S

C
I
E
N
C
E

N
E
E
D
S

Y
O
U

Dept. of ECE
Dr. M. Reyhani


Morr.reyhani@ndsu.edu

Tel: (701) 231 Ext. 8816

Thursday, 02 February 2012
Depar t ment of El ect r i cal and Comput er Engi neer i ng
Nor t h Dak ot a St at e Uni ver si t y

North Dakota State University
Applied Electromagnetics

(Ref. ECE 351 2011 - 2012)

Electric Flux Density
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 2
Dept. of ECE

1) Electric Flux Density

2) Gausss Law
Applications
SOME SYMMETRICAL CHARGE
DISTRIBUTIONS
DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME ELEMENT

3) Divergence
Divergence & Maxwells First Equation
The Vector Operator & the Divergence
Theorem
AGENDA
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 3
Dept. of ECE
Electric
Flux Density
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 4
Dept. of ECE
Michael Faraday, (22 September 1791 25 August 1867)
an English chemist and physicist (or natural
philosopher, in the terminology of the time)
who contributed to the fields of
electromagnetism and electrochemistry.

Although Faraday received little formal
education and knew little of higher
mathematics such as calculus, he was one
of the most influential scientists in history;

historians of science refer to him as having
been the best experimentalist in the history
of science.


It was on account of his research regarding
the magnetic field around a conductor
carrying a DC electric current that Faraday
established the basis for the concept of the
electromagnetic field in physics
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 5
Dept. of ECE
Faraday Experiment
Michael Faraday started with a pair of metal
spheres of different sizes;
the larger one consisted of 2 hemispheres that
could be assembled around the smaller sphere
Michael Faraday
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 6
Dept. of ECE
+Q
Faraday Apparatus, Before Grounding
The inner charge, Q, induces
an equal and opposite charge,
-Q, on the inside surface of the
outer sphere, by attracting free
electrons in the outer material toward
the positive charge.

This means that before the outer sphere
is grounded, charge +Q resides on the
outside surface of the outer conductor.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 7
Dept. of ECE
Faraday Apparatus, After Grounding
q = 0
ground
attached
Attaching the ground connects the outer surface to an unlimited
supply of free electrons, which then neutralize the positive charge
layer. The net charge on the outer sphere is then the charge on
the inner layer, or -Q.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 8
Dept. of ECE
Interpretation of the Faraday Experiment
q = 0
Faraday concluded that there occurred a charge displacement
from the inner sphere to the outer sphere.
Displacement involves a flow or flux, , existing within the
dielectric, and whose magnitude is equivalent to the amount of
displaced charge.
Specifically:
D = Displacement flux density or
displacement density
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 9
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density
q = 0
The density of flux at the inner sphere surface is
equivalent to the density of charge there (in C/m
2
)
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 10
Dept. of ECE
Vector Field Description of Flux Density
q = 0
A vector field is established which points in the direction of the
flow or displacement. In this case, the direction is the outward
radial direction in spherical coordinates. At each surface,
we would have:
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 11
Dept. of ECE
Radially-Dependent Electric Flux Density
q = 0
r
At a general radius r between spheres, we would have:
Expressed in units of C/m
2
, and
defined over the range (a r b)
D(r)
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 12
Dept. of ECE
Faradays Experiment Cont.
Faraday concluded there was a
displacement from the charge on the
inner sphere through the inner sphere
through the insulator to the outer
sphere.

The electric displacement (or electric flux) is
equal in magnitude to the charge that
produces it, independent of the
insulating material and the size of the
spheres.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 13
Dept. of ECE
Visualization of Electric Fields

Flux lines are suggestive of the flow of some
fluid emanating from positive charges (source)
and terminating at negative charges (sink).


Although electric field lines do NOT represent
fluid flow, it is useful to think of them as
describing the flux of something that, like fluid
flow, is conserved.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 14
Dept. of ECE
Point Charge Fields
If we now let the inner sphere radius reduce to a point, while
maintaining the same charge, and let the outer sphere radius
approach infinity, we have a point charge. The electric flux
density is unchanged, but is defined over all space:
C/m
2
(0 < r < )
We compare this to the EFI in free space:
V/m (0 < r < )
..and we see that:
EFI = electric field intensity
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 15
Dept. of ECE
Finding E and D from Charge Distributions
It now follows that:
For a general volume charge distribution in free
space,
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 16
Dept. of ECE
Example
Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is

a point charge
5 mC at (4, 0, 0) and

a line charge
3 mC/m along the y-axis.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 17
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is
a point charge 5 mC at (4, 0, 0) and
a line charge 3 mC/m along the y-axis.
Let D = D
Q
+ D
L
where D
Q
and D
L
are flux
densities due to the point charge and line
charge, respectively, as shown in Figure below:
where r - r' = (4, 0, 3) - (4, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 3). Hence,
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 18
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is
a point charge 5 mC at (4, 0, 0) and
a line charge 3 mC/m along the y-axis.
Flux density D due to a
point charge and an infinite
line charge.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 19
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is
a point charge 5 mC at (4, 0, 0) and
a line charge 3 mC/m along the y-axis.
Also
In this case
Hence,
Thus
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 20
Dept. of ECE
Gauss Law
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 21
Dept. of ECE
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
a German mathematician and physical scientist
who contributed significantly to many fields,
including number theory, statistics, analysis,
differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics,
electrostatics, astronomy and optics.

Sometimes referred to as the Princeps
mathematicorum

(Latin, "the Prince of
Mathematicians" or "the foremost of
mathematicians") and "greatest mathematician
since antiquity",

Gauss had a remarkable influence in many
fields of mathematics and science and is
ranked as one of history's most influential
mathematicians. He referred to mathematics as
"the queen of sciences".
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 22
Dept. of ECE
Gauss Law
The electric flux passing through any closed surface
is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface
The generalizations of Faradays experiment
D = Displacement flux density or displacement density
The electric flux density D
S
at P arising
from charge Q.

The total flux passing through S = D
S
.S.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 23
Dept. of ECE
Development of Gauss Law
We define the differential
surface area (a vector) as
where n is the unit outward
normal vector to the
surface, and

where dS is the area of the
differential spot on the
surface
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 24
Dept. of ECE
Mathematical Statement of Gauss Law
Line charge:
Surface charge:
Volume charge:
in which the charge can exist in the form of
point charges:
For a volume charge, we would have:
or a continuous charge distribution:
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 25
Dept. of ECE
Using Gauss Law to Solve for D
Evaluated at a Surface
Knowing Q, we need to solve for D, using Gauss Law:
The solution is easy if we can choose a surface, S, over which to
integrate (Gaussian surface) that satisfies the following 2
conditions:
The integral now simplfies:
So that:
where
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 26
Dept. of ECE
Gausss Law
Gausss law states that
the net electric flux
emanating from a close surface S is
equal to the total charge contained
within the
volume V bounded by that surface.
encl
S
Q s d D =

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 27
Dept. of ECE
Example
The cylindrical surface = 8 cm contains the
surface charge density,


S
= 5e
20|z|
nC/m
2
.

(a)What is the total amount of charge present?

(b) How much electric flux leaves the surface

= 8 cm, 1 cm< z < 5 cm, 30

< < 90

?
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 28
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
The cylindrical surface = 8 cm contains the surface charge density,

S
= 5e
20|z|
nC/m
2
.
(a) What is the total amount of charge present?
(b) How much electric flux leaves the surface = 8 cm, 1 cm< z < 5 cm, 30

< < 90

?
integrate over the surface to find:
Just integrate the charge density on that surface
to find the flux that leaves it.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 29
Dept. of ECE
Example
An electric field in free space is




Find the total charge contained
within a sphere of 3-m radius,
centered at the origin.
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smsreyhani 30
Dept. of ECE
Example
An electric field in free space is

Find the total charge contained within a sphere of 3-m radius, centered at the origin.
Using Gauss law, we set up the integral in free space
over the sphere surface, whose outward unit normal is
a
r
:
where in this case z = 3 cos and
(in all cases) a
z
a
r
= cos .

These are substituted to yield
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 31
Dept. of ECE
Example
Let

D = 4xya
x
+ 2(x
2
+ z
2
)a
y
+ 4yza
z
nC/m
2

and evaluate surface integrals to find the total
charge enclosed in the rectangular
parallelepiped

0 < x < 2,

0 < y < 3,

0 < z < 5 m.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 32
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Let D = 4xya
x
+ 2(x
2
+ z
2
)a
y
+ 4yza
z
nC/m
2

and evaluate surface integrals to find the total charge enclosed in the rectangular
parallelepiped 0 < x < 2, 0 < y < 3, 0 < z < 5 m.
Of the 6 surfaces to consider, only 2 will contribute to the net
outward flux. Why?

First consider the planes at y = 0 and 3. The y component of D will
penetrate those surfaces, but will be inward at y = 0 and outward at
y = 3, while having the same magnitude in both cases. These fluxes
will thus cancel.

At the x = 0 plane, D
x
= 0 and at the z = 0 plane, D
z
= 0, so there will
be no flux contributions from these surfaces. This leaves the 2
remaining surfaces at x = 2 and z = 5.

The net outward flux becomes:
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 33
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Let D = 4xya
x
+ 2(x
2
+ z
2
)a
y
+ 4yza
z
nC/m
2

and evaluate surface integrals to find the total charge enclosed in the rectangular
parallelepiped 0 < x < 2, 0 < y < 3, 0 < z < 5 m.
The net outward flux becomes:
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 34
Dept. of ECE
APPLICATION
OF
GUASS LAW
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smsreyhani 35
Dept. of ECE
SOME SYMMETRICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
APPLICATION
OF
GUASS LAW
SOME SYMMETRICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
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smsreyhani 36
Dept. of ECE
Example: Point Charge Field
Begin with the radial flux density:
and consider a spherical surface of radius a that surrounds the
charge, on which:
On the surface, the differential area is:
and this, combined with the outward unit
normal vector is:
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smsreyhani 37
Dept. of ECE
Point Charge Application (continued)
Now, the integrand becomes:
and the integral is set up as:
=
=
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smsreyhani 38
Dept. of ECE
Another Example: Line Charge Field

Consider a line charge of uniform charge density
L
on the z axis that extends
over the range < z < .
We need to choose an appropriate Gaussian surface, being mindful of
these considerations:
We know from symmetry that the field will
be radially-directed (normal to the z axis) in
cylindrical coordinates:
and that the field will vary with radius only:
So we choose a cylindrical surface of radius , and of length L.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 39
Dept. of ECE
Line Charge Field (continued)
Giving:
So that finally:
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smsreyhani 40
Dept. of ECE
Another Example: Coaxial Transmission Line
We have 2 concentric
cylinders, with the z axis
down their centers.

Surface charge of density
S

exists on the outer surface of
the inner cylinder.
A -directed field is expected, and this should vary
only with (like a line charge). We therefore choose a
cylindrical Gaussian surface of length L and of radius ,
where a < < b.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 41
Dept. of ECE
Another Example: Coaxial Transmission Line
The left hand side of Gauss Law is written:
and the right hand side becomes:
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smsreyhani 42
Dept. of ECE
Coaxial Transmission Line (continued)
We may now solve for the flux density:
and the electric field intensity becomes:
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smsreyhani 43
Dept. of ECE
Coaxial Transmission Line: Exterior Field
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smsreyhani 44
Dept. of ECE
Coaxial Transmission Line: Exterior Field
If a Gaussian cylindrical surface is drawn outside ( > b),
a total charge of zero is enclosed, leading to the
conclusion that
or:
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 45
Dept. of ECE
Coaxial Transmission Line
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smsreyhani 46
Dept. of ECE
Coaxial Transmission Line
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smsreyhani 47
Dept. of ECE
Example
Select a 50-cm length of coaxial cable having an
inner radius of 1 mm and
an outer radius of 4 mm.

The space between conductors
is assumed to be filled with air.

The total charge on the
inner conductor is 30 nC.

We wish to know the charge density on
each conductor, and
the E and D fields.
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smsreyhani 48
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Select a 50-cm length of coaxial cable having an inner radius of 1 mm and an outer
radius of 4 mm.
The space between conductors is assumed to be filled with air.
The total charge on the inner conductor is 30 nC. We wish to know the charge
density on each conductor, and the E and D fields.
finding the surface charge density on the inner cylinder,
The negative charge density on the inner surface of the outer
cylinder is
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 49
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Select a 50-cm length of coaxial cable having an inner radius of 1 mm and an outer
radius of 4 mm.
The space between conductors is assumed to be filled with air.
The total charge on the inner conductor is 30 nC. We wish to know the charge
density on each conductor, and the E and D fields.
The internal fields may therefore be calculated easily:
and
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 50
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Select a 50-cm length of coaxial cable having an inner radius of 1 mm and an outer
radius of 4 mm.
The space between conductors is assumed to be filled with air.
The total charge on the inner conductor is 30 nC. We wish to know the charge
density on each conductor, and the E and D fields.
The internal fields may therefore be calculated easily:
Both of these expressions apply to the region
where 1 < < 4 mm.
For
< 1 mm or > 4 mm, E and D are zero.
and
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smsreyhani 51
Dept. of ECE
51
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 52
Dept. of ECE
DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME ELEMENT
APPLICATION
OF
GUASS LAW
DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME ELEMENT
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smsreyhani 53
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Within a Differential Volume Element
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smsreyhani 54
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Within a Differential Volume Element
Taking the front surface, for
example, we have:
nearly Equal, Or about
equal. Can also be
written with a ~ on top.
equality under an integral
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 55
Dept. of ECE
Unicode Characters in the 'Symbol, Math' Category
equality under an integral
Nearly Equal, Or about equal.
Can also be written with
a ~ on top.
APPROACHES THE LIMIT

Approximate Symbol
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 56
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Within a Differential Volume Element
We now have:
and in a similar manner:
nearly Equal, Or
about equal. Also
can be written with
a ~ on top.
equality under an integral
APPROACHES THE LIMIT

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smsreyhani 57
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Within a Differential Volume Element
and in a similar manner:
Therefore:
minus sign because D
x0
is inward
flux through the back surface.
equality under an integral
Nearly Equal, Or about
equal. Can also be
written with a ~ on top.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 58
Dept. of ECE
Charge Within a Differential Volume Element
Now, by a similar process, we find that:
and
Nearly Equal, Or about equal.
Can also be written with a ~ on top.
equality under an integral
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smsreyhani 59
Dept. of ECE
Charge Within a Differential Volume Element
Now, by a similar process, we find that:
and
All results are assembled to yield:
v
= Q
(by Gauss Law)
where Q is the charge enclosed within volume v
Nearly Equal, Or about
equal. Can also be
written with a ~ on top.
equality under an integral
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smsreyhani 60
Dept. of ECE
Example
Find an approximate value for the
total charge enclosed in an
incremental volume of 10
9
m
3

located at the origin,

if

D = e
x
sin y a
x
e
x
cos y a
y
+ 2za
z
C/m
2
.
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smsreyhani 61
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Find an approximate value for the total charge enclosed in an incremental
volume of 109 m3 located at the origin, if
D = e
x
sin y a
x
e
x
cos y a
y
+ 2za
z
C/m
2
.
Evaluate the 3 partial derivatives from
APPROACHES THE LIMIT
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smsreyhani 62
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Find an approximate value for the total charge enclosed in an incremental
volume of 10
9
m
3
located at the origin, if
D = e
x
sin y a
x
e
x
cos y a
y
+ 2za
z
C/m
2
.
At the origin, the first 2 expressions are zero, and the last is 2. Thus,
we find that the charge enclosed in a small volume element there
must be approximately 2.

If is 10
9
m
3
, then we have enclosed about 2 nC.
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Dept. of ECE
Example
A charge distribution with
spherical symmetry has density
Determine E everywhere.
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Dept. of ECE
Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged sphere when:
(a) r >= a and (b) r a.
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
A charge distribution with spherical symmetry has density
Determine E everywhere.
The charge distribution is similar to that in Figure
above. Since symmetry exists, we can apply Gauss's
law to find E.
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
or
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
or
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Dept. of ECE
Example
Given that D = Z

cos
2
a
z
C/m
2
,

calculate the
charge density at (1, /4, 3)

and the total charge
enclosed by

the cylinder of radius 1 m with
-2 z 2 m .
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Given that D = Z

cos
2
a
z
C/m
2
,
calculate the charge density at (1, /4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the
cylinder of radius 1 m with -2 z 2 m .
The total charge enclosed by the cylinder can be found
in 2 different ways.
At (1, TT/4, 3),
Method 1: This method is based directly on the
definition of the total volume charge.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 70
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Given that D = Z

cos
2
a
z
C/m
2
,
calculate the charge density at (1, /4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the
cylinder of radius 1 m with -2 z 2 m .
Method 1: This method is based directly on the
definition of the total volume charge.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 71
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Given that D = Z

cos
2
a
z
C/m
2
,
calculate the charge density at (1, /4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the
cylinder of radius 1 m with -2 z 2 m .
Method 2: Alternatively, we can use Gauss's law.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Given that D = Z

cos
2
a
z
C/m
2
,
calculate the charge density at (1, /4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the
cylinder of radius 1 m with -2 z 2 m .
Method 2: Alternatively, we can use Gauss's law.
where
s
,
t
and
b
are the flux through the
sides, the top surface, and the bottom surface
of the cylinder, respectively (see Figure). Since
D does not have component along a

,


s
= 0, for
t ,
dS = d d a
z
so
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 73
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Given that D = Z

cos
2
a
z
C/m
2
,
calculate the charge density at (1, /4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the
cylinder of radius 1 m with -2 z 2 m .
Method 2: Alternatively, we can use Gauss's law.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Given that D = Z

cos
2
a
z
C/m
2
,
calculate the charge density at (1, /4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the
cylinder of radius 1 m with -2 z 2 m .
Method 2: Alternatively, we can use Gauss's law.
and for
b
, dS = - d d a
z
, so
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Given that D = Z

cos
2
a
z
C/m
2
,
calculate the charge density at (1, /4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the
cylinder of radius 1 m with -2 z 2 m .
Method 2: Alternatively, we can use Gauss's law.
and for
b
, dS = - d d a
z
, so
Thus
as obtained previously.
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Dept. of ECE
Example
2 point charges - 4 C and 5 C are
located at ( 2 , - 1 , 3) and (0, 4, - 2 ) ,
respectively.

Find the potential at (1, 0, 1)

assuming zero potential at infinity.
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Let
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Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
Hence
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Dept. of ECE
79
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Dept. of ECE
Divergence
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Dept. of ECE
Vectors Gradient
Assume that we have a scalar field F(x), we want to know
how it changes with respect to the coordinate axes, this
leads to a vector called the gradient of F
|
|
|
.
|

\
|



=
z
y
x
With
the nabla operator
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
z
y
x
and
x
x

=
The gradient is a vector that points in
the direction of maximum rate of change of
the scalar function F(x).

What happens if we have a vector field?
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Dept. of ECE
Vectors Divergence + Curl
The divergence is the scalar product of the nabla operator with a
vector field V(x). The divergence of a vector field is a scalar!
z z y y x x
V V V + + = V
Physically the divergence can be interpreted as the net flow out of a
volume (or change in volume). E.g. the divergence of the seismic
wavefield corresponds to compressional waves.
The curl is the vector product of the nabla operator with a vector
field V(x). The curl of a vector field is a vector!
|
|
|
.
|

\
|



= =
x y y x
z x x z
y z z y
V V
V V
V V
V V V
z y x
z y x
k j i
V
The curl of a vector field represents the rotational part of that field
(e.g. shear waves in a seismic wavefield)
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 83
Dept. of ECE
Divergence and Maxwells First Equation
Mathematically, this is:
Applying our previous result, we have:
div A =
and when the vector field is the electric flux density:
= div D
Maxwells first equation
z z y y x x
V V V + + = V
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 84
Dept. of ECE
Divergence and Maxwells First Equation
= div D
Maxwells first equation
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 85
Dept. of ECE
Divergence Expressions in the 3 Coordinate Systems
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 86
Dept. of ECE
Example
Find div D at the origin
if

D = e
x
sin y a
x
e
x
cos y a
y
+ 2za
z
.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 87
Dept. of ECE
Example
Find div D at the origin if D = e
x
sin y a
x
e
x
cos y a
y
+ 2za
z
.
using
div A =
The value is the constant 2, regardless of location.
If the units of D are C/m
2
, then
the units of div D are C/m
3
.
This is a volume charge density.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 88
Dept. of ECE
The Del Operator
= div D
=
The del operator is a vector differential operator, and
is defined as:
Note that:
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 89
Dept. of ECE
Divergence Theorem
We now have Maxwells first equation
(or the point / differential-equation form of
Gauss Law) which states:
and Gausss Law in large-scale form reads:
leading to the Divergence Theorem:
differential-equation form of Gausss law
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 90
Dept. of ECE
Divergence Theorem
The integral of the normal component of any
vector field over a closed surface

is equal to the

integral of the divergence of this vector field
throughout the volume enclosed by the closed
surface.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 91
Dept. of ECE
Divergence Theorem
Consider the divergence of D in the region about
a point charge Q located at the origin
using
Because D

= D

= 0, we have
Thus,

= 0 everywhere except
at the origin, where it is infinite.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 92
Dept. of ECE
Statement of the Divergence Theorem
The divergence of the
vector flux density A is
the outflow of flux from a
small closed surface
per unit volume as the
volume shrinks to zero.
The volume is shown here
in cross section.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 93
Dept. of ECE
Example
Evaluate both sides of the divergence
theorem for the field

D = 2xya
x
+ x
2
a
y
C/m
2

and the rectangular parellelepiped
formed by the planes
x = 0 and 1,
y = 0 and 2, and
z = 0 and 3.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 94
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
note that D is parallel to the surfaces at
z = 0 and z = 3, so D dS = 0 there
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 95
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
However, (D
x
)
x=0
= 0, and
(D
y
)
y=0
= (D
y
)
y=2
,

which leaves only
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 96
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
the volume integral becomes
Since
and the check is accomplished.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 97
Dept. of ECE
Example
Calculate D at the point specified if

(a)D = (1/z
2
)[10xyz a
x
+ 5x
2
z a
y
+ (2z
3
5x
2
y) a
z
]
at P(2, 3, 5);

(b) D = 5z
2
a

+ 10z a
z
at P(3,45 , 5);

(c) D = 2r sin sin a
r
+ r cos sin a

+ r cos a


at P(3, 45 , 45).

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 98
Dept. of ECE
Example
Calculate D at the point specified if
(a)D = (1/z
2
)[10xyz a
x
+ 5x
2
z a
y
+ (2z
3
5x
2
y) a
z
] at P(2, 3, 5);
(b) D = 5z
2
a

+ 10z a
z
at P(3,45 , 5);
(c) D = 2r sin sin a
r
+ r cos sin a

+ r cos a

at P(3, 45 , 45).

2
3
( 2, 3, 5)
10 10
0 2 8.96 D
y x y
z
z

(
= + + + =
(

In rectangular coordinates
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 99
Dept. of ECE
Example
Calculate D at the point specified if
(a)D = (1/z
2
)[10xyz a
x
+ 5x
2
z a
y
+ (2z
3
5x
2
y) a
z
] at P(2, 3, 5);
(b) D = 5z
2
a

+ 10z a
z
at P(3,45 , 5);
(c) D = 2r sin sin a
r
+ r cos sin a

+ r cos a

at P(3, 45 , 45).

2
(3, 45 , 5)
1 1 5
( ) 10 71.67 D
z
D
D z
D
z

= + + = + =
(



In cylindrical coordinates
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 100
Dept. of ECE
Example
Calculate D at the point specified if
(a)D = (1/z
2
)[10xyz a
x
+ 5x
2
z a
y
+ (2z
3
5x
2
y) a
z
] at P(2, 3, 5);
(b) D = 5z
2
a

+ 10z a
z
at P(3,45 , 5);
(c) D = 2r sin sin a
r
+ r cos sin a

+ r cos a

at P(3, 45 , 45).

2
2
(3, 45 , 45 )
1 1 1
( ) (sin )
sin sin
cos 2 sin sin
6sin sin 2
sin sin
D
r
D
r D D
r r r
r

= + +

(
= + =
(


In spherical coordinates
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 101
Dept. of ECE
Example
(a) A point charge Q lies at the origin.

Show that div D is zero everywhere except
at the origin.

(b) Replace the point charge with a uniform
volume charge density
v0
for 0 < r < a.

Relate
v0
to Q and a so that the total
charge is the same.

Find div D everywhere.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 102
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
(a) A point charge Q lies at the origin.
Show that div D is zero everywhere except at the origin.
(b) Replace the point charge with a uniform volume charge density
v0
for 0 < r < a.
Relate
v0
to Q and a so that the total charge is the same.
Find div D everywhere.
2
/(4 ) D a
r
Q r =
For a point charge at the origin we know that
Using the formula for divergence in spherical
coordinates, we find in this case that
2
2 2
1
0
4
D
d Q
r
dr
r r
| |
= =
|
\ .
rovided
The above is true provided r > 0. When r = 0, we have a
singularity in D, so its divergence is not defined.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 103
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
(a) A point charge Q lies at the origin.
Show that div D is zero everywhere except at the origin.
(b) Replace the point charge with a uniform volume charge density
v0
for 0 < r < a.
Relate
v0
to Q and a so that the total charge is the same.
Find div D everywhere.
Q
3
2 3
0
3
4
4
3
r v
Qr
r D r
a
= =
3
2
3 2 3 3
1 3
C/m and
4 4 4
| |
= = =
|
\ .
r
Qr d Qr Q
D
dr
a r a a
D
as expected. Outside the charged sphere,
as before, and the divergence is zero.
2
/(4 ) D a
r
Q r =
Thus
so. Gauss law tells us that inside the charged
sphere
3 3
0
3 /(4 ) C/m =
v
Q a
To achieve the same net charge, we require that,
3
0
(4/ 3)
v
a Q =
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 104
Dept. of ECE
Example
In the region of free space that includes
the volume 2 < x, y, z < 3,



(a)Evaluate the volume integral side of the
divergence theorem for the volume
defined here.

(b) Evaluate the surface integral side for
the corresponding closed surface.
2
2
2
( 2 ) C/m = +
x y z
yz xz xy
z
D a a a
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 105
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
In the region of free space that includes the volume 2 < x, y, z < 3,


(a) Evaluate the volume integral side of the divergence theorem for the volume
defined here.
(b) Evaluate the surface integral side for the corresponding closed surface.
2
2
2
( 2 ) C/m = +
x y z
yz xz xy
z
D a a a
In cartesian,

we find D = 8xy/z
3
.

The volume integral side is now
3 3 3
3
2 2 2
8 1 1
(9 4)(9 4) 3.47 C
4 9
vol
xy
dv dxdydz
z
| |
= = =
|
\ .

D
3
8 / D xy z =
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 106
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
In the region of free space that includes the volume 2 < x, y, z < 3,


(a) Evaluate the volume integral side of the divergence theorem for the volume
defined here.
(b) Evaluate the surface integral side for the corresponding closed surface.
2
2
2
( 2 ) C/m = +
x y z
yz xz xy
z
D a a a
We call the surfaces at
x = 3 and x = 2 the front and
back surfaces respectively,

those at y = 3 and y = 2 the right and left surfaces, and

those at z = 3 and z = 2 the top and bottom surfaces.

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 107
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
In the region of free space that includes the volume 2 < x, y, z < 3,


(a) Evaluate the volume integral side of the divergence theorem for the volume
defined here.
(b) Evaluate the surface integral side for the corresponding closed surface.
2
2
2
( 2 ) C/m = +
x y z
yz xz xy
z
D a a a
To evaluate the surface integral side,

we integrate Dn over all six surfaces and sum the
results.

Note that since the x component of D does not vary with
x, the outward fluxes from the front and back surfaces
will cancel each other.

The same is true for the left and right surfaces,
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 108
Dept. of ECE
Example Cont.
In the region of free space that includes the volume 2 < x, y, z < 3,


(a) Evaluate the volume integral side of the divergence theorem for the volume
defined here.
(b) Evaluate the surface integral side for the corresponding closed surface.
2
2
2
( 2 ) C/m = +
x y z
yz xz xy
z
D a a a
The same is true for the left and right surfaces, since D
y

does not vary with y.

This leaves only the top and bottom surfaces, where the
fluxes are:
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 109
Dept. of ECE
Example
a) Use Maxwells first equation, D =
v
, to describe
the variation of the EFI with x in a region in which no
charge density exists and in which a
nonhomogeneous dielectric has a permittivity that
increases exponentially with x.

The field has an x component only;


b) repeat part (a),
but with a radially directed E- field (spherical
coordinates), in which again
v
= 0, but in which
the permittivity decreases exponentially with r .
EFI = electric field intensity
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 110
Dept. of ECE
Example
a) Use Maxwells first equation, D =
v
, to describe the variation of the EFI with
x in a region in which no charge density exists and in which a nonhomogeneous
dielectric has a permittivity that increases exponentially with x.
The field has an x component only;
b) repeat part (a), but with a radially directed E- field (spherical coordinates), in
which again
v
= 0, but in which the permittivity decreases exponentially with r .
EFI = electric field intensity
The permittivity can be written as
where
1
and
1
are constants.
Then
1 1
( ) exp( ) x x =
1
1 0
0 ( )
x x
x x
dE
E E x E e
dx

+ = =
This reduces to
1 1 1
1 1 1
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) 0 D E
x x x x
x x
d dE
x x e E x e E e
dx dx


(
(
= = = + =
(


where E
0
is a constant.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 111
Dept. of ECE
Example
a) Use Maxwells first equation, D =
v
, to describe the variation of the EFI with
x in a region in which no charge density exists and in which a nonhomogeneous
dielectric has a permittivity that increases exponentially with x.
The field has an x component only;
b) repeat part (a), but with a radially directed E- field (spherical coordinates), in
which again
v
= 0, but in which the permittivity decreases exponentially with r .
EFI = electric field intensity
In this case, the permittivity can be written as


where
2
and
2
are constants.
Then
2 2
( ) exp( ) r r =
This reduces to
2
2
0
r
r
dE
E
dr r

| |
+ =
|
\ .
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
1
[ ( ) ( )] 2 0 D E
r r r
r r r
d dE
r r r e E rE r E r e
dr dr r r

(
(
= = = + =
(


2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 112
Dept. of ECE
Example
a) Use Maxwells first equation, D =
v
, to describe the variation of the EFI with
x in a region in which no charge density exists and in which a nonhomogeneous
dielectric has a permittivity that increases exponentially with x.
The field has an x component only;
b) repeat part (a), but with a radially directed E- field (spherical coordinates), in
which again
v
= 0, but in which the permittivity decreases exponentially with r .
EFI = electric field intensity
whose solution is
| |
2
0
0 2 0 2
2
2
( ) exp exp 2ln
r
r
E
E r E dr E r r e
r
r

(
| |
= = + =
|
(
\ .

where E
0
is a constant.
This reduces to
2
2
0
r
r
dE
E
dr r

| |
+ =
|
\ .
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 113
Dept. of ECE
Example
Given the flux density



use 2 different methods to find the
total charge within the region

1 < r < 2 m,

1 < < 2 rad,

1 < < 2 rad.
2
16
cos(2 ) C/m ,

=
r
D a
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 114
Dept. of ECE
Example
Given the flux density D = 16/r cos(2) a C/m2,
use 2 different methods to find the total charge within the region
1 < r < 2 m, 1 < < 2 rad, 1 < < 2 rad.
2
16
cos(2 ) C/m ,

=
r
D a
We use the divergence theorem and first evaluate the
surface integral side.

We are evaluating the net outward flux through a
curvilinear cube, whose boundaries are defined by the
specified ranges.

The flux contributions will be only through the surfaces
of constant , however, since D has only a component.

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 115
Dept. of ECE
Example
Given the flux density D = 16/r cos(2) a C/m2,
use 2 different methods to find the total charge within the region
1 < r < 2 m, 1 < < 2 rad, 1 < < 2 rad.
2
16
cos(2 ) C/m ,

=
r
D a
The flux contributions will be only through the surfaces
of constant , however, since D has only a component.

On a constant-theta surface, the differential area is
da = r sin drd,

where is fixed at the surface location.

Our flux integral becomes
sin da r drd =
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 116
Dept. of ECE
Example
Given the flux density D = 16/r cos(2) a C/m2,
use 2 different methods to find the total charge within the region
1 < r < 2 m, 1 < < 2 rad, 1 < < 2 rad.
2
16
cos(2 ) C/m ,

=
r
D a
We next evaluate the volume integral side of the
divergence theorem, where in this case,
2
1 1 16 16 cos 2 cos
(sin ) cos 2 sin 2sin 2
sin sin sin
D
d d
D
r d r d r r

( (
= = =
( (

Evaluate:
2 2 2
2
2
1 1 1
16 cos 2 cos
2sin 2 sin
sin
vol
dv r drd d
r

(
=
(


D
Then integral simplifies to
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
16[cos 2 cos 2sin 2 sin ] 8 [3cos3 cos ] 3.91C drd d d = =

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 117
Dept. of ECE
117


Abstract Data Types
We are intelligent too.
We prefer to live its a beautiful world
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 118
Dept. of ECE
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary


2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 119
Dept. of ECE
Electric (Displacement) Flux Density
The density of electric displacement is
the electric (displacement) flux density, D.

In free space the relationship between
flux density and electric field is
E D
0
=
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 120
Dept. of ECE
Electric (Displacement) Flux Density Cont.
The electric (displacement) flux density for a
point charge centered at the origin is
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 121
Dept. of ECE
Gausss Law
Gausss law states that the net electric
flux emanating from a close surface S is equal
to the total charge contained within
the volume V bounded by that surface.
encl
S
Q s d D =

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 122
Dept. of ECE
Gausss Law Cont.
V
S
ds
By convention, ds
is taken to be outward
from the volume V.

=
V
ev encl
dv q Q
Since volume charge
density is the most
general, we can always write
Q
encl
in this way.
encl
S
Q s d D =

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 123
Dept. of ECE
Applications of Gausss Law
Gausss law is an integral equation for
the unknown electric flux density
resulting from a given charge
distribution.
encl
S
Q s d D =

known
unknown
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 124
Dept. of ECE
Applications of Gausss Law Cont.
In general, solutions to integral
equations must be obtained using
numerical techniques.

However, for certain symmetric
charge distributions closed form
solutions to Gausss law can be
obtained.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 125
Dept. of ECE
Applications of Gausss Law Cont.
Closed form solution to Gausss law
relies on our ability to construct a
suitable family of Gaussian surfaces.

A Gaussian surface is a surface to
which the electric flux density is
normal and over which equal to a
constant value.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 126
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Point Charge Using
Gausss Law
Consider a point charge at the origin:
Q
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 127
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Point Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(1) Assume from symmetry the form of
the field


(2) Construct a family of Gaussian
surfaces
( ) r D a D
r r

=
spheres of radius r where
r 0
spherical
symmetry
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 128
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Point Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(3) Evaluate the total charge within the
volume enclosed by each Gaussian
surface

=
V
ev encl
dv q Q
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 129
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Point Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
Q
R
Gaussian surface
Q Q
encl
=
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 130
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Point Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(4) For each Gaussian surface, evaluate
the integral

DS s d D
S
=

( )
2
4 r r D s d D
r
S
=

magnitude of D
on Gaussian
surface.
surface area
of Gaussian
surface.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 131
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Point Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(5) Solve for D on each Gaussian surface

S
Q
D
encl
=
2
4

r
Q
a D
r

=
2
0 0
4

r
Q
a
D
E
r

= =
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 132
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law
Consider a spherical shell of uniform
charge density:

=
otherwise , 0
,
0
b r a q
q
ev
a
b
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 133
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(1) Assume from symmetry the form of
the field


(2) Construct a family of Gaussian
surfaces
( ) R D a D
r r

=
spheres of radius r where
r 0
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 134
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
Here, we shall need to treat separately 3
sub-families of Gaussian surfaces:

a r 0
1)
b r a <
2)
b r > 3)
a
b
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 135
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
Gaussian surfaces
for which
a r 0
Gaussian surfaces
for which
b r a <
Gaussian surfaces
for which
b r >
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 136
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(3) Evaluate the total charge within the
volume enclosed by each Gaussian
surface

=
V
ev encl
dv q Q
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 137
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
0 =
encl
Q
For



For
a r 0
b r a <
( )
3 3
0
3
0
3
0 0
3
4
3
4
3
4
a r q
a q r q dv q Q
r
a
encl
=
= =

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 138
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
For
( )
3 3
0
3
0
3
0
3
4
3
4
3
4
a b q
a q b q dv q Q
b
a
ev encl
=
= =

b r >
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 139
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(4) For each Gaussian surface, evaluate
the integral

DS s d D
S
=

( )
2
4 r r D s d D
r
S
=

magnitude of D
on Gaussian
surface.
surface area
of Gaussian
surface.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 140
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(5) Solve for D on each Gaussian surface

S
Q
D
encl
=
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 141
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 142
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
Notice that for r > b

2
4

r
Q
a D
tot
r

=
Total charge contained
in spherical shell

2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 143
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of a Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
R
D
r

(
C
/
m
)

m 2
m 1
C/m 1
3
0
=
=
=
b
a
q
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 144
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of an Infinite Line Charge Using
Gausss Law
Consider a infinite line charge carrying
charge per unit length of q
el
:
z
el
q
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 145
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of an Infinite Line Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(1) Assume from symmetry the form of
the field


(2) Construct a family of Gaussian
surfaces
( )

D a D

=
cylinders of radius where
0
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 146
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of an Infinite Line Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont
(3) Evaluate the total charge within the
volume enclosed by each Gaussian
surface

=
L
el encl
dl q Q
l q Q
el encl
=
cylinder is
infinitely long!
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 147
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of an Infinite Line Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(4) For each Gaussian surface, evaluate
the integral

DS s d D
S
=

( ) l D s d D
S

2 =

magnitude of D
on Gaussian
surface.
surface area
of Gaussian
surface.
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 148
Dept. of ECE
Electric Flux Density of an Infinite Line Charge Using
Gausss Law Cont.
(5) Solve for D on each Gaussian surface

S
Q
D
encl
=

el
q
a D =
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 149
Dept. of ECE
Gausss Law in Integral Form

= =
V
ev encl
S
dv q Q s d D
V
S
s d
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 150
Dept. of ECE
15
QUESTIONS
2/2/2012 9:26 PM
smsreyhani 151
Dept. of ECE
15
Questions?
?
?