GRAMMAR

y article o indefinite article a/an

                 something referred for first time when we use adjective describing noun when particular noun represent group (ex. buy a book one of a million books) with jobs with singular fractions, group number and large numbers previously mentioned nouns nouns mentioned first time, where is clear what we are talking about where is only one something ex. the moon, the sun when nouns is followed by descriptive phrase national groups classes of people noun which is representative for some group the lion musical instruments on which we can play some geographical names oceans, seas, rivers, canals and regions with group of islands ( exception the Matterhorn) with media superlative forms uncountable nouns countries, continents, states islands, mountains, lakes cities, park, roads, streets, squares bridges, palaces, cathedrals, stations, airports company names, years, months, days and special times of the year with names of meals when they are not described unique jobs and roles

o definite article the

o zero article

         

places and building when purpose of building is more important than place itself ex (she is in prison she has sentence, she is in the prison she visited this place)

y  
illness

the same goes for bed, church, class, court, hospital, school, university

names of transport, whet we talked generally ex we went there by car but we went there in the car that Alex borrowed

y nouns o countable nouns o uncountable nouns  only singular  we cannot use a numbers with them  to count it we need to use a piece of , a bit and else  even if uncountable noun is ended by s , it has singular form
news is

ex.

uncountable are :

o o o o o o

substances: water, air, coffee, plastic, iron, paper abstract ideas: life, fun, freedom, health, time, progress activities: work, travel, sleep, football, help, research human feelings: happiness, anger, honesty, hope, courage, respect groups of things: furniture, luggage uncountable nouns (examples): accommodation, advice, business, cash, equipment, furniture, health, homework, information, knowledge, money, permission, rubbish, scenery, traffic, travel, weather, work

exceptions: some uncountable nouns could be used as countable, when they described a category. ex I want some fruits but we exported two main groups of fruits here: bananas and pineapples

o change of meaning:  an iron ( elazko) some iron ( elazo)  a wood (ma y obszar z drzewami) some wood (drewno)  a paper (gazeta) some paper (papier)  a chicken (zwierz ) some chicken (mi so

     

business (biznes) a business (firma) gossip (plotkowa ) a gossip (plotkarz) hair (wszystkie) a hair (jeden w os) help ( oglnie) a help (pomagaj cy) toast (tost) a toast (toast) work (oglnie) a work (sztuka)

o plural nouns  trousers/ sister/ clothes/ contents/ feelings/ goods/ jeans/ means/
outskirts/ surroundings/ thanks ARE

o group nouns  government is (when we think general about government) or are ( if

we think about them individually)

the same goes for : army, audience, class, company, crew, crowd, data, family, group, media, press, public, staff, team

y modals o present and future  ability y can and be able to  certainty and uncertainty y must and can t they are used to make deductions y may, might and could express uncertainty and possibility
(50%)

y y  y

should and ought to when we expect that something will happen be bound to something is certain must and have to

obligation must personally thinks that something is important have to situation makes it important mustn t something is prohibited don t have to something is not necessary the same meaning they are used to say what is the best thing to do

o o y o o y o o

mustn t and don t have to

should and ought to

y y o past 

had better

o o
ability

strong advice to stop something which going wrong formal instructions

is/are too

could and was able to

o o  y y y 

could when we talk about general past was able to when we talk about specific past actions

certainty and uncertainty must have and can t have logical deductions about past actions possibility or uncertainty about past actions something was supposed to happened but it didn t

o o o
obligation

may have, might have and could have was/were to have

y y y

had to

o o o o y

past form for must /question form is did criticism, about mistake which was made needn t to when something is done and it is not necessary (unconsciously) didn t need to when something is done and it is not necessary ( consciously) must and shall

should have and ought to have needn t have and didn t need to

indirect speech

y tenses o present time  present simple y facts which are always true the river po flows into the adriatic
sea

y y

habitual actions i usually take the bus to school summary of events in chapter one, susan meets(...)

present continuous

y y y 

actions in progress i m learning habits during a temporary situations at the moment, we re sending all the mail by courier, because of post strike repeated temporary actions you are always borrowing money from me!

problems with present simple and present continuous

y y

state verbs doesn t exist in continuous form: be, believe, cost, depend, have, hear, know, matter, smell, suppose, think, understand some of these verbs can be used in continuous form, but meaning is different

o o o o o y

is being = behave i m having = eat i m tasting = sample i m thinking = consider is seeing = meeting

in many situations we can use either simple and continuous form. simple is for permanent states (ex. I live in London) and continuous for temporary (I m staying in Oxford for week)

o past tenses  past perfect y had + past participle y it describes earlier event, when two are described  past continuous used with past simple y we use past continuous for longer action and past
simple for action, which is shorter. both happened in the same time  Habits in the past

y past simple
o past habits and states o time expression is usually necessary

y used to o past habits o time expression is not necessary

y would
o typical activates in the past o cannot be used to describe states o mainly used in writing and personal reminiscences

y past continuous o past annoying, repeated actions/habit  politeness and uncertainty y past continuous could be used with think, hope and wonder y it gives polite and uncertain meaning o present tenses  PRESENT PERFECT y recent events o present perfect simple  recent actions y I ve left my shopping bag behind  to emphasize the idea o recentness we use just  events which are not happened yet y indefinite events o present perfect simple  no definite actions  series of actions which takes time up to know  after it/this is the first time we use present
perfect

compared with past simple

 y

events described by past simple have definite time

extended and repeated events

present perfect simple

  o  

habitual action in period of time up to now state which lasts up to the present state which lasts up to the present verbs like wait, sit, stay prefer present perfect continuous

present perfect continuous

for, since, ago

o o o y o o o

for + period of time since + point of time ago + how far back in the past completed actions

present perfect simple or continuous?

    o future tenses  prediction y will o o y

going to

present perfect simple present perfect continuous perfect simple attention on present result perfect continuous attention on progress

not completed present result or actions in progress

make predictions often followed by i think or opinion words make predictions especially used describes particular time in the future describes situation in progress looks back from a point in the future

o o y o o y  o
intention

future continuous

future perfect

going to

o o y 
will

present intention or plan this is something, which we decided to do for sure instant decision (made at the time of speaking)

o y

fixed arrangements and timetables present continuous definite, fixed arrangements used with time expressions

o o

present simple

o o  y y

used with time expression things based on timetable, programme or calendar

when, until, as soon as present times, referred to the future present perfect simple emphasize completion of an event

y conditionals o first conditional (real/likely situations)

 with if: y present tense is used after if , but it referred to the future y will/won t is common y examples : o if you fall, I won t be able to catch you o if the cases are too heavy, I can help you carry them unless, provided, as long as y unless = if not y Unless you leave at once, I ll call the police provided/as long as = can also introduce a condition y provided you leave now, you ll catch the train

  

imperative form instead of if

y get me some cigarettes, and I ll pay you later with should = if by any chance y should you see John, can you give him a message? after if past simple is used, but it referred to the future would is use in second part of the sentence y if you fell, you would hurt yourself small possibility that this will happen situation and result is imagined. modal verbs (might/could) are also used y if you became millionaire, you might be unhappy were = used instead of was in formal language y If I were taller, I d join to the basketball team were to + verb = were is stressed, so result is unlikely y if they were to offer me the job, I d turn it down with if y after if past perfect is used, and would +have+ past participle in the second part of phrase

o second conditional (unreal/ imaginary situations)  

  

o third conditional (unreal/imaginary past situations)



o if John had studied more, he would have got better marks it means that John didn t study more, so this past situation is imagined mixed conditions are used for past situation, which result is continuing in present y first part of sentence past perfect
y second one would + verb o if you had saved more, you wouldn t be so hard up now

o other if sentence


if means when in sense of whenever y

If(when/whenever) it rains, we play football indoors instead. in this case in both parts present simple is used

 

if means if it is true that y if (if it is true that) you have a job like that, you are very lucky if + past participle can be used for past events that we know they are true or they have high possibility to be true.

y passive voice o uses  transitive and intransitive verbs y verbs with an object can be made passive o they sent letter the letter was sent y some (love, like) verbs cannot be passive in some cases  focus on important information y placing the object at the beginning of sentence, the passive can
change the focus of interest in a sentence

passive can be used for

o o o  by + agent

impersonal statements when the agent is unknown ex. my bike has been stolen when the agent is obvious ex. Mr Jones will be arrested

y adding agent depends on that if this information is important or

not

o reporting verbs
 say, believe, understand, know and similar words

o have/get something done

   
when somebody does some work for us when we describe bad luck caused by unspecified person using get, makes sentences more informal get suggested also managing to do something difficult

o needs doing
 idiomatic way of expressing a passive sentence where a thing or
person needs some kind of action

o verbs and prepositions  preposition stayed with verb. o other problems  be born is passive form but does not have passive meaning  make (when meaning of force) is followed by to in passive y indirect speech o with tense changes  summary of tense changes y tenses move back in time after a past tense reporting verb o I agree I agreed o I m leaving I was leaving o but past perfect remains the same  main verb changes y in complex sentences, only the first verb is changed o I was walking home when I saw the accident
James said he had been walking home when he saw the accident

reference words

y y

tomorrow next day yesterday the day before day

without tense changes

 

present tense reports

y y y

if reporting verb is in the present tense, there is no change

past tense reports if report words are always true there is no change if message is repeated immediately there is no change

o question  reporting questions y yes/no question are reported by o y

if and they have form of normal statements. there is no question mark do you like hamburgers? he asked me if I liked hamburgers

wh- question are reported with the question word followed by the verb in the form of a normal statement. No question mark.

o 

what are we going? i asked sue where we were going

reporting polite questions

y y

could you tell me where the station is? i d like to know where the station is in that case we use word ask and the usual times rules.

o commands and request  by tell and infinitive  by ask and infinitive o reporting verbs (examples)
 say or tell? y we say something, tell somebody y we can use to after say, but we cannot do the same with tell

  

suggested + -ing form offer + infinitive remind + object + infinitive

o paraphrase  it is often impossible or unnecessary to report every word y irregular verbs