Aircraft Design

Istanbul Technical University
Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Aeronautical Engineering Department

Principles of Aircraft Design
UCK451E
Project Report

Conceptual Design Study of an Unmanned Air Vehicle

Instructor : Prof. Mehmet erif Kavsaolu
Course Assistant : Uur zdemir
Date : January 2010
Prepared by : GROUP 27
Halil ALTUN 110050015 halil.altn@gmail.com
Ula AKGN 110060024 richardo_alvarez@hotmail.com

Abstract

ABSTRACT

The main aim of the aeronautical design project was to design a radio controlled mini
Unmanned Air Vehicle with electric propeller motor type. This design will be processed step by step
from initial sizing study than landing gear system. In all these progress, it will be focused on different
aerodynamic and design parameters. Also in each study the formulas will be given and the necessary
calculations will be made for the aircraft. All the studies performed throughout the semester was
included in design report; Competitor Study, First Guess Sizing, Airfoil and Geometry
Selection, Horsepower to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading, Initial Sizing, configuration
layout and interior design, Propulsion and Fuel System Integration, Landing Gear and
Subsystems, Aerodynamics.
The design will be made according to the needs by the mission, and the mission
requirements have defined by the instructor of the course. After the calculations and researchs
on which motor will be used then with the brand of NEU 1506/3Y was chosen to use for
our aircraft. It has 1342 watt power and 0,6056kg weight as total. And battery type is ELITE
1500 26-Cell Pack. Propeller type is selected as APC 18x12 E.
The entire design requirements and mission were nearly met with a high accuracy
with the competitor aircrafts at the end of the design processing. As a first step, starting from
using the data of the competitor aircrafts was a very useful tool in the conceptual design.

Table of Contents

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Purpose 1
1.2 Requirements and Mission Profile 1
1.3. About the Report 2

CHAPTER 2. COMPETITOR STUDY 3
2.1. Introduction 3
2.2. Progress 3
2.3.Specifications and Empirical Data 3
2.4.Aircraft Data Sheets 4
2.5. Plots from Aircraft Data Sheets 7
2.6. Histogram from Aircraft Data Sheets 10
2.7. Conclusion 10

CHAPTER 3. INITIAL CONFIGURATION SELECTION AND FIRST
GUESS SIZING
11
3.1. Introduction 11
3.2 Aircraft Configuration and Figure of Merit 11
3.3. Internal and External Payload Compartment 14
3.4. First Guess Sizing and Wing Area Sizing for Specific Mission 16
3.5. Graphics 20
3.6. Conclusion 25
Table of Contents

ii

CHAPTER 4. AIRFOIL and GEOMETRY SELECTION 26
4.2. Progress and Airfoil Selection 26
4.3. Tail Geometry and Arrangements 31
4.4. Airfoil Geometry 32
4.5. Conclusion 32

CHAPTER 5. POWER TO WEIGHT RATIO AND WING LOADING 33
5.2. Power to Weight Ratio Estimation 33
5.3. Wing Loading Selection 35
5.4. Analysis 38
5.5. Summary of the Results 42
5.6. Conclusion 42

CHAPTER 6. INITIAL SIZING 43
6.2. Configuration Description 43
6.3. Mission Description 44
6.4. Rubber Engine Sizing Study 44
6.5. Motor Selection 45
6.6. Fixed Engine Sizing Study 46
Table of Contents

iii
6.7. Geomerty Sizing Study 47
6.8. Summary of Results 48
6.9. Conclusion 49

CHAPTER 7. CONFIGURATION LAYOUT AND INTERIOR DESIGN 50
7.2. Wing and Tail Surface 50
7.3. Locating Wing and Tail Surfaces 50
7.4. Wetted Area and Volume Determination
7.5. Conclusion
54
55

CHAPTER 8. PROPULSION AND FUEL SYSTEM INTEGRATION 56
8.2. Propulsion System Selection 56
8.3. Conclusion 63

CHAPTER 9. LANDING GEAR and SUBSYSTEMS 64
9.2. Landing Gear Arrangement 64
9.3. Tire Selection 65
9.4. Shock Absorber 67
9.5. Castoring Nose Wheel Geometry 67
9.6. Non Retractable Landing Gear 68
Table of Contents

iv
9.7. Subsystems 68
9.8. Conclusion 69

CHAPTER 10. AERODYNAMICS 70
10.2. Lift 70
10.3. Parasite(Zero Lift) Drag 72
10.4. Estimation Of Induced Drag (Drag due to Lift) 75
10.5. C
L
- and C
l
C
d
Curves 76
10.6. Tabulated Results 77
10.7. Conclusion 77

CHAPTER 12. CONCLUSION 78

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

79

80

Nomenclature
v
NOMENCLATURE

Symbols
A Aspect ratio, area
Definitions
a Speed of sound
a/c Aircraft
aoa Angle of attack
A
p
Footprint area
B Distance between main and nose landing gears
b Span
C Specific fuel consumption (SFC)
c Chord line
C
bhp
Propeller specific fuel consumption
C
f
Equivalent skin friction coefficient
C
D
Drag coefficient
C
Do
Parasite drag
C
L
Lift coefficient
C
m
Pitching moment coefficient
c/4 Quarter chord line
D Drag, diameter
E Endurance
e Oswald span efficiency factor
Eq. Equation
F Fuselage lift factor
FF Form factor
Fig. Figure
g Gravitational acceleration
G Climb gradient
H Height of c.g.
h Altitude, height
hp/W Horse power to weight ratio
i Incidence angle
K Drag-due-to-lift factor
k Skin roughness value
K
vs
Variable swept constant
l Characteristic length
L Length, lift, yawing moment
L/D Lift to drag ratio
L
HT
Horizontal tail moment arm
L
VT
Vertical tail moment arm
M Mach number, mass, pitching moment
M
a
Distance from main gear to aft C.G.
M
f
Distance from main gear to forward C.G.
n Load factor
N Number of engines, Rolling moment
N
a
Distance from nose gear to aft C.G.
Nomenclature
vi
N
f
Distance from nose gear to forward C.G.
nm Nautical mile
P Pressure, power
Q Component Interference factor, production quantity
q Dynamic pressure
R Range
R/C, V
v
Rate of climb
Re Reynolds number
Ref. Reference
R
cutoff
Cutoff Reynolds number
R
r
Rolling radius
S Area, stroke
S
exp
Exposed area
S
G
Ground roll distance
S
T
Stroke of tire, transition distance
S
wet
Wetted area
S
wf
Flapped wing area
T Thrust
t Thickness, time
t/c Maximum thickness of the section
T/W Thrust to weight ratio
u Upsweep angle
V Velocity, volume
W Weight
w Width
W/S Wing loading
W
i
Weight at ith step
W
w
Weight on wheels
X X location, nondimensionalized wrt. c
Y Y location, nondimensionalized wrt. c
y Location along the wing (0 at the centerline)
Y
p
Engine-out moment arm
Z Z location nondimensionalized wrt. c

Nomenclature
vii
Subscripts

Definitions
0L At the zero lift angle of attack
ach Aerodynamic center of horizontal tail
acv Aerodynamic center of vertical tail
acw Aerodynamic center of wing
alt Altitude
c Component
c/4 Quarter chord
cg Center of gravity
cr Critical
e Elevator, empty
exp Exposed
F Flare
FR Free roll
f Flaps, fuselage, fuel
fus Fuselage
h Horizontal tail
H.L. Hinge line
HT Horizontal tail
L Lift
L&P Leakage and protuberance
LE Leading edge
m Maximum, pitching moment
max Maximum
min Minimum
misc Miscellaneous
ml Main lending gear
np Neutral point
o At takeoff, at zero lift
p Payload
r Rudder, root, required
ref Reference
SL Sea level
SLS Sea level standard
t Tip
TO Takeoff
TR Transition
v Vertical tail
VT Vertical tail
w Wing, wheel
wet Wetted

Greek Symbols Definitions
Nomenclature
viii

Angle of attack
Sideslip angle, yaw angle, Mach number correction factor
Control surface deflection
Sweep angle
Air density ratio
Air density
Downwash angle
Specific heat ratio of the air, climb angle
p
Propeller efficiency
Stroke efficiency
t
Tire efficiency
Taper ratio
h
Ratio of the dyn pressures on hor.tail and the free stream
v
Ratio of the dyn pressures on ver.tail and the free stream
Airplane relative density parameter, ground rolling resistance
Instantaneous turn rate

Acronyms

Definitions
APU Auxiliary power unit
B.F.L. Balanced field length
C.G. Center of gravity
CUT Commuter utility transport
DAPCA Development and procurement costs of aircraft
EPU Emergency power unit
ESHP Equivalent shaft horse power
FFR Fuselage fineness ratio
FTA Number of flight test aircraft
KE Kinetic energy
l.e. Leading edge
L.F.L. Landing field length
MAC Mean aerodynamic chord
OEI One engine out
RAT Ram air turbine
SFC Specific fuel consumption
SHP Shaft horse power
t.e. Trailing edge
TAI Turkish Aerospace Industries
T.O.D. Takeoff distance
T.O.F.L. Takeoff field length
TOGW Takeoff gross weight
TOP Takeoff parameter
Chapter 1 Introduction
1

1. INTRODUCTION
Electric propeller radio controlled mini Unmanned Air Vehicles are mostly used
for the specific missions. Mainly these aircrafts are being chosen because of the fact
of their size can be minimized according to aerodynamic limits and during mission
pilots confidence can be neglected by the reason of radio controlled. Mini air
vehicles are also use for military tasks for discovering some dangerous and hazardous
zones. Also there are several kinds of competitions which are organized for the aim of
improving the young engineers abilities and contributing of their imaginations.
In this project, a conceptual design of a radio controlled mini unmanned air
vehicle with electric propeller has been performed.
1.1 Purpose
The aircraft will be designed as radio controlled mini Unmanned Air Vehicle. An
electric propeller motor will be used for creating thrust power on this air vehicle.

1.2 Requirements and Mission Profile
For a radio controlled mini unmanned aircraft with the following objectives
perform a first guess sizing;

Range : 3657,6 m
V
cruise
: 20 m/s
W
payload
: 2.835kg (5bats)

Design mission:

Figure 1.1 Required Mission Segments

1
4
0
3
2
5
Chapter 1 Introduction
2

01: Takeoff
12: Climb and Turn
23: 500m Cuise
34: 360 deg Loiter
45: Landing
1.3 About the Report
During design process, mainly the textbook, AIRCRAFT DESIGN: A
CONCEPTUAL APPROACH, Raymer D.P, AIAA Education Series, Washington,
1992, is used. The ones which are used also will be mentioned in the part of
references as a final step for this project.
The tables, equations, and figures are mainly used from the text book of Raymer,
1992.
In the related chapters the detailed drawings of the design aircraft will be given
with all its necessary dimensions.

Chapter 2 Competitor Study

3

2. COMPETITOR STUDY

2.1. Introduction

As a beginning it is needed to find the almost entire information about existing
aircrafts which are in the category of electric propeller and radio controlled mini
Unmanned Air Vehicle. And also these aircrafts could have the mass as maximum 10 kg
and as minimum 3kg. The information needed has to include the basic features of
unmanned air vehicles mainly about weight, structure, material, speed, motor and take
off distance data.
Additionally, if they are published more, battery type, country made of, airfoil tip,
endurance, take off distance and some more ratios by using some parameters. After
collecting all values which are needed, they will be compared each other. Because it is
aimed to find out the similarities and differences for each air vehicle by plotting the
graphs and diagrams with some more revealing comments.

2.2 Progress

In this part, the differences and the similarities of 10 different air vehicles will be
being worked on by using the values found and calculated. According to the research
work restriction, they will have some same features, as they all have to have the mass in
between 3kg to 10 kg and they all have to be electric propelled and radio controlled mini
unmanned air vehicle. However it can not be expected that entire features will be the
same for all because they had been built for different missions and these facts create the
different features for each.
The aim of the design has to be considered in the beginning because while
working on, if it is obligatory to make an optimization, everything must be clear and
creator must know about the target. This is why each of these 10 air vehicles have some
mission as Assembly mission, Ferry flight mission, Payload mission, Delivery mission,
Surveillance flight mission, Store release flight mission, Asymmetric loads mission etc.
The project aircraft will be designed according to the missions that have to be
done during competition.

2.3 Specifications and Empirical Data
The data needed mostly is found from JANEs All the Worlds Aircraft

, past years
of DBF Reports and some other sources which are given in the references section. While
making selection for the existing aircrafts, some of the criterias are:
-Electric Propeller
-Radio Controlled mini Unmanned Air Vehicle
-Take Off Mass:3-10 kg


4

2.4 Aircraft Data Sheets
Table 2.1: Data Sheets of Selected Aircrafts
Aircraft ATA 5 ATA 7 ATA -8 Kaan S.U.I.T Shock and Awe
Reference Number(s) 1 2 3 4 5
Country Turkey Turkey Turkey Portugal America
Configuration Conventional Conventional Canard V-Tail V-Tail
Payload Weight, W
P
(kg) 2,85 2,94 2,04 2,28 4,24
Empty Weight, W
e
(kg) 10,43 2,35 2,33 3,13 3,36
Battery Weight, Wf (kg) 0,78 0,6056 0,63 0,62 0,635
Battery Type
ELITE 1500 26-
Cell Pack 15 GP 2200
Maximum Take Off
Weight, W
0
(kg) 14,06 5,9 4,99 6,03 6,08
Powerplant (Motor) NEU 1506/3Y Neu 1506/3Y NEU 1110/1.5Y
Power (watt) 1000-1500 1342
Propeller APC 18x12 E 17x12 APC 12x6 APC
Wing Span (m) 2,17 1,86 1,17 0,04 0,58
Wing Area (m
2
) 0,8 0,49 0,33 0,09 0,27
Wing Aspect Ratio 5,9 7 4,23 6,65 4
Wing Taper Ratio 0,05 0,65
Sweep Angle (c/4) 0
Wing thickness ratio
(root)
Wing thickness ratio (tip)
Airfoil (root) DAE 21 SD 7043 SD 7062 NACA-64 LA203KB
Airfoil (tip) DAE 21 SD 7043 SD 7062 NACA-64 LA203KB
Flaps
Horizontal Tail Volume
Coeff., C
HT
0,35
Vertical Tail Volume
Coefficient, C
VT
0,031
Horizontal Tail Airfoil NACA 0009 NACA 2410 CLARK-Y LA203KB SYM
Vertical Tail Airfoil NACA 0009 NACA 0009 SD 7062 CLARK-Y LA203KB SYM
Max. Wing Loading W
0
/S,
(lb/ft^2) 3,6 2,66 2,05 1,28 4,62
Horsepower to Weight
Ratio (h.p./lb) 0,03 0,13 0,117 0,03 0,03
Cruising Speed (m/s) 19,81 13,59 16,49 10,66 30,82
Stalling Speed, flaps up
(m/s) 13,72 7,53 9,48 9,27 18,01
Staliing Speed, flaps

5

down (m/s)
Take Off Distance (m) 45,72 7,25 30,48 60 30,48
Landing Distance (m)
Endurance (minutes)
Wing Structure and
Materials Composite Composite Composite Composite Carbon fiber
Fuselage Structure and
Materials Composite Composite Composite Composite Composite
Landing Gear
Arrangement Tricycle Tricycle Tricycle Tricycle Tricycle
Landing Gear Structure
Aluminum and
Composite
Carbon Fiber
and Aluminum
Aluminum and
Plastic
Carbon
Fiber Carbon Fiber
Main Wheel Diameter
Steering Wheel Diameter

Aircraft ATA-9
Turbo
Encabulator Aeroshock Fast Back
Team Shadow
Drag
Reference Number(s) 6 7 8 9 10
Country Turkey U.S.A U.S.A U.S.A U.S.A
Configuration Conventional V-tail conventional conventional conventional
Payload Weight, W
P
(kg) 3,13 4,08 4,08 4,54 1,65
Empty Weight, W
e
(kg) 2,27 1,25 1,36 12,13 3,26
Battery Weight, Wf
(kg) 0,6 0,38 0,34 2,69 0,94
Battery Type ELITE 1500 15GP 2200 N GP 4600s
Maximum Take Off
Weight, W
0
(kg) 6 5,29 5,44 22,79 7,45
Powerplant (Motor) NEU 1506/3Y Neu 1506/2Y
NEU
1506/3Y Neu 1905/1.5Y Neu 1107
Power (watt) 480 watt 450 watt 630 watt 600 watt
Propeller 16x10 APC 16x10 18x10E 18x10 APC 18x10 E
Wing Span (m) 0,13 2,04 1,47 1,52 1,52
Wing Area (m
2
) 0,6 0,46 0,89 0,56 0,57
Wing Aspect Ratio 3,75 6,5 4,082
Wing Taper Ratio 0,45
Sweep Angle (c/4)
(tip)

6

Airfoil (root) Custom SD 7062 NACA 0009
Airfoil (tip) Custom SD 7062 NACA 0009
Flaps
Horizontal Tail Volume
Coeff., C
HT

Vertical Tail Volume
Coefficient, C
VT

Horizontal Tail Airfoil NACA 2412 Clark-y NACA 2408
Vertical Tail Airfoil NACA 0015 Inverted Clark-y NACA 2408
Max. Wing Loading
W
0
/S, (lb/ft^2) 2,165 11,5 6,11 40,49 13,07
Horsepower to Weight
Ratio (h.p./lb) 0,17 0,21 0,24 0,25 0,84
Cruising Speed (m/s) 13,86 14,34 15,24 16,52 22,4
Stalling Speed, flaps
up (m/s) 19,6 12,26 10,67 11,49 16,4
Staliing Speed, flaps
down (m/s)
Take Off Distance (m) 21,55 27,2 22,86 26,21 30,48
Landing Distance (m)
Endurance (minutes) 5 minutes
Wing Structure and
Materials Composite Carbon fiber Carbon fiber
Composite/Balsa
Build Up Carbon fiber
Fuselage Structure and
Materials Composite Carbon fiber Carbon fiber Composite Carbon fiber
Landing Gear
Arrangement Tricycle
Landing Gear Structure Carbon Fiber
Aluminum and
Composite Carbon Fiber
Carbon Fiber
and Aluminum Fiber glass
Main Wheel Diameter
Steering Wheel
Diameter


7

2.5 Plots from Aircraft Data Sheets

Figure 2.1: Empty Weight/Total Weight to Total Weight

Figure 2.2: Battery Weight/Total Weight to Total Weight

Figure 2.3: Wing span to Total Weight
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
b - Wo
b - Wo

8

Figure 2.4: Wing area to Total Weight

Figure 2.5: Total Weight for each Air vehicle

Figure 2.6: Payload Weight for each Air vehicle

0
5
10
15
20
25
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
S - Wo
S - Wo

9

Figure 2.7: Take off distance for each Air vehicle

Figure 2.8: Total weight/Wing area for each Air vehicle

Figure 2.9: Motor power(horse power)/Total weight for each Air vehicle

10

2.6 Histogram from Aircraft Data Sheets

Figure 2.10: Differences of V
cruise
values for each Air vehicle

2.7 Conclusion
According to the parameters, the calculation, the graphs and the diagrams could
be plotted. This makes to realize the differences and similarities easily in one chart. The
air vehicles which has built for the same or similar aim they had the approximately same
values. It is obvious that all the parameters of an aircraft are dependent on each other. So
that means if one single feature of the aircraft will be changed, almost entire design
parameters has to be modified according to the airworthiness parameters. Also these facts
can be integrated to the heavy aircrafts. In real life, with this, it can be seen the mini air
vehicles performance and then decided to make the real heavy air craft.
Chapter 3 First Guess Sizing

11
3. INITIAL CONFIGURATION SELECTION AND FIRST GUESS
SIZING
3.1 Introduction
In this part of the design process, we will decide which configurations, training and
specifications to choose and calculate. This will include the aircrafts weight, drag, aircraft
configuration, speed, manufacturability, aerodynamic efficiency, internal and external
payload compartments and also pilot and ground crew training.

3.2 Aircraft Configuration and Figure of Merit
3.2.1 Aircraft Configuration
The most used aircraft configurations are conventional, canard, bi-plane, tri-plane and
flying wing.
3.2.1.1 Conventional
This is the most used configuration among all the configuration types. There is so
much data that can be obtained about conventional aircrafts throughout the competitor study.

Figure 3.1: Conventional wing type
3.2.1.2 Canard
The main advantage of the canard configuration is that it's unstable and in theory
could be safer by preventing stall / spin departures from coordinated flight. This works
because as the angle of attack increases and approaches a "stall" condition, the canard stalls
before the main wing. If the canard stalls it loses lift and thus the nose drops thus decreasing
angle of attack and breaking the stall. To talk about disadvantages, fuel center of gravity lies
farther behind aircraft center of gravity than in conventional designs. This means that a large
center of gravity range is produced or that the fuel must be held elsewhere. The distance from
the aircraft center of gravity to the most aft part of the airplane is usually smaller on canard
aircraft. This poses a problem for locating a vertical stabilizer and may result in very large
vertical surfaces. Most importantly, canard sizing is much more critical than aft tail sizing.
By choosing a canard which is somewhat too big or too small the aircraft performance can be
severely affected. It is easy to make a very bad canard design.

12

Figure 3.2: Canard wing type
3.2.1.3 Bi-plane
Aircraft built with two main wings can usually lift up to 20% more than can a
similarly sized monoplane of similar wingspan, which tends to afford greater
maneuverability. The struts and wire bracing of a typical biplane form a box girder that
permits a light but very strong wing structure. On the other hand, each wing negatively
interferes with the aerodynamics of the other. For a given wing area the biplane produces
more drag and less lift than a monoplane, but this effect can be slightly reduced by placing
one wing forward of the other though NACA research into this suggests that the reduction of
drag is minimal.

Figure 3.3: Bi-plane wing type
3.2.1.4 Tri-plane
The advantages of a tri-plane are, the high aspect ratio of the wings allows an
excellent rate of climb and a good glide ratio if the wing interference drag can be reduced. A
tri-plane can also have a high roll rate from the short span wings. Additionally it has a good
longitudinal stability due to the extra lift centres. The disadvantages of a tri-plane are, it has
high drag from wing interference and lift loss from six wing tips. Moreover, extra work is
required to build the wings.

Figure 3.4: Tri-plane wing type

13

3.2.1.5 Flying wing
A clean flying wing is theoretically the most aerodynamically efficient (lowest drag)
design configuration for a fixed wing aircraft. It also offers high structural efficiency for a
given wing depth, leading to light weight and high fuel efficiency. Because it lacks
conventional stabilising surfaces or the associated control surfaces, in its purest form the
flying wing suffers from the inherent disadvantages of being unstable and difficult to control.
These compromises are difficult to reconcile, and efforts to do so can reduce or even negate
the expected advantages of the flying wing design, such as reductions in weight and drag.
Moreover, solutions may produce a final design that is still too unsafe for certain uses, such
as commercial aviation.

Figure 3.5: Flying wing type

3.2.2 Figures of Merit
3.2.2.1 Rated Aircraft Cost
The aircraft is needed to be as cheap as possible without compromising the important
specifications of the aircraft. There must be a balance between the other specifications and
the cost.
3.2.2.2 Speed
The higher the speed is, the faster and in the less time the mission can be completed.
3.2.2.3 Handling Qualities
Handling of the aircraft must be easy so that the pilot can fly, take off and land on the
airplane as efficiently as possible.
3.2.2.4 Manufacturability
Manufacturability is an important factor on the design process because it critically
states the rated aircraft cost.
3.2.2.5 Aerodynamic Efficiency
Aerodynamic efficiency is one of the key parameters that determines the weight and
cost of an aircraft. Roughly speaking, an aircraft's range is directly proportional to its
aerodynamic efficiency without any increase in fuel usage.


14

3.3 Internal and External Payload Compartment
In the design process, the payload compartments must be diligently designed so that
the loading and unloading can be done easily and quickly, also the compartment shouldnt
have a big effect on the aircrafts weight. Moreover, the compartments must be designed so
well that the center of gravity of the aircraft should be stable when it is loaded.
In the figure-3.6, the drawing of the aircrafts fuselage with its internal compartment
is shown.

Figure 3.6: Aircrafts fuselage with internal compartment
The aircraft must be able to carry 6 to 10 softballs without the center of gravity being
changed. So here are some top views that show how the balls can be applied to the
compartment.

Figure 3.7: Loading possibilites for 6 balls

15

Figure 3.8: Loading possibility for 10 balls
To stabilize the balls in the y-axis (the axis on the direction of ground to sky), a cover
is designed as shown in figure 3.9:

Figure 3.9: Internal compartment cover design
Also external payload compartment is needed. This compartment can cause an
increase in weight, so we can make something that can be installed over the cover of the
payload compartment in case of external loading and the design must be as light as possible.
As shown in figure 3.10, in the middle of the design, there is an additional support for fixing
the bats. The cuffs are on a rail system as it is seen on the other figure, so the cuffs can be
adjusted to the height of the bats.

Figure 3.10: External compartment (fixing supports open on left, closed on right)

16

The installed external compartment on the cover is shown in figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11: Installed external compartment on the cover
3.4 First Guess Sizing and Wing Area Sizing for Specified Mission
3.4.1 Design missions and results
3.4.1.1 Mission 1a
Empty take off
Range = 2x4000=8000 ft (2Laps along the flight course)
V
cruise
= 15m/s
First guess take off Weight : 8.4 kg
C
l
/C
d
=10
By using Excell formulations, take off weight for Mission 1a was calculated.
Table-3.1 Mission 1a
W
0
Estimated (kg) 8.4
W
0
Calculated (kg) 0.04
t (sec) 162.56
We (kg) 0.02
P
0
(kg) 1.12
P
CR
(Watt) 0.84
V (Volt) 0.03
E (Volt) 0.03
Energy (Joule) 156.74
Q (Coloumb) 1408.28
S (m
2
) 0.3

W
battery
(kg) 0.02
n 1


17

3.4.1.2 Mission 1b
In this mission everything is the same as Mission 1-a except Vcr = 20m/s.
Table-3.2 Mission 1b
W
0
Estimated (kg) 8.4
W
0
t (sec) 121.92
We (kg) 0.02
P
0
(kg) 1.5
P
CR
(Watt) 1.13
V (Volt) 0.04
E (Volt) 0.04
Q (Coloumb) 1100.40
S (m
2
) 0.3

W
battery
(kg) 0.02
n 1
3.4.1.3 Mission 2a
Take off with 10 softballs
Wpayload = 10*200gr = 2000gr
Range = 3x4000=12000ft (3Laps along the flight course)
Vcr = 15 m/s
Cl/Cd=10
W
0
Estimated (kg) 8.4
W
0
t (sec) 243.84
We (kg) 1.49
P
0
(kg) 99.72
P
CR
(Watt) 74.79
V (Volt) 2.49
E (Volt) 2.74
Q (Coloumb) 2024.04
S (m
2
) 0.41

W
battery
(kg) 0.07
n 3

18

3.4.1.4 Mission 2b
W
0
Estimated (kg) 8.4
W
0
Calculated (kg) 3.6
t (sec) 182.88
We (kg) 1.51
P
0
(kg) 134.54
P
CR
(Watt) 100.91
V (Volt) 3.36
E (Volt) 3.7
Q (Coloumb) 1408.28
S (m
2
) 0.41

W
battery
(kg) 0.09
n 4
3.4.1.5 Mission 3a
Take off with 3 bats
Wpayload: 3*567 g = 1701 g.
Range = 3x4000=12000ft (3Laps along the flight course) Vcr = 15 m/s
Cl/Cd=10
W
0
Estimated (kg) 8.4
W
0
t (sec) 243.84
We (kg) 1.43
P
0
(kg) 481.22
P
CR
(Watt) 360.92
V (Volt) 12.03
E (Volt) 13.23
Q (Coloumb) 2024.04
S (m
2
) 0.4

W
battery
(kg) 0.3
n 13

19

3.4.1.6 Mission 3b
W
0
Estimated (kg) 8.4
W
0
t (sec) 182.88
We (kg) 1.24
P
0
(kg) 112.66
P
CR
(Watt) 84.50
V (Volt) 2.82
E (Volt) 3.1
Q (Coloumb) 1562.22
S (m
2
) 0.07

W
battery
(kg) 0.39
n 3
3.4.1.7 Mission 3c
In this mission everything is the same as Mission 3-a except W
payload
=5x567=2835gr.
Table-3.7 Mission 3c
W
0
Estimated (kg) 8.4
W
0
t (sec) 243.84
We (kg) 2.26
P
0
(kg) 145.51
P
CR
(Watt) 109.13
V (Volt) 3.64
E (Volt) 4
Q (Coloumb) 2024.04
S (m
2
) 0.46

W
battery
(kg) 0.09
n 4


20

3.4.1.8 Mission 3d
In this mission everything is the same as Mission 3-b except W
payload
=5x567=2835gr
Table-3.8 Mission 3d
W
0
Estimated (kg) 8.4
W
0
t (sec) 182.88
We (kg) 2.29
P
0
(kg) 195.85
P
CR
(Watt) 146.89
V (Volt) 4.9
E (Volt) 5.39
Q (Coloumb) 1562.22
S (m
2
) 0.46

W
battery
(kg) 0.11
n 5
3.5 Graphics
After making the calculations through a series of iterations, we have plotted the
needed graphs such as W0 Wpayload , We Wpayload , Wbattery Wpayload , Swing
Wpayload , P0 Wpayload , W0 Vcr , We Vcr , Wbattery Vcr , Swing Vcr , P0
Vcr.
3.5.1 For V
cruise =
15 m/sec; W
o
-W
payload,
W
e
-W
payload,
W
battery-
W
payload,
S
wing-
W
payload
P
o
-W
payload

Figure 3.12 W
o
- W
p
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
W0-Wp
W0-Wp V=15m/s

21

Figure 3.13 W
e
-W
p

Figure 3.14 W
f
-W
p

Figure 3.15 S
wing
-W
p

0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
We-Wp
We-Wp V=15m/s
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
Wf-Wp
Wf-Wp V=15m/s
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
Swing-Wp
S_wing-Wp V=15m/s

22

Figure 3.16 P
o
-W
p

Figure 3.17 W
o
-W
p

Figure 3.18 W
e
-W
p

0.00
100.00
200.00
300.00
400.00
500.00
600.00
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
Po-Wp
Po-Wp V=15m/s
-1.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000
W0-Wp
Dorusal (W0-Wp)
W0-Wp V=20m/s
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
We-Wp
Dorusal (We-Wp)
We-Wp V=20m/s

23

Figure 3.19 W
f
-W
p

Figure 3.20 S
wing
-W
p

Figure 3.21 P
o
-W
p
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
Wf-Wp
Dorusal (Wf-Wp)
Wf-Wp V=20m/s
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
Swing-Wp
S_wing-Wp V=20m/s
-50.00
0.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
Po-Wp
Dorusal (Po-Wp)
Po-Wp V=20m/s

24

Figure 3.22 W
o
-V
cr

Figure 3.23 W
e
-V
cr

Figure 3.24 W
f
-V
cr
3.56
3.56
3.57
3.57
3.58
3.58
3.59
3.59
3.60
3.60
3.61
0 5 10 15 20 25
W0-Vcr
Dorusal (W0-Vcr)
W0-Vcr Wp=2000gr
1.49
1.49
1.50
1.50
1.51
1.51
1.52
0 5 10 15 20 25
We-Vcr
Dorusal (We-Vcr)
We-Vcr Wp=2000gr
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Wf-Vcr
Dorusal (Wf-Vcr)
Wf-Vcr Wp=2000gr

25

Figure 3.25 S
wing
-V
cr

Figure 3.26 P
0
-V
cr

3.6 Conclusion
In this section of the design, we started making initial guesses for our aircraft
specifications. Through the calculations made, we tried to have a zero error between our
estimation and calculation so that we could find the right value for the specification. These
calculations have been made for 8 missions given. For each mission, we calculated the take
off weight, empty weight and battery weight. Also we estimated and calculated the take off
power, P0 and wing area.

0.41
0.41
0 5 10 15 20 25
Swing-Vcr
Swing-Vcr Wp=2000gr
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
120.00
140.00
160.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
P0-Vcr
Dorusal (P0-Vcr)
P0-Vcr Wp=2000gr
Chapter 4 Airfoil and Geometry Selection
26

4. AIRFOIL & GEOMETRY SELECTION
4.1 Introduction

As a beginning it is needed to calculate the value of Cl (lift coefficient) and Reynold
number by using the previous studies which has been done. Because according to the
researches and calculations made the value of W (weight), S (wing area), (density), c(chord
line), (viscosity), V(velocity) are already known. Then it will be dicussed about the airfoil
characteristics of the wing in terms of Reynolds Number, Cl,design, Cl,max, L/D)max Cd0,
Cm0, stall characteristics, thickness ratio, weight, ease of manufacturing. These all are
important to have the nearly best design. While making this process, 5 different type of
airfoils will be taken as examples, then they all will be compared each other with their variety
of aerodynamic characteristic.
After deciding on the best airfoil for the aircraft it will be discussed about aspect ratio,
sweep angle, twist, wing incidence, dihedral, wing vertical location and wing tip. These same
process will applied for finding the tail characteristics tail geometry and arrangements as well.
Additionally with plotting some graphics, it will try to be seen much more obvious that why
the one has chosen as the best airfoil.

4.2 Progress and Airfoil Selection
According to the values it was mentioned in introduction part, we have to find the
lowest value of Reynolds number and Cl,design. The situations of the air as we know about
the mission, all the unknowns as W (weight), S (wing area), (density), c(chord line),
(viscosity), V(velocity) are known as follows;

W= 5.19kg c= 0,35 m
S= 0.46 m
2
=18,97x10^-6 Pa.s
= 1.1 kg/m3 V= 15 m/s
Then with the formulas of Re =
Vd
and C
l
design
=
W
1
2
V
2
S

they can be calculated as:

Re =
Vd
=
(1.1)(15)(0.35)
18,9710
6
= 3,04*10
5

C
l
design
=
W
1
2
V
2
S
=
5,19
1
2
(1,1)(15
2
)0,46
= 0,0912

According to these calculations and the airfoils selected we will try to find out the best
airfoil for our aircraft. Here are some graphics to consider easily.

27

4.2.1 Graphics for NACA 64

Figure 4.1 Cl-Alpha and Cd-Alpha changes

Figure 4.2 Cl-Cd

Figure 4.3 ClCd-Alpha_Cm-Alpha
28

4.2.2 Graphics for NACA 2412


Figure 4.5 Cl-Cd

29

4.2.3 Graphics for DAE 21(chosen)


Figure 4.8 Cl-Cd

30

4.2.4 Graphics for CLARK-Y


Figure 4.11 Cl-Cd

31

Table 4.1 Comparison of the aerodynamic values for airfoils

It was chosen DAE 21 as the airfoil type for our aircraft during the mission. Because
we want to have the high value of the Clmax and low value of Cm in between some criterias.
Of course there are some limits for choosing these values, in the meaning of, if it is going to
be chosen the highest value of Clmax it will be difficult to control the aircraft and also will be
hard to control it. On the other hand if the value Cm will be the lowest value of itself the
pith down effects will be occurred and the aircraft will have the tendency of loosing altitude
all the time. In case of these all to have the desired stall characteristics the relatively fat
airfoils are chosen because of the fact of stall phenomena starts from the trailing edge across
to the way of wing upper surface. And also Fat airfoils are described to contain more than
%15 thickness ratio. Deciding about the best airfoil for the missions has to be done, even if
the values of Cd was a bit higher than the others, DAE21 is the best of these airfoils worked
on.

While working on aeronautical effects also it has to be considered about ease of
manufacturing. Since DAE profiles are the comman-used profile types, producing it is not
going to cost more than the other with the advantageous of we can ask more related with our
misson.


4.3 Tail Geometry and Arrangements
As it is explored on the second phase of our design process, the conventional tail was
chosen. According to Daniel Raymers book, conventional tail provides adequate stability and
control at the lightest weight. It also has a good pitch up recovery and provides a good spin
maneuverability. It also has a good stall recovery at high angle of attacks, because the
downwash effect from the wings dont effect the rudders in the tail much in these angles.
Airfoil of the tail is chosen the same as the wing airfoil.
32

Tail aspect ratio is chosen 3 just below the wing aspect ratio. Because it would weight
a lot and isnt necessary for our kind of aircraft, no sweep was given to the wing. A little twist
is given to have a gradual stall starting from root to the tip of the wing. A dihedral effect is
not necessary for the aircraft due to the missions expected.

Vertical Tail Horizontal Tail
(Conventional)
Airfoil Type NACA009 NACA 0009
A 1,4 3,755
0.3 0.3

4.4 Airfoil Geometry

Figure 4.14 Airfoil Geometry

4.5 Conclusion
I n this chapter selection of the airfoil, the wing and tail geometry were performed.
These results were important already to be used in the following chapters. Also in later design
processes and their manufacturability, validity will be checked by mostly focusing on other
factor and in later studies. On the other hand, the results which were tabulated on the tables
are also important while discussing and making decision for the airfoil geometry and for the
other parameters related with our aircraft.

Chapter 5 Power to Weight Ratio and Wing Loading

33

5. POWER TO WEIGHT RATIO AND WING LOADING
5.1 Introduction
With the performance requirements, atmospheric conditions and some other
parameters given, we are supposed to estimate and tabulate some parameters with the
help of our analysis. We are asked to find stall speed in four conditions: empty-flaps
up, empty-flaps down, fully loaded-flaps up, fully loaded-flaps down. Then we need
to find the take off ground roll, best range speed and maximum speed for both empty
and fully loaded conditions. Finally, we have to find climb gradient and rate of climb
at the beginning of climb.
5.2 Power To Weight Ratio Estimation

In the process of power to weight ratio selection, firstly we shall check our
competitor study. According to the data found on the competitor study, power to
weight ratio can be estimated as the average of the values, which is 0,2047 h.p/lb.

Another selection must be made based on the thrust matching calculations.
From thrust matching calculations we will have different values of W/S (wing
loading). Then at the end one of them will be decided to use finding all the answers
for the questions asked.

From Competitor Study:
Power to Weight Ratio
(h.p./kg)
0,03 0,13 0,117 0,03 0,03 0,17 0,21 0,24 0,25 0,84

=
0,03 + 0,13 + 0,117 + 0,03 +0,03 + 0,17 +0,21 + 0,24 + 0,25 + 0,84
10

= 0,1828 . /

To find the values of Power to weight ratio, some parameters are given and
calculated as follows;

= 0,6 =1,1kg/m
3

1,0
0,5

0
= 0,025 AR = 3,755
e = 0,8


34

=
1
=
1

. =
. =

.
.
)
=
1
.
1

=
1
..

=
1
.(3,755).(0,8)
= 0,10596

=

+^2

= 9,7146

= (1,1)
= 0,7
= (1,1). 10 = 0,7.11

= 11 / = 7,7 /

.
1
=
7,7
0,6
.
1
9,7146

= 1,321 . /

= 0,5941 . /

Since we would like to have more horse power according to the weight, the
bigger power to weight ratio will be chosen. So the value of power to weight ratio is
0,59 h.p/kg.
= 0,59 . /

Table 5.1 Selection of P/W
P/W [hp/kg]
Competitor Study 0.1828
Thrust Matching 0.5941


35

5.3 Wing Loading Selection
In the process of wing loading selection, firstly we shall check our competitor
study. According to the data found on the competitor study, wing loading can be
estimated as the average of the values, which is 12,7545 lb/ft
2
.

= 12,7545 [kg/m
2
]

5.3.1 Stall Speed Requirements

(
)
max/
=

0
. . . => (
)
max/
= 0,0253,7550,8 =
0,2359
=
1
2
=
1
2
(1,1). 10
2
. 0,2359
= 12,97 /
2

5.3.2 Take off Ground Roll Requirements

=
1
2
ln (
2
)

=

2.(/)
. (
0
.
2
)

To find the values of K
T
and K
A
, some parameters are given and
calculated as follows;

= 0,6 =1,1kg/m
3

1,0
0,5 (0,7 with flaps)

0
= 0,025 AR = 3,755
e = 0,8

= 1,321
S
G
=90ft=27,4mt
g=9,81

36

=
0,6
7,7
.1,321 0,1
= 2,9351 10
3

=
1
2
2
2
=
1
29.8127.432
ln
7.7
2
29.8127.4320.002935

== 6,735610
3

Flaps up (C
L
=0.5) :

=
1
2
2
=
1
20,006736
. (10,5 0,025 0,105960,5
2
)= 33,29
2

Flaps down (C
L
=0.7) :

=
1
2
2
=
1
20,006736
. (10,7 0,025 0,105960,7
2
)= 46,25
2

5.3.3 Cruising speed requirement

. (/)
/
+
/
. . .

=
1
2
2

=
1
2
(1,1)(25)
2

=343,75 kg/m.s^2

.(/)
/
+
/
...

25 =
(0,6). (1,321)
(343,75). (0,025)
+
/
(343,75). . (3,775). (0,8)


37

*If (W/S) a , the equation turns into;

a
2
- 103,4453xa 28027,363 = 0
a
1
= - 108,2 (can not be negative)
a
2
= 210,2 (selected)

*Converting from British System to SI System

= 210,2
2,205
10,764
= 43,05 /
2

Since the value of wing loading must be the most suitable one for all
conditions, one of these wing loading results has to be chosen. The lowest value of
wing loading is calculated with the method of Stall speed, and the highest value of the
wing loading is calculated with the method of T.O Ground roll (flaps down). Here it
has to be chosen the minimum result of W/S but because of the fact that producing the
lowest value of W/S is going to be a more expensive than the others.

On the other hand choosing the highest value of W/S is not going to be good
idea because the result will not fit in all the equations. So this is why it has to be
estimated all situations and has to be chosen the optimal value of W/S. According to
the reasons mentioned about the value of 33,29 was chosen as W/S.

Table 5.2 Selection of W/S
Method W/S (kg/m^2)
Competitor Study 12,75
Stall Speed (10 m/s) 12,97
T.O. Ground Roll (Flaps up)
33,29
T.O. Ground Roll (Flaps
down)
46,25
CruiseSpeed
43,05


38

5.4 Anlysis
After calculating the values of power to weight ratio and wing loading now all
the speed requirements can be found by putting the unknowns of P/W and W/S in the
formulas.
5.4.1 Stall Speed: Empty and flaps up
=

2(
=

2(33.29)
1.10.5
= 11,00

5.4.2 Stall Speed: Empty and flaps down
=

2(
=

2(33.29)
1.10.7
= 9,29

5.4.3 Stall Speed: Fully Loaded and flaps up
=

2(2
=

2(66.58)
1.10.5
= 15,56

5.4.4 Stall Speed: Fully Loaded and flaps down
=

2(2
=

2(66.58)
1.10.7
= 13,15

5.4.5 Take Off Ground Roll: Empty
=
1
2..
2

V
f
= V
TO
= 1,1x V
stall
= 11m/s
V
i
= 0 m/s
=

2.(/)
. (
0
.
2
) = 0,007410

= 0,0029351
=
1
2(9,81)(0,007410)

0,0029351+(0,007410)(11)
2
0,0029351
= 39,379 m

39

5.4.6 Take Off Ground Roll: Fully Loaded
=
1
2..
2

V
f
= V
TO
= 1,1x V
stall
= 11m/s
V
i
= 0 m/s
) = (2,0)

) = (0,5)
=

2.(/)
. (
0
.
2
) = 0,003705

= 0,048532
=
1
2(9,81)(0,003705)

0,048532+(0,003705)(11)
2
0,048532
= 32,998 m

5.4.7 Best Range Speed: Empty
.
=
=
2
0

= 0,10596
0
= 0,025
= 33,29
= 11,16 m/s

5.4.8 Best Range Speed: Fully Loaded

.
=
=
2
0

= 0,10596
0
= 0,025
= 66,58
= 15,79 m/s

40

5.4.9 Maximum Speed: Empty
) =
1
=
1
2
0
= 9,7146

) = 0,10294
=
.
. . .
(1)
*From (1) formula when q unknown found as
q
1
= 58,53 , q
2
= 78,53 (selected)
q=( )..V
max
2
V
max
=11,95 m/s

5.4.10 Maximum Speed: Fully Loaded
) =
1
=
1
2
0
= 9,7146

) = 0,10294
=
.
. . .
(1)
*From (1) formula when q unknown found as
q
1
= 37,122 , q
2
= 237,022 (selected)
q=( )..V
max
2
V
max
=20,76 m/s

5.4.11 Climb gradient and rate of climb at the beginning of climb

Before calculating the climb gradient, first we need to find V
climb
and q
values :
= 1,2 .
= 1,2 .10
= 12


41

=
1
2
2

=
1
2
. 1,1 . 12
2

= 79,2 kg/ms
2
After finding Vclimb and q, we can calculate T/W and D/W to find climb
gradient (G) :
=
0,6
12
.0,1828 .550
= 5,027

0
+

. (
0
+

=
1
66,58
. (79,2 . 0,025 +79,2 .
0,7
2
. 3,755 .0,8
)
= 0,0915

Now we can calculate the climb gradient :

=

= 5,027 0,0915 = 4,9355

Then to find the rate of climb (Vy):
=

= 4,9355 .12 = 59,226 /


42

5.5 Summary of Results

Table 5.3 The results in SI and British Units

5.6 Conclusion

In this section of the design process, we have decided our horsepower to
weight ratio and wing loading. In the decision process of power to weight ratio
selection, we have used competitor studys data and thrust matching, in the decision
process of wing loading selection we have used competitor studys data, stall speed
requirement, take off ground roll requirement and cruising speed requirement. After
making the calculations, we have made the final decision based on the results.

In those calculations, we have considered cL values when flaps are down, so
that leaded us to a decision that we can use a plane flap on our airplane.

Chapter 6 Initial Sizing

43

6. INITIAL SIZING
6.1 Introduction
In this section of the design, firstly, we are asked to perform a rubber engine sizing
according to a similar mission in one of the missions in the second part of our design process.
The airplane has to carry 5 bats in a flight course with 3 laps along which has 12000 ft. cruise.
After the sizing, we shall select a motor according to the competitor study wmade for first
study. We collected the information about the past aircrafts which was made before then we
have already had some pr-study about this motor selection. Motor selection will be made by
using the aerodynamic calculations, some engineering estimations and the other parameters of
our aircraft. And then we will perform a fixed engine sizing by keeping and using the old
value of
)o and we will recalculate the range. Finally we need to perform a geometry

sizing study and show the results in a table format.
6.2 Configuration Description
From previous of our studies we have already know some idea about the changes in
between Horsepower to Weight Ratio (watt/kg) and Maximum Take Off Weight, W0 (kg).
According to this change with the parameters in our competitor studies when we put the
inputs to the graphic which Wo is in x axis and
P
W
is in y axis, and then when we plot a
line which passes approximately around these points, we would have the lineer equation of:
y= (-33,135).x + 336,17
Here this equation will be using to estimate the Take off weight, Empty Weight, and
Battery Weight.
P
o
= (33,135). W
o
+ 336,17
This equation is formed by rubber engine sizing study, which is shown in the 4
th
part
of the report.

Figure 6.1 Conceptual Sketches (from top and side view)

44

6.3 Mission Description
Design mission is similar to a mission in one of the mission in the second part of our
design process. That was our last mission which called as 3-d. Our plane has to take off, travel
a 4000 feet circuit for 3 times with a 20 m/sec cruise speed and land on. It has to carry 5 bats,
which corresponds to a 2835 gram payload weight.
6.4 Rubber Engine Sizing Study
In the second part of our design process, we have used a quick method of sizing an
aircraft. In this part, we have to make some refining to the sizing equation so that we can get
better and more realistic results. As a first step of our calculations we have to know about the
changes between
P
o
and W
o
. So here it is the relations in between mentioned again as plotted
in the graphic.
P
o
= (33,135). W
o
+ 336,17

Figure 6.2 Relation between Wo - P
o
/W
o

So then we will start our calculation with guessing the value of W
o
as 8,40. When this
parameter is put in the equation we will be finding the value of P
o
/W
o
as 138,3078 watt/k.g.
And W
o
is found as 5,97kg. However to find the W
o
_
calculated
as 5.97 it has to be made 46 steps
of iterations. This is why after that as the value of W
o
was taken 6,40. After 14 steps of
iterations approximately the same value of W
o
=5,97.
Calculation of P
o
(power,watt)
P
o
=
P
o
. W
o
= (138,3078)x(5,97) ----------> P
o
= 825,89 watt

y = -33,135x + 336,17
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 5 10 15
Wo - P_o/W_o
wo-p/w
Dorusal (wo-p/w)

45

Calculation of S (wing area)
Again while using the values and parameter from competitor study we have the
equation which shows the relations in between S and W
o
. The equation plotted and
found is:
S=(0,0305)x(W
o
)+0,2902
And with using this formula;
= (0,0305)x(Wo) +0,2902 = (0,0305)x(5,97) +0,2902
= 0,4723
2

Calculation of W
e
(empty weight)
W
e
=
W
e
W
0
xW
0
= 0,44 x 5,97 = 2,6268 kg
6.5 Motor Selection
In this section we will decide for a motor as which one is going to be the best for our
aircraft and the missions. To make this decision of course we have some parameters and some
values which are calculated as P
0
(power needed), and how many batteries we need to use,
battery weight allowed etc. However while deciding the motor, the most important criteria
was how much trust power needed.
Of course there is variety kind of motors but we have to choose the one it has to be
matched with our mission. Our motor performance is the basic factor which automatically and
directly affects the flight in any cases, while taking off round, during cruise, carrying the bats
and landing etc. That was why the power calculated 825,89 watt will be based on as a first
motor selection criteria.
And the other topic of how many batteries will be used was the one of the important
criteria. During calculations each battery has 1.1 V was chosen and with the basic formula of
P=I.V how much volt energy we needed was calculated. On the other hand for the joints and
cable there were some voltages more than our result which need to be added more. That was
why %10 percent of the calculation voltage was added more into the previous one.
This was important, coz according to our mission and how much power the aircraft
needs, gave an idea about choosing the motor to us. It has to have enough power but at the
same time we have some limit for Battery weight. If we think about each battery has 22,95gr
weight, here we have to make engineering decision with our optimizations.
So finally according to the result of we need to have a motor which has 825,89 watt
energy and as we have already calculated the battery weight.
0
= (0,003)x(Wo) +0,1228 = (0,003)x(5,97) +0,1228
= 0,6263 kg

46

We can say about this battery weight as allowable maximum battery weight.
According to our calculation 21 batteries will be used for the motor. This calculation was
made for all of these batteries weight.
After calculation and researching for which motor will be used then with the brand of
NEU 1506/3Y was chosen to use for our aircraft. It has 1342 watt power and 0,6056kg
weight as total. And battery type is ELITE 1500 26-Cell Pack. Propeller type is selected as
APC 18x12 E.
Table 6.1 Motor and Propeller Features
Powerplant (Motor) NEU 1506/3Y
Power (h.p.) 1342 watt
Propeller APC 18x12 E

6.6 Fixed Engine Sizing Study
The sizing procedure for the fixed-size engine is similar to the rubber engine sizing,
but there are some exceptions. A parameter which is allowed to vary as the aircraft is sized is
needed. By adding this parameter to the takeoff weight equation, fixed engine sizing can be
made.
Estimate Take off weight (Newton)
W
O
=
NT
PerEngine
(T/W)
=
1.1342
217,0632
= 6,18 kg
W
O
= (6,18)x(9,81) = 60,65 N
Empty Weight (Newton)---(for W
0
=6,18kg)
W
e
=
W
e
W
0
x W
0
= (0,44) x (6,18) =2,7192kg
W
e
= (2,7192)x(9,81) = 26,68 N
Battery Weight (kg)
W
f
= 21 x
22,95
1000
= 0,48kg
W
f
= (0,48)x(9,81) = 4,709 N
Wing area ( m
2
)
= (0,0315). W
o
+ 0,2962
= (0,0315). (6,18) + 0,2962 ---------------> = 0,49087 m
2


47

Payload Weight ( W
payload
)

W
payload
= 2,835 kg = 27,811 N
6.7 Geometry Sizing Study
In the geometry sizing study part, firstly we should find our fuselage length. To find it,
we will use the higher W
0
value which we have obtained in the engine sizing study. The
formula for the fuselage length is :
= .
0

For W
0
= 6,18 kg and for a homebuilt-composite airplane, a = 1,28 m and C = 0,23 .
If we use those values in the formula :
= .
0
= 1,28 . 6,18
0,23
= 1,94597
Then, we need to find the wing size. To find it, we will simply divide the weight by
the takeoff wing loading.
=

0
=
6,18
12,7545

= 0,4845
2

To calculate tail volume coefficient, we will use the following formulas.

For a homebuilt airplane, c
HT
=0,5 and c
VT
=0,04 .
= 0,35 , S
wing
=0,4845 m
2
, and
to find b
w
:
=
0,4845
0,35
= 1,3843

48

Our airplane has a front-mounted propeller engine, so L
HT
is 60% and L
VT
is 55% of
the fuselage. So :
0,6 = 1,945970,6 = 1,167582
0,55 = 1,945970,55 = 1,070284
=
0,50,350,4845
1,167582
= 0,07262
2

=
0,041,38430,4845
1,070284
= 0,025066
2

6.8 Summary of Results
Table 6.2 : Results in SI unit system

Rubber Engine
Sizing
Fixed Engine
Sizing
W
o
(N) 58,5657 60,6258
W
e
(N) 25,768908 26,675352
W
p
(N) 27,81135 27,81135
W
f
(N) 6,144003 4,7088
P
o
(watt) 825,89 -
S (m
2
) 0,4723 0,49087

Table 6.3 : Results in British Engineering systems

Rubber Engine
Sizing
Fixed Engine
Sizing
W
o
(lbf) 13,16609316 13,62922207
W
e
(lbf) 5,793080992 5,996857711
W
p
(lbf) 6,252240221 6,252240221
W
f
(lbf) 1,381226826 1,058580355
P
o
(h.p) 1,107536736 -
S (ft
2
) 5,08379489 5,283680706


49

Table 6.4 : Geometry results Table 6.54 : Geometry results British
SI unit system Engineering systems

Fuselage_Length(m) 1,94597

Fuselage_Length(ft) 6,384416

S
wing
(m
2
) 0,4845

S
wing
(ft
2
) 5,215115

c
HT
0,5

c
HT
0,5

c
VT
0,04

c
VT
0,04

c
w
(m) 0,35

c
w
(ft) 1,148294

b
w
(m) 1,3843

b
w
(ft) 4,541667

L
HT
(m) 1,167582

L
HT
(ft) 3,83065

L
VT
(m) 1,070284

L
VT
(ft) 3,51143

S
HT
(m
2
) 0,07262

S
HT
(ft
2
) 0,781675

S
VT
(m
2
) 0,025066

S
VT
(ft
2
) 0,269808

6.9 Conclusion
In this section, we performed a rubber engine sizing study. Then according to the data
we obtained, we selected a motor for our aircraft. We continued our process with a
performing of fixed engine sizing study. If we look at the results in these to studies in table 1
and 2, we can see that the values are not absurdly different than each other, and according to
the competitor study, we can see that the results are acceptable.
Finally we have performed a geometry sizing study so that we could see that
dimensions of our airplanes components such as fuselage, wing and tail.
Now we have our motor model and dimensions of our airplane. As we can see, our
airplane is started to have a numeric shape which is calculated in this study.

Chapter 7 Configuration Layout and Interior Design

50

7. CONFIGURATION LAYOUT AND INTERIOR DESIGN
7.1 Introduction
The configuration layout and interior design of the aircraft are performed in
this chapter. So many values of the parameters which are belonging to the aircraft
have already been calculating until now. It will be needed to know some values of
aircrafts to calculate the other unknowns related with wing, tail, fuselage. First of all it
will be rearticulated the mean aerodynamic chord. Then it will be studied on the
airfoils and twist distributions which were mentioned in the last studies. As a second
step, the location of the wing and the tail will be decided on fuselage. This decision
will be made by using the equations and relations in between the wing and tail
parameters. As a third step 3 dimension drawings will be added to be able to consider
more detailed way on the aircraft and to be able to have much more realistic results.
7.2 Wing and Tail Surfaces
The wing area, the horizontal tail area and the vertical tail area are calculated
on previous studies. Also, according to the calculations before which were made, the
values of aspect ratio of the wing, the horizontal tail and vertical tail were found
already. With the values of their own taper ratio the known parameters are tabulated
below as:

Table 7.1: The calculated parameter before

AR S (m
2
)
Wing 0,5 3,755 0,4845
Horizontal tail 0,7 3 0,07262
Vertical tail 0,7 3 0,025066

According to these values we will be calculating the span distance as first. Then
with using the result of the previous step we will try to find the root chord and tip
chord. Meanwhile we will have the all unknown parameters to calculate the value of
the mean aerodynamic chord (m.a.c), location of mean aerodynamic chord.
Respectively the following equations will be used to find the dimensions for the wing,
the horizontal and vertical tail.
7.3 Locating Wing and Tail Surfaces

Span

Root Chord
=
2
(1+)

Tip Chord


51

=

2
3
(1++
2
)
(1+)

Location of m.a.c Y=

6

1+2
1+

Wing Calculations
=

0
=
6,18
12,7545
= 0,4845
2

= 3,7550,4845 = 1,3488
=
2
(1 + )
=
20,4845
1,3488(1 +0,5)
= 0,4789
= 0,50,4789 = 0,2395 = ,

Tail Calculations

0,6 = 1,945970,6 = 1,167582
= 0,07262
2

0,55 = 1,945970,55 = 1,070284
= 0,025066
2

= (
)
1/2
= (30,024423)
1/2
= 0,2707
= (
)
1/2
= (3,00,077286)
1/2
= 0,4815

Figure 7.1 Location of the mean aerodynamic chord for main wing

Mean Aerodynamic
center(m.a.c)
Mean Aerodynamic Chord = 299,375mm
674 mm

52

Figure 7.2 Location of the mean aerodynamic chord for vertical tail

Figure 7.3 Top view of the aircraft with all components

Figure 7.4 Side view of the aircraft with all components
145,9 mm
237,5 mm
M. A. C=
191,7mm
286 mm

53

Figure 7.5 Front View

Figure 7.6 Isometric View (Before loading the balls and bats )

Figure 7.7 Isometric View (After loading the balls and bats )

54

Figure 7.8 Transparent view (motor component)
7.4 Wetted Area and Volume Determination
In this step we will try to find the wetted area first and then with using this
result we will try to calculate the volume of our aircraft. First it will be estimated a
value of exposed area for our aircraft and then find the approximate value of the
wetted area. The wetted area directly depends on the exposed area and the equation
which shows the relationship in between is;
S
wet
= S
exposed
[ 1,977 +0,52
]

Wing Wetted Area
S
exposed
will be guessed as the exact value of our area of the wing as 0,4845
m
2
. So;

S
wet
= S
exposed
[ 1,977 +0,52
]
S
wet
= 0,4845 [ 1,977 +(0,52 )(0,13)]
S
wet
= 0,9906 m
2

Horizontal Wetted Area
S
exposed
will be guessed as the exact value of our area of the wing as
0,07262m
2
. So;

S
wet
= S
exposed
[ 1,977 +0,52
]
S
wet
= 0,07262 [ 1,977 +(0,52 )(0,11)]
S
wet
= 0,1477 m
2


55

Vertical Wetted Area
S
exposed
will be guessed as the exact value of our area of the wing as
0,025066m
2
. So;
S
wet
= S
exposed
[ 1,977 +0,52
]
S
wet
= 0,025066 [ 1,977 +(0,52 )(0,07)]
S
wet
= 0,05047 m
2

7.5 Conclusion
After calculating, this is very obvious that initial layout of the aircraft is
extremely heuristic effect of the aircraft. Especially with the locations of the wing, the
vertical tail and the horizontal tail are one of the most effective design parameters
while designing an aircraft. And also we have seen that the locations of the vertical
and the horizontal tail depend on their moment arm directly.

Chapter 8 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration

56
8. PROPULSION AND FUEL SYSTEM INTEGRATION
8.1 Introduction
In this section of our aircraft design, we will be discussing about the
propulsion system criteria. And we will be describing in detail the motor which is
going to be selected. After that we will size the propeller and describe its properties.
Then the propeller location will be selected and it will be discussed with our selection
criteria. And then the installation of the motor will be decided with the reasons why it
was chosen as like that.
As a second step the battery compartment will be designed and the criterias for
the selection and decision will be discussed. While making all these decisions and
discussions it will be checked already the volume provided is sufficient or not. At the
end the drawing figures will be added to the report and our last design shape for the
aircraft will be showed with the configuration layout drawings.

8.2 Propulsion System Selection
For the real aircrafts there are several choices to make the propulsion. Because
there are several choices of motors according to the design criterias for the aircraft
and the mission it has to be designed for. But our aircraft, being designed now, will be
mini unmanned air vehicle, so this is why we will definitely have to choose the most
effective mini motor to have the highest trust from it. And we already made a chose
for the motor in our study 5. And according to our selections our motor was chosen
as NEU 1506/3Y, our battery type was chosen as ELITE 1500 26-Cell Pack and
the propeller type as APC 18x12 E.

Battery type
Battery type was chosen as ELITE 1500 26-Cell Pack. According to our
calculations, to get the maximum trust with the minimum weight, this type of the
batteries were the optimum ones. And in our aircraft 21 batteries will be used for
creating the energy for our motor.

Figure 8.1: The picture of the battery ELITE 1500 26-Cell Pack


57

Table 8.1. The dimensions for the battery type

Diameter (mm) Height (mm)
ELITE 1500-26 Cell Pack 17 28,5

Battery box
As it was calculated in study 5, how many batteries will be used, to get the
enough voltage for our motor, at the end 21 batteries will be used. However to hold
the all batteries together, obviously a battery box has to be designed. And according to
our aircrafts size and the minimum weight criteria considered, finally it has the
dimensions as follows:

Table 8.2. The dimensions for the battery box designed
Height (mm) Width (mm) Depth (mm)
Battery Box 12 17,5 2,5

Basicly the design criterias for the battery box, were minimum weight,
minimum volume inside of the aircraft, enough space between the batteries and the
battery boxs walls, easy way to plug the batteries in and out. Actually to leave
enough space in between the batteries and the battery boxs wall was the one of the
important optimized criteria, because while the aircraft is working the batteries heat
will be increasing gradually.

Additionally for this situation, if the enough space will not be left it may effect
the batteries performance in a bad way or damages the aircraft directly. Even it may
cause a fire during flight. So with leaving some space it will be cooled by its own.


58

Figure 8.2: The batteries loaded in the battery box
The battery box will get the energy from the batteries and according to our
design the energy will be carried with 2 cables, as anode and cathode, then it can send
the energy to the motor.

Figure 8.3: After connecting the battery box and the motor

Then the battery box will be sticked to the payload compartment. While we
were analyzing and searching for which part would be best to connect the battery type
it was decided to stick the battery type into the payload compartment. As a first reason
for this decision, it can be said that according to our design, the payload compartment
is so near to the nose of the aircraft. And because of the fact of our motor has to be
behind of the motor, the payload compartment is the best place that we stick the
battery box on it. Otherwise we would stick this into the fuselage of our aircraft and
that may affect the aerodynamical forces and create some drug also.

And the other reason for choosing the payload compartment is, our payload
compartment has holes to be able to put the balls inside. And there is a cover for that
which we will put the bats on. That means payload compartment directly connects to
the air. And the air passing around the payload compartment will cool the air inside as
well. That means if we stick the battery box into the payload compartment, this cooled
air inside of it, will also cool the air around the batteries, which are increasing the heat
during the flight.

59

Figure 8.4: Sticked battery box into the payload compartment

Cuff system
To connect the motor to the fuselage, there will be need to design a new system
which makes the motor tight to the aircraft. So a cuff system was chosen for this
problem as the one in the front of the motor and the one in the back of the motor. It
will have 6 clips as total. 3 clips from the front of the motor and the other 3 clips will
be back of the motor. Because of the fact of two middle clips will be carrying the
motor mostly, these have to be designed as much stronger which means much wider
than the other 4 clips. And also according to the other fact of the weight of the motor
will be heavier on back side of the motor, the clips on the back are also much wider
than the one from front. The right and left clips will keep the motor stable especially
while rolling during the flight.

Figure 8.5: The Cuff system on the motor zoomed view


60

Figure 8.6: The Cuff system on the motor from back

Figure 8.7: The Cuff system on the motor from front

Figure 8.8: The final model after making all connections from left view

61

Figure 8.9: The final model after making all connections transparent

Propeller
Our propeller was chosen as APC 18x6. Each propeller has 457,2mm length.
And the distance in between its center and the top of the fuselage is 85mm. The width
and height of the fuselage are 280mm, 250mm respectively. According to these
dimensions which has the information about the location of the propeller tabulated as
follows:

Table 8.3: Length for some size of the propeller
Length (mm)
Propeller 457,2
Width of the fuselage 280
Height of the fuselage 250
Center of the propeller to top of fuselage 85


62

Figure 8.10: Front view of propeller and size of it

Figure 8.11: Another view for a close look at the propeller and motor location

Figure 8.12: Design on the configuration layout drawing

63

8.3 Conclusion
The location of the propeller and the design of it were decided according to the
calculations and the choices from the previous studies. It was given information about
the battery type and then designed a box for all batteries. Also it was mentioned why
we need a battery box and why we sticked it to the place of its decided. Then the need
of the cuff system was explained and the details about its own with strengths and
width etc. As last all the compartments were assemblied all together and showed the
details with the locations of each others.

Chapter 9 Landing Gear and Subsystems

64
9. LANDING GEAR AND SUBSYSTEMS
9.1 Introduction
In this section of our aircraft design, we will be designing the landing gear.
Also the criteria for selecting the landing gear arrangement and landing gear design
will be discussed. In the same topic we will be estimating the maximum loads to be
carried by the main and nose wheels then we will show the details of the landing gear
system which was drawn by using 3-d computer aided drawing program. Then about
the tire and its pressure the required tire size will be estimated based on load carrying
and braking requirements.
As a next step stroke will be determined and we will decide whether we will
need an oleo and/or solid spring study depending on our system. Then the castoring
wheel geometry will be designed and showed its details. We will also design and
discuss about using retractable or non retractable landing gear with its reasons. And as
last, we will discuss and make a decision on the aircraft subsystems which will be
installed.
9.2 Landing Gear Arrangement
In this section we will choose the type of our landing gear. There are several
types of landing gear systems for real aircrafts, with considering its stability and
payload. But because of the fact of we are designing and mini unmanned air vehicle
we will not focusing of payload, duration, cruise in a detailed way. However there
will be some other criteria appears at this point as the landing gear will not be fold up
to the fuselage. Because if we try to design a system which will pull the landing gear
system up and hide the landing gear inside of the fuselage, the take off weight of our
aircraft will increase and also the manufacturing cost will get higher as well. So this is
why as a first step this system which holds the landing gear will not be designed as
explained above.

After all these calculations and estimations for our aircraft, it is nearly done
for the entire design of our aircraft. It will try to choose about which style of landing
gear arrangements is going to be the best for our aircraft. Even there are some basic
styles for these arrangements, even we could create for our own aircraft. But as basic
selections, we will have the choices of single main, taildragger, quadricycle, bicycle,
tricycle and multi-bogey from the book of Aircraft Design: A Conceptual
Approach we have chosen the tricycle type of landing gear. When we compare this
with the others we face some more advantages than the others. First of all, with using
tricycle lading gear system we will need more propeller clearance and it will create
less drag in total. On the other hand with using the tricycle landing gear system we
will have more ground control during not only landing and also taking off. Also it is
the most popular landing gear design which has been using lately.


65

Figure 9.1: Tricycle style landing gear view

Figure 9.2: Tricycle landing gear system detailed view
9.3 Tire Selection
After we have chosen the landing gear system as tricycle landing gear, now we
have to mention the location for the nose wheels and the main wheels. We will decide
about where to put the wheels on our aircraft according to the basic momentum
calculations. As we have estimated and calculated about the weights for our aircraft it
was 2,7192 kg for as empty weight, 0,48kg for the batteries and 2,835 kg for our
payload for the mission. Approximately it makes 6.02 kg as our take off weight in
total.
W
e
= 2,7192
W
battery
= 0,48 kg
W
payload
= 2,835 kg


66

Figure 9.3: Main wheels view

Figure 9.4: Nose wheels view

Firstly it was thought to put the nose wheel project of the payload box.
Because payload weight is the heaviest weight for our aircraft loaded. And we wanted
to make the moment effect of this weight according to the nose wheel 0 with putting
the nose wheel right bottom of the payload box. However, during our design period,
we also have to consider about applying approximately the same weight into each
wheels. Because of this fact we will not be able to organize it with putting the nose
wheel just right bottom of the payload box. Then it was decided as, from front view,
the distance in between nose wheel and each main wheel will be 210mm. And the
distance in between the main wheel each other will be 420mm. From side view of our
aircraft the distances in between the nose wheel and the main wheel will be 290mm.

And the wheel diameter has chosen as 56mm to carry the whole weight we
will have for our aircraft. Also the wheels have to be strong enough according to the
air forces especially during landing. On the other hand the tire has to be made by the
material which creates minimum drag. According to our aircraft will not need to tire
which has air inside, the solid tyre will be chosen for it.

420 mm
210 mm
290 mm

67
9.4 Shock Absorber Type
The shock of a bad landing has to be absorbed by landing gear. Also the
landing gear has to smooth out the ride when taxiing. Additionally of that tires can
provide some shock-absorbing ability too. In this chapter we will decide about which
shock absorber type will be used for our aircraft. There are also several types of basic
shock absorbers but if the mission and the aircraft will be unique it also can be
designed for the aircraft manufacturing.

As a shock absorber we have chosen as solid spring type. There were some
criteria while deciding with considering the weight and aerodynamics of the aircraft.
Even the solid spring type of shock absorber type is slightly heavier than the others;
however, it is the simplest shock absorber that can be produced easily and
economically.
9.5 Castoring Nose Wheel Geometry
In this section we will discuss about castoring on wheels. Castoring the wheels
increase the stability both statically and dynamically. This operation will be loaded to
nose wheels and tail wheels.

Figure 9.5 Castored wheels side view

Figure 9.6: Castored wheels isometric view


68

Figure 9.7: Castored wheels back view

9.6 Non Retractable Landing Gear
In this section we will discuss about having retractable landing gear or not.
Mostly there are several advantages of using retractable style of landing gear for air
vehicles. Retractable landing gear system will hold the wheels inside of the fuselage
not to create more drag. This system is being used for the aircrafts which have speed
more than 0.5 mach number. However our aircraft will not have that much speed so
then not using retractable system will not be able create lots of drags.

On the other hand if we decide to get rid of the bad effects of the drags we
have to add more weight for that into our aircraft around 4 kg. However when we
consider that our aircrafts take off weight will be around 6,05kg, it is obvious that to
use non retractable landing gear system is the best choice will be for our aircraft
according to its take off weight and its mission.
9.7 Subsystems
Since our airplane is needed to be controlled with the commands sent by the
remote control to the control stick, a hydraulics system is needed. In a hydraulics
system, there is a hydraulic fluid, a light oil-like liquid, which is pumped up to some
specified pressure and stored in an accumulator. When the valve is opened, the
hydraulic fluid flows into the actuator where it presses against the piston, causing it to
move and, in turn, moving the control surface.

To move the control surface the other direction, an additional valve admits
hydraulic fluid to the back side of the piston. The hydraulic fluid returns to the pump
by a return line. To obtain rapid response, the valve must be very close to the actuator.
The valve therefore cannot be in or near the cockpit, and instead is usually attached to
the actuator. Here is a drawing of the hydraulics system:


69

Figure 9.8: Hydraulics subsystem mechanism

Electrical system is also needed, because our hydraulics needs electrical
power. Thats why we use batteries in our airplane as a source of electrical power.

Pneumatic/ECS system is not needed for our airplane. Because of our low
speed and low altitude flight, we dont need to compress air for pressurization and
also dont need anti-icing mechanism.

Since it is mostly needed on large or high-speed aircrafts and we are trying to
make our airplane as light as possible, we dont need to have an Auxiliary/Emergency
power system. Accessory drive (AMAD) is not important for such a low speed
aircraft.

9.8 Conclusion
As a result we have designed the landing gear system for our aircraft. It was
chosen tricycle landing gear system. Then we have decided about what kind of tire we
need for our aircraft and for our mission. The locations for the tires were showed in
the pictures. And the effect of shock absorbs was discussed and decided that the
landing gear system has to absorb the shock effects, which was created with bad
landing. Then we reported about the castoring nose wheel geometry and mentioned
why it has to be on nose wheels. And then for our aircraft non-retractable landing gear
is used, because our airplane flies in a slow speed and the drag produced by landing
gear is not a big issue. Also, a retractable landing gear increases the weight
significantly. As last we reported about the subsystems on our aircrafts.

Chapter 10 Aerodynamics

70
10. AERODYNAMICS
10.1 Introduction

In this part of the process, aerodynamics properties are calculated (by
assuming Mach = 0.2) including the lift curve slope ( C
L
), maximum lift ( C
L
max
)
with and without high lift devices at take off, landing and cruise settings, angle of
attack for maximum lift (
C
L
max
) at take off and landing configurations. Then parasite
C
D
0
and inducedC
D
i
drags are estimated for both skin friction method and component
buildup method. Finally, C
L
- and C
L
-C
D
curves for clean, take off and landing
configurations are plotted.
10.2 Lift
10.2.1 Lift Curve Slope
Lift curve slope ( C
L
) can be found by the following formula.

( ) C
A
A
S
S
F
L
t
osed
ref

=

+ + +
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
2
2 4 1
2 2
2
2
2
tan
max,
exp
[1/rad] (10
Where

2
= 1-M
2

max,t
is the sweep of the wing at the chord location (x/c)
m
where the airfoil
thickest.
For wing (x/c)
m
=0.13 and
max,t
=0 (no sweep angle).

F is the fuselage lift factor that accounts for the fact that the fuselage creates
some lift due to the spill over of lift from the wing and it is given by
5606 , 1
43 , 4
92 , 0
1 07 . 1 1 07 , 1
2 2
= |
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
b
d
F
S
exposed
is the wing reference area less the part of the wing covered by the
fuselage. From previous studies, S
exposed
=5,125 ft
2
.
is the airfoil efficiency and can be approximated as 0,95.

For M=0,2;

2
= 1
2
= 1 0,2
2
= 0,96


71
=
23,755
2 +4 +
3,755
2
0,96
0,95
2
1 +
2
0
0,96

5,125
5,216
1,5606

= 5,69
1
= 0,0997
1

10.2.2 Maximum Lift (

=
) Clean
The maximum lift coefficient of the wing is usually determined the wing area.
This turn will have a great influence upon the cruise drag that strongly affects the
aircraft takeoff performance. This strongly affects the aircraft takeoff weight to
perform the design mission.
Thus the maximum lift coefficient is critical in determining the aircraft
weight; yet the estimation of maximum lift is probably the least reliable of all of the
calculations used in aircraft conceptual design. Even refined wind tunnel tests cannot
predict maximum lift with great accuracy. Frequently an aircraft must be modified
during flight test of achieve the estimated maximum lift.
To calculate the maximum lift, following formulas are used ;

C
L
max
=0.9*C
max
*cos
0.25c

C
L
max
=
C
C
L
L
L C
L
max
max
+ +
0

From airfoil data of DAE-21, C
max
=1,581 and
0L
=-2.2.
0.25c
=0 (no sweep angle).

C
L
max
was calculated using Fig. 12.10
*
for the following
L.E.
.
L.E.
=0 . From Fig.12.10:

C
L
max
= 2,2

For M=0,2;

C
L
max
=0,9*1,581*cos0 = 1,4229

C
L
max
=1,4229/0,0997+(-2,2)+2,2=14,27
10.2.3 Maximum Lift,
=
and
for Take-off and Landing with High Lift

Devices

Since our aircraft doesn't have any high lift devices, there is nothing to
calculate in this section.


72
10.3 Parasite (Zero Lift) Drag

It is needed to calculate parasite drag by using equivalent skin friction method
and component buildup method.
10.3.1 Equivalent Skin Friction Method

Equivalent Skin Friction Method is based upon the fact that a well-designed
aircraft in subsonic cruise will have a parasite drag that is mostly skin friction drug
plus a small separation pressure drag. So, an initial estimate of the parasite drag can
be obtained from
C
D
0
=C
S
S
f
wet
ref
e
|
\
|
.
|
|

where
C
f
e
=0,0055 from Table 12.3 for light aircraft.

0
= 0.055 (
3,15
0,862
) = 0.02
10.3.2 Component Buildup Method

Component Buildup Method estimates the subsonic parasite drag of each
component of the aircraft using a calculated flat-plate skin-friction drag coefficient
(C
f
) and a component form factor (FF) that estimates the pressure drag due to
viscous separation. Then the interference effects on the component drag are estimated
as a factor Q and the total component drag is determined as the product of the
wetted area, C
f
, FF, Q. The following formula is used to calculate C
D
0
of each
component.
)
( )
D L misc
c c
D D
ref
wet c c f
subsonic
D
C C
S
S Q FF C
C
& 0
) (
+ + =

where flat-plate skin-friction coefficient (C
f
) for turbulent, subsonic flow is,

C
R M
f
=
+
0455
1 0144
10
2 58 2 0 65
.
(log ) ( . )
. .

and skin roughness R for subsonic flow is,

R=R
cutoff
=38,21(l/k)
1.053

"l" is the characteristic length of the component. For fuselage, it is the total
length (l=L) and for wing or tail, it is the mac. "k" is the skin roughness value and for
smooth paint, it is 0,17x10
-5
from Table 12.4.

For M=0,2 clean, calculated R and C
f
values are shown in table 10.1;


73

Table 10.1 : R&C
f
at M = 0.2
Component l (ft) R C
f

Wing 5.125 253993129 0.001866837
Fuselage 3.937 192408168.3 0.001937762
Horizontal Tail 2.029 95737552.13 0.002133392
Vertical Tail 0.941 42628906.94 0.002396184

Component form factors and interference factors:

Fuselage:
FF = 1
60
400
3
+ +
|
\
|
.
|
f
f

where
d
l
f =
f = 3.937/0,92 = 4,279

FF= 777 , 1
400
279 , 4
279 , 4
60
1
3
= |
.
|
\
|
+ +

Fuselage has a negligible interference factor;
Q =1

Wing:

Where

(x/c)
m
=0,35, (t/c)
m
=0,13 and
m
=0 for DAE-21 airfoil

FF =
| |
1
06
100 134
4
018 0 28
+
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
.
( / )
. ( )
. .
x c
t
c
t
c
M Cos
m
m

FF=1,255

High wing has a negligible interference factor;
Q =1


74

Horizontal Tail:

Where

(x/c)
m
=0,315 , (t/c)
m
=0,105 for DAE-21 airfoil and
m
=0.

FF = ( ) ( ) | |
28 . 0 18 . 0 4
) 0 ( ) 2 , 0 ( 34 , 1 105 , 0 100 105 , 0
315 , 0
6 , 0
1
o
Cos
(
+ +
FF 1,216

Conventional tail's interference factor;

Q =1,05

Vertical Tail:

Where

(x/c)
m
=0.315 , (t/c)
m
=0.125 for DAE-21 airfoil and
m
=0.

FF = ( ) ( ) | |
28 . 0 18 . 0 4
) 0 ( ) 2 , 0 ( 34 , 1 125 , 0 100 125 , 0
315 , 0
6 , 0
1
o
Cos
(
+ +
FF 1,266

Q =1,05
Table 10.2 : Parasite Drag of Each Component
Component C
f
S
wet
(ft
2
) FF Q C
do
)
c

Wing 0.001866837 11.338 1.255 1 0.003188
Fuselage 0.001937762 6.994 1.777 1 0.00289
Horizontal
Tail 0.002133392 2.216 1.216 1.05 0.000724
Vertical Tail 0.002396184 1.315 1.266 1.05 0.000503

So the final result is;

=
( )
ref
wet c c f
S
S Q FF C
c c
) (
=0,003188+0,00289+0,000724+0,000503= 0,007305

Because of our aircraft type is an UAV,
and
&
coefficients can be taken as
almost equivalent to zero. So;

=0,007305

75
10.4 Estimation of Induced Drag (Drag due to Lift)

The drag polar of the DAE-21 airfoil shows that the wing's C
D
0
and C
D
min

parameters are very close to each other, so the following formula can be used to find
the drag coefficient.

C
D
= C
D
0
+C
D
i
= C
D
0
+ KC
L
2

where K is the drag-due-to-lift factor and defined as,

K
Ae
=
1

For
L.E.
=0 < 30 , Oswald efficiency factor e can be calculated from the
straight-wing aircraft relation;

e A = + 178 1 0045 064
0 68
. ( . ) .
.

64 , 0 ) ) 755 . 3 ( 045 , 0 1 ( 78 , 1
68 . 0
= e
e = 0,943

0899 . 0
943 . 0 755 . 3
1
= =
x x
K

and C
D
i
=KC
L
2
= 0, C
L
2

C
D
i
= 0, 0899 C
L
2
10.4.1 Ground Effect

=
33(
)
1,5
1 + 33(
)
1,5

h is estimated as 0,14 m in the landing gear arrangement part of the design.

=
33(
)
1,5
1 + 33(
)
1,5
=
33(
0,14
1,3488
)
1,5
1 + 33(
0,14
1,3488
)
1,5
= 0,525

= 0,0472

76
10.5
and
Curves

According to the final calculations shown in table 10.3, C
L
- and C
L
- C
D

curves are shown in Figures 10.1 and 10.2.

Figure 10.1 : C
L
- Graph

Figure 10.2 : C
L
- C
D
Graph


77
10.6 Tabulated Results

Table 10.3 : Tabulated Results
For C
L
- Curves
C
L
(1/) 0.0997
C
lmax
1.4229
0L
() -2.2
CLmax
() 14.27
CLmax () 2.2
For C
L
- C
D
Curves
C
D
0.007305+0.0899 C
L
2

10.7 Conclusion
In this part of our design process, aerodynamic parameters are estimated and
calculated. Taking Mach = 0.2, calculations have been made to find the lift curve
slope( C
L
), maximum lift (
max
L
C ) with and without high lift devices for cruise,
landing and takeoff conditions, angle of attack for maximum lift
C
L
max
,parasite C
D
0
and inducedC
D
i
. After finding those parameters, C
l
- and C
L
- C
D
graphs are shown
in the figures.

Chapter 12 Conclusion

78

12. CONCLUSION
In the beginning of our design, first we found information about existing aircrafts in
the category of electric propeller and radio controlled mini unmanned air vehicle. We have
organized those information and plotted some graphs to make it more understandable. That
was the base of our design.

Then we started to select our initial configuration and made a first guess sizing. We
made the initial sizing through reducing the error nearly zero between our estimation and
calculation. For 8 sample missions given, we have made those calculations and calculated the
take off power, P
0
and wing area.

Next, the process came to the part of the airfoil and geometry selection. We have
acquired some information for the airfoil type from our competitor study and selected the best
airfoil that suits to our aircraft. We made that selection for both our wing and tail.

In the process of power to weight ratio and wing loading calculation, we decided our
horsepower to weight ratio and wing loading.In the decision of the process, we have used our
competitor study's data, thrust matching, stall speed requirement, take off ground roll
requirement and cruising speed requirement. Making the calculations, we have made our final
decision.

After that, we began making our initial sizing. By rubber engine sizing study, we
selected the motor of our aircraft, then applied a fixed engine sizing study. In the end of the
geometry sizing study, we could see the dimensions of our airplanes' components such as
fuselage, wing and tail.

Afterwards, we performed the configuration layout and interior design of the aircraft.
We have calculated the important parameters for our wing,horizontal tail and vertical tail, so
we happened to have the locations of the vertical and horizontal tail accurately.

In pursuit of, we applied the propulsion and fuel system integration to our airplane.
According to the battery type and number we have obtained before, we designed a battery box
and connected it to the motor so it can work. We have discussed the design of the connections
for motor and battery box to the fuselage. Also we have obtained some measurements for the
propeller. Finally we have shown all the compartments and pieces in detail.

Later, we have selected a landing gear arrangement for our airplane, made some
decision on the selection of tire, shock absorber, castoring nose wheel geometry and
subsystems through necessary calculations and showed the elements in drawings.

Finally, we have applied the aerodynamics analysis to our airplane. We have
calculated the aerodynamics properties such as lift curve slope, maximum lift, parasite and
induced drags. For the drags, we used both skin friction method and component buildup
method. In the end, we have shown the results in a simpler way in figures.

References
79

REFERENCES

[1] - Raymer, D.P., Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, AIAA,Washington,1992
[2]- Principles of Aircraft Design course lectures, Prof. Dr. Mehmet erif Kavsaolu
[3] - The following URL for competitor study :
http://www.aiaadbf.org
[4] - Taylor, J., JANEs All The Worlds Aircraft, 1989-1990, 1991-1992, and 1994-
1995.
[7] - Roskam, J., Airplane Design, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corp., Ottawa,
Kansas, 1985
[8]- Riegels, F.W., Aerofoil Sections, Butterworths, 1961

Appendices

80

APPENDICES

SOME CONVERSION FACTORS

Multiply By To Obtain
Foot (ft) 1.200 10 inches
3.48 10
-4
kilometers
3.49 10
-1
meters

Foot/Second (ft/s) 5.921 10
-1
knots
3.48 10
-1

meters/second

Horsepower (hp) 550 foot-pounds/second
7.604 10 kilogram meters/second

Knot 1.689 feet/second
1.151 miles/hour
1.852 kilometers/hour

Liter (l) 3.532 10
-2
cubic feet
2.6417 10
-1
gallons
1.0 10
-3
cubic meters

Meter (m) 3.281 feet
3.937 10 inches
1.0 10
-3
kilometers

Meter/Second (m/s) 3.281 feet/second
3.600 kilometers/hour
1.943 knots
2.237 miles/hour

Nautical Mile (nmi) 6.076 10
3
feet
1.852 10
3
meters
1.15078 mile
Pound (lb) 4.536 10
2
gram

Aircraft Design

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aircraft Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Istanbul Technical University

Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Instantaneous turn rate

0,5 (0,7 with flaps)

= 4,9355 .12 = 59,226 /

)o and we will recalculate the range. Finally we need to perform a geometry

0,6 = 1,945970,6 = 1,167582

0,55 = 1,945970,55 = 1,070284

0,6 = 1,945970,6 = 1,167582

0,55 = 1,945970,55 = 1,070284

) can be found by the following formula.

for Take-off and Landing with High Lift

You might also like