Vector Space Text Classification

Adapted from Lectures by

Raymond Mooney and Barbara Rosario

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Text Classification
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Today:
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Introduction to Text Classification

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K Nearest Neighbors Decision boundaries Vector space classification using centroids Decision Trees (briefly)

Later
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More text classification

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Support Vector Machines Text-specific issues in classification

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Recap: Nave Bayes classifiers

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Classify based on prior weight of class and conditional parameter for what each word says:

c NB
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= argmaxlog P(c j ) + log P(x i | c j ) c j C i positions

Nc j N

Training is done by counting and dividing:

P(c j )

P(x k | c j )

Tc j xk +

x i V

[Tc j xi + ]
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Dont forget to smooth

Recall: Vector Space Representation

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Each document is a vector, one component for each term (= word). Normally normalize vector to unit length. High-dimensional vector space:
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Terms are axes 10,000+ dimensions, or even 100,000+ Docs are vectors in this space

How can we do classification in this space?

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14.1

Classification Using Vector Spaces

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As before, the training set is a set of documents, each labeled with its class (e.g., topic)
In vector space classification, this set corresponds to a labeled set of points (or, equivalently, vectors) in the vector space Premise 1: Documents in the same class form a contiguous region of space Premise 2: Documents from different classes dont overlap (much)
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We define surfaces to delineate classes in the space

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Documents / Classes in a Vector Space

Government Science Arts

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Test Document of what class?

Government Science Arts

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Test Document = Government

Is this similarity hypothesis true in general?
Government Science Arts

Our main topic today is how to find good separators

k Nearest Neighbor Classification

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Aside: 2D/3D graphs can be misleading

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k Nearest Neighbor Classification

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kNN = k Nearest Neighbor

To classify document d into class c:

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Define k-neighborhood N as k nearest neighbors of d Count number of documents ic in N that belong to c Estimate P(c|d) as ic/k Choose as class arg maxc P(c|d) [ = majority class]

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14.3

Example: k=6 (6NN)

P(science| )?

Government Science Arts

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Nearest-Neighbor Learning Algorithm

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Learning is just storing the representations of the training examples in D.

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Does not explicitly compute a generalization, category prototypes, or class boundaries. Compute similarity between x and all examples in D. Assign x the category of the most similar example in D. Case-based learning, Memory-based learning, Lazy learning

Testing instance x:
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Also called:
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Rationale of kNN: contiguity hypothesis

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kNN: Value of k
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Using only the closest example (k=1) to determine the category is subject to errors due to:
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A single atypical example. Noise in the category label of a single training example.

More robust alternative is to find the k (> 1) mostsimilar examples and return the majority category of these k examples. Value of k is typically odd to avoid ties; 3 and 5 are most common.
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kNN decision boundaries

Boundaries are, in principle, arbitrary surfaces but usually polyhedra Government Science Arts

kNN gives locally defined decision boundaries between classes far away points do not influence each classification Prasad L14VectorClassify decision (unlike in Nave Bayes, Rocchio, etc.)

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Similarity Metrics
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Nearest neighbor method depends on a similarity (or distance) metric. n Simplest for continuous m-dimensional instance space is Euclidean distance. n Simplest for m-dimensional binary instance space is Hamming distance (number of feature values that differ). n For text, cosine similarity of tf.idf weighted vectors is typically most effective.
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Illustration of 3 Nearest Neighbor for Text Vector Space

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Nearest Neighbor with Inverted Index

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Naively finding nearest neighbors requires a linear search through |D| documents in collection But determining k nearest neighbors is the same as determining the k best retrievals using the test document as a query to a database of training documents. Heuristics: Use standard vector space inverted index methods to find the k nearest neighbors. Testing Time: O(B|Vt|) where B is the average
number of training documents in which a testdocument word appears. n Typically B << |D|
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kNN: Discussion
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No feature selection necessary Scales well with large number of classes

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Dont need to train n classifiers for n classes Actually: some data editing may be necessary.

No training necessary
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Classes can influence each other

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Small changes to one class can have ripple effect

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Scores can be hard to convert to probabilities May be more expensive at test time
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kNN vs. Naive Bayes : Bias/Variance tradeoff

[Bias : Variance] :: Lack of [expressiveness : robustness] n kNN has high variance and low bias.
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Infinite memory Decision surface has to be linear (hyperplane see later) Too much capacity/variance, low bias
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NB has low variance and high bias.

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Consider asking a botanist: Is an object a tree?

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Botanist who memorizes Will always say no to new object (e.g., different # of leaves) Lazy botanist Says yes if the object is green
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Not enough capacity/variance, high bias

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You want the middle ground

(Example due to C. Burges)

Bias vs. variance: Choosing the correct model capacity

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14.6

Decision Boundaries Classification

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Binary Classification : Linear Classifier

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Consider 2 class problems

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Deciding between two classes, perhaps, government and non-government [one-versus-rest classification]

How do we define (and find) the separating surface? How do we test which region a test doc is in?

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Separation by Hyperplanes
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A strong high-bias assumption is linear separability: n in 2 dimensions, can separate classes by a line n in higher dimensions, need hyperplanes Can find separating hyperplane by linear programming
(or can iteratively fit solution via perceptron):
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separator can be expressed as ax + by = c

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Linear programming / Perceptron

Find a,b,c, such that ax + by c for red points ax + by c for green points.
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x + y 1.5 for red points x + y 1.5 for green points.

AND
x 1 1 0 0 y 1 0 1 0 c 1 0 0 0

Linearly separable

x + y 1.5 = 0

x 0 1
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x + y 0.5 for red points x + y 0.5 for green points. OR

x 1 1 0 0 y 1 0 1 0 c 1 1 1 0

y 1

Linearly separable

x + y 0.5 = 0
x

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The planar decision surface in data-space for the simple linear discriminant function:

w x + w0 0

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XOR
x 1 1 0 0 y 1 0 1 0 c 0 1 1 0

y Linearly inseparable 1

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Which Hyperplane?

In general, lots of possible solutions for a,b,c.

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Which Hyperplane?
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Lots of possible solutions for a,b,c. Some methods find a separating hyperplane, but not the optimal one [according to some criterion of expected goodness]
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E.g., perceptron

Which points should influence optimality?

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All points n Linear regression, Nave Bayes Only difficult points close to decision boundary n Support vector machines

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Linear Classifiers
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Many common text classifiers are linear classifiers n Nave Bayes n Perceptron n Rocchio n Logistic regression n Support vector machines (with linear kernel) n Linear regression n (Simple) perceptron neural networks
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Linear Classifiers
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Despite this similarity, noticeable performance differences

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For separable problems, there are infinite number of separating hyperplanes. Which one do you choose? What to do for non-separable problems? Different training methods pick different hyperplanes

Classifiers more powerful than linear often dont perform better. Why?
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Naive Bayes is a linear classifier

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Two-class Naive Bayes. We compute:

P(C | d ) P(C ) P( w | C ) log = log + log P(C | d ) P(C ) wd P( w | C )

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Decide class C if the odds is greater than 1, i.e., if the log odds is greater than 0. So decision boundary is hyperplane:
P(C ) + wV w nw = 0 where = log ; P(C ) P( w | C ) w = log ; nw = # of occurrences of w in d P( w | C )

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A nonlinear problem
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A linear classifier like Nave Bayes does badly on this task kNN will do very well (assuming enough training data)
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High Dimensional Data

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Pictures like the one on the right are absolutely misleading!

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Documents are zero along almost all axes

Most document pairs are very far apart (i.e., not strictly orthogonal, but only share very common words and a few scattered others) In classification terms: virtually all document sets are separable, for most classification This is partly why linear classifiers are quite successful in this domain
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More Than Two Classes

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Any-of or multivalue classification

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Classes are independent of each other. A document can belong to 0, 1, or >1 classes. Decompose into n binary problems Quite common for documents

One-of or multinomial or polytomous classification

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Classes are mutually exclusive. Each document belongs to exactly one class E.g., digit recognition is polytomous classification
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Digits are mutually exclusive

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14.5

Set of Binary Classifiers: Any of

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Build a separator between each class and its complementary set (docs from all other classes). Given test doc, evaluate it for membership in each class. Apply decision criterion of classifiers independently Done
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Sometimes you could do better by considering dependencies between categories

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Set of Binary Classifiers: One of

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Build a separator between each class and its complementary set (docs from all other classes). Given test doc, evaluate it for membership in each class. Assign document to class with:
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maximum score maximum confidence maximum probability

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Why different from multiclass/ any of classification?

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Classification using Centroids

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Using Rocchio for text classification

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Relevance feedback methods can be adapted for text categorization

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2-class classification (Relevant vs. nonrelevant documents)

Use standard TF/IDF weighted vectors to represent text documents For each category, compute a prototype vector by summing the vectors of the training documents in the category. n Prototype = centroid of members of class Assign test documents to the category with the closest prototype vector based on cosine similarity.
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14.2

Illustration of Rocchio Text Categorization

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Definition of centroid
1 r (c) = v (d) | Dc | d Dc
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Where Dc is the set of all documents that belong to class c and v(d) is the vector space representation of d. Note that centroid will in general not be a unit vector even when the inputs are unit vectors.
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Rocchio Properties
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Forms a simple generalization of the examples in each class (a prototype). Prototype vector does not need to be averaged or otherwise normalized for length since cosine similarity is insensitive to vector length. Classification is based on similarity to class prototypes. Does not guarantee classifications are consistent with the given training data.

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Rocchio Anomaly
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Prototype models have problems with polymorphic (disjunctive) categories.

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3 Nearest Neighbor Comparison

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Nearest Neighbor tends to handle polymorphic categories better.

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Rocchio is a linear classifier

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Two-class Rocchio as a linear classifier

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Line or hyperplane defined by:

w x =
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For Rocchio, set:

r r r w = (c1) (c 2 ) r r 2 = 0.5 (| (c1 ) | | (c 2 ) |2 )

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Rocchio classification
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Rocchio forms a simple representation for each class: the centroid/prototype Classification is based on similarity to / distance from the prototype/centroid It does not guarantee that classifications are consistent with the given training data It is little used outside text classification, but has been used quite effectively for text classification Again, cheap to train and test documents
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SKIP WHAT FOLLOWS

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Decision Tree Classification

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Tree with internal nodes labeled by terms Branches are labeled by tests on the weight that the term has Leaves are labeled by categories Classifier categorizes document by descending tree following tests to leaf The label of the leaf node is then assigned to the document Most decision trees are binary trees (advantageous; may require extra internal nodes)
DT make good use of a few high-leverage features
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Decision Tree Categorization: Example

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Geometric interpretation of DT?

Decision Tree Learning

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Learn a sequence of tests on features, typically using top-down, greedy search

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At each stage choose the unused feature with highest Information Gain (feature/class MI)

Binary (yes/no) or continuous decisions

f1 f7 P(class) = .6 !f7 !f1 P(class) = .9

P(class) = .2
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Entropy Calculations
If we have a set with k different values in it, we can calculate the entropy as follows:
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entropy ( Set ) = I ( Set ) = P(valuei ) log 2(P(valuei ) )

i =1

Where P(valuei) is the probability of getting the ith value when randomly selecting one from the set. So, for the set R = {a,a,a,b,b,b,b,b}

3 3 5 5 entropy ( R) = I ( R) = log 2 + log 2 8 8 8 8

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a-values

b-values

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Looking at some data

Color Yellow Yellow Green Green Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Green Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Size Small Small Small Large Large Small Small Small Small Large Large Large Large Large Small Large Shape Round Round Irregular Irregular Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Irregular Irregular Edible? + + + + + + + + +
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Entropy for our data set

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16 instances: 9 positive, 7 negative.

entropy (all _ data ) = 9 9 7 7 I (all _ data ) = log 2 + log 2 16 16 16 16

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This equals: 0.9836 This makes sense its almost a 50/50 split; so, the entropy should be close to 1.

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Visualizing Information Gain

Color Yellow Yellow Green Green Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Green Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Size Small Small Small Large Large Small Small Small Small Large Large Large Large Large Small Large Shape Round Round Irregular Irregular Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Irregular Irregular Edible? + + + + + + + + +

Entropy of set = 0.9836

(16 examples)

Entropy = 0.8113 (from 8 examples)

Color Yellow Yellow Green Yellow Yellow Yellow Prasad Green Yellow Size Small Small Small Small Small Small Small Small Shape Round Round Irregular Round Round Round Round Irregular

Size
Small
Edible? + + + + + +

Large
Color Green Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow

Entropy = 0.9544 (from 8 examples)

Size Large Large Large Large Large Large Large Large Shape Irregular Round Round Round Round Round Round Irregular Edible? + + 57 +

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Visualizing Information Gain

The data set that goes down each branch of the tree has its own entropy value. We can calculate for each possible attribute its expected entropy. This is the degree to which the entropy would change if we branch on this attribute. You add the entropies of the two children, weighted by the proportion of examples from the parent node that ended up at that child. 0.9836
Small Size (16 examples) Large

0.8113
(8 examples)

0.9544
(8 examples)

Entropy of left child is 0.8113 I(size=small) = 0.8113 Entropy of right child is 0.9544 I(size=large) = 0.9544

expect_entropy(size) = I(size) =
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8 (0.8113) + 8 (0.9544) = 0.8828 16 16

8 examples with large
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8 examples with small

G(attrib) = I(parent) I(attrib)

We want to calculate the information gain (or entropy reduction). This is the reduction in uncertainty when choosing our first branch as size. We will represent information gain as G.

G(size) = I(parent) I(size) G(size) = 0.9836 0.8828 G(size) = 0.1008

Entropy of all data at parent node = I(parent) = 0.9836 Childs expected entropy for size split = I(size) = 0.8828

So, we have gained 0.1008 bits of information about the dataset by choosing size as the first branch of our decision tree.
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Decision Tree Learning

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Fully grown trees tend to have decision rules that are overly specific and therefore unable to categorize documents well
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Therefore, pruning or early stopping methods for Decision Trees are normally a standard part of classification packages

Use of small number of features is potentially bad in text categorization, but in practice decision trees do well for some text classification tasks Decision trees are easily interpreted by humans compared to probabilistic methods like Naive Bayes Decision Trees are normally regarded as a symbolic machine learning algorithm, though they can be used probabilistically
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Category: interest Dumais et al. (Microsoft) Decision Tree

rate=1 rate.t=1 lending=0 prime=0 discount=0 pct=1 year=0 year=1

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Summary: Representation of Text Categorization Attributes

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Representations of text are usually very high dimensional (one feature for each word) High-bias algorithms that prevent overfitting in high-dimensional space generally work best For most text categorization tasks, there are many relevant features and many irrelevant ones Methods that combine evidence from many or all features (e.g. naive Bayes, kNN, neural-nets) often tend to work better than ones that try to isolate just a few relevant features (standard decision-tree or rule induction)*
*Although one can compensate by using many rules

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Which classifier do I use for a given text classification problem?

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Is there a learning method that is optimal for all text classification problems?
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No, because of bias-variance tradeoff. How much training data is available? How simple/complex is the problem? (linear vs. nonlinear decision boundary) How noisy is the problem? How stable is the problem over time?
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Factors to take into account:

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For an unstable problem, its better to use a simple and robust classifier.
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