A Hypothesis concerning the Character of Islamic Art Author(s): Asli Gocer Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of the History

of Ideas, Vol. 60, No. 4 (Oct., 1999), pp. 683-692 Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3654114 . Accessed: 06/02/2012 16:36
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

University of Pennsylvania Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of the History of Ideas.

http://www.jstor.org

Hypothesis Concerning the

Character of Islamic
Art

Asli Gocer

Why Islamic art has the distinctive features it has continues to generate clashing explanations.The Islamic visual treasuryhas no figural images, for instance,andthree-dimensional sculptureor largescale oil painting,but instead contains miniatures,vegetal ornaments,arabesquesurface patterns,and complex geometricaldesigns. To accountforthe phenomenathe following radically opposingtheorieshave been offered:the influenceof Judaism,the Quranicprohibition againstmaking images,1Islamic resentmentof the glory of Byzantine tacit the icons,2logocentricismof classical Islam,3 spiritualdimensionof Islam,4 Islamic assertion of "otherness,"5 contingency of history.6The merits of and these theories have been roundlydiscussed in the literature,and so I will not repeat the task here. I will insist that none of these theories offer a coherent explanationfor all arts,but my presumptionis that such an explanationis possible. In nonvisual arts the Muslim prefers simple tunes over that of the symphony, for instance, whirling dervishes over the ballet, and lyric poetry over of In dramaticliterature. my view what explains the common characteristic all these artsis a certainkind of Islamic attitudeinformedby a certainphilosophical outlook.Althoughit would be hastyto suggest the existence of a monolithic

The most frequently quoted passages from the Quran are for post facto justifications (34.12; 3.42; 5.92; 6.74, e.g.). 2 Oleg Grabar,The Formation of Islamic Art (New Haven, 1987). 3 MohammedArkoun, "L'Humanismearabe au IX siecle," Studia Islamica, 15 (1961), 63-87. 4 Lois Ibsen Al Faruqi,"An Islamic Perspectiveon Symbolism in the Arts:New Thoughts on FiguralRepresentation," Creativity,and the Sacred, ed. D. Apostolos-Cappadona Art, (New York, 1984), 164-79. 5 Gulru Scrolls: Geometryand Ornamentin Islamic Architecture Necipoglu, The Topkapi (Getty Centerfor the History of Art and the Humanities, 1995), 73-87. 6 Oleg Grabar, "IslamicArt," The Dictionary of Art (New York, 1996), 16, 99-101.

683
Inc. of of 1999 Copyright byJournal theHistory Ideas,

684

Asli Gocer

Islamicart,it would be equallyrashto deny some strikingcommonalitiesamong its diverseexamples.7 The following observationby a Muslim scholar is notable in this regard: "Whether the greatcourtyard the Delhi Mosque or the Qarawiyyinin Fez, in of one feels oneself within the same artisticand spiritualuniverse despite all the local variationsin material,structural techniques,and the like."8Some cite geometryas what mediatesthat feeling to the observerdespite the culturaldivergences in style.9Even those who have given up the searchforthe universalor the It spiritualin Islamic artcannothelp but see in it the classical ideal of beauty.'0 is this classical heritagethatin fact holds one of the important keys to the puzzle at hand. In particularI shall claim that Islamic art is the living image of what Platohas in mind for artin a theocraticstate.Clearly,to referto Plato andartin the samebreathinvites trouble.As is well enoughknown,giving a generalinterof Even pretation Plato'sviews on the natureof artis a very complex endeavor." in the face of grave difficulties in textual exegesis, however,thereis sufficient evidence thatPlatohas some settledviews on art.Those pertinent ourdiscusto sion here involve two claims, thatbeauty and goodness are divine and that all humanendeavor(includingartisticcreation)mustimitatethe divine.12Although Platonic strainin Islam has been noted in other areas, its persistentlegacy has been overlooked in art.13 shall argue that the Platonic influence on Islamic I can be tracednot only to political philosophy4 andgeometry,'5 it has as thought been commonly accepted,but also aesthetics.16 A philosophicalexplanationof the Islamic attitudetoward art may thereforebe derivable from the Platonic axiom thatgod is the paradigmof beauty,which is the cosmologicalprincipleof
7 ContraNecipoglu, op.cit., 73-87, and Mehmet Agaoglu, "Remarkson the Character of Islamic Art," TheArt Bulletin, 36 (1954), 175-202. 8 Sayeed H. Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality(Albany, 1987), 3; cf. 82, n.l. 9 Oleg Grabar,The Mediation of Ornament(Princeton, 1992), 226-27. 10 Necipoglu, op. cit., 194, e.g. " See G. Sorbom, Mimesis and Art: Studies in the Origin and Early Developmentof an Aesthetic Vocabulary (Uppsala, 1966); J. Tate, "Plato and Imitation,"Classical Quarterly,26 Classical Quarterly,22 (1928), 16-23; and K. Walton,Mime(1932), 161-69; and "Imitation," sis as Make-Believe: On the Foundations of Representational (Cambridge,1990). Art 12 See my "The Theological Basis of Plato's Criticismof Art with Referenceto Icons," The SouthernJournal of Philosophy, 36 (1998), 353-65. 13 In her The Fire and the Sun (Oxford, 1977) Iris Murdochbriefly notes the echoes of Platonismin Islamic artbut does not provide a sustainedanalysis. F. E. Peters, "The Origins of Islamic Platonism:The School Tradition," Islamic Philosophical Theology,ed. P. Morewedge (Albany, 1979) takes this legacy to be in mathematics. 14 F.E. Peters, op.cit., 14, and "The Greek and Syriac background,"History of Islamic Philosophy, eds. S.H. Nasr and 0. Leaman (2 vols.; London, 1996), I, 40-51. 15See Sayeed H. Nasr, An Introductionto Islamic Cosmological Doctrines (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 7-19. 16 "Aesthetics"here refers to a cluster of issues arising in philosophy of art ranging from the elements of beauty to the psychology of artisticcreation.

Islamic Art

685

orderand harmony;and as all createdthings, art, too, must reflect the divine paradigm. Before defendingthis ahistoricalhypothesison the character Islamic art of so reviled in recent literature, few caveats are in order."Islamicart"contains a redundant terms. Strictlyspeakingall artin Islam is "Islamic," because for the Muslimartis a crucialpointof contactwith the divine.Thatartshoulddirectthe mind to the divine is also Plato's view.'7Second, the categoriesthathave tradiand tionallybeen used to describeIslamicartsuch as "aniconic" "nonrepresentational"areunhelpfulfor the problemat hand.18 When it comes to the issue of in Islamic arts, there is no consensus, for Islamicists are notably iconography dividedon the semiotic dimensionof the Islamicvisual language.The question of whetherthe geometricsurfacepattern essentiallyiconography, instance, for is is yet an unresolvedandcontentiousinquiry;andPlato'sdiscussionof artleads us to the sameinterpretive characdilemma.On the issue ofnonrepresentational ter of Islamic artno consensus is forthcomingeither.This may be in partdue to and thinkingof art in dichotomousterms of representation nonrepresentation, which is itself problematic.Third,the distinctionsbetween art and crafts, and artand ornament,are alien to Islamic art,and so neitheris relevantto studying the subjectat hand.For the Muslim as for Platoall artis a making,and as such, artand craftis one. Withthese caveats in mind, let us turnto what may be said to be PlatonicaboutIslamic art. Before we can answersuch a questionwe mustconfronttwo problemsfacing us, namely,findinghardevidence for influenceof Platoon Muslimphilosophersand showingphilosophicalinfluenceover the makingof arts.While there is no questionthatIslamicphilosophyhas been influencedby Greekphilosophy, One view is that thereis no settledview on how to characterize relationship. this the relationshipis one of identity.One westernscholarin fact claims that "Islamic philosophyis Greekphilosophy."'9 this view Muslimcosmology is esIn between cosmology Greektheology.The deeply complexrelationship sentially andtheology notwithstanding, Muslim scholarssee the relationshipdifferently and view Greektheology as God's occasion for Islamiccosmology.According to a prominentscholar, for instance, "ancientsages providedprovidentiallya In sacred science which Islam could easily assimilate into its world view."20 Muslimthinkershas the particular influenceofNeoplatonic philosophyon early
17 Charles Le Gai Eaton, "Man,"Islamic Spirituality:Foundations,ed. S. H. Nasr (New York, 1987b), 358-77; and see Titus Burkhardt,"The Void in Islamic Art," Studies in Comparative Religion, 16 (1981), 79-82. 18 Islamic art is said to be aniconic because "the spiritual world is reflected in the sensible world through geometry and rhythm";see Keith Critchlow,Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and CosmologicalApproach(New York, 1976), 6. 19RichardWalzer,"On the Legacy of the Classics in the Islamic World,"GreekInto Arabic: Essays on Islamic Philosophy, ed. R. Walzer(Oxford, 1962), 35. 20 S. H. Nasr, Islamic Art, 47.

686

Asli Gocer

oftenbeencited.21 impact Plotinus abstract The of modesof visualrepresenon tation themedieval in worldis widelyaccepted.22 we of Unhappily, haveno reliable knowledge exactlyhow pre-Politinian Platonism integrated Muslimthought general.23 do knowthat in We into got worked withAristotelian the texts,butunder earlyMuslim philosophers mostly of Aristotelian Platonic ideasof theologyandcosmology guise authority many circulated themedieval in world.24is notclearhowmuchof Platonism It seeped intotheAristotelianism wasbeingstudied; canscholars that nor agreeon how the is thinker. There somespecuimportant studyof Platowasforthemedieval lation someMuslim that with texts.25 Some worked philosophers directly Platonic recent studies forinstance, Al-Farabi's that and workon happiness the suggest, statereflectmorePlatonic influence commonly than perfect supposed particuinhisconceptions knowledge, of andimages.26 We law, larly religious imitation, alsohavesomereason think theearly to that came contact Platonism through with translations orcommentaries theRepublic, of the on Timaeus, Laws,the partial
These diaSophist, Philebus, the Statesman,27 and perhapsthe Theaetetus.28

views not only on politics,cosmology, and loguescontainPlato'simportant we theologybutalso art.Finally, knowthatsomeof the Islamicphilosophers on Greekphilosophy, Platoin particular, notableauthorities were in working and music,29 literature,30 architecture.31 Andyet, even if we can showthatPlatoloomedlargeon the intellectual horizonof the important medievalMuslimphilosophers, this mayhave how influenced actual the of theartsis farfrombeingclear. Thisis both production
21 See Josef van Ess, Theologieund Gesellschaftim 2. und 3. Jahrhundert Hidschra: Eine Geschichtedes religiosen Denkens infruhen Islam (6 vols.; Berlin, 1991), III, 42-48. 2 Andre Les Origines de L'esthetiquemedievale (Paris:Macula, 1992); Gary M. Grabar, Gurtler,"Plotinusand Byzantine Aesthetics," The ModernSchoolman, 66.14 (1989), 275-84; Gervase Matthew,ByzantineAesthetics (London, 1963). 23See Hilmi Z. Ulken,Eski Yunan 'danCagdasDusunceyeDogru IslamFelsefesi Kaynaklari ve Etkileri (Istanbul, 1967, 19934),25-31; cf. L. Gardetet M. M. Anawati, Introductiona la theologie musulmane(1948). The impactof Plotinus'sEnneads on emanationistcosmology of Arabphilosopherssuch as al-Ghazali,Ibn-Khaldun, al-Dawwanihave is notedby Necipoglu, and op. cit., 186-90. 24 David Luscombe,Medieval Thought(Oxford, 1997), 63-71. 25 Al-Farabi's On Plato s Philosophy is said to be one such example, which purportsto give an account of all Platonic dialogues. See RichardWalzer,Al Farabi on the Perfect State (Oxford, 1985), 550-51; cf. Walzer,op. cit. (1962), 31; cf. F.RosenthalandR. Walzer, Alfarabius De Platonis philosophia, Plato Arabus II (London, 1943). 26 Joep Lameer,Al-Farabi and AristotelianSyllogistics: GreekTheoryand Islamic Practice (Leiden, 1994), 31-34, 261-65. 27On the lost Arabictranslation the Statesman,see Lameer,op.cit., 263 n.5; cf. Walzer, of op. cit. (1985), 424. 28 Peters, "Originsof Islamic Platonism,"29-31. 29 Al-Farabi,Ibn Sina, e.g.; see Nasr, Islamic Art, 151-62, Luscombe, op. cit., 67-68. 30 Ibn Poetry in particular, Sina, Al-Farabi,Ibn Rashq, Ibn Rushd, Al-Ghazzali, e.g.; see Salim Kamal, "Aesthetics,"Nasr and Leaman,op. cit., 969-78. 31 Ibn Miskawayh,al Ghazali, e.g.; see Necipoglu, op. cit., 4.

Islamic Art

687

anempirical a philosophical more and issue.Ontheempirical clearly question, works. research needed, example, craftsman is for andcommissioned on guilds The Onthephilosophical we question, canonlyarguefromplausibility. simias larities theartsproduced Islamic in and cultures whatPlatodiscusses among arts stateconstitute acceptable in his theocratic primafacie evidencefor the Howanyphilosophical the outlook influences artsis rather mysteriargument. of ous.Howoneis influenced whatthatamounts involvesquestions cauand to elsewill sation associated and butsuchanendeavor takethisproject problems, view where. nowI shallsimplyassume common-sense thatthemaking For the of artdoesnottakeplacein an intellectual and vacuum thatartistic production environment. to a largedegreeis a reflection ora reaction theintellectual of to of the Indeed issuehereis so richlyequivocal I thinkthata hypothesis the that sortthatshallbe defended canbe putforward. here Arts PlatoandHisAcceptable art Platois conventionally understood denouncing onmainly as psychologiThis cal, moral,andpoliticalgrounds.32 is becausehe findsartto be anunsetas of tlingforceforthehuman psycheandthinks artin general beingdevoidof uselessor,worse,harmvalue.Platoworries artmaybe morally that cognitive on for in his view artdelightsin feedinganddrawing the baserpartof ful; the that is (R. ourselves, part lacksin reason, passiveandfondof baseemotions rule the InPlato'sview prolonged to artwarps natural of 604d-e).33 exposition reasonin the soul andformsemotivehabitsthatleadto asocialor otherwise harmful To behavior. prevent socialdiseasesthatmightresultfromindividual and be art, by corruption Platobelieves,should closelycensored regulated the withthispicture, mostphilosophical state.Wearefamiliar and analysis stops is however, thatPlatoacceptssomeart,namely, righthere.Oftenoverlooked, thatwhichconforms beauty, to and (R. grace,harmony, rhythm 400e). Hence but the starting is pointin thispaper notwhatPlatorejects whathe acceptsfor to it because is withtheartsthatareacceptable theidealcommugoodsociety, the in thinkers conceptualizing role Plato haveinfluenced Islamic nitythat might of artin thetheocratic state. are be Themenagerie artsthatPlatothinks of should allowed thefollowing: to truthful storiesparticularly thosepertaining gods (R. 389b-c),simpleand to conforms its whosecontent austere narrative (R. poetry poetry 393d),lyrical music and tunes prayer-like (R.41la), finerhythm 400d),sweet, plaintive soft, (R.
32 Janaway,Images of Excellence: Plato s Critiqueof theArts (Oxford, 1995), Christopher and Plato on Beauty, Wisdom,and the Arts, eds. J. M. E. Moravcsik and P. Temko (Totowa,

N.J., 1982). 33References to Plato:Complete and ed. are 1997); the Works, JohnCooper (Indianapolis,
Loeb editionsof Republic(R);Laws(L); 7imaeus(71);Phaedo (Phd);Philebus(Phlb);Theaetetus (Tht);Sophist (Sph); Statesman(Stm); Cratylus(Cra).

688

Asli Gocer

simplemelodies which do not mix up differentrhythmsandmodes (R. 398d; cf. 397b), rhythmicdanceto soft melody (R. 412b), choirdances (L. 654b), simple instrumentssuch as flute (R. 399c-d), modest paintings of scenery (L. 602d; that and architecture, furniture have Cratylus107c), and weaving, embroidery, simple form and pure color (R. 401a; L. 668b). So why does Plato allow these cases when he so clearly worriesaboutthe dangersof artin general? particular The quick and the standardanswer is that these arts are beneficial to the individual and society. Preciselybecause it has a transformative power Platothinks artcan and must be put to good use. Thatis, he thinksthatwe can make use of artin discipliningthe soul to acquirethe righthabitsto be a just personandlead a just life (cf. R. 410b). The sorts of art that are allowed such as those above will, accordingto this answer,have the right sort of transformative impacton the soul. Insteadof being a hindranceto the turningof the soul the right way, these arts will be an aid to it. Therefore,so the reasoninggoes, these artswill help the citizens in theirplight of becoming reasonable,just, and hence good. The propitiouspsychology of good art is certainlya plausible but ratherthin account of why Plato would allow for the particular arts above. A thickeraccountwould have to take into view Plato'stheology. The scholarlydisagreementson Plato'sviews of artpale next to those over his views on God.34A fascinating debate though it is, it cannot be fully addressedhere. This much is undisputed. Accordingto Plato's memorablemodel of artisticcreationin the Republic, God is the makerof each kind of thing in nature,and his creationis thus unique (R. 597d3). A craftsmanmakes somewhereasa painter thingthatlooks like the realthinggod-fashioned, merelymakes an image of thatwhich looks like the real thing. So Plato thinksthatartcannot possibly compete with God's creation;it can only approximateit. Plato holds the view thatall createdthingsimitatethe divine model, andthis view is importantlyrelatedto the cosmological accountin the limaeus of God's artisticcreation of the universe and the ethical accountin the Theaetetusthatgoodness in this life lies in becoming god-like. In the TimaeusPlatooperateswith the axiom that"wheneverthe maker[demiurgos] anythinglooks to thatwhich is always of anduses as a model of thatdescriptionin fashioningthe formand unchanging, qualityof his work, all thathe thus accomplishesmustbe beautiful[kalos]"(Ti. 28a-b). As it is with ugliness, beautyhas bothethicalandaestheticconnotations in Greek;indeedto the Greekmindthe beautyof a thing entails its goodness. If the artistlooks only to that which has little reality, such as artifacts,and uses them as a model, his work will not be beautiful and good. Surprisingly,even God createsin this fashion,namely,by lookingto andimitatingthe divinemodel (Ti. 28-29, cf. R. 500e). God's model is the Living Being (Ti. 37d; cf.39e), and this world is an image of it (Ti. 29b). (WhetherPlato thinks that God stands separatefrom the model or that the model is the content of God's mind is a
34

See G. M. A. Grube,Plato s Thought(Indianapolis,1980), 150-78.

Islamic Art

689

questionthatis beyondthe scope of this essay.) His accountof imitationis also subjectto immenseinterpretative squabbles.Sufficeit to say,however,thatthere is enough textual supportfor the conclusion that for Plato God and the divine paradigmare (or perhaps,is, if they are differentaspectsof the same realm)the measure of all things (L. 716d, 803c, 709b), and their imitationin all things humanis of enormousimportance. mustbe evaluatedin the Moreover,Plato'sconceptionof God's creativeness context of what he takes to be God's essential unity.For Plato God is not only perfectlygood (R. 379bl, c2; cf. 380c9-10), supremelytrueandjust (Tht. 176c; cf. R. 382e 1), absolutelyperfect (R. 381b4, 382e10), and the most beautiful he (R. 381c8); butmore importantly, is perfectly simple (R. 380d5). In his simGod's beauty and goodness cohere. It is the aesthetic manifestationof plicity that coherencethat is, I think,most relevantto the influence he may have had overMuslimthinking aboutnature its representation. and Indeed,forPlatobeauty and goodness are manifest in the visible realm precisely because the world is fashionedby God, who createdit unbegrudgingly himself (i. 29e-30c; cf. like L. 665a). Those who are trainedright can thereforesee beautyeverywhere(L. 669b). For Plato the fundamentalpropertiesof beauty are orderand relation, which are revealed in measure,proportion(Phlb. 64e, 66ab, 87cd), harmony (Phd. 86al), form(Sph.228e; cf. Phlb. 51c) andpurityin tone (Phlb. 5 Id), and in color (Phlb. 53ab).These arethe aestheticelementsof the divine,presentnot only in natureand art but also in good life. Eyes, sound, hearing,and speech divine intelliwere given, Platosays, as divine aides for humansto comprehend (Ti. gence in natureandapplyit to all of theirown workandunderstanding 44ethe is one such aide in understanding natureof the 47d). Studying geometry work of the divine artist(cf. R. 521e). Plato thinksthat divine beauty is revealed especially in shapes such as the circle andthe triangle.The world,celestial stars,andhumanheadsareall round, for instance,becausedivinityis mademanifestin the perfectionof the circle (7i. for 33c). The "dancingmovements"of the celestial gods areall circular, they all reflectdivine intelligence(i. 40c-d). ForPlatothe triangleis anothergeometrical shape the study of which reveals the work of the divine architect.It is the simplest figure to which all other polygons can be reduced,and by repetition solid structrianglesexplainthe laws of orderin the universe.The fundamental turesin the worldareconfigurationsof triangles,andthey show how the different elementstransform one another(T. 54e-55d). into The aestheticdimensionof the divine has implicationsboth for artisticcreation and ethical improvement. Just as the good life is the life of measure,proand harmony,so all art must contain the divine elements of beauty. portion, Plato arguesthatGod directedall his creationto imitatehis power (7y.41b cf. 41c, 29e; Stm.274d; cf. Tht.176b). Orderby movementandorderby sound,for instance,not only revealrhythmandharmonybutalso, throughsuchrevelation, recovers our lost sense of measureand grace. Music, dance, andvisual artsare

690

Asli Gocer

divine gifts for the pleasureof understanding and his work (i. 47d, cf. L. god 897d-e, 930e-93 la; cf. R. 532c). Since artessentially fails to recreatethe 659a, trueconditionof the real thing, Platorecommendsthatit be purifiedof all of its excess andvainglory.It must imitatethe essentialrealityof the divineby simple that harmony, rhythm,andgeometry,but always with the understanding whatis createdis a meagerindicatorof the real thing.The simple tunes, "folk"art,and simple design listed in the list above are acceptedprecisely because only they self-consciously reflect elements of the divine. The artspreventedfromthe republic are in fact those artsthatdo not reflectthe divine paradigm. The Platonic Picturein Islamic Art This view finds an expressionin the artsacceptedby the Muslim.Although theconnection admittedly therein is educated the guesswork, powerfulsimilarities its wholesale dismissal.Islamicrejectionof certainkindsof artis based prevents on the suppositionsharedby Plato thatbecause artcan be a psychological detrimentto the individualit mustbe subjectto social control.Islamicrejectionof that God is the sucertainkinds of art is also groundedin the understanding creatorwhose beauty must be reflected in art.To the Muslim artthat is preme not theologically reflective is metaphysicallyvacuous and morallypernicious, and hence it has no place in good society, as it does not for Plato. The central For message of the Quranis that of the absolute creativeness of God.35 God alone is said to have fashionedthe universeandcreatedthe real.36 Like Platonic of theology IslamconsidersGod to be the paradigm beauty.As for Plato,for the Muslim God is supremelysimple. In his simplicity all of God's attributes become one, and his beauty and goodness cohere. As for Plato, beauty is for the Muslimthereforea manifestationof the goodness of God, and for both God is the Divine Craftsmanwhose creative work of the universe is the result of his goodness. Since God is the source of all positive qualitiesmanifest in the universe, he is also the sourceof beautyandgoodness in all humanendeavor.Imitationof God is thus centralto the ethicalandaestheticoutlookof bothPlatonic andIslamicphilosophy.Both takethe regimenof moralandaesthetictrainingto be one, restingentirelyrests on being properlyinfluencedby the righttheological doctrines.The transformative power of such imitativeregimenon the intellect is fundamental, believe, in decipheringthe kindsof artsbothphilosophies I accept. Like Plato, the Muslim rejects figurativerepresentation the basis of its on inherent of and The avoidance depthandshadow deception vanity.37 self-conscious in Islamicminiatures, instance,evoke Plato'scautionagainstrealismin paintfor
S. H. Nasr, "God"in Islamic Art, 312-18, 348-49. The fundamentaldifference is that for the Muslim God creates ex nihilo whereas for Plato god is a fashionerof what is. 37 See Nasr, Islamic Art, 312-18; 348-49.
36

35 See

Islamic Art

691

are illusions of perception.The figurativerepresentations to be ing in recreating avoided, because for both Plato the Muslimthey runthe risk of engenderingin the artistthe false pride of having createdsomethingreal and, in the observer, the false admiration humancreativity.38 both, completeemulationof the for For divine paradigmis impossible but approximation requiredin the ethical as is well as the aestheticrealm.Like its counterpart Plato, Islamic theology sees in the artistas a messengerof God's beauty for those able to comprehendit. Like Plato, the Muslim sees geometryand exact proportionas a directexthe pressionof the divine andtakes mathematicsto be the key to understanding structure the cosmos. For both, repetitivepatterns,exactness of proportion, of and symmetryare synonymouswith God's perfectparadigm.39 most origiThe nal Islamic contributionto art, geometrical design, arabesque,and patterned surface art often consist in the complex design of an interlockingsystem of rotatingpolygons andstarswithin circles. As it is for Plato,circle is the governing basis of all geometricalshapes for the Muslim, followed by hexagon, triangle, andsquarein depictingthe fundmental shapesof the geometricuniverse. with a sense of rhythm,these shapes are consideredby some sects of Coupled Islam to evoke infinity,which is a symbol of the divine presence.40 signifiThe cance of the sphereand circle is seen in Islamic architecture, especially the travaults. ditionalhemispheric and minarets, muquarnas mosquedomes,cylindrical The circularmovementsof divine objectsthatPlatoso lovingly mentionsin the 7imaeus find their echo in the sacreddance of whirling Dervishes in their attemptto unite with the divine. The Mawlawi session, the sama, is held in concentriccircles creatingan image of the planets, and the dance advancesacThe dance cording to rhythmicjuxtapositionsand circling of the participants. itself is to reproduceon earththe movements of the starsthemselves, and the dervish clad in pure white is to lend himself over to the universalharmonyof cosmos.4'In a most Platonicmannerthe Muslim believes thatgeometricalpatterns draw attentionaway from the physical world to one of pure forms, and they point to the purityof essential relationshipswhich lie beneaththe visual surface. surfaceartbut also the artof calligraGeometrycontrolsnot only patterned which is the only universallyagreed upon Islamic artisticgenre. Islamic phy, mixtureof calligraphycombinesverticalityandhorizontalityin a proportionate static and flowing figures, therebyrepresentsin geometricdesign God's presence in language.By means of rotationand repetition,the artof writing shows balance and harmony-the very elements of Plato's acceptablearts.The calli38 Fora discussion thefalse "The in of Ettinghausen, prideof theartist Islam,see Richard Character Islamic of Art,"in TheArabHeritage (Princeton, 1946). 39Zuheir Faqih,"Islamic 16.5-6 Al to Art, Submission Divine Will,"TheArab World Michon,"TheMessageof IslamicArt,"Studiesin Comparative (1970), 16-25;Jean-Louis Religion,17 (1985),70-79. 40 Critchlow, op. cit., 74-104. 41 Practices Sufism," of Jean-Louis Art, Nasr,Islamic 281-84. Michon, "Spiritual

692

Asli Gocer

graphicimportanceof symmetryand harmonyin patternscan be also seen in and weaving, embroidery, otherdecorativeartsas well. Plato's recommendation puretones in nonpolyharmonic music finds its of echo in the claritythe Islamic call to prayer,the liturgicalrecitations,and the evocations to the praise of the prophet.The Platonic exhortationfor flute is echoed in the ubiquitoususe ofney, not only in the mystical dancesof the sama but also in the lonely revolutionsof a countryshepherd.The harmonybetween content and style for poetry earns Plato's aesthetic approval.What makes a workof literature aestheticfailurein Islam, like for Plato,are its lack of truth an and exaggeratedstyle.42 Like Plato, the Muslim critic sees as factorsthatbeaua poem feelings of calm andpeace.43 This can only be achievedby purging tify and languagefromirreverence mockery.Languagereflectscosmic harmonyby content with style, and balances its form with content. As such it is aligning based on and generatesin the listenera rationalpleasurederivingfromthe recognitionof the divine in language. The comparativeanalysis proposedhere should not be understoodas a reductionistattemptto understand Islamic aestheticsonly in termsof its Platonic echo. Clearlythereare intricatedifferencesbetween Islamic theology and Platonic theology, and clearly the ecological setting, political events, and culture vary in Islamicpracticeandnaturallyaffect the kind of artcreatedin particular regions. What is proposed instead is this. Platonic and Islamic theology are reviled in theirconservatismaboutthe artisticprocess. If my discusfrequently sion shows anything,it shows thatneithersees the creativeact as reprehensible in itself. Quite the reverse,both accounts give a place for artto go; both views ask that artbe an aide to reason and to help the mind concentrateon the divine not mundane.Contrary the received opinion,neitherPlato nor the Muslim is to averse to pleasurereceived from art.Both take pleasureas a propercriterionin artbut considerthis pleasureto be of a cognitive kind,thatis, the recognitionof the divine as the measureof all; both considera propereducationin artas yieldart and ing the highest moral standard; both advocatepure, unpretentious that to emulateGod's beauty and naturalharmonyin geometricalshapes, attempts pure sounds, and harmoniousliterature.The very sobriety espoused both by PlatoandIslampreventsartfrombecoming shallow andprofane.Forrepresenting that seriousness of mind, both accounts indeed respect and do not resent art.44 Hollins College and the Universityof Toronto.
42

See Kemal, op. cit., 974-76.

43Kemal, op. cit., 970

44An earlierversion of this paperwas presentedto the Society for Ancient GreekPhilosoand phy,Binghamton University,in October1997. I am gratefulto Angela Currant ChrisPerricone and the anonymousreferee of this journal for helpful suggestions.