FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

This topic deals with the methods for measuring forces and torques and relate these methods to basic strain measurements and experimental stress analysis

Some types of force measurements applicable to pressure-sensing devices have been discussed in chapter 6 According to Newtons second law of motion

F = ma W = mg

.(10.1) .(10.2)

Torque is represented as a moment vector formed by the cross product of a force and r r r radius vector

T = rF r r r T = r F s in

.(10.3)

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Mass Balance Measurements

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Mass Balance Measurements
The sensitivity of the balance is the measure of the angular displacement per unit unbalance in the two weights W1 and W2

S =

W1 W 2

.(10.4)

The moment equation of equilibrium is:

.(10.6)

.(10.7)

.(10.8)

Precision balances are available which has accuracy of about 1 part in 108. For precision instruments, optical methods are usually employed to sense the deflection angle and to determine the equilibrium position.

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Mass Balance Measurements

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Mass Balance Measurements
Entertaining the effect of buoyancy, the two forces acting on the balance arms will be
.(10.9 & 10.10)

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

1

Elastic Elements for Force Measurements

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

3

Elastic Elements for Force Measurements

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

4

Elastic Elements for Force Measurements

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

5

Elastic Elements for Force Measurements

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Torque Measurements Bar or Hollow Cylinder

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Torque Measurements Prony Brake

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Torque Measurements Prony Brake

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Torque Measurements DC Cradled Dynamometer

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Angular Velocity Measurements Tachometer

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Angular Velocity Measurements Contact Tachometer

Cole-Parmer Contact Pocket tachometer

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Angular Velocity Measurements Optical Tachometer

Cole-Parmer Optical Pocket tachometer

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Angular Velocity Measurements Stroboscope

A strobe light flashing at the proper period can appear to freeze cyclical motion

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Stress and Strain
Stress strain relation for the figure can be written as:
.(10.22)

Axial strain us defined as:

.(10.23)

Poissons ratio is defined as:

.(10.24)

A typical value of Poissons ratio is 0.3 for many materials If the material is plastic, the volume remains constant so that

Expressed in terms of diameter, this relation is: So that the Poissons ratio is 0.5 for plastic materials

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements Basic Definitions
Base length The length over which average strain measurement is taken

Deformation Sensitivity The minimum deformation that can be indicated by the appropriate gage Strain Sensitivity The minimum deformation that can be indicated by the appropriate gage per unit length

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements
1. Grid Method Please go through pp. 474 & 475 2. Brittle coating Method

3. Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Most widely used It is based on the principle that the resistance changes with mechanical deformation Typically a conductor is bonded on the specimen with an insulating cement under no-load condition. Application of load deforms the conductor resulting in the change in resistance.

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages
The resistance of the conductor is:
.(10.25)

Differentiating the equation:

.(10.26)

Also Therefore The gage factor F is defined by

.(10.29) .(10.28)

Therefore

.(10.30)

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages
Using eq. (10.29) we may define axial strain as:
.(10.31)

Since F and R are given by the manufacturer, user needs to find R only If the resistivity of the material does not vary with strain, so
.(10.32)

A typical value of is 0.3 therefore F = 1.6 For plastics F = 2.0 F is found to vary from -140 to +175 For most of the materials F is same both for tensile and compressive strains A high gage factor is desirable in practice to have higher sensitivity.

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Types

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Types

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Types

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Construction
Points to Remember Resistance element must be securely bonded to its mounting. It is essential that the bond between the resistance element and the cement joining it to the work piece be stronger than the resistance wire itself. In this way the strength of the resistance wire is smaller and hence the deformation of the entire gage is governed by the deformation of the resistance element. Bonding Materials Nitrocellulose cement or a phenolic resin are the most common bonding agent with a thin paper backing to maintain wire configuration. Such gages may be used up to 150 oC. Bakelite mounting is usually employed for temperatures up to 260 oC. Epoxy cements are also employed for both wire and foil gages.

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Construction
Mounting Precautions The surface of specimen must be clean. Cleaning with an emery paper followed by acetone is usually satisfactory. Sufficient time must be allowed for the cement to dry and harden completely. Even though the cement is dry around the edge of the gage, it may still be wet under the edge. If possible 24 h must be allowed for drying @ room temperature.

Cement Materials For low temperature applications (-100 to +100 oC) Duco cement (nitrocellulose) is normally employed with paper-covered gages and Eastman 910 (cyanoacrylate) with foil gages mounted on epoxy.

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Construction
Problems associated with installation 1. Temperature effects 2. Moisture effects 3. Wiring problems

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Measurement
Voltage sensitive deflection circuit

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Measurement
Current sensitive deflection circuit

Denominator is nearly a constant

Applying balance conditions

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements - Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages Measurement
Temperature Compensation

Both the gages are mounted on same material at identical temperature. Only specimen gage is strained

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements Strain-Gage Rosettes
There could be a number of situations when specimen involve strains in more than one direction. In such situations directions of principal stress and strain are unknown. The arrangements for strain gages in such applications are called Rosettes. 1. Rectangular Strain-Gage Rosette The principal strains for this situation are

The principal stresses are

The maximum shear stress is

FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS

Strain Measurements Strain-Gage Rosettes
2. Delta Strain-Gage Rosette The principal strains for this situation are max, min = The principal stresses are max, min = The maximum shear stress is