02.09.

11
1
Sociolinguistics of multilingualism
Prof. Georges Ldi (Universit di Basilea-
Svizzera
5/9/2011, 18:00 19:00;
A Introduction
1.! What is sociolinguistics?
2.! What is multilingualism?
3.! Research questions
4.! An analytical framework and key notions
B Illustration of the key notions with examples from history
1.! Language policy vs. language management
2.! Diglossia vs. polyglossia vs. heteroglossia
3.! Social representations vs. doxa vs. endoxa
4.! (Pluri-)competence vs. repertoire vs. communicative
resources
5.! Multilingual speech or plurilanguaging

A

Introduction
I. What is sociolinguistics ?
Sociolinguistics: the study of language and linguistic behavior as influenced
by social and cultural factors. (American Heritage Dictionary)

Sociolinguistics: the study of language as it affects and is affected by social
relations. Sociolinguistics encompasses a broad range of concerns, including
bilingualism, pidgin and creole languages, and other ways that language use
is influenced by contact among people of different language communities
(...). Sociolinguists also examine different dialects, accents, and levels of
diction in light of social distinctions among people. (...) Speakers of any
dialect or any language may modulate their vocabulary and level of diction
according to social context, speaking differently in church, for example, than
on the playground; social activities that tend to shape the language of those
engaging in it are sometimes called registers.
(http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/sociolinguistic)

!"#$"%$&'($)*#)+,+!"-$"%$&'($)*.
An lnLernauonal Pandbook of Lhe
Sclence of Language and SocleLy
+
/01+23+455"&6+7%8$#9+,+:$;5<86+
="82>8?+,+@<;9>$>86+A%<()+B1+,+
C8(0'$%%6+D>?>8

2nd compl. rev. and exLend. ed. |
3 volumes, 2004-2006, 2622 pages

uL C8u?1L8 MCu1Cn

lS8n 978-3-11-014189-4

Since the publication of the first edition of the handbook
Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik , the then young discipline has
changed and developed considerably. The field has left behind its
status as an interdiscipline between sociology and linguistics and is
now a worldwide established field. Sociolinguistics continues to
contribute to solving practical problems in areas such as language
planning and standardization, language policy, as well as in
language didactics and speech therapy. Moreover, new topics and
areas of application have arisen from the autonomy of the discipline
- these have been systematically and extensively included in the
second edition of the handbook. (...)
With an extensive description as its goal, the second edition of the
handbook Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik takes into account the
current standing of the discipline and the modified structure of the
field.
02.09.11
2
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context. Research in
this <PhD program> currently includes such areas as:
! language and social interaction,
! language contact and change,
! sociolinguistic variation,
! discourse analysis,
! cross-cultural communication,
! narrative and oral history,
! language and identity,
! language and aging,
! endangered and minority dialects
! language and health care
! forensic linguistics.
II. What is multilingualism ?
The stereotype that most human beings and societies are
monolingual is wrong: a majority of the humanity is multilingual
and/or lives in multilingual societies.
Multilingual individuals are able to interact, even imperfectly, in
several languages in everyday settings.
In Italy,36% of the population say they can speak at least one other
language at the level of being able to have a conversation
(Eurobarometer 2005).
In multilingual societies, people speak more than one language
(many of them are individually multilingual)
Rome has 2.8 million inhabitants, 9.5% legally registered foreign
minorities from a country outside the European Union, including
Romania, the Philippines, Albania, Poland, North America, China,
Korea, Sri Lanka, Bangla Desh and India;
Multilingual institutions use in parallel more than one language.
In Rome, from 6 million tourists, 3.5 million do not speak Italian;
bilingual Italian/English signs adressed to tourists are frequent.
Sociolinguistics of multilingualism
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context. Research in
this <PhD program> currently includes such areas as:
! Linguistic diversity and social interaction,
! Language change in contact situations,
! Variational use of multiple repertoires,
! Discourse analysis,
! Cross-cultural and exolingual communication,
! Multiliteracy,
! Multilingualism and identity,
! Endangered and minority languages,
! Multilingualism and health care,
! etc.
III. Research questions
How does one get multilingual?
Who is multilingual, and how are multilingual repertoires
used?
Advantages and disadvantages of multilingual education
and of being individually multilingual?
Multilingualism in organisations (businesses, universities,
local authorities, etc.): what assets and drawbacks?
How can multilingualism be assessed?
What are the relations between linguistic and cultural
diversity?
etc.


Oral and written
practice
Discourse /
Representations


Language policies
Context
IV. An analytical framework
02.09.11
3
Key terms
Introduction of five sets of notions:

Language policy vs. language management
Diglossia vs. polyglossia vs. heteroglossia
Social representations vs. doxa vs. endoxa
(Pluri-)competence vs. repertoire vs. communicative
resources
Multilingual speech or plurilanguaging (OLON, OLAT, ALAST)


II

The historical dimension
I. Language policy vs. language management
language policy = the totality of forms of intervention (including
the non intervention or laissez-faire) taken by a political authority
with the aim of orienting and regulating the use of one or several
languages by the administration and/or the general public in a
given political space. These forms of intervention reflect ideological
choices and principles that determine the selection of the
objectives. The latter may concern the status, the domains of use,
the geographic distribution and the form (corpus) of one or
different concurring linguistic varieties.
language management = all the measures taken by an organi-
sation concerning its members representations of language(s), the
construction of their linguistic repertoires as well as their use in
internal and external communication. (e.g. choice of a corporate
language, the role of languages in the hiring and promotion of a
companys collaborators, measures aiming at increasing these
competences, guidelines for a corporate style, directives for
linguistic landscaping and the companiess websites, etc.
II. Diglossia vs. Polyglossia vs. Heteroglossia
Diglossia = use of two varieties in a community with a functional
differentiation (high variety vs. low variety) (Ferguson 1959)

Fergusons (1959) definition of diglossia
Stable situation over centuries
primary dialect (low variety)
No or less codification
Grammatically less complex
Popular culture
Learnt at hom
Oral
Used as daily vernacular
standard language (high
variety)
Rigourously codified
Grammatical more complex
Corpus of literary texts
Learnt at school
Writing
Used in official/formal
contexts
Diglossia vs. Polyglossia vs. Heteroglossia
Diglossia = use of two varieties in a community with a functional
differentiation (high variety vs. low variety) (Ferguson 1959)
Polyglossia = use of three or more varieties in a community with a
functional differentiation, a shared language value system and
common norms

02.09.11
4
Dimensions of polyglossia
1.distance linguistique
2.typesdecommunauts
espace
local rgional national supranational
- +
intersection entre leslocuteursdesdeuxvarits
bilinguisme
gnralis
- +
pasde
bilinguisme
minorit
bilingue
majorit
bilingue
famille individu groupe
social
- +
tendue de ladiglossie
ensemble de la
communaut
3.complmentarit fonctionnelle
- +
- +
recouvrementdesfonctions
rigidit de larpartition fonctionnelle
stabilit de larpartition fonctionnelle
- +
4.standardisation
dveloppementd'une criture
laboration
institution d'une norme prescriptive
- +
- +
- +
varit crite dveloppe
littraire etnonlittraire
varit crite non dve-
loppe (p.ex.littraire)
pasd'criture
minimale maximale
5.type d'acquisition
acquisition de lavarit A
naturelle
institutionnelle
+
+
naturelle
institutionnelle
+
+
acquisition de lavarit B (C,D,etc.)
6.diffrence de prestige
+
registreslangue+dialecte languesapparentes
romanesindoeuropennes
languesnon
apparentes
approche tique
- +
- +
approche mique
1.! distance between varieties
2.! Type of community
In the space
Proportion of multilingual
persons
extension
3.! Functional complementarity
intersections
rigid
stable over time
4.! Degree of standardisation
5.! Mode of acquisition
6.! differences in prestige
Polyglossia 1
Tarkasnawa seal in Hieroglyphic Luwian and Hittite
Polyglossia 2
Claudius
Terentianuswas
an Egyptian
enrolled in the
Roman army. He
was the author of a
number of
papyrus-letters,
mostly addressed
to his father
Claudius
Tiberianus, a
veteran settled in
Karanis
Polyglossia 3
enLaglossla ln lrlbourg
(SwlLzerland) ln Lhe
13Lh/16Lh c.
Laun

lrench Cerman

lranco-rovenal Alemannlc
Diglossia vs. Polyglossia vs. Heteroglossia
Diglossia = use of two varieties in a community with a functional
differentiation (high variety vs. low variety) (Ferguson 1959)
Polyglossia = use of three or more varieties in a community with a
functional differentiation, a shared language value system and
common norms
Heteroglossia = use of two or more varieties in a society without
functional differentiation, shared language value systems and
common norms

02.09.11
3
(uu8k CC81L8 (2007): 1PL LlnCulS1lC LAnuSCAL ln 8CML:
ASLC1S Cl MuL1lLlnCuALlSM Anu ulvL8Sl1?
WC8klnC AL8 Cl 1PL l8S (lS1l1u1C SlCCAnALl1lCC L8 LL
8lCL8CPL SCClALL), 8CMA)
III. Social representations vs. doxa vs. endoxa

Representations = interpretative systems governing our relation
with the world and with others [that] orientate and organise our
conduct and social communication (Jodelet 1989: 36). They
define a space of meaning shared by all members of the
group (Moliner/Guterman 2004). Their social and shared
character results from construction processes in discourse and is
manifested in the form of sets of recurrent utterances of
interdiscursive nature resulting in a high degree of stereotypicity
and stability (Py 2004).
Since Aristotle, two levels of shared social representations are
distinguished: doxa (!"#$) and endoxa (!%!&#$). Endoxa is a more
stable belief than doxa, because it has been "tested" in
argumentative struggles in the Polis by prior interlocutors, i.e.
endorsed or legitimized by the highest authorities of the society.
THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IS PARTICULARLY CLEAR
Notre langue est, de toutes les langues, la plus chtie, la plus
exacte et la plus estimable, celle qui a retenu moins de ces
ngligences que j'appellerais volontiers la balbutie des premiers
ges
(Denis Diderot: Lettre sur les sourds et muets, lusage de
ceux qui entendent et qui parlent [1751])
Le franais nomme d'abord le sujet de la phrase, ensuite le
verbe qui est l'action et enfin l'objet de cette action: voil la
logique naturelle tous les hommes. Le franais, par un
privilge unique, est seul rest fidle l'ordre direct, comme s'il
tait toute raison; c'est en vain que les passions (...) nous
sollicitent de suivre l'ordre des sensations: la syntaxe franaise
est incorruptible. C'est de l que rsulte cette admirable clart,
base ternelle de notre langue: ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas
franais. (Antoine de Rivarol: De l'universalit de la langue
franaise. Paris 1784)
IV. (Pluri-)competence vs. repertoire vs.
communicative resources
An additiveview of multilingualism is based on a conception of
languages as idealised, timeless and decontextualised objects,
each neatly separated from the other, with language (langue,
competence) stored in the brain and preceding language use
(parole, performance).
Integrated view
An additiveview of multilingualism is based on a conception of
languages as idealised, timeless and decontextualised objects,
each neatly separated from the other, with language (langue,
competence) stored in the brain and preceding language use
(parole, performance).
Multilingual competence (also: pluricompetence) = ability to
interact, even imperfectly, in several languages in everyday
settings.
Multilingual repertoire = a set of resources both verbal
(various registers, dialects and languages, mastered at different
levels) and non-verbal (e.g. mime and gestural expression) that
are jointly mobilised by the actors in order to find local solutions to
practical problems.
This set of skills in different languages, from perfect to very
partial, is seen as an integrated whole which is more than the sum
total of its parts.
V. Multilingual speech or plurilanguaging
Multilingual speech = simultaneous use of resources from
different languages in one and the same speech event (Ldi/
Py 2009)
This form of language practice is also called multilanguaging
or translanguaging (Pennycook 2007, Garca 2007)
It includes code-switchings, code mixing, but also changes of
the matrix language, thus allowing the participants to exploit
their multilingual repertoires in an optimal way.
These multilingual practices are not unshaped, but are the
locus of emergent multilingual grammars comprising
methods of interaction such as code-switching, spontaneous
translations by peers or ways of using lingua francas.
OLON, OLAT, ALAST
02.09.11
6
Code-switching as identity marker
(Morem: lnscrlpuones Craecae urbls 8omae)
Mixed speech as discourse strategy
Fading borders between languages
Quand on assiste de tels changes lexicaux,
graphiques, grammaticaux, entre les deux langues, il
nest plus alors possible de parler de grec ou de
latin . Nous nous trouvons en quelque sorte en
prsence dune supra-langue , qui nest plus du grec
ou du latin, mais qui les englobe tous les deux la fois,
dans une entit abstraite qui prend sens dans lun et
lautre systme. (Biville 2008, 50)

Key references
Adams, J.N. (2003): Bilingualism and the Latin language. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
Ammon, Ulrich et al. (2004-2006): Sociolinguistics Soziolinguistik. An
International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. 2nd completely
revised and extended edition, 3 vol. Berlin/New York, Walter de Gruyter.
Ferguson, Charles A. (1959): "Diglossia", Word 15, 325-340.
Ldi, Georges (1990): "Diglossie et polyglossie", in: Holtus, G./Metzeltin, M./
Schmitt, Chr. (Hg.): Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik. Tbingen,
Niemeyer, t. V/1, 307-334.
Ldi, Georges (2005): "Parler bilingue et discours littraires mtisss. Les
marques transcodiques comme traces dexpriences interculturelles", in:
Morency, Jean/Destrempes, Hlne/Merkle, Denise/Pquet, Martin (dir.): Des
cultures en contact. Visions de lAmrique du Nord francophone. Qubec,
Editions Nota bene, 173-200.
Ldi, Georges (2006): De la comptence linguistique au rpertoire plurilingue,
in: Bulletin suisse de linguistique applique 84, 173-189.