in the
vast space between the stars.

INTERSTELLAR GAS
Gaseous matter is the principal component of the interstellar medium. However, its
density is low, about 10 atoms/cm
3
, constituting a better vacuum than can be produced in a
laboratory on earth.
260 Chapter 13: The Interstellar Medium



Evidence of Interstellar Gas
The presence of gas in the interstellar medium is indicated by emission lines from nebulae,
superposed absorption lines on the spectra of hot stars, and radio emission lines.
The most convincing evidence for the presence of interstellar gas are the dozens of bright
patches of nebulosity that line the plane of the Milky Way and whose delicate structure can be
seen only on longtime exposure photographs. The gaseous nature of these nebulae is
confirmed by the presence of brightline spectra.
The detection of absorption lines superimposed on the spectra of hot stars is another
indication of the presence of interstellar gas. Such lines would not arise in the atmosphere of a
hot star. Moreover, the radial velocities of these lines are significantly different from those of
the star, thus precluding the possibility that the lines arise from the second component of a binary
star or shell of gas surrounding the star.
In recent years radio astronomers have discovered an impressive array of emission lines that
arise from lowenergy downward transitions of various atoms and molecules. The most
important of these is the 21cm line produced by neutral atomic hydrogen. This line is
particularly valuable in mapping the distribution of material in the Milky Way plane because ,
unlike shorterwavelength photons, the 21cm line photon can traverse the interstellar medium
relatively undisturbed for thousands of parsecs.

Composition of the Interstellar Gas
The most abundant element in the interstellar gas is hydrogen. Helium is also present, and
trace amounts of heavier substances. Hydrogen atoms are found in both neutral and ionized
Chapter 13: The Interstellar Medium 261



states. Regions of neutral hydrogen atoms are referred to as H I regions and regions of ionized
hydrogen, H II regions.
Because of the cold temperatures that pervade the interstellar medium (1050K), only a
few elements are in an appropriate state of excitation to be spectroscopically detectable. Thus,
studies conducted on interstellar absorption lines indicate the presence only of sodium,
potassium, calcium, titanium, and iron in very low densities (less than 1 atom/cm
3
). Because the
physical conditions along the line of sight are not well understood, accurate abundance
determinations involving such lines are difficult to make. Abundance estimates for these
elements made on the basis of the strength of the absorption lines are similar to the relative
abundances of these elements found from spectral analyses of stellar atmospheres.
Interstellar gas near hot stars is excited and ionized by shortwavelength continuum
radiation from the star. As the ions recombine, photons are emitted and the gaseous region
fluoresces or glows dimly, much as comets in the vicinity of the sun give off a dull glow. The
bright, diffuse nebulae thus exhibit a weak continuous spectrum on which are superimposed a
number of emission lines of varying strengths. Most of these lines are easily found to
correspond with known elements such as hydrogen, helium, and neon. In the early part of this
century, however, several of the observed emission lines eluded identification and were attributed
to an unknown element called nebulium. Nebulium, however, suffered the same fate as
coronium, the hypothetical element on the sun, when Ira Bowen at Mount Wilson discovered that
at the low densities existent in the gaseous nebulae, atoms could deexcite themselves by
downward or forbidden radiative transitions out of lowlying longlived excitation states.
Under normal conditions, these levels, called metastable levels, are deexcited by collisions with
262 Chapter 13: The Interstellar Medium



other atoms, but at low nebular densities, atomic collisions are so infrequent that the forbidden
radiative emission has an opportunity to occur. With this insight, Bowen was able to show that
the nebulium lines were the result of forbidden downward transitions in oxygen, nitrogen, and
neon. A knowledge of the approximate physical conditions in a given nebulosity permits
estimates to be made regarding the composition of the nebula based on the strengths of the
emission lines present in its spectrum. Such studies indicate that the abundances in nebulae are
very similar to those of the stars embedded in them, a fact that strongly suggests a close
connection between the two.
One of the more interesting aspects of the interstellar gas is the presence of the highenergy
atomic particle flux known as cosmic radiation or cosmic rays. These particles probably arise
from eruptive events such as stellar flares, novae, or supernovae explosions and then are
accelerated by the galactic magnetic field. The element abundances in the interstellar cosmic ray
flux, unlike those in the other observable aspects of the interstellar gas, are found to be
significantly different from the normal abundances. For example, lithium, beryllium, and boron
are more abundant in cosmic rays than in stellar atmospheres. The cosmicray abundance
anomalies are considered to be important clues to the origin of these mysterious particles, but the
cosmicray puzzle still defies solution.
More surprising than the existence of atoms of simple elements in the interstellar medium
is the wide variety of lowabundance interstellar molecules that are found (see Table 13.1).
Radio astronomers in the last decade alone have discovered emission lines emanating from
several dozen molecular substances in the millimeter and centimeter wavelength range, and there
are undoubtedly many more as yet undiscovered. The compounds range in complexity from
Chapter 13: The Interstellar Medium 263



Table 13.1. Some Interstellar Atoms and Molecules
______________________________________________________________________________
Interstellar Atoms Interstellar Molecules
________________________ ____________________________________
Element Symbol Molecule Name Formula
______________________________________________________________________________

Hydrogen H Acetaldehyde CH
3
CHO
Helium He Ammonia NH
3

Lithium Li Carbon monosulfide CS
Beryllium Be Carbon monoxide CO
Boron B Carbonyl sulfide OCS
Carbon C Cyanogen radical CN
Nitrogen N Ethyl alcohol C
2
H
5
OH
Oxygen O Formaldehyde H
2
CO
Fluorine F Formic acid HCOOH
Neon Ne Hydrogen molecule H
2

Sodium Na Hydrogen cyanide HCN
Magnesium Mg Hydrogen sulfide H
2
S
Aluminum Al Hydroxyl radical OH
Silicon Si Isocyanic acid HNCO
Sulfur S Methyl alcohol CH
3
OH
Chlorine Cl Methyl cyanide CH
3
CN
Argon Ar Methylacetylene CH
3
CCH
Potassium K Methylidyne CH
Calcium Ca Silicon monoxide SiO
Titanium Ti Thioformaldehyde H
2
CS
Iron Fe Water H
2
O
______________________________________________________________________________



molecular hydrogen (H
2
) to simple hydrocarbons such as ethyl alcohol (C
2
H
5
OH). Observations
of these molecules indicate that they are strongly associated with known clouds of gas and dust in
the Milky Way, and their origin may be linked to the physical conditions existent in these
objects.
Theories for the origin of the interstellar molecules include formation by collisions of
atoms in the interstellar medium; formation in the atmospheres of cool stars or protostars such as
264 Chapter 13: The Interstellar Medium



the carbon stars, Mira variables, or globules; and formation on the surfaces of dust particles that
would act as atom collectors.

Distribution of Gas
Even a casual glance at photographs of the Milky Way reveals that the distribution of
interstellar gas is not uniform. Supporting evidence to this effect is provided by the fact that the
interstellar lines, both absorption and emission, often display several components that can be
accounted for only by assuming that each component line arises from a gas cloud at a different
distance from the earth and moves in a different orbit about the galactic center than that of the
sun, thus producing a unique radial velocity relative to the un. Additional information
concerning distances to nebular clouds can be obtained from spectroscopic parallaxes of stars
contained within the nebulosity. Such studies of the distribution of interstellar gas clouds
indicate that the interstellar gas tends to collect in large, curving spiral arms dozens of parsecs
across.

INTERSTELLAR DUST
Approximately 1 percent of the mass of the interstellar material consists of tiny grains of
dust, about 10
7
meters in diameter. This works out to one dust particle for every 10
12
gas atoms
in the interstellar medium.

Chapter 13: The Interstellar Medium 265



Evidence for Interstellar Dust
Evidence for the presence of dust in interstellar space is provided by dark nebulae,
reflection nebulae, reddening of starlight, and polarization of starlight.
Along the Milky Way plane can be seen a number of dark areas, the largest being the Great
Rift in the OphiuchusCygnus regions and the famous Coalsack nebula. These dark nebulae, as
they are called, are enormous clouds of material that can dim or blot out the light from any stars
or nebulosity that lie behind them. The particle size required to absorb and thus obscure the
starlight must be significantly larger, about 10
4
to 10
5
times, than the atoms and molecules of the
interstellar gas, given the known densities of the latter. Thus astronomers have deduced the
existence of a second component of the interstellar medium, the interstellar dust.
Some bright, diffuse nebulae have spectra that do not show the emission lines of the
gaseous nebulae, but rather display the same spectral characteristics as the stars embedded in
them. This observation can be explained only by assuming that the nebulae are reflecting, or
scattering, the light from the embedded tars. Since interstellar gas clouds do not have the
densities needed to produce such reflection, astronomers have assumed that the observed
reflection is caused by largersized particles.
Extinction of starlight by both absorption and scattering is thus evidence of the existence of
dustsized particles in the interstellar medium. Another indication is the reddening of starlight
due to selective scattering of blue, or shortwavelength, light. If a hot O or B star at a
considerable distance from earth is observed spectroscopically and photoelectrically, it appears
much redder than would be expected for its spectral type. This difference between the intrinsic
color and the observed color is called the color excess. The total absorption or dimming of a
266 Chapter 13: The Interstellar Medium



stars light from the effect of dust particles is, on the average, equal to 3.0 CE, where both the
color excess CE and the absorption are expressed in magnitudes. The existence of color
excesses and absorption can be accounted for only by the presence of particles larger than atoms
or molecules.
Dust in the interstellar medium can polarize light from the stars. As stars of greater and
greater distance are observed, the light becomes increasingly polarized; that is, it has more and
more of a single orientation for its vibrational plane. Such a result cannot be accounted for in
terms of atomsized particles in the interstellar medium.

Nature of the Dust Grains
Unlike the gases in the interstellar medium, the dust grains do not lend themselves to
spectroscopic analysis, so information about them must be obtained indirectly. The
phenomena of reddening and polarization of starlight both indicate something of their nature. It
is almost certain that the dust grains are significantly larger than atoms or molecules. If the
grains possessed atomic dimensions, their ability to scatter short wavelengths of light should be
considerably higher than what is observed. On the other hand, micronsized particles scatter
shortwavelength radiation to much less a degree than do atoms or molecules and hence more
closely fit the observed behavior of the interstellar grains. The manner in which starlight is
polarized as it passes through dust clouds suggests that the dust grains are elongated, like
interstellar needles, and roughly aligned, probably with interstellar magnetic fields, perpendicular
to the plane of the Milky Way. The composition of these grains is still uncertain, but they are
probably a mixture of carbon and frozen compounds of hydrogen.
Chapter 13: The Interstellar Medium 267



Distribution of Dust
Distances to the gaseous and reflection nebulae are obtained from the spectroscopic
parallaxes of the embedded stars; distances to the dark nebulae are determined by the use of the
Wolf diagram. The Wolf diagram is basically a plotting of the number of stars visible in a
region of sky down to an apparent magnitude m versus the value of m. The star counts are
conducted on two regions of the sky, one of which is within the dark nebula of interest, and the
other in a nearby, unobscured star field. Out to the nebula the two star count curves are virtually
coincident. At the near edge of the dust cloud, the stars in the cloud become progressively more
obscured by the clouds everthickening layers as the counts proceed to fainter magnitudes.
Thus, the star count curve for the cloud region diverges from that for the outside region. The
divergence continues until the far edge of the cloud. At this point, the star counts for the cloud
region once more increase at the same rate as for the outside region. By noting the apparent
brightness at which the curves diverge and assuming a mean luminosity for all of the regions
stars, an estimate of the distance modulus to the dust clouds lead edge can be obtained. Such
studies indicate that although the general distribution of the dark dust clouds of the Milky Way is
similar to that of the gaseous nebulae, significant and puzzling differences exist.


269







CHAPTER 14


STELLAR LIFE CYCLES





In our studies of stellar characteristics, we have formed that these properties can be
combined in a variety of ways to produce a variety of types of stars and star systems. Thus
while all stars in an overall sense possess the commonality of being incandescent balls of gas,
they simultaneously retain a great deal of individuality as well. Over the years astronomers have
uncovered a plethora of different types of stars, each discovery which has returned astronomers
to the basic question of how the plethora came to be.
In many ways there is a striking resemblance between the astrophysical problem of
accounting for all of the species of stars found in space and the biological problem of
accounting for all of the species of life found on Earth. In 1859, Charles Darwin shook the
Victorian era by making the claim in his book On the Origin of Species that the variety of species
of plants and animals observed on Earth were the product of responses of life forms to a variety
of evolutionary forces, such as climate and food supply over millions of years of time.
Among other things, Darwin convincingly demonstrated the fact that the earths ecosystem is not
now nor had it ever been a static, immutable entity, but rather one that is ever-changing.
Those
270 Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles



changes, however, most often occur over time scales that dwarf a single human beings lifetime
or indeed the entire span of human existence on the planet. In attempting to explain the origin
of stellar species, the astronomer too assumes that the time scale for virtually all cosmic change
is comparable to and in fact exceeds those of Earths geological and paleontological history.
Like the paleontologist or archaeologist who carefully sifts through the sand and soil of a key
site, seeking out bits and pieces of the mosaic of the earths living past, so also does the
astrophysicist scan the heavens for revealing bits and pieces of a cosmic past that are often little
more than the wispy remains of a long-ago exploded star.
Scientists, however, have ascertained that the development of species is envisioned by
Darwin does not apply to stars. Clusters of stars formed at the same time in the same part of
space and subject to the same cosmic evolutionary forces should, in the Darwinian view, result
in all of the stars in the cluster becoming stars of the same species. One need only observe the
variety of colors and power output exhibited by the member stars of a given cluster to
demonstrate the error of such a proposition. Even though the Darwinian scenario of evolution is
not that of the stars, the life scientist can still offer aid and comfort to the astronomer in this
manner.
Associated with every life form on the earth is a life cycle in which a given creature is born,
grows up, reproduces itself, and dies. During the course of such life cycles, the physical
characteristics of a given creature can change drastically. Butterflies, for example, lay eggs from
which caterpillars hatch. After chomping on selected plants and flowers for a few weeks or so,
the caterpillar spins itself into a silken cocoon from which the adult butterfly emerges to mate
and ultimately lay more eggs, thus beginning the cycle anew.
Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles 271



We now believe that this concept of life cycles can be used to account for the existence of
stellar species. In this view, there are actually only a few basic types of stars, but as each goes
through a life cycle having a variety of stages with a variety of physical characteristics, the result
is the seeming plethora of different stellar species. Unfortunately, unlike the entomologist who
can carefully watch and monitor the life cycle of a butterfly as it unfolds over weeks or months
the astrophysicist is confronted with stellar life cycles that run into billions of years, compared to
which a human life span is but a wink of an eye. Despite such difficulties, astrophysicists have
employed a blend of the principle of universality, direct measurements and observations, and
computer models and simulations to piece together a portrait of a stars life cycle that is not only
consistent with our knowledge of the behavior of the physical world, but also is able to account
for a large fraction of the stellar species we have observed and cataloged.

STELLAR LIFE CYCLES
Astrophysicists are virtually certain that stars have their beginnings in vast clouds of gas
and dust such as those that line the band of light in the sky we call the Milky Way. One such
gas cloud in the constellation of Orion is over 12 light years in diameter. From our discussion of
thermodynamics, however, we know that there is a tendency toward disorder in the physical
world that can only be overcome in a given system with an input of energy. Gas and dust clouds
in the interstellar medium are in a very high state of disorder and are hence not at all about to
coalesce into highly ordered spheres of gas on their own. Accordingly, astrophysicists have
deduced the existence of several processes at work in the interstellar medium, called triggering
mechanisms, by which star formation is induced or triggered in these otherwise stagnant gas and
272 Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles



dust clouds. Each of these processes is thought to produce a high-velocity shock wave, which
fragments the given gas or dust cloud into compacted segments called protostars. Such shock
fronts can be produced by collisions of high and low temperature gas and dust clouds, stellar
explosions, interstellar winds produced by the formation of large mass stars, and even from
violent processes occurring in the center of the Milky Way itself.
Once the protostar is formed, the remainder of the stars life can be thought of as a duel
between self-gravitation, which seeks to collapse the star into an ever-smaller size, and the stars
power production, which seeks to blow the star apart. At first, the protostar has little or no
power production with which to resist the contraction induced by the self-gravitation of the mass
within the protostar. As a result, the protostar continues to shrink in size from an object roughly
one to two light years across down to an object roughly the size of the Sun. As the protostar
continues its contraction, its density increases to the point where it becomes opaque to visible
radiant energy and thus appears as a dark irregular-shaped object called a globule silhouetted
against the backdrop of more distant stars and glowing gas.
As the contraction proceeds, the temperature and pressure at the center of the protostar
continue to increase until they are sufficient to initiate thermonuclear fusion reactions at the
center of the protostar. The energy release halts the contractions of the protostar, but not
without an attendant amount of flare and prominence activity, which in effect propel the
protostars outer layers back into the interstellar medium. It is this material that is believed to
accrete eventually into planets and satellites. At the onset of nuclear fusion reactions at the
center of the protostar, the gas ball takes on an equilibrium configuration in which forces
Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles 273



associated with the outward flow of power are balanced by the inward pull of the protostars
self-gravitation. The protostar is then a full-fledged star.
The physical characteristics taken on by stars in this equilibrium stage are almost totally
controlled by the stars mass. A star formed out of a 20 solar mass globule will attain a power
output 4300 times that of the Sun, a radius five times that of the Sun, and a surface temperature
three times that of the Sun. On the other hand, a star that forms out of only one-fifth of a solar
mass of material will shine with only 0.007 of the power output of the Sun, will be only one-third
as large, and possess a temperature about half that of the Sun. Thus, there is an entire series of
possible equilibrium configurations, depending on the mass of the cloud out of which the stars
are formed. Astrophysicists refer to this set of equilibrium configurations as the main sequence,
and a star that is in this equilibrium phase of its life cycle is said to be in its main sequence stage.
As the star continues to shine in its main sequence stage, the helium atoms formed from the
hydrogen fusion sink to the center of the star and begin to form a helium core. In the more
massive main-sequence stars with larger power output, this process occurs more rapidly than in
the lower mass main-sequence stars. Eventually the size of the helium core, which is not
producing any energy of its own, grows to the point where it begins to contract gravitationally in
size. As it does so, the power produced at the core of the star increases due to a release of
gravitational potential energy as the core shrinks to a configuration of smaller gravitational
potential. The rate of hydrogen fusion also increases due to an increase of the core temperature.
As a result of the increase of the power output of the star, its outer layers expand in an attempt to
settle into a new equilibrium configuration. The increase in energy, however, cannot heat this
new stellar volume as efficiently and the star actually has a cooler photospheric temperature.
274 Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles



Such a star having an increased power output, very much increased radius, and cooler surface
temperature is said now to be in its red giant stage. The time that a star spends in its main
sequence stage before the changes at the core turn it into a red giant depends on how massive the
star was in its main sequence stage. Computer models tell us that more massive stars evolve
much more rapidly than less massive stars. Thus, the core changes that produce the red giant
phase of a stars life occur within about 20 million years for a 10 solar mass star, but will take as
long as two trillion years for a star with one-fifth of the Suns mass.
The ultimate fate of a given star once it reaches the red giant stage once more depends
almost entirely on the stars mass. The lower mass stars gently eject their outermost layers to
form a shell of gas that can be as large as a light year across. Left behind are the hot core
regions, which produce enough high-energy photons to cause the surrounding shell of gas to
fluoresce. The resulting object has the appearance of a dimly glowing planetary disk when
viewed through a telescope and is referred to as a planetary nebula. Eventually, the gas shell
dissipates into the interstellar medium and abandoned core cools and contracts into a small
compact object called a white dwarf in which one star mass of material has been gravitationally
compacted into an object the size of the earth, with the resulting density equal to about
2 10
9
kg/m
3
. The contracting is finally stopped by the counter pressure of the
quantum-mechanical crowding effects of the electrons of the atoms in the white dwarf. The star
then locks into the final stable configuration of mass and radius in which it will remain until
finally cooling into a dark, cold stellar hulk called a black dwarf. This is the ultimate fate of our
own Sun in another five to six billion years.
Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles 275



The fate of more massive stars is not nearly as gentle. Stars having masses larger than
about 10 solar masses or so have sufficient mass to crush and then monuclearly fuse helium
atoms at their cores into a series of shells of progressively heavier elements, helium into carbon,
carbon into neon, neon into oxygen, oxygen into silicon, and finally silicon into iron. When iron
nuclei are produced at the cores of such stars, the iron core regions collapse, and in roughly
one-tenth of a second the core temperature rises to the almost unimaginable values of 5 to
10 billion Kelvins. The radiant energy from an incandescent gas at such a temperature consists
of extraordinarily high-energy, small-wavelength gamma-ray photons that shatter the iron nuclei
into alpha particle fragments by means of a process called photodisintegration. In the next tenth
of a second, the protons and electrons in the erstwhile iron of the star core are crushed into
neutrons in a process called neutronization. This latter process is accompanied by a huge burst
of neutrinos into the interstellar medium.
When the central core density reaches that at which protons and neutrons are packed into
atomic nuclei densities (about 4 10
17
kg/m
3
), the core suddenly becomes very incompressible
and rigid. As the outer layers of the star rush toward the now incompressible core of the star at
speeds in excess of one-tenth that of light, they create huge temperatures and pressures, which in
effect cause them to bounce off the core. This effect, which is called the nuclear bounce effect
or core bounce, occurs in a matter of milliseconds and is accompanied by a blast of incredible
proportions, which astrophysicists have called a supernova explosion. Supernova detonations
are of such magnitude that for a few days they can shine with a power output ten billion times
that of the sun!.
276 Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles



The outer layers of the supernova, which bounce off the core, are returned to the interstellar
medium in the form of gaseous supernova remnants. The core left behind is now a sphere of
closely packed neutrons barely 30 kilometers in diameter. If the mass of the core is less than
about three solar mass units, then the quantum-mechanical crowding effects of the neutrons
create a counterpressure that prevents the core from any further gravitational contractions. The
star thus takes on a stable configuration and becomes a neutron star.
Although all of the details have yet to be worked out, it is believed that such compacted
neutron stars rotate very rapidly, as much as 30 times per second, and also possess very highly
compacted and therefore very high intensity magnetic fields. As the neutron star rapidly rotates,
charged particles at the surface of the star are accelerated by the magnetic field along the field
lines. These accelerated particles emit beams of electromagnetic radiation from the magnetic
polar regions of the neutron star. As the star rotates, these twin beams of electromagnetic waves
sweep through space much as the beam from a lighthouse or airport beacon sweeps through the
darkness. These beams of electromagnetic cones emanating from rapidly rotating neutron stars
manifest themselves to us as the flashing pulsars, in which radio and visual electromagnetic
waves have been observed to wink on and off with periods measured in fractions of a second.
Perhaps the most famous pulsar is that buried in the Crab Nebula, an object known to be the
gaseous remnant of a supernova explosion that was observed to occur in 1054 A.D. Eventually,
as the rotational energy of the neutron star is converted into electromagnetic radiation, the
neutron star slows its rotation, and the light from its beacon is forever darkened. It then joins
its larger brothers and sisters, the black dwarfs, as a cold, lightless, burned out stellar corpse.
Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles 277



If the neutron core left behind in a supernova explosion exceeds three solar mass units, then
the degenerate gas pressure from the quantum-mechanical crowding effects of the packed
neutrons can no longer balance the self-gravitational effects, and the core collapses further into
an object the size of a typical college campus. At a radius of less than two kilometers and a
mass in excess of three solar mass units or about 6 10
30
kg, the densities in these objects now
soar to values in excess of 1.0 10
21
gm/m
3
. Moreover, the velocity of escape from the surfaces
of such objects exceeds the speed of light, and since no energy or mass entity has been observed
to exceed this speed, any particle or photon caught in the gravitational clutches of such an object
cannot escape. The object in effect becomes a sink into which masses and energy can fall, but
from which they cannot escape. In short, the object disappears from the observable universe.
Such objects, therefore, are appropriately referred to as black holes, and are perhaps the most
intriguing of all the conjurings of modern astrophysics.
Black holes present us with an number of interesting challenges and important questions.
Absolutely essential to our investigations of any celestial object is our ability to detect its
presence via electromagnetic radiation. By their very nature, black holes do not permit such a
direct revelation of themselves. Instead, we must seek out these elusive entities by searching for
whatever observable effects they might have on their surroundings. Proceeding along these
lines, we have discovered a number of objects and systems whose behavior strongly suggests the
presence of a black hole.
The most studied of these is an object in the summertime constellation of Cygnus the Swan,
which is called Cygnus X-I. Cygnus X-1 is a binary system consisting of a hot, very large, blue
supergiant star, which is gravitationally paired with an unseen source of X rays. The model
278 Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles



that seems to best fit the measurements and observations made on this system is that the blue
star, like others of its type, emits a large-scale stream of particles called a stellar wind. Part of
this wind is intercepted by an orbiting black hole, whose crushing gravitational field compacts
the incoming gases such that their temperatures rise to values in excess of 2 million Kelvins. At
these temperatures, the gas becomes a plasma. As the now-charged atoms in the plasma spiral
toward the black hole, they are in effect charges oscillating back and forth and, as such, produce
the X rays we see on Earth. In a certain sense, the X rays coming from Cygnus X-1 can be
thought of as the last cry for help by the atoms in the plasma just before they cascade over the
black holes event horizon and into oblivion. The ultimate fate of the energy and matter that
makes such a plunge is a topic of considerable speculation in current astrophysics, as is the fate
of the black holes. We know that the end of a stars life sees vast amounts of stellar material
returned to the gas and dust clouds of the Milky Way, and a lesser amount locked forever into
cold, dark, and compact spheroids of mass. The stellar material that has collapsed into black
holes could possibly end up in either or neither of these scenarios.

EVIDENCE
Although some difficulties remain to be resolved, the theory of stellar life cycles has been
remarkably successful in explaining stellar characteristics. Dozens of types of stars ranging from
the red supergiants to the tiny neutron stars can be nicely fit into the overall framework of the
stellar life cycle theory.
Stellar clusters also provide compelling evidence in favor of stellar life cycles. All of the
stars of a given cluster are formed out of one large cloud of material at approximately the same
Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles 279



time. Because the dimensions of a star cluster are almost always negligible compared to the
clusters distance, all of the cluster members can be regarded as being at the same distance from
earth. As a result, a plot of apparent magnitude versus color for the stars (called a
colormagnitude diagram) is in essence an HR diagram. For a recently formed star cluster,
only the more massive stars have had a chance to reach their main sequence stages. The
colormagnitude diagram for such a cluster will have a welldeveloped high temperature, high
luminosity main sequence region, or upper main sequence, but stars at the low temperature, low
luminosity main sequence region or lower main sequence will not have had time to reach their
main sequence stages and hence seem to hang just above the main sequence line. Intermediate
age clusters exhibit a well developed lower main sequence, virtually no upper main sequence,
and a giant branch of moderate strength. In this case the lower main sequence stars have now all
have had time to reach this main sequence stages, while the faster evolving upper main sequence
stars have left the main sequence for their giant phases. The very oldest clusters have virtually
no main sequence remaining, as nearly all of the stars in the cluster have moved into their red
giant stages. By noting the spectral type at which a clusters main sequence turns off toward
the red giants, astronomers can estimate the age of the clusters based on theoretical calculations
of a stars lifetime in its main sequence stage. Using such techniques, astronomers have found
ages of star clusters to range from a few million years up to over 15 billion years, with the stellar
associations being the youngest systems and the globular clusters the oldest.
As stars evolve through their life cycles, the material that they return to the interstellar
medium is enriched with both helium and elements heavier than helium or metals. When this
metal enriched material contracts into another star, that star will contain an even higher
280 Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles



percentage of metals at the end of its cycle, and so on. Thus, one would expect to find the
youngest stars highly metalenriched, and the oldest stars metaldeficient. If one
spectroscopically observes the stars believed to be in the oldest dust and gasfree parts of the
Milky Way, one finds that those objects, called Population II stars, display the predicted
metalpoor spectra, whereas stars that are found in the youngest dust and gasrich parts of the
Milky Way exhibit metalrich spectra. The degree to which metals are abundant in a stars
spectrum depends on the previous history of the material from which the star was found. This
history can vary considerably, and thus stars can possess metal contents throughout the range
between the metalrich Population I stars and the metalpoor Population II stars.
The interiors of evolving stars are the greatest nuclear accelerators known, and it is here
presumably that the creation of elements through various types of nuclear reaction occurs.
Using accelerators here on earth nuclear physicists have measured the probabilities or
crosssections of thousands of possible nuclear reactions. The elements produced in those
reactions found to have the highest probabilities correspond to the elements having the highest
observed abundances in nature. The conditions known to produce these elements in nuclear
reactions here on the earth are entirely consistent with those hypothesized for the deep interiors
of the distant stars.
Several basic nuclear reactions are believed to be fundamental to the creation of elements.
The most important of these is the aforementioned fusion of hydrogen into helium according to
the general reaction

4H
1
He
4
.
Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles 281




Fusion of helium into yet heavier elements is accomplished by reactions such as



3He
4
C
12
C
12
+ C
12

20
+ He
4
O
16
+ O
16
Si
28
+ He
4
.


Helium nuclei or alpha particles can be captured in a process called alpha capture or the alpha
process in which reactions such as the following occur


C
12
+ He
4
O
16
O
16
+ He
4

20
.


The sprocess occurs when neutrons are produced and captured by a given nucleus at a
sufficiently slow rate to allow the nucleus to decay between successive neutron captures as in the
case of the formation of the element krypton from bromine:

Br
44
+ n Br
45
Kr
45
+ e

.

282 Chapter 14: Stellar Life Cycles



The rprocess occurs when neutrons are produced and captured by a given nucleus at a
sufficiently rapid rate that beta decay does not occur between successive neutron captures. The
element antimony is thus produced from tin as follows


Sn
118
+ n Sn
119
Sn
119
+ n Sb
120
+ e

.


Protons can also be captured by heavier nuclei albeit at a much lower probability. The element
xenon is produced from iodine by the reaction

I
123
+ p Xe
124
.
This elegant view of element creation is called nucleosynthesis and, with the exception of a few
elements such as lithium, beryllium, and boron, provides a successful and consistent explanation
for the existence of elements heavier than hydrogen within the framework of stellar life cycle
theory.


283







CHAPTER 15


GALAXIES AND COSMOLOGY





THE MILKY WAY GALAXY
With his primitive telescope, Galileo observed that the mysterious band of light girding the
celestial sphere was actually a vast collection of individual stars just as the Greek atomist
Democritus had suggested nearly two millennia earlier. Not until this century, however, were
astronomers able to make a reasonably accurate estimation of the magnitude and complexity of
the Milky Way star system.

Size and Shape of the Milky Way
If a composite photograph of the entire Milky Way is assembled as shown in, its planar
symmetry can at once be recognized. The first attempts by Herschel to investigate the size and
shape of the Milky Way resulted in a grindstone model in which the sun was approximately at
the center. Early in the twentieth century, the Dutch astronomer Kapteyn, using more refined
data, developed a model for the Milky Way that was ellipsoid-shaped with the sun at the center.
Kapteyn also estimated that diameter of the Milky Way to be about 5000 light-years or just
under 2000 parsecs. The present picture of the Milky Way, arrived at by Shapley and others,
retains Kapteyns ellipsoid-shaped nuclear bulge, but
284 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



shows the sun to be some 10,000 parsecs or about two-thirds of the way from the galactic
nucleus to the outer rim of a disk of stars, gas, and dust that emanates from it. The Galaxy is
estimated to be more than 30,000 parsecs in diameter.
Shapleys conclusion that the sun was not the center of the Galaxy came from his study of
globular clusters. In 1917 he found that globular clusters are distributed in a roughly spherical
shape that is not centered on the sun, but rather at a point some 10,000 parsecs or
32,000 light-years away. He also determined the diameter of this system of globular clusters and
correctly assumed that this value also represented the size of the Milky Way Galaxy. His result
was somewhat high; the presently accepted estimate of the Galaxy diameter is 30,000 parsecs or
100,000 light-years.
Like globular clusters, RR Lyrae stars have a roughly spherical distribution with respect to
the center of the Galaxy. Therefore, this group of stars, too, can be employed to determine the
distance to the center of the Galaxy. First the astronomer measures the number of RR Lyrae
stars per unit volume as a function of the apparent magnitude in a line slightly off the galactic
center. Since the absolute magnitudes are the same for all of the RR Lyrae stars, a plot of
apparent magnitude versus density can, by the use of the distance modulus formula, be readily
converted into a plot of distance versus density. For a spherical distribution, the plot will pass
through a maximum. The apparent magnitude at which the maximum occurs determines the
distance r, and the distance r
0
to the center of the Galaxy is then easily obtained
trigonometrically.. Results from such analyses again yield a value of about 10,000 parsecs for
r
0
.
Mass of the Milky Way
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 285



It is known that the sun moves about the center of the Milky Way in a roughly circular orbit
having a radius of r
0
. The velocity of the sun as it moves along this orbit can be computed from
radial velocity measurements made on the globular clusters and the Magellanic Clouds, which
are assumed to be at rest with respect to the center of the Milky Way. By dividing this orbital
velocity (about 320 km/sec) into the total circumference of the suns orbit, the sidereal period P
0

of the sun about the center of the Milky Way can be estimated and is found to be some
200 million years. Assuming that the mass of the Milky Way M
G
is concentrated at the galactic
center, it can be found by Keplers harmonic law:

M
G
=
r
3
0
P
2
0
.

A simple calculation of M
G
in solar masses yields a value of about 2 10
11
solar mass units, and
since the average mass of a star is about one solar mass, this value also represents the
approximate number of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.

Magnetic Field of the Milky Way
Polarization studies of light from dust nebulae show an alignment of elongated particles die
to the presence of a galactic magnetic field of about 10
10
Teslas. This result is roughly
confirmed by measurements made of Zeeman splitting in 21-cm radio emission from various
parts of the Galaxy. The galactic magnetic field may be partly responsible for the acceleration
286 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



of electrons and other atomic particles. These accelerated particles in turn give rise to the
galactic radio noise as well as to much of the galactic cosmic ray flux.

Structure of the Milky Way
Our Galaxy can be thought of as consisting of three general, mutually interacting regions:
the galactic plane or disk, the galactic nucleus, and the galactic halo or corona. Each of these
regions exhibits a unique set of physical properties which are thought to offer important clues
regarding the origin and evolution of the Milky Way.
The plane of the Milky Way is not uniform in its content of stars and interstellar material,
but exhibits a spiral structure not unlike that observed for the distant galaxies. The spiral arms
contain the bulk of the stars, dust and gas and hence can be traced out by mapping the locations
of galactic star clusters, associations, and nebulosity. Unfortunately, because of the absorption
effects in the visible region of the spectrum, it is not possible to map such objects beyond
1500 parsecs or so. As a result, the best mapping of galactic structure has been done by radio
astronomers working at the longer wavelengths of radiation, which are essentially uninhibited by
the interstellar medium. Of particular interest are the observations of the 21-cm line arising
from hydrogen gas, the most abundant material in space. By observing the 21-cm line and
measuring any radial velocities that are present, radio astronomers have been able to construct a
picture of the Milky Way and have definitely established the existence of a spiral pattern in the
distribution of hydrogen. Radio observations of other substances yield patterns of distribution
that are similar to but not exactly the same as that found for hydrogen.
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 287



The establishment of a spiral structure in the Milky Way plane and the large solar motion
relative to the center of the Milky Way strongly suggest that the entire Galaxy is rotating. If the
average radial velocity of the stars is measured as a function of its galactic longitude or angular
distance from the center of the Galaxy, the relative average velocity in all directions would be
uniformly zero if the Milky Way were either not rotating or rotating as a rigid body. However, if
the sun and the surrounding stars are moving in gravitationally generated Keplerian orbits, then
stars whose orbits are smaller than that of the sun are moving more rapidly than the sun and those
with larger orbits are moving more slowly. It can be qualitatively argued that a plot of average
radial velocity versus galactic longitude should result in a double sine curve. Observationally
determined plots of mean radial velocity versus galactic longitude exhibit the double sine curve
predicted for the Keplerian orbit of differential galactic rotation model and thus verify the
existence of a galactic rotation. Of considerable interest in this regard is the discovery that
whereas the outer regions of the Milky Way and other spiral galaxies are rotating as gravitating
masses, the inner regions are rotating as rigid bodies with the rotational velocity increasing with
increasing distance from the nucleus. For the Milky Way, the transition zone between rigid and
nonrigid rotation occurs at 6000 or 7000 parsecs.
At the center of the Milky Way spiral lies the galactic nucleus, an oblate spheroidal
concentration of stars about 4000 parsecs in diameter. Most of the visible light from the nucleus
is blocked from the earths view by interstellar gas and dust, and radio observations show that the
nucleus is emitting infrared and long-wavelength nonthermal radio waves in a very complicated
fashion. It is generally agreed that the center of the nucleus consists of a very dense assemblage
288 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



of stars, possibly even a gigantic black hole, but the details of the structure of this region of the
Galaxy are not known.
Surrounding the Milky Way disk and nucleus is a vast spherical system of stars, gas, and
globular clusters about 32,000 parsecs in diameter, which astronomers refer to as the galactic
halo. Objects in the halo are believed to move in highly eccentric ellipses having the galactic
nucleus at one focus. As a result of Keplers law of equal areas, these objects move almost
imperceptibly unless they are in the vicinity of the nucleus. Thus, to observers on the earth, who
are part of the galactic rotation, these objects appear to have large radial velocities. Both
nucleus and halo objects generally exhibit metal-poor spectra and are thus believed to occupy the
oldest parts of the Galaxy. As in the case of the nucleus, both thermal and nonthermal radio
emissions have been detected from the halo, and like the nucleus, the structure and dynamics of
this part of the Galaxy are not well understood.

The Magellanic Clouds
Like its sister galaxy in Andromeda, the Milky Way has two satellite galaxies that are
visible in the Southern Hemisphere as the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. Situated about
50,000 parsecs away, the objects have about one-tenth of the mass of the Milky Way and possess
diameters of 8000 and 3000 parsecs, respectively. These galaxies have no rational symmetry
and are examples of a class of galaxies called irregular galaxies.

Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 289



THE OTHER GALAXIES
By the start of the twentieth century all of the categories of the diffuse objects found in the
various catalogues of such objects such as the Messier Catalogue and the New General Catalogue
were understood except for the globular clusters and certain classes of diffuse objects that
possessed a variety of symmetrical shapes, especially ellipses and pinwheels. Shapley, as we
have seen, demonstrated the spherical distribution of the globular clusters about the center of the
Milky Way Galaxy and hence their intimate relationship with this stellar system. An
explanation of the puzzling symmetrical spiral and elliptical nebulae, however, was not so easily
obtained. Unlike the globular clusters, which possessed spherical symmetry relative galactic
nucleus, and the gaseous nebulae and open star clusters, which are found almost exclusively
along the Milky Way plane, the symmetrical nebulae seemed to be collected at the galactic poles.
In fact, these objects were found to be absent from a region called the zone of avoidance, which
closely coincides with the visible regions of the Milky Way. Some astronomers assumed that
these objects were part of the Milky Way, whereas others thought of them as island universes,
systems of stars comparable to the Milky Way in size but millions of light-years away.
The debate raged for nearly three decades before the great American astronomer Edwin
Hubble resolved the controversy in 1924 in favor of the island-universe theory. Using the newly
completed 100-inch reflecting telescope at the Mount Wilson Observatory, Hubble discovered
cepheid variables in the outer regions of the Andromeda and Triangulum nebulae and found
that their apparent brightnesses were extremely low despite their large intrinsic brightnesses. He
concluded that these nebulous patches were very remote and well beyond the boundaries of the
Milky Way. The galaxies, as we now call them, came to be recognized as separate celestial
290 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



entities, systems of stars whose dimensions and stellar content rival those of the Milky Way
Galaxy.

Distribution of Galaxies
Galaxies, like stars, are found throughout the sky, but only a few, such as the Andromeda
galaxy and the Magellanic Clouds, are bright enough to be seen with the naked eye or a
small-aperture telescope. At fainter magnitudes the total number of detectable galaxies
increases dramatically.
It was noticed early on that galaxies are almost completely absent from a band of the sky
centered on the plane of the Milky Way. This zone of avoidance is caused by clouds of
obscuring material that block our view to the more distant galaxies. As the astronomer looks
outward from the plane of the Milky Way, more and more galaxies per square degree are
observed because there is less and less obscuring material. One would expect, then, that the
highest number of galaxies per square degree would be observed in a direction perpendicular to
the plane of the Milky Way where the amount of obscuring material is at a minimum; this is
indeed the case.
Galaxies tend to occur in clusters. The membership of clusters can range from only a few
galaxies up to several thousand. The Milky Way, the Magellanic Clouds, and the Andromeda
galaxy all belong to one such cluster, which astronomers refer to as the Local Group. Some of
these clusters, usually those having large numbers of galaxies, have spherical symmetry and
central concentration; they are called regular clusters or globular clusters. Other clusters
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 291



possess little or no spherical symmetry or central concentration and are referred to as irregular
clusters or open clusters (Table 15.1).
Astronomers have also found that the clusters of galaxies themselves are not uniformly
distributed but tend to be grouped into second-order clusters, clusters of clusters, or
superclusters. These systems may have diameters of between 30 and 50 million parsecs and
total masses of 10
15
solar masses.

Table 15.1. General Properties of Selected Clusters of Galaxies
______________________________________________________________________________
Number of Angular Diameter Distance
Cluster Galaxies (degrees) (parsecs)
______________________________________________________________________________

Local Group 17 ----- 4.0 10
5

Virgo 2500 12 1.1 10
7

Perseus 500 4 5.8 10
7

Coma 1000 6 6.8 10
7

Hercules 75 1 1.1 10
8

Corona Borealis 400 0.5 1.9 10
8

Bootes 150 0.3 3.8 10
8

Ursa Major 200 0.2 3.8 10
8

______________________________________________________________________________



Classes of Galaxies
Galaxies are usually grouped into four general classes: the ellipticals, the normal spirals,
the barred spirals, and the irregulars. Of the several detailed classification schemes for galaxies
that have been proposed, the simplest is that suggested by Edwin Hubble.
In the Hubble system, elliptical galaxies are classified according to their degree of
ellipticity, or flattening, which is defined as 10(a-b)/a, where a and b are the major and minor
292 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



axes of the image of the galaxy. The numbers designating the degree of ellipticity range from 0
to 7. A capital letter E is placed in front of the degree of flattening to denote an elliptical galaxy.
Thus an elliptical galaxy having a spherical shape would be classified as EO; an extremely flat
one would be designed E7.
Normal spirals are designated by S and barred spirals by SB. To these designations the
letters a, b, and c are added to denote the relative size of the nucleus and the degree of tightness
to which the spiral arms are wound. Thus type Sa indicates a galaxy with a large nucleus, no
bar, and tightly wound arms, whereas type Sc is the designation given to a galaxy with no bar, a
small nucleus, and loosely wound arms. Galaxies that are intermediate between Sa and Sc are
classified as type Sb. If a bar is present, the corresponding subtypes are SBa, SBb, and SBc.
Irregular galaxies are classified as either Irr I or Irr II. The Irr II galaxies show prominent
dark nebulosity; Irr I galaxies do not. Neither type has a trace of the rotational or circular
symmetry present in the ellipticals and spirals.

Distances to Galaxies
The distance to the galaxies, even to the nearby systems, are so vast that the methods of
trigonometric parallax used for determining fundamental stellar distances are totally inadequate.
As a result, to obtain distances to galaxies, astronomers must resort to indirect methods that are
accurate to only a few percent at best and in many cases are only order-of-magnitude estimates.
The most reliable methods of galactic distance determination involve the use of distance
indicators, objects whose intrinsic brightnesses are known and which have been identified in
other galaxies. Some of the objects used by astronomers in this regard are listed in Table 15.2.
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 293



From the known luminosity of a given distance indicator and the measured apparent brightness B
of the same type of object that has been located in another galaxy, astronomers can determine the
distance to the galaxy by solving the equation.

distance =
L
4B
.

For example, RR Lyrae stars have been detected in the Andromeda galaxy, and the apparent
brightness of these objects has been found to be about 4 10
18
w/m
2
. Since the luminosity of
RR Lyrae stars is known to be 2 10
28
watts, the corresponding distance to M31 is about
2 10
22
m or some 680,000 parsecs. Of course, the basic assumption in such an analysis is that
the physical properties, in particular the luminosity, of the objects employed as distance
indicators do not vary appreciably from galaxy to galaxy. No evidence to the contrary has yet
been found.
In 1929 Edwin Hubble found that the radial velocity V
r
of a galaxy measured from the
Doppler shift of the lines in its spectrum was directly proportional to the distance of the galaxy,
or
radial velocity of a galaxy = H distance to a galaxy.

where H is the Hubble constant. If there are no observable distance indicators in a given galaxy,
it is thus still theoretically possible to obtain an estimate of the distance to the galaxy from a
determination of V
r
. Unfortunately, the procedure requires that the value of H be accurately
294 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



known, and measurements of the value of H have ranged from 50 to 150 km/sec/million parsecs,
or by differ by a factor of 3. The currently accepted value for the Hubble constant H is
70 (km/sec)/million parsecs.

Table 15.2. Galactic Distance Indicators
______________________________________________________________________________
Approximate
Approximate Power Approximate
Limiting Absolute Output Distance of Detection
Object Magnitude (watts) (parsecs)
______________________________________________________________________________

Cepheid variables 6 1.0 10
30
7 10
6

RR Lyrae stars 0 4 10
28
3 10
5

H II regions 9 1.6 10
31
3 10
7

Red giants and supergiants 3 6.0 10
28
2 10
6

O and B supergiants 9 1.6 10
31
3 10
7

Globular clusters 9 1.6 10
31
3 10
7

Novae 9 1.6 10
31
3 10
7

Supernovae 19 1.6 10
35
3 10
9

______________________________________________________________________________



Linear Dimensions of Galaxies
Once the distance r to a galaxy has been determined, it is possible to calculate its linear
diameter d from the apparent angular diameter a (in arcseconds) = 206.265 d/r. Angular
diameters of galaxies are difficult to determine accurately owing to the diffuse nature of these
objects, but based on the currently accepted values for galactic angular diameters, the
corresponding linear diameters range from a few hundred parsecs for the dwarf ellipticals up to
50,000 parsecs for the large spirals and ellipticals (Table 15.3).

Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 295



Table 15.3. Linear Dimensions and Luminosities of Galaxies
______________________________________________________________________________
Linear Diameter Luminosities
Type (parsecs) Absolute Magnitude (L/L

)
______________________________________________________________________________

Ellipticals 700 to 2 10
5
10 to 23 10
6
to 10
11

Spirals 7 10
3
to 5 10
4
15 to 20 10
8
to 10
10

Irregulars 3 10
3
to 10
4
13 to 18 10
7
to 10
9

______________________________________________________________________________



Luminosities of Galaxies
If the apparent magnitude of a galaxy is known, the absolute magnitude can be obtained
from the distance modulus formula. Again the diffuse, extended nature of a galaxy makes an
accurate determination of an apparent magnitude difficult, which in turn restricts the accuracy of
the absolute magnitude. Absolute magnitudes of galaxies range from 1 to 23, which makes
galaxies between 10
6
and 10
11
times as luminous as the sun.

Spectra of Galaxies
Because they are vast systems made up of individual stars, the galaxies display composite
absorption line spectra that range from type A to K for the spirals, G to K for the ellipticals, and
A to F for the irregulars. The ellipticals are generally of later spectral types because they are
made up almost entirely of late-type stars.
Some peculiar galaxies such as the Seyfert galaxies display spectra that contain broad,
bright emission lines. These objects are often strong radio emitters as well, and are not well
understood at present. It is felt, however, that Seyfet galaxies may be closely related to quasars
and the nuclei of normal galaxies.
296 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



The fact that all the exterior galaxies exhibit a redshift in their spectral lines is thought to be
an indication that these objects are receding from the earth. The velocity of recession also
increases with galactic distance, the constant of proportionality being the previously mentioned
Hubble constant.

Masses of Galaxies
The masses of galaxies are obtained by measuring their gravitational effects on other
galaxies or on individual stars and objects within a given galaxy. If a galaxy is relatively near,
spectroscopic means can be used to estimate the orbital velocities of stars in its various regions.
If the distance to the galaxy is known and some sort of mass distribution is assumed, then the
mass of the galaxy can be computed.
Let us consider the edge-on galaxy shown in Fig. 15.14. By measuring the Doppler shift at
points A and B, it is possible to determine the overall radial velocity of the galaxy, V
r
, as well as
the rotational velocity, V
rot
, at point A. If the distance to the galaxy is known or can be
determined, then the linear distance a can be obtained from the measured angular distance
between points A and B. We now assume that the stars at point A are moving in circular orbits
on the average, and that Vrot represents the average orbital velocity of these stars. The period P
of the motion is then equal to the orbit circumference at A divided by the rotational velocity at A,
or P = 2a/V
rot
. By making the simple assumption that the mass of the galaxy is concentrated at
the center, Keplers third law, M
g
= a
3
/p
2
, may be used to calculate the mass of the galaxy, M
g
.
This calculation is very similar to that performed for the Milky Way Galaxy. This is, of course,
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 297



a highly simplified version of the problem. In practice, the astronomer must consider such
factors as the galaxys space orientation and mass distribution.
Masses may also be calculated from observed motions of binary galaxies and galaxies
within clusters. The methods employed in these cases are statistical in nature and yield only
average masses.
Masses of galaxies calculated form the above techniques are found to range from 10
7
solar
masses for the tiny dwarf systems to 10
13
solar masses for some of the giant elliptical galaxies.

Evolution of Galaxies
The various morphological forms of galaxies can be arranged in a nearly continuous
sequence of structural types starting with the ellipticals and ending with the irregulars. This fact
immediately suggests that the different types of galaxies may represent various stages of
evolution. According to one theory, galaxies are born as EO ellipticals, then flatten, develop
spiral arms, and evolve into the spiral and barred spiral galaxies. There are several difficulties
with this theory, and an alternate idea suggests a reverse evolutionary sequence based on the gas,
dust, and stellar population types present in the galaxies. In the latter theory, galaxies are
thought to begin as irregulars, evolve through the various stages of spirals and end up as
ellipticals. It is now believed, however, that the Hubble types dont represent any kind of
evolutionary sequence at all; and, in fact, it seems that all the galaxies have retained their present
basic structures from the time of their formation.

298 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



ACTIVE GALAXIES AND QUASARS
In the 1960s astronomers discovered a remarkable class of objects which were powerful
emitters of radio waves but which appeared as star-like images when observed at visual
wavelengths. These quasi-stellar radio sources or quasars were also found to be remarkable in
that they all exhibited large red-shifts in their spectral lines, thus implying from the Hubble law
that these objects are at very large distances. Further observations indicate that the quasars are
producing energy at a rate as much as 40 times that of a large galaxy from a volume of space
about the size of the solar system.
Other active objects such as BL Lacertae objects, Seyfert galaxies, quasi-stellar objects, and
radio galaxies have also been discovered which exhibit one or more quasar-like characteristics.
It is now believed that all these objects are various manifestations of the basic system in which a
several billion solar mass black hole located at the center of a galaxy gravitationally draws matter
from the surrounding galaxy. As the matter flows toward the solar system-sized black hole it is
compressed into a plasma similar to the Cygnus X-1 system. In some cases just before the in
falling material reaches the event horizon of the black hole, it is ejected outward in the form of
enormous jets of gaseous material.
In recent years astronomers have speculated that such nuclear activity may have been a
hallmark of the early cosmological history of galaxy evolution.

COSMOLOGY
If one could stand off at a distance from Earth that is farther than the distances to the gas,
dust, and star clouds of the Milky Way, the distances to the exterior galaxies, and even the
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 299



distances to the most remote quasars, one presumably could obtain an overview of the entirety of
all that we see in the physical universe. While we are not physically able to make such a
journey, we can nonetheless deduce at least in part what such an overview would hold in store for
us. The astrophysical attempt to get such a big picture is referred to as cosmology.
In the course of our measurements and observations of celestial objects, we have found a
number of general characteristics of the universe that provide us with some clues as to what the
overview of the universe is currently like, and, most interestingly, what that overview has been
like in the past and what it might be like in the future. The most striking observation about the
universe is that it seems to be expanding in all directions. If we peer outside of our own Milky
Way and look at other similar aggregates of stars, called galaxies, we find that the spectral line
patterns of each and every one of them is displaced toward longer wavelengths than their
terrestrial laboratory wavelengths would dictate. Such a displacement can be explained only in
terms of a Doppler shift arising from a velocity of recession. Moreover, the more distant
galaxies have red shifts, which indicate larger velocities of recession. In other words, the more
distant the galaxy, the faster it is receding from us.
If we observe elemental abundances, we find that certain elements and isotopes, most
notably the isotope deuterium, ought not to exist at their observed abundance if they were created
in some sort of stellar nucleosynthesis process. As quickly as a deuterium isotope is created, for
example, it should immediately be transmutated into helium under the same physical conditions
that created it. Nonetheless, deuterium, and fairly large amounts of it, exist in nature. Thus,
some other mechanism for element production must exist besides that found to occur at the
centers of stars.
300 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



A scan of the heavens also reveals that a background of radiant energy exists that permeates
the interstellar medium, much as the sky glow from the lights of a big city permeates the
atmosphere above that city If a blackbody were to be placed in this background radiation field,
it would heat up or cool off to an equilibrium temperature of about 3 K. This all-pervasive
radiation field is thus often referred to as the 3-K cosmic microwave background, and seems to
be a fundamental characteristic of the universe as a whole.
Finally, if one carefully measures the distances and directions of the millions of galaxies in
space, one finds that the galaxies are not uniformly distributed, but instead possess a lumpy,
filamentary structure throughout space. To explain these and other observed characteristics of
the universe as a whole, astrophysicists have developed an overview of the universe that is at
differing levels both simple and complex. It is a view that is popularly referred to as the
Big Bang.
Put very simply, the Big Bang theory should be prefaced with a basic philosophical
acknowledgment that science currently has no way of describing the universe prior to the Big
Bang, nor can it even describe the Big Bang in the opening flash of its existence. In our
discussion of quantum mechanics, we learned that there is a fundamental limit to our ability to
perform accurate measurements on the physical world. This limit is expressed in the form of the
uncertainty principle. If we extrapolate our presently expanding universe backward in
relativistic space-time, we come to a point at which the universe has a diameter so small that the
entire universe lies within this fundamental uncertainty zone and, therefore, outside of our ability
to describe it. To be sure, this diameter, referred to by cosmologists as the Planck length is an
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 301



exceedingly small 4.1 10
35
meters, or about 10
20
times smaller than the diameter of a proton.
The light travel time across this cutoff diameter is equal to



time =
distance
velocity
=
4.1 10
35
meters
3.0 10
8
meters/sec
= 1.4 10
43
seconds .




Thus, during the first 1.4 10
43
sec of the existence of the Big Bang, the matter and energy
contained in our entire universe was so packed as to render our physics powerless to analyze it.
This cutoff time of 1.4 10
43
sec, where the Big Bang makes the transition from a physically
indescribable to a physically describable state is called the Planck time. We can gain a rough
idea of how long ago this occurred measuring the rates at which galaxies are moving away from
us as well as their present distances. An estimate for the age of the Big Bang and hence for the
universe itself can be had by calculating the time it takes a galaxy moving at its observed velocity
of recession to traverse its presently observed distance. Thus, the giant elliptical galaxy M87 in
the constellation of Virgo has a distance of 13 10
6
parsecs or about 40 10
22
meters. It is also
moving away from us at a rate of 1050 km/sec or 1.05 10
6
m/sec. Hence, the time it took M87
to traverse its 40 10
22
meter distance moving at its present speed of 1.50 106 m/sec is
302 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology






time =
distance
velocity
=
40 10
22
meters
1.05 10
6
meters/sec
= 38 10
16
seconds .





which corresponds to about 12 billion years. As one might expect, such assumptions are too
simplistic. We know, for example, that the expansion rate of the universe is slowing because of
the self-gravitation of the mass that lies within it. Thus, the velocities of recession of the
galaxies whose light left much earlier in the cosmological history of the universe, say, several
billion years ago, are found to be higher than those such as M87 whose light left there much
more recently. According, astrophysicists estimate that the universe is probably 15 to 20 billion
years old.
Although we have no way of scientifically describing the opening instant of the Big Bang,
we can describe the physical properties o the universe after the Planck time and to some degree
recreate those conditions in high-energy particle accelerators here on Earth. The universe in the
infinitesimal time intervals after the Planck time of the Big Bang was a universe of pure energy
locked up in an almost unimaginably high-temperature, rapidly expanding space-time.
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 303



Astrophysicists have estimated that the temperature of the radiation-dominated universe cooled
from 10
32
k to 10
13
K in the first second of its existence, and it is much of this energy that we
now see spread throughout the present volume of the universe as the 3-K cosmic microwave
background.
Amidst this cauldron of energy where atoms meet galaxies and quarks meet quasars, the
four basic interactions in nature--gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak
nuclear--were indistinguishable from each other because the virtual particles invoked to explain
these interactions all behave like photons at such high temperatures. As the temperature of the
universe dropped, the photonic properties of these virtual particles changed into those we
presently observe. First gravitons precipitated out of this photonic fireball at about 10
32
K
at the instant of Planck time. The strong nuclear interactions produced gluons at 10
27
at
10
35
sec, followed by the weakons of weak nuclear interactions at 10
15
K at 10
-12
sec, thus leaving
the photons as the sole keepers of electromagnetic interactions. The next second colliding
gamma-ray photons were transformed into subatomic particles having relativistically equivalent
masses, a process that has been observed on a far less grandiose scale in particle accelerators and
is referred to as pair production.
In the first second after the Big Bang, the temperature of the rapidly expanding universe
cooled off to the point where many of the particles, particularly protons and electrons, were left
behind. The conditions that had both created and annihilated them were no longer present and
so those particles that happened to exist when the conditions changed could no longer be
destroyed, nor could new particles be created. Although the gamma rays could no longer
participate in a large amount of pair production, their level of intensity was nonetheless able to
304 Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology



prevent the left behind protons and neutrons from combining with one another into heavier
nuclei.
This situation changed when the universe was about three minutes old and had cooled off to
a temperature of less than one billion K. Under these conditions, protons and neutrons could
collide and stick together as deuterium nuclei without fear of being immediately broken apart
by the ever-present gamma rays. Once deuterium nuclei could form, they could then participate
in nuclear reactions with each other as well as with protons and neutrons to form helium nuclei
and, to a lesser extent, those of the light elements, lithium, barium, and boron. As the expansion
and cooling of the universe rapidly continued, the conditions necessary for such reactions were
expanded and cooled out of existence, leaving behind these nuclei frozen in the abundances we
observe for them today.
Finally, after a million years or so, the continuing expansion of the universe reached a point
where the temperature had dropped to 3000 K. By now, the photons no longer possessed
sufficient energy to even keep electrons away from hydrogen and helium nuclei and there were
wholesale combinations of electrons and nuclei into atoms. Hydrogen and helium are both
virtually transparent to the photons in a 3000-K radiation field, so the universe suddenly became
one of atoms and photons that could now move freely among those newly formed atoms.
Astrophysicists often refer to this event as the era of decoupling or recombination. Upon the
formation of atoms, the next 1 to 2 billion years saw the gravitational collapse of those atoms
into the wispy, bubbly, filamentary structure of galaxies we observe today. It is out of this
structure that stars have been cycling and recycling through their lives over the past 13 to
18 billion years.
Chapter 15: Galaxies and Cosmology 305



The final fate of this vast expense of gas, dust, stars, and galaxies is very much dependent
on the total mass that exists within it. Too little mass and the self-gravity of the galaxies cannot
slow the expansion enough to prevent the universe from expanding forever. Too much mass
and, just as an upward thrown ball is gravitationally yanked back to the earth, the self-gravity will
stop the expansion, causing the universe to collapse onto itself in an event cosmologists have
called the Big Crunch. Unfortunately, we can only place a lower limit to the total mass that
might be present in the universe, and, therefore, can make no definite statements concerning what
may be in store for us billions of years down our cosmological time line.


305











GLOSSARY





Atype star One of a class of stars with a temperature between 8,000 and 13,000K and
spectrum characterized by strong hydrogen lines. (p. 238)

aberration of starlight The apparent displacement of a stars observed position due to the
motion of the earth around the sun. (p. 156)

absolute temperature A scale of temperature in which the zero point is the lowest possible
temperature, 273C. (p. 129)

absolute zero The temperature at which all molecular motion ceases; 0 K or 273C.
(p. 129)

absorption line A narrowwavelength region of greatly reduced intensity in a continuous
spectrum. (p. 126)

absorption spectrum A series of darkabsorption lines superimposed on a continuous
spectrum. (p. 126)

acceleration A change in the magnitude and/or direction of a velocity. (p. 86)

accretion The process by which small particles collide and stick together to form larger
masses.

active sun The sun at a time when it exhibits relatively large numbers of sunspots,
prominences, flares, and other forms of atmospheric activity. (p. 231)
306 Glossary



airglow A constant background of light caused by fluoresence in the upper layers of the
earths atmosphere. (p. 164)

albedo A measure of the ability of a planet, satellite, or meteoroid to reflect sunlight.

almanac A tabulation of astronomical events.

alpha particle An atomic particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons; the nucleus
of a helium atom.

altitude The shortest angular distance between an object and the horizon as seen by a
given observer.

amplitude The maximum displacement distance of a wave motion from its average or
equilibrium position; the range of variability, such as light from a star. (p. 109)

angular diameter The angle subtended by an objects diameter as viewed from a given
distance to the object. (p. 78)

annular eclipse A solar eclipse in which the moons angular diameter is less than the suns,
resulting in a donutlike appearance for the sun during the eclipses total phase. (p. 176)

aperture The hole through which light enters a telescope or camera.

apparent magnitude The brightness of an object as seen from the earth expressed on the
magnitude scale. (p. 116)

arcminute An angle equal to 1/60 of a degree. (p. 78)

arcsecond An angle equal to 1/60 of an arcminute. (p. 78)

association (stellar) A loose collection of stars that have a common origin. (p. 256)

asteroid One of several thousand relatively large bodies that usually have all or part of their
orbital paths between Mars and Jupiter. (p. 212)
Glossary 307




asteroid belt Region of the solar system between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in which
almost all of the asteroids can be found. (p. 212)

astrology A branch of human activity and study in which configurations of the sun, moon,
and planets are believed to influence human affairs. (p. 21)

astrometry The branch of astronomy dealing with the precise determination of celestial
positions.

astronomical unit (AU) The mean distance between the earth and the sun; one
astronomical unit equals 1.495985 10
11
meters. (p. 102)

astronomy The branch of science dealing with the nature of the universe and its
components beyond the atmosphere of the earth.

astrophysics The branch of astronomy dealing with the physics of celestial objects.

atmosphere A gaseous envelope surrounding a planet or star.

atom The smallest division of an element that will retain the properties of the
element. (p. 119)

atomic mass unit (amu) A unit of mass roughly equal to the mass of a hydrogen atom or
1.67 10
27
kg. (p. 119)

atomic number The number of protons or electrons in one atom of an element in its normal
state. (p. 120)

aurora A glow in the upper atmosphere of the earth emitted by atoms and ions. (p. 165)

autumnal equinox That point on the celestial equator where the sun crosses it moving from
north to south; the time at which the sun crosses this point.

308 Glossary



Btype star One of a class of stars with a temperature between 12,000 and 25,000K and a
spectrum characterized by lines of hydrogen and neutral helium. (p. 238)

Baileys beads Small beads of sunlight visible around the mountainous lunar disk just
before and just after the total phase of a solar eclipse. (p. 176)

Balmer lines Absorption or emission lines in the visible region of the electromagnetic
spectrum that arise, respectively, from transitions up from or down to the second electronic
energy level of the hydrogen atom. (p. 127)

barium star A G, K, or earlier M star having overabundances of the heavier metals such as
barium and zirconium. (p. 244)

barred spiral A spiral galaxy in which the spiral arms begin at the ends of a bar passing
through the nucleus. (p. 292)

barycenter The point between two mutually revolving objects for which the product of the
mass and the distance to the barycenter is equal for both objects. (p. 100)

Be star A Btype star with emission lines in its spectrum. (p. 250)

beta particle A highly energetic electron or positron emitted by a radioactive substance.

Big Bang theory A cosmological model in which the observed expansion of the universe
is set in motion by a huge primeval explosion. (p. 300)

binary star A double star system whose components orbit each other, each one trapped by
the others gravity. (p. 239)

black dwarf One of the possible endpoints of a stars evolution in which a star no longer
generates energy and has assumed a stable configuration. (p. 274)

black hole One of the possible endpoints of a stars evolution in which a stars mass
becomes so compacted through gravitational collapse that neither energy nor matter can
escape from it. (p. 99)
Glossary 309




blackbody An idealized object that is capable of absorbing and reemitting all radiant
energy that falls on it.

Bodes law A numerical progression that reproduces the approximate spacing of the planets
in order from the sun. (p. 212)

bolide A fireball that explodes with an audible sound. (p. 216)


brightline spectrum An emission spectrum consisting of a series of bright lines
superimposed on a dark continuum. (p. 124)

C star See carbon star. (p. 244)

carbon cycle A series of nuclear reactions in which carbon nuclei act as a catalyst in the
fusion of hydrogen into helium. (p. 226)

carbon star A star whose spectrum is dominated by molecular bands of carbon compounds
such as CN, CH, and C
2
. (p. 244)

Cassegrain telescope A reflecting telescope in which the light is brought to a focus through
a small hole in the center of the objective mirror by means of a convex secondary
mirror. (p. 139)

Cassinis division The most notable gap in the ring system surrounding the planet Saturn.

celestial equator The great circle on the celestial sphere 90 from the celestial poles; the
intersection of the celestial sphere and the plane of the earths equator. (p. 76)

celestial mechanics The branch of astronomy dealing with the motions and gravitational
influences of celestial objects.

celestial poles The points of intersection of the earths polar axis with the celestial
sphere. (p. 76)
310 Glossary




celestial sphere An imaginary sphere of large radius centered on the earth and onto which
the positions of celestial objects are projected for the purpose of measurement. (p. 74)

center of gravity or center of mass The point in a single body or within a system of bodies
that behaves as though the entire mass of the configuration were concentrated at that
point. (p. 96)

cepheid variable A class of F and G supergiant stars whose brightness and temperature
vary with a regular periodicity because of internal pulsations. (p. 245)

Chandrasekhar limit The largest mass (1.4 solar masses) that a white dwarf star can have
without undergoing gravitational collapse.

chromosphere The layer of solar atmosphere between the photosphere and the
corona. (p. 229)

circumpolar stars Stars which are always above the horizon as seen from a given latitude.

cluster Any physical grouping of stars or galaxies.

cluster variable A class of pulsating variable stars having periods of less than one day; an
RR Lyrae star. (p. 246)

colormagnitude diagram Plot of apparent magnitude versus color index for a star
cluster. (p. 279)

coma The diffuse gaseous material that surrounds the nucleus of a comet head. (p. 209)

comet A conglomeration of dust, ice, and frozen gases that orbits the sun. (p. 208)

comparison spectrum An emission spectrum from a known substance placed beside the
spectrum of a celestial object.

Glossary 311



conic section The curve of intersection between a right circular cone and a plane; can be a
circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola.

conjunction The closest apparent approach of one celestial object to another as seen from
the earth. (p. 8)

constellation One of 88 defined zones in the sky names for various people., animals, or
objects. (p. 72)

continental drift The theory that the continents on the earth are moving away from each
other at a very slow rate. (p. 162)

continuous spectrum The distribution by wavelength of the energy emitted by an
incandescent object. (p. 124)

convection The transport of energy by moving currents of material.

core The central regions of a celestial object.

Coriolis effect The apparent deflection observed from the earths surface of a projectile
moving above the rotating earth. (p. 158)

corona The outer atmospheric layers of the sun. (p. 230)

coronagraph An instrument for observing the suns outer atmospheric layers at times other
than total eclipse. (p. 227)

corpuscular radiation Charged atomic particles continuously emitted by the sun.

correspondence principle The statement that any new or revised scientific theory must not
only account for the discrepancy between experimental results and the predictions of the
old theory, but also must be successful where the old theory was successful. (p. 45)

cosmic rays Highenergy atomic particles (mostly protons) that strike the earths
atmosphere. (p. 262)
312 Glossary




cosmogony The branch of astronomy that deals with the origin and evolution of the solar
system or of the universe.

cosmology The branch of astronomy that deals with the largescale properties and structure
of the universe. (p. 299)

crater A circular depression on the surface of an object caused by either internal volcanic
activity or meteoric impacts.

crescent Any phase of the moon or planets in which the observer sees less than 50 percent
of the illuminated portions of the disk. (pp. 45)

crust The outermost solid layers of a planet, satellite, or meteoroid.

dark nebula A cloud of interstellar dust that obscures the light from the stars behind it.

declination The angular distance, measured along an hour circle, between an object and the
celestial equator; an astronomical latitude. (p. 76)

degenerate matter Matter in which the electrons are compacted into their lowest possible
energy levels.

density The amount of mass contained in a unit volume of an object or a substance.

deuterium An isotope of hydrogen having a proton and a neutron in its nucleus; heavy
hydrogen.

deuteron The nucleus of a deuterium atom.

differential rotation Rotational motion in which different parts of the object or system
move at different rates from one another.

diffraction A process by which light waves are spread out as they pass an opaque edge.

Glossary 313



diffraction pattern A series of alternating bright and dark areas (fringes) produced by the
diffraction and subsequent selfinterference of light waves.

diffuse nebula An irregular luminous cloud of interstellar material.

disk The apparent surface of a celestial object.

disk of Galaxy The flat, circular regions of the Milky Way Galaxy. (p. 286)
dispersion The process by which light waves are sorted out according to wavelength.

diurnal Occurring on a daily basis.

Doppler effect (shift) The change in the observed wavelength of radiation due to relative
motion between the wave source and the observer. (p. 133)

dwarf Term applied to a star on the main sequence, especially at the low luminosity end.

dynamo theory Theory that the magnetic field of a planet arises because of its rotation
about a liquid metallic core of significant size.

earthshine (or earthlight) The sunlight reflected from the earth that dimly illuminates the
dark portions of the moon near times of new moon.

eccentricity A measure of the shape of an ellipse; the ratio of the distance between the foci
to the major axis.

eclipse The cutting off of the light of a celestial object by another body passing in front of
it.

eclipsing binary A binary star with light variations produced by one member eclipsing the
other.

ecliptic The apparent annual path of the sun among the stars; the circle of intersection
between the earths orbital plane and the celestial sphere. (p. 76)

314 Glossary



effective temperature The temperature to which a blackbody of equal size must be raised
in order to produce the observed luminosity of the given object.

electromagnetic radiation Radiant energy produced by oscillating electric or magnetic
charges or fields. (p. 109)

electromagnetic spectrum The sum total of all known wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation including gamma rays, X rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared, and radio
waves. (p. 110)

electron A subatomic particle with a negative electronic charge that occupies the outer
regions of an atom. (p. 119)

element Any substance that cannot be broken down further by normal chemical
reactions. (p. 120)

ellipse A conic section; the curve of intersection of a circular cone and a plane cutting
through it. (p. 100)

elliptical galaxy A galaxy having an elliptical shape but no trace of spiral
structure. (p. 291)

elongation The apparent angular separation between an object and the sun as seen from the
earth. (p. 104)

emission line A bright line in a spectrum caused by electrons making transitions to lower
energy levels, thereby releasing energy in the form of photons. (p. 124)

emission nebula A nebula that radiates visible light by fluorescing the ultraviolet light from
stars within or near the nebula. (p. 261)

emission spectrum A spectrum consisting of emission lines. (p. 124)

encounter A chance close approach of two nonorbiting objects that produces gravitational
effects on both objects.
Glossary 315




energy The ability to do work. (p. 107)

energy levels of atoms The possible energies of electronic configurations of atoms above
the least energetic configuration or ground state. (p. 125)

ephemeris A table listing the positions of a celestial object at specified times.

epicycle In the geocentric planetary system, a small circular orbit whose center moves along
the circumference of a deferent. (p. 27)

epoch A date specified as a time reference for astronomical observations.
equation of state An equation that expresses the relationship among the pressure,
temperature, and density of a substance.

equator The great circle on the earths surface located 90 from the celestial poles. (p. 73)

equatorial system of coordinates A celestial coordinate system using the celestial equator
as its primary reference plane. (p. 74)

equinox One of two points of intersection on the celestial sphere between the ecliptic and
the celestial equator. (p. 76)

eruptive variable A variable star whose light changes are sudden and erratic. (p. 248)

escape velocity The minimum velocity needed for a given object to escape the gravitational
field of a second object. (p. 98)

eyepiece A small lens used to examine the images produced by the primary lens or mirror
of a telescope.

excitation The increasing of the energy of an atoms electronic configuration through
collisions or by absorption of radiant energy. (p. 126)

exosphere The outermost layer of the earths atmosphere. (p. 165)
316 Glossary




extinction The dimming of light as it passes through material that will scatter or absorb it.

extragalactic Outside of the boundaries of the Milky Way Galaxy.

Ftype star One of a class of stars with a temperature between 6000 and 8000K and a
spectrum characterized by lines of singly ionized metals. (p. 238)

faculae Bright regions on the sun near the solar limb. (p. 232)

filament The dark silhouette of a prominence on the solar disk. (p. 232)

fireball An unusually bright meteor. (p. 216)
first quarter The lunar phase that occurs when the moon is 90 east of the sun as seen from
the earth. (p. 4)

fission The breaking up or smashing of heavier nuclei into lighter ones with an attendant
release of energy. (p. 122)

flare A sudden, temporary increase in the brightness of a localized region on the sun
accompanied by a burst of highenergy particles. (p. 253)

flare star A variable star, usually a red dwarf, that suddenly and unpredictably increases its
brightness for brief periods of time. (p. 248)

flash spectrum The spectrum of the solar chromosphere that manifests itself for a brief
instant just as totality begins. (p. 229)

flocculi Bright regions in the magnetic fields surrounding sunspots that are visible on
spectroheliograms of the sun; plages.

fluorescence The absorbtion of light or energy at short wavelengths and its subsequent
reemission at other, longer wavelengths.

focal length The distance between a lens or mirror and its focus. (p. 138)
Glossary 317




focus The point in an optical system where the image is formed. (p. 138)

forbidden lines Spectral lines not usually observed in a laboratory because they result from
electronic transitions that are highly unlikely. (pp. 261262)

force Any agent in nature that will produce or prevent the motion of an object. (p. 88)

Fraunhofer line An absorption line in the spectrum of the sun or a star. (p. 123)

Fraunhofer spectrum An array of absorption lines in the spectrum of the sun or a
star. (p. 123)

freefree transition An interaction between an ion or atom and a passing electron in which
energy of motion is exchanged and radiant energy is either absorbed or emitted without the
electron being captured.

frequency The number of oscillations in a wave motion passing a given point per unit time.

fringes The set of light and dark regions caused by the diffraction and subsequent
interference of light waves as they pass an opaque edge.

full moon The lunar phase that occurs when the moon is exactly opposite the sun as seen
from the earth. (pp. 45)

fusion The nuclear melting of lighter elements into heavier ones with an attendant
conversion of mass into energy. (p. 122)

Gtype star One of a class of stars with a temperature between 4500 and 6000K and a
spectrum characterized by lines of neutral and singly ionized metals; a solartype
star. (p. 238)

galactic cluster A loose collection of stars located in the disk of the Milky Way. (p. 254)

318 Glossary



galactic equator The circle of intersection of the plane of the Milky Way disk with the
celestial sphere.
galactic rotation The rotational motion of the Milky Way Galaxy about its center. (p. 287)

Galaxy The Milky Way star system.

galaxy One of a multitude of remote star systems containing billions of stars. (p. 289)

Galilean satellites The four largest satellites of Jupiter, which were discovered by
Galileo. (p. 192)

gamma rays That part of the electromagnetic spectrum having wavelengths shorter than
0.1 nanometers; the most energetic region of the electromagnetic spectrum. (p. 112)

gas giant One of the large, lowdensity planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, or
Neptune. (p. 191)

gegenshein A faint, diffuse glow in the sky opposite the sun; the counterglow. (p. 220)

geocentric Having the earth at the center. (p. 27)

geodesy The branch of earth science that deals with the measurement of the earths size and
shape.

geomagnetic Of or referring to the earths magnetic field.

giant branch A sequence on the HR diagram occupied by stars that have ended the
mainsequence phases of their evolution. (p. 242)

giant star A star having a large luminosity or radius.

gibbous Any phase of the moon or planets in which the observer views between 50 and
100 percent of an objects illuminated surface. (p. 45)

Glossary 319



globular cluster One of the large, tightly packed spherical systems of stars that occupy a
roughly spherical distribution relative to the center of a galaxy. (p. 253)

globule A small, compact dark nebula believed to be a star in the process of
formation. (p. 272)

Gondwanaland A hypothesized primordial land mass in the Southern Hemisphere that
broke up to form some of our modern continents and islands. (p. 162)

granulation The pattern of convective cells in the solar photosphere responsible for the
suns mottled or granular appearance. (p. 227)

gravitation The fundamental property of a mass by which it exerts a force of attraction on
any other mass.

gravitational collapses The collapse of a mass configuration by selfgravity.
gravitational redshift The longward shift to wavelength experienced by a photon as it
attempts to leave the surface of a given mass.

great circle Any circle on the surface of a sphere whose center coincides with that of the
sphere,

greatest elongation The maximum angular separation between the sun and either Mercury
or Venus as seen from the earth. (p. 103)

greenhouse effect The trapping of a planets radiant energy by its atmosphere. (p. 184)

Greenwich meridian The meridian that passes through Greenwich, England, and by
international agreement is the zero point for longitude measurement; the prime
meridian. (p. 74)

Greenwich time The standard time at the Greenwich meridian.

Gregorian calendar The calendar introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII and which is
the most commonly used calendar today.
320 Glossary




ground state The lowest possible energy for an atoms electronic configuration.

H I region A region of neutral hydrogen in space. (p. 261)

H II region A region of ionized hydrogen in space. (p. 261)

H line The strong Fraunhofer line of ionized calcium located at 396.8 nanometers.

halflife The time required for onehalf of the atoms in a radioactive substance to decay.

halo (atmospheric) A ring of light around the sun or moon produced from the refraction of
light by highaltitude ice crystals.

halo (galactic) The stars, star clusters, and other material spherically distributed about the
nucleus of a galaxy.

harmonic law Keplers law of planetary motion, which states that the ratio of the cube of
the mean distance to the square of the sidereal period is constant for every planet. (p. 102)

harvest moon The full moon that occurs nearest the time of the autumnal equinox.

heavy element An element whose atomic number is greater than that of the element
helium or 2.

heliocentric Having the sun at the center.

helium flash An explosive ignition of the helium in the core of a red giant that starts the
fusion of helium into carbon.

HertzsprungRussell (HR) diagram A plot of the absolute magnitudes of a group of
stars against their temperature, spectral class, or color index. (p. 242)

highvelocity star A star having a large space motion relative to the sun as a result of its
not sharing the galactic orbital motion of the sun.
Glossary 321




horizon A great circle on the celestial sphere 90 from the observers zenith.

horizontal branch A sequence of stars on the HR diagram the member so which have
absolute magnitudes roughly equal to zero and which are believed to have passed through
the redgiant stage of evolution.

horizontal parallax A parallax angle obtained by using the earths equatorial radius as a
baseline.

hour circle A semicircle on the celestial sphere whose endpoints are located at the celestial
poles. (p. 76)

HR diagram See HertzsprungRussell diagram. (p. 242)

Hubble constant The constant of proportionality in the Hubble law; its value is of the order
of 50 km/sec/megaparsec. (p. 293)

Hubbles law The statement that the observed radial velocity of a receding galaxy is
proportional to its distance. (p. 293)

hydrostatic equilibrium A condition in an object in which inward gravitational forces are
exactly balanced by the forces pushing outward.

hyperbola The geometric figure generated by slicing a right circular cone parallel to its axis
with a plane; the shape of an encounter orbit. (p. 101)

igneous rock A rock formed from molten material.

image The rendition of an object by an optical system.

image tube A device that enhances the brightness of an image through the use of
photoelectric processes. (p. 153)

322 Glossary



Index Catalogue (IC) A supplement to the New General Catalogue (NGC) of diffuse
objects.

index of refraction A measure of the ability of a substance to refract light rays; the ratio of
the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in a given substance.

inertia The property of matter by which an object resists any attempt to change its velocity.

inferior conjunction A conjunction of an inferior planet and the sun when the planet is
between the earth and sun.

inferior planet A planet whose orbital radius is less than that of the earth; the planets
Mercury or Venus.

infrared radiation That part of the electromagnetic spectrum from 750 nanometers to
about 1 mm; wavelengths longer than the ones we perceive as red heat waves. (p. 111)

insolation The amount of solar radiation that falls on a unit area of the earths surface per
unit time.

interferometer An optical device that measures small angular distances using the principle
of interference of light waves.

interplanetary medium The distribution of gas and dust in interplanetary space. (p. 205)

interstellar dust Microscopic solid grains in interstellar space. (p. 264)

interstellar gas The diffuse gas in interstellar space. (p. 259)

interstellar lines Absorption lines produced by interstellar gas superimposed on stellar
spectra. (p. 265)

interstellar medium The distribution of gas and dust in interstellar space. (p. 259)

Glossary 323



interstellar reddening The reddening of starlight caused by scattering from the dust
particles in the interstellar medium. (p. 265)

ion An atom that has a nonzero net electronic charge.

ionization The process by which a neutral atom gains or loses electrons.

ionosphere The upper layer of the earths atmosphere characterized by a high percentage of
ionized oxygen and nitrogen. (p. 165)

iron meteorite (iron) A class of meteorite composed of 90 percent iron, 9 percent nickel,
and 1 percent other materials. (p. 218)

irregular galaxy A galaxy that lacks symmetry. (p. 291)

irregular variable A variable star whose light variations are not periodic. (p. 247)

island universe An outdated term for a galaxy.

isotopes Atoms of the same element that have the same atomic numbers but different
atomic weights. (p. 120)

isotropy The property of space such that one direction is the same as any other.

Jovian planet Any of the gas giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, or Neptune. (p. 191)

Julian calendar A calendar invented by Julius Caesar in 46 B.C.

Juno Third asteroid to be discovered.

Kline A rather strong Fraunhofer line at 393.3 nanometers due to ionized calcium.

Ktype star One of a class of stars with a temperature between 3500 and 4500K and a
spectrum characterized by weak molecular bands and absorption lines from neutral
metals. (p. 238)
324 Glossary




Keplers laws The three basic laws governing the motions of the planets put forth by
Kepler early in the seventeenth century. (p. 40)

kiloparsec One thousand parsecs.

kinetic energy The energy associated with an objects motion.

kinetic theory A description of fluids that seeks to explain fluid properties in terms of
molecular motions.

Kirkwoods gaps Gaps in the orbital spacing of the asteroids that arise from gravitational
perturbations of the planets, especially Jupiter. (p. 215)

Lagrangian points Five points in the plane of two orbiting bodies at which the net forces
from the two bodies are zero.

latitude The shortest angular distance between a location on the earths surface and the
earths equator as seen from the earths center. (p. 73)

law A statement describing the behavior of a phenomenon in nature. (p. 44)

law of equal areas Keplers second law of planetary motion: the line joining the sun and a
planet (radius vector) sweeps out a constant orbital area per unit time. (p. 101)

law of the red shifts Hubbles law. (p. 293)

leap year A 366day calendar year employed every fourth year divisible by four in order to
keep the civil calendar in phase with the solar year.

libration Small periodic changes in the relative orientation between an observer on the
earth and the moon that allows one to see more than a hemisphere of the lunar surface.

light That part of the electromagnetic spectrum (between 400 nanometers and
750 nanometers) which can be seen with the human eye. (pp. 110111)
Glossary 325




light curve A plot of an objects apparent brightness versus time.

lightyear The distance light travels in 1 year, or 9.5 10
12
km. (p. 110)

limb The edge of a celestial objects apparent disk.

limb darkening The phenomenon whereby the center of the disk of a celestial object is
brighter than its limb regions.

line broadening An effect in which spectral lines are spread out over a range of
wavelengths owing to a variety of physical processes.

line of apsides The line joining the near and far points of an orbit; the major axis of an
orbit.

line profile A detailed plot of intensity versus wavelength for a spectral line.

linear diameter The actual diameter of an object in units of distance or length.

Local Group A small cluster of some twenty galaxies to which the Milky Way Galaxy
belongs.

local standard of rest A coordinate system that shares the average motion of the sun and
nearby stars about the galactic center.

longitude The angular distance between the meridian of a given location and the
Greenwich meridian as seen from the earths center. (p. 74)

longperiod variable A variable star whose brightness changes occur with periods longer
than 70 days. (p. 247)

lowvelocity star A star having a very small space motion relative to the sun and hence
believed to be a part of the general galactic rotation.

326 Glossary



luminosity The total amount of energy given off by an object per unit time, or the objects
power output. (p. 108)

luminosity class The classification assigned to a star given spectral type on the basis of its
luminosity.

luminosity function The relative numbers of stars having various absolute magnitudes per
unit volume of space.

lunar Of or pertaining to the moon.

Lyman series The series of spectral lines of hydrogen that arise from electronic transitions
into and out of the lowest energy level of the hydrogen atom. (p. 217)

Mtype star One of a class of stars with a temperature lower than 3500K and a spectrum
characterized by molecular bands of titanium oxide. (p. 238)

Magellanic Clouds A pair of irregular galaxies which are satellite galaxies of the Milky
Way Galaxy. (p. 288)

magnetic field A region of space within which magnetic forces can be detected.

magnetic poles One of two points on a body at which the magnetic forces are strongest.

magnetosphere A region around a planet in which its magnetic field strongly affects the
motions of incident charged particles.

magnification The apparent size of an object seen through an optical system compared to
its size when viewed with the unaided eye. (p. 145)

magnitude A scale of measuring brightness in which each magnitude jump represents a
2.5factor increase or decrease in brightness. (p. 114)

main sequence A sequence of stars on the HR diagram to which the vast majority of stars
belong. (p. 242)
Glossary 327




major axis The longest line that can be drawn between two points on a closed orbit.

major planet Any one of the nine planets in the solar system.

mantle The layer of material between a planets core and its crust.

mare (plural maria) A dark sealike planar area on the moons surface.

mascons Localized concentrations of mass, especially just below the lunar surface.

mass A measure of the amount of matter in an object defined by its inertial or gravitational
properties.

mass function In a singleline spectroscopic binary, the observed ratio of the cube of the
product of the second objects mass and the sine of its angle of orbital inclination to the
square of the sum of the two masses.

massluminosity relation The correlation between stellar mass and stellar luminosity,
especially for stars on the main sequence.

mass number The total number of protons and neutrons contained in the nucleus of an
atom. (p. 120)

massradius relation The correlation between stellar mass and stellar radius, especially for
white dwarf stars or stars on the main sequence.

mean density The ratio of the total mass to the total volume for a given object.

mean solar day The interval between successive passages of the sun across the celestial
meridian, assuming that the apparent eastward motion of the sun is constant throughout the
year.

megaparsec One million parsecs.

328 Glossary



meridian A great circle on the earths surface that passes through the north and south
poles. (pp. 7374)

meson A subatomic particle having a mass between that of a proton and an electron.

mesophere The layer of the ionosphere that lies immediately above the stratosphere.

Messier catalogue A catalogue of about 110 diffuse objects compiled by Charles Messier
in the eighteenth century. (p. 289)

metal In astronomy a loose term denoting any element that is not hydrogen or helium.

metastable level An energy level in an atom from which there is a very low probability that
an electron will make a photongenerating transition.

meteor The luminous event in which a meteoroid is burned up in the earths atmosphere; a
falling or shooting star. (p. 216)

meteor shower A celestial event in which an uncommon number of meteors appear to
radiate from a specific point in the sky. (p. 216)

meteor stream A group of meteoroids uniformly distributed along a highly elliptical orbit,
usually that of an old comet. (p. 216)

meteor swarm A group of meteoroids clustered about a single point moving along a highly
elliptical orbit, usually that of an old comet. (p. 216)

meteorite The portion of a meteoroid that survives passage through the earths atmosphere
and strikes the earth. (p. 218)

meteoroid Any solid interplanetary particle that is not a major planet or satellite of a major
planet. (p. 216)

micrometeorite An extremely small meteoroid that because of its small size can filter
through the earths atmosphere to the ground without burning up. (p. 219)
Glossary 329




microwaves That part of the radio region of the electromagnetic spectrum having
wavelengths roughly between 1 mm and 30 cm.

Milky Way Galaxy The vast spiralshaped assemblage of stars to which the sun belongs
and which we see as a dim band of light encircling the celestial sphere. (p. 283)

minor axis The shortest line that can be drawn from one point on an orbit through the
geometric center of the orbit to a second point on the orbit.

minor planet One of several tens of thousands of objects in the solar system having
diameters larger than l km but that are neither one of the nine principal planets nor one of
their satellites.

Mira variables A red giant variable Mtype star whose light variation occurs over periods
of more than 70 days; the star Mira (o Ceti) is the prototype. (p. 247)

model atmosphere A theoretical calculation of the physical conditions in any layer of the
atmosphere of an object, especially a star.

model interior A theoretical calculation of the physical conditions in any layer of the
interior of an object, especially a star.

molecular band A set of emission or absorption lines arising from a molecule that are so
closely spaced that they blend into a single broad spectral feature.
molecule The smallest division of a compound that will retain all of the chemical properties
of that compound. (p. 120)

momentum The product of an objects mass and velocity.

monochromatic Consisting of a single color or wavelength.

moon The satellite of the earth; any lesser body in orbit about a planet.

N galaxy A galaxy having an extremely bright nucleus.
330 Glossary




nanometer A length of 10
9
meters; one billionth of a meter. (p. 68)

neap tide The lowest tides in a given month; neap tides occur around the time of quarter
moon.

nebula A cloud of interstellar material.

neutrino A subatomic particle that has no mass or charge.

neutron A subatomic particle that has about the same mass as a proton but has no
electronic charge. (p. 119)

neutron star One of the final stages of stellar evolution in which protons and electrons
have all been gravitationally crushed into neutrons. (p. 276)

New General Catalogue A catalogue of diffuse objects that was compiled by Dreyer in
1888 and succeeded the Messier catalogue. (p. 289)

new moon The lunar phase that occurs at a conjunction of the sun and moon. (p. 15)

Newtonian telescope A reflecting telescope in which the light rays are brought to a focus
point at the sides of the main tube through the use of a small, flat secondary
mirror. (p. 138)

Newtons laws The three basic statements in Newtons description of motion. (p. 90)
north polar sequence A group of stars near the north celestial pole used to define the zero
point of the magnitude scale.

nova A star that undergoes a large, sudden increase in its total energy output, from either an
internal or surface nuclear explosion. (p. 248)

nuclear fission The process in which atomic nuclei are broken apart into smaller nuclides
with an attendant conversion of mass into energy. (p. 122)

Glossary 331



nuclear fusion The process in which lighter atomic nuclei are melted into heavier
nuclides with an attendant conversion of mass into energy. (p. 122)

nucleosynthesis The building up of atomic nuclei by nuclear reactions.

nuclide An atomic nucleus.

nucleus The central region of an atom, comet, or galaxy.

nutation A nodding perturbation on the precessional motion of earth[s axis of rotation due
to the gravitational pull of the moon on the earths equatorial bulge.

Otype star One of a class of stars having a temperature higher than 35,000K and a
spectrum characterized by lines of ionized helium and highly ionized metals. (p. 238)

objective The main lightgathering lens or mirror of a telescope.

oblate spheroid A solid figure formed by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis.

oblateness A measure of the flattening of an oblate spheroid, which is the ratio of the
difference between the major and minor axes to the major axis.

obliquity of the ecliptic The acute angle between the ecliptic and the celestial equator
(23).

obscuration Absorption of starlight by interstellar dust.

occulation An eclipse of a more distant celestial object by the moon or one of the planets.

ocular An eyepiece.

Oorts constants Constants that characterize the rotation of the Milky Way Galaxy in the
solar neighborhood.

opacity The ability of a substance to resist the flow of radiation through it.
332 Glossary




open cluster A loose collection of stars numbering from a few dozen up to a few hundred
that lies in the galactic disk; a galactic cluster. (p. 252)

opposition The planetary configuration in which the earth lies between the sun and the
planet; the planet thus appears to be opposite the sun in the sky as viewed from the
earth. (p. 104)

optical binary (or double) A pair of stars that are along the same line of sight but are at
different distances and hence are not a physical pair.

optical depth A measure of the reduction in the intensity of a beam of radiant energy as it
passes through an absorbing medium.

orbit The path of one celestial object about another.

ozone An extremely reactive form of molecular oxygen composed of three oxygen atoms
instead of the normal two.

parabola A curve formed by the intersection of a right circular cone and a plane parallel to
the cones surface. (p. 101)

parallax angle The apparent displacement of a nearby object relative to a background as a
result of a change in the observers position. (p. 236)

parsec The distance to a star that exhibits a parallax angle of 1 arcsecond when viewed
from a baseline separation of one astronomical unit; 3.1 10
13
km; 3.26 lightyears.
(p. 236)

partial eclipse An eclipse in which the object being eclipsed is not completely obscured.

penumbra (shadows) A portion of an objects shadow partially illuminated by the light
source.

penumbra (sunspots) The lighter outer regions of a sunspot.
Glossary 333




penumbral eclipse An eclipse in which an object passes only through the eclipsing objects
penumbra.

perfect gas law The statement that the pressure of the gas is proportional to the product of
its density and temperature.

periastron The point of closest approach in the relative orbit of a binary star system.

perigee The point of closest approach to the earth of an object in earth orbit.

perihelion The point of closest approach to the sun of an object orbiting the sun.

period The interval of time required for a phenomenon or event to repeat itself.

periodic comet A comet that returns to the vicinity of the sun at more or less regular
intervals.

periodluminosity relation An observed relationship between the period of light variation
and the luminosity for certain types of variable stars, especially the cepheid variables.

perturbation A smallscale departure from the idealized behavior of a system, especially a
twobody gravitating system, due to external forces.

phases The apparent changes of shape of an object as its illuminated surface is viewed from
various angles.

photoelectric effect An effect in which electrons are emitted from a surface exposed to
light. (p. 152)

photoelectric photometer A device that measures the intensity of radiation using the
photoelectric effect. (p. 152)

photometry The branch of astronomy that deals with the measurement of the brightnesses
of celestial objects.
334 Glossary




photomultiplier A photoelectric cell in which the flow of electrons is amplified by
successive usages of the photoelectric effect.

photon A bundle or particle of radiant energy characterized by a wavelength and an
energy; the unit of electromagnetic energy. (p. 117)

photosphere The layer of solar or stellar atmosphere that marks the visible disk of the sun
or star. (p. 228)

plages Bright regions in the magnetic fields surrounding sunspots visible on spectra
heliograms of the sun; flocculi. (p. 232)

planet One of the nine largest nonluminous objects orbiting the sun; a nonluminous object
orbiting a distant star.

planetarium An optical instrument that can project representations of the night sky and its
associated phenomena onto a domed ceiling.

planetary nebula A bright spherical nebula that surrounds a hot central star and appears as
a planetary disk in a telescope. (p. 250)

planetesimals One of a number of small bodies a few hundred meters across believed to
have formed into protoplanets in the primeval solar system.

planetoid A minor planet.

Plancks law A mathematical expression of the distribution of energy with wavelength for
a blackbody radiator. (p. 128)

plasma A gas consisting entirely of ionized atoms.
polar axis The axis in an equatorial telescope mounting that is aligned parallel to the
earths axis of rotation.

Glossary 335



polarization The alignment of the vibration planes of an electromagnetic wave into a single
preferred plane.

Population I stars Stars similar to the sun in their chemical composition. (p. 280)

Population II stars Stars having significantly lower metal abundances than the
sun. (p. 280)

position angle The orientation of one object relative to a second nearby object.

positron A subatomic particle having a positive charge and a mass equal to that of the
electron; an antielectron.

potential energy Stored energy that can be converted into other forms of energy. (p. 108)

precession The slow, conical motion of the earths axis of rotation due to the gravitational
effects of the sun and moon on the earths equatorial bulge. (p. 174)

primary minimum The deepest drop of the light curve of an eclipsing binary system.

prime focus The focal point of the primary mirror of a reflecting telescope. (p. 138)

prime meridian The Greenwich meridian, 0 longitude. (p. 74)

primeval atom In cosmological theory, the single mass from which the universe originated.

principle of equivalence The statement that any point in spacetime can be transformed
into a frame of reference such that gravitational effects will disappear.

prism A triangular piece of glass that can break up light into its component colors and
create a spectrum.

prominence A region of bright gas protruding from the solar limb. (p. 232)

336 Glossary



proper motion The apparent angular change of position of a star per year due to its
intrinsic motion.

proton A subatomic particle that carries a positive charge and is, along with the neutron, a
basic constituent of atomic nuclei. (p. 119)

protonproton chain A series of thermonuclear reactions in which protons are built up
into helium nuclei with an attendant conversion of mass into energy. (p. 226)

pulsar A radio source, believed to be a neutron star, that emits highly regular, very short
period bursts of radio emissions. (p. 252)

pulsating variable A variable star whose light variations arise from successive expansions
and contractions of the star. (p. 245)

quadrature A planetary configuration in which the angular separation between the planet
and the sun is 90 as seen from the earth. (p. 104)

quarter moon Either of the two lunar phases in which the moon is 90 from the
sun. (p. 45)

quasars Starlike radio sources whose spectra show extremely large redshifts; quasistellar
objects. (p. 298)

quiet sun A term applied to the sun when its activity cycle is at a minimum.

radar astronomy The branch of astronomy that deals with observation of objects by
reflecting radio waves from their surfaces.

radial velocity The component of an objects velocity that is directly toward or away from
the observer. (p. 133)

radiant The point on the celestial sphere from which a meteor shower appears to radiate.

Glossary 337



radiation pressure The pressure exerted by electromagnetic radiation on the body it
strikes.

radio telescope An instrument designed to collect and observe radio waves.
radio waves The region of the electromagnetic spectrum that has wavelengths longer than
1 mm. (p. 111)

radiation A mechanism by which energy is transported through space; the energy that is so
transferred.

radioactivity The spontaneous breakdown of slightly unstable atomic nuclei.

Rayleigh scattering The process by which molecules scatter light rays.

red giant A large, cool star of high luminosity. (p. 273)

Red Spot A gigantic cyclonic storm in the upper atmosphere of Jupiter. (p. 194)

reddening (interstellar) The reddening of starlight passing through interstellar dust; the
dust scatters blue light more effectively than red light.

redshift The shift to longer wavelengths of the light from celestial objects, especially
remote galaxies.

reflecting telescope (reflector) A telescope that employs a concave mirror as its principal
lightgathering element. (p. 138)

reflection nebula An interstellar dust cloud illuminated by stars in or near it.

refracting telescope A telescope that employs a lens or lens system as its principal
lightgathering element. (p. 138)

relativity A description of motion that deals with the behavior of objects moving at very
high velocities or in very strong gravitational fields.

338 Glossary



resolution The degree to which fine details are delineated in an image.

resolving power The ability of an instrument to observe fine detail. (p. 143)

retrograde motion The apparent backward motion of a planet relative to the stars as a
result of the relative motions of the earth and planet.

revolution The orbital motion of one object about another.

right ascension The angular distance between the hour circle of the vernal equinox point
eastward to the hour circle of the object. (p. 77)

rille A crevasse or trenchlike depression on the lunar surface.

Roche limit The smallest distance at which an orbiting object can maintain itself against
the tidal forces of its primary.

rotation The spinning motion of an object about an axis passing through itself.

RR Lyrae stars Pulsating variable stars having periods of less than a day, usually found in
globular star clusters. (p. 246)

RussellVogt theorem A theorem in astrophysics which states that the entire structure of a
star is uniquely determined from its mass and composition.

Stype star A cool star whose spectrum is characterized by molecular bands of the heavy
metal oxides such as ZrO. (p. 244)

saros A cycle of similar eclipses recurring about every 18 years. (p. 175)

satellite An object that revolves around a much larger object; a moon.

scientific method An investigative approach in which results of experiments and
observation are used to formulate hypotheses that are then tested with further
experimentation. (p. 43)
Glossary 339




seeing The quality of steadiness in the earths atmosphere; unsteadiness blurs telescopic
images. (p. 144)

seismic Related to vibrations in the outer layers of the earths interior.

semimajor axis Half the length of an ellipses major axis.

semiregular variable A pulsating variable star having a period that is not quite
constant. (p. 247)

separation The angular distance between two celestial objects, especially the two members
of a binary system.

Seyfert galaxy A galaxy having a bright nucleus, but not as prominent as the nuclei of N
galaxies. (p. 298)

shell star A star surrounded by a thin, detached sphere of gas. (pp. 249250)

sidereal Of or pertaining to the stars.

sidereal period The amount of time needed for one object to orbit another using the stars as
a reference. (p. 102)

solar antapex The point on the celestial sphere from which the sun has come.

solar apex The point on the celestial sphere toward which the sun is moving.

solar constant The amount of solar radiation striking the earths surface per unit area per
unit time; 1360 watts/square meter. (p. 224)

solar day The interval of time for the earth to make one complete rotation with respect to
the sun between two successive crossings of the celestial meridian by the sun.

solar eclipse An eclipse of the sun by the moon. (p. 175)
340 Glossary




solar motion The motion of the sun relative to the local standard of rest.

solar parallax The angle subtended by the earths equatorial radius at a distance of 1 AU.

solar system The entire system of planets, satellites, minor planets, comets, and meteoroids
that orbit the sun.
solar wind A highspeed outward flow of gas from the sun. (p. 230)

solstice The points on the celestial sphere where the sun reaches its maximum angular
distances north and south of the celestial equator.

space motion (or velocity) The velocity of a star relative to the sun.

spacetime A relativistic view of space in which time is regarded as a fourth dimension.

specific gravity The ratio of the density of an object to that of water.

spectral class (or type) The classification of a star based on the appearance of its line
spectrum. (p. 238)

spectral sequence An arrangement of spectral classes in order of increasing or decreasing
temperature. (p. 238)

spectrograph An instrument used to record the spectrum of an object.

spectroheliogram A photograph of the sun taken in monochromatic light, usually at the
wavelength of a strong hydrogen or calcium absorption line. (p. 229)

spectroscopic binary A binary star whose orbital motion manifests itself as a variable
radial velocity.

spectroscopic parallax The parallax (or distance) obtained for a star by comparing its
apparent magnitude with its absolute magnitude as deduced from the stars spectral
characteristics.
Glossary 341




spectrum The radiant energy from an object spread out into its component wavelengths by
some dispersive device such as a prism or grating. (p. 123)

spectrum variable A star whose spectral characteristics vary in time.

speed The magnitude of a velocity.

spherical aberration A defect in an optical system in which light rays for an axis striking
near the edges of the lens or mirror come to a different focus than light rays striking near its
center.

spicule A narrow, upward jet of material in the solar chromosphere. (p. 229)

spiral arms Curved cylindrical regions of gas, dust, and stars that wind outward in a plane
from the nucleus of a spiral galaxy.

spiral galaxy A galaxy that has spiral arms. (p. 289)

sporadic meteor A random meteor not associated with a meteor shower. (p. 217)

spring tide The highest tides that can occur in a given month; spring tides occur around the
time of new moon or full moon.

standard time The local mean solar time of a standard meridian that is extended to large
areas on both sides of the meridian for convenient timekeeping; a variation of zone time.

star A selfluminous sphere of gas.

star cluster An assemblage of stars held together by the mutual gravity of its
members. (p. 252)

steadystate theory In cosmology, an outdated theory in which the density of matter in an
expanding universe is kept constant through the continuous creation of matter.

342 Glossary



Stefans law The statement that the total amount of radiation emitted from a blackbody per
unit area of surface is proportional to the fourth power of the objects temperature. (p. 130)

stellar evolution The life cycle of a star, including all of the physical changes that occur
during that cycle.

stellar model A theoretical calculation of the interior conditions for a star.

stellar parallax The angle subtended by 1 AU at the distance to a given star.
stony meteorite (stone) A meteorite made up of 90 percent silicates. (p. 218)

stonyiron meteorite A type of meteorite composed of about 50 percent silicates and
50 percent iron and nickel; a siderolite. (p. 218)

stratosphere The layer of the earths atmosphere lying above the troposphere and below
the ionosphere. (p. 164)

Strmgren sphere A region of ionized gas in space surrounding a hot star.

subdwarf A star that lies below the main sequence on the HR diagram.

subgiant A star that lies between the main sequence and the giant branch on the HR
diagram.

summer solstice The point on the celestial sphere at which the sun attains its largest
positive declination.

sunspot A dark, cool region of high magnetic field intensity in the solar
photosphere. (p. 232)

supergiant A star of extremely large size and luminosity. (p. 242)

superior conjunction A conjunction of an inferior planet and the sun in which the planet is
on the far side of the sun.

Glossary 343



superior planet A planet whose orbit lies outside that of the earth.

supernova A catastrophic outburst of a star in which large amounts of its mass are ejected
into space; its energy output can increase by millions of times. (p. 248)

surface gravity The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of an object. (p. 96)

synchrotron radiation Radiation emitted by highspeed charged particles, especially
electrons, as they are accelerated in a magnetic field.

synodic month The interval of time between successive appearances of the same lunar
phase.

synodic period The amount of time it takes for a celestial configuration to repeat itself.

syzygy A configuration of the moon when the earth, sun, and moon are in a line; a new or
full moon.

T Tauri stars Irregular variable stars believed to be in a phase of their evolution just prior
to becoming mainsequence stars. (p. 247)

tangential velocity The component of an objects velocity that is perpendicular to the
observers line of sight.

tektites Rounded glassy objects believed by some scientists to be of extraterrestrial
origin. (p. 219)

telescope An optical device that enhances the astronomers view of the heavens. (p. 135)

telluric Terrestrial in origin.

temperature A measure of the internal energy of a body.

terminator The line between the lit and unlit positions of a reflecting body.

344 Glossary



terrestrial planets The small, compact planets nearest the sun, including Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars; Pluto is sometimes included in this group. (p. 179)

thermal energy The energy associated with the motions of atoms or molecules in a given
object or substance.

thermal equilibrium A state of balance between the amount of heat flowing into and out of
a given system.

thermocouple An electrical device used by astronomers to measure the intensity of infrared
radiation.

thermodynamics The branch of physics that deals with the properties of heat and heat
transfer.

thermonuclear Of or pertaining to a hightemperature fusion reaction.

tidal force The stretching of an object due to the gravitational forces of a nearby
object. (p. 178)

total eclipse An eclipse in which the light from one object is completely blotted out by a
second object.

totality The interval of time during a total eclipse in which the light from one object is
completely blotted out by another solid body.

transit The passage of a small body in the solar system across the disk of a larger one.

transition A change of the electronic configuration in an atom.

triangulation A method of distance determination by which the distance to an inaccessible
point is obtained by computing the elements of a triangle involving the point.

trigonometry The branch of mathematics that deals with analytical solutions of triangles.

Glossary 345



triplealpha (3) process A sequence of nuclear reactions in which three helium nuclei
are fused into a carbon nucleus.

Trojan asteroids The set of minor planets that move about the sun in Jupiters orbit 60
ahead of and 60 behind the planet itself. (p. 214)

Tropic of Cancer The parallel of latitude on he earth over which the sun stands at the
summer solstice; 23N latitude.

Tropic of Capricorn The parallel of latitude on the earth over which the sun stands at the
summer solstice; 23S latitude.

tropical year The interval of time required for the sun to make successive passages through
the vernal equinox point.

troposphere The lowest, densest layer of the earths atmosphere. (p. 164)

turbulence The irregular, random motions in a gas or liquid.

ultraviolet That part of the electromagnetic spectrum lying roughly between
100 nanometers and 400 nanometers. (p. 112)

umbra (shadows) The completely dark central portion of an objects shadow.

umbra (sunspots) The dark central portions of a sunspot.

universal time The local mean time of the Greenwich meridian.

universality, principle of An assumption that the laws of nature are invariant in time or
with ones location in the universe. (p. 45)

universe The sum total of all that we see in the heavens.

UV Ceti stars Red flare stars. (p. 248)

346 Glossary



Van Allen belts A set of doughnutshaped regions about the earth in which highenergy
charged particles have been trapped by the earths magnetic field. (p. 166)

variable star A star whose spectral characteristics or brightness varies with time.

variation of latitude Smallscale changes in the latitudes of places on the earth due to a
change in the orientation of the earths axis of rotation relative to the surface of the earth.

velocity The time rate of change of an objects position in some specified direction.
(p. 84)

velocity of escape See escape velocity. (p. 98)

vernal equinox The point on the celestial sphere where the sun crosses the celestial equator
passing from south to north; the day on which this passage occurs. (p. 76)

visible region That part of the electromagnetic spectrum between 400 nanometers and
750 nanometers which can be seen with the human eye. (p. 110111)

visual binary (star) A binary star in which both components can be resolved optically.

volume A measure of the total space occupied by a given object.

Vulcan A planet hypothesized in the nineteenth century to be between Mercury and the
sun. (p. 202)

W Ursae Majoris star An eclipsing binary whose components are nearly in contact with
one another.

walled plain A large lunar crater with small outside walls.

wandering of the poles The change in the orientation of the earths axis of rotation relative
to its surface that is responsible for the variation of latitude effect.

Glossary 347



waning moon The set of lunar phases between full and new moon when the amount of
illuminated surface is decreasing in time. (p. 5)

wavelength The distance between successive crests (or troughs). (p. 109)

waxing moon The set of lunar phases between new and full moon when the amount of
illuminated surface is increasing in time. (p. 4)

weight The total gravitational force exerted on a given mass by a given object.

white dwarf A final stage of a stars evolution in which it has collapsed to an object
roughly the size of the earth and can generate no more nuclear energy. (p. 251)

Widmansttten figures A unique crystalline structure that can be seen on the face of a cut
and polished iron meteorite. (p. 218)
Wiens law The relationship that states that for any blackbody, the product of the
temperature and the wavelength at which the largest energy output occurs is a constant.

winter solstice The point on the celestial sphere where the sun is farthest sough of the
celestial equator.

WolfRayet star A star whose spectrum is characterized by broad emission bands of
oxygen and nitrogen that arise from ejected gaseous shells. (p. 250)

X rays Radiation from that part of the electromagnetic spectrum lying between 1 A and
1000 A. (p. 112)

year The time required for the earth to complete one orbit of the sun.

Zeeman effect The splitting of the spectral lines of an atom due to the effect of a magnetic
field on the atoms electronic energy levels.

zenith The point on the celestial sphere directly overhead.

348 Glossary



zeroage main sequence The sequence of positions on the HR diagram reached by
protostars of various masses at the onset of nuclear fusion processes in their cores.

zodiac An imaginary band on the celestial sphere approximately 16 wide which is centered
on the ecliptic and within which the sun, moon, and all of the planets (except Pluto)
move. (p. 8)

zodiacal light A faint glow of light along the zodiac believed to be due to sunlight reflected
and scattered by interplanetary dust. (p. 219)

zone of avoidance An irregular band roughly coincident with the outlines of the Milky
Way within which a very few exterior galaxies can be seen (p. 290)

zone time The time kept in a strict 15wide longitude zone that is equal to the local mean
time for the zones central meridian.

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