Contents

Articles
Scale model 1:144 scale John Adam (hoax) Aluminum Model Toys Architectural model Autofest City Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka Martin Bower Brass model Brickplayer Britains Deetail Building model Cardboard modeling Carnegie collection Cotswold Heritage Cox model engine Decal Die-cast toy Digital character Diorama Diorama (Efteling) Dollhouse Freelance model Garage kit Grenadier Models Inc. Gundam FIX Figuration Gundam model International Plastic Modellers' Society Kitbashing Matchstick model Micro armour Micromodel Military miniaturism Miniature figure (gaming) 1 17 19 20 26 29 36 39 39 40 41 43 44 45 50 51 67 69 72 73 79 80 84 85 88 91 92 102 105 106 107 109 110 111

Miniature effect Miniature pioneering Physical model Model building Model commercial vehicle Model engine Model Products Corporation Model robot Model airport Model engineering Model figure Model maker Model military vehicle Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death OOO scale Orrery Paper model Pinning (modelling) Plan-relief Plastic model Port Revel RC Egypt Radio-controlled model Ral Partha Enterprises Replicas of the Statue of Liberty Robotech Defenders Room box Roxxter Pierre Scerri Scratch building Slop (remote control) Solar system model Somerset Space Walk Spaghetti bridge Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument (Fayetteville, Arkansas) Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument (Pine Bluff, Arkansas) Sweden Solar System

116 120 121 122 123 124 126 128 129 130 132 134 135 140 141 141 144 146 146 147 152 155 156 163 174 184 186 187 187 188 189 190 197 205 208 210 211 212

The Howard Bros. Circus Tin soldier Toy soldier Wayne Wesolowski Wiking Gerald Wingrove

217 218 220 224 225 226

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 227 231

Article Licenses
License 236

Scale model

Scale model
A scale model is a physical model, a representation or copy of an object that is larger or smaller than the actual size of the object, which seeks to maintain the relative proportions (the scale factor) of the physical size of the original object. Very often the scale model is smaller than the original and used as a guide to making the object in full size. Scale models are built or collected for many reasons. Professional modelmakers often models for many professions: create

Engineers who require scale models to test the likely performance of a particular design at an early stage of development without incurring the full expense of a full-sized prototype. Architects who require architectural models to evaluate and sell the look of a new construction before it is built. Filmmakers who require scale models of objects or sets that cannot be built in full size. Salesmen who require scale models to promote new products such as heavy equipment and automobiles and other vehicles.

A scale model of the Tower of London. This model can be found inside the tower.

Hobbyists or amateur modelmakers make die-cast models, injection molded, model Scale model of water powered turbine railroads, remote control vehicles, wargaming and fantasy collectibles, model ships and ships in bottles for their own enjoyment. Scale models can also be objects of art, either being created by artists or being rediscovered and transformed into art by artists.

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Types of scale models

Some modelers build and collect models made from a certain medium (wood, plastic, paper, etc.). Others build and collect models based on the types of object being modeled.

L to R with 12 inch ruler at bottom: 1:64 Matchbox Chevrolet Tahoe, 1:43 Ford F-100, 1:25 Revell Monogram 1999 Ford Mustang Cobra, 1:18 Bburago 1987 Ferrari F40

Model ships and castle

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Model aircraft
Model aircraft are divided into two main groups: static and flying models. Static model aircraft Static model aircraft are commonly built using plastic, but wood, metal and paper can also be used. Models are sold painted and assembled, painted but not assembled (snap-fit) or unpainted and not assembled. The most popular types of aircraft to model are commercial airliners and military aircraft. Fewer manufacturers exist today than in the 1970s, but many of the older kits are occasionally available to purchase. Scale model of a Douglas DC-3 Aircraft can be modeled in many "scales". The scale notation is the size of the model compared to the real, full size aircraft called the "prototype". We'll use 1:8 scale as an example, it is read like this: "1 inch (or whatever measurement) on my model is equal (: means equal) to 8 inches on the real (prototype) airplane". Sometimes the scale notation isn't used...it's simply stated; "my model is one eighth (1/8) scale" meaning; "my model is one eighth the size of the real airplane" or "my model is eight times smaller than the real airplane". Popular scales are, in order of size, 1:144, 1:72 (the most numerous), 1:48, 1:32, 1:24, 1:16, 1:8 and 1:4. Some European models are available at more metric scales such as 1:50. The highest quality models are made from injection-molded plastic or cast resin. Models made from Vacuum formed plastic are generally for the more skilled builder. More inexpensive models are made from heavy paper or card stock. Ready-made die-cast metal models are also very popular. As well as the traditional scales, die-cast models are available in 1:200, 1:250, 1:350, 1:400, and 1:600. These scales are usually reserved for civil airliners. Static aircraft scale modeling falls broadly into 3 categories: kit assembly, scratch-building, and collection of ready-made models. Scratch-builders tend to be the top echelon in terms of skill and craftsmanship; they tend to be the most discerning when it comes to accuracy and detail and they spend far more time on far fewer models than a kit assembler. Kit assemblers fall roughly into 2 categories: OOB (Out of Box) and Modified. Out of Box refers to the act of assembling a kit only from what is contained in the box supplied, whereas a Modifier will employ after-market products such as alternative decals, photo-etched metal detail parts, and cast resin detail or conversion parts to enhance or change the model in some way. Collectors are concerned purely with the issue of theme, and are not really interested in personal construction as such. Obviously aircraft modelers will often fall into more than one category as fancy takes them. The overwhelming majority of aircraft modelers concern themselves with depiction of real-life aircraft, but there is a smaller cadre of modelers who derive additional fun by 'bending' history a little by making models of aircraft that either never actually flew or existed, or by painting them in a color scheme that did not actually exist. This is commonly referred to as 'What-if' or 'Alternative' modeling, and the most common theme is 'Luftwaffe 1946' or 'Luftwaffe '46'. This theme stems from idea of modeling German secret projects that never saw the light of day due to the close of World War II. This concept has been extended to include British, Russian, and US experimental projects that never made it into production.

Scale model Flying model aircraft Flying models are usually what is meant by the term aeromodelling. Most flying model aircraft can be placed in one of three groups: free flight, control line and radio controlled. Some flying models are realistic representation of full-sized aircraft, while others are built with no intention of looking like piloted aircraft. Flying models are often constructed like vintage full-sized aircraft. They can be built from scratch or from kits. Some kits take many hours to put together and some kits are almost ready to fly or ready to fly.

Plans-relief
With elements similar to miniature wargaming, building models and architectural models, a plan-relief is a means of geographical representation in relief as a scale model for military use, in order to visualise building projects on fortifications or campaigns involving fortifications.

Model buildings
Most hobbyist who build models of buildings do so as part of a diorama to enhance their other models such as a model railroad or model war machines. As a stand-alone hobby, building models are probably most popular among enthusiasts of construction toys such as Erector, Lego and K'nex. Famous landmarks such as the Empire State Building, Big Ben and the White House are common subjects. Standard scales have not emerged in this Model building for an H0 scale railroad hobby. Model railroaders use railroad scales for their buildings: H0 scale (1:87), OO scale (1:67), N scale (1:160), and O scale (1:43). Lego builders use miniland scale (1:20) and minifig scale (1:48) and micro scale (1:192)[1] Generally, the larger the building, the smaller the scale. Model buildings are commonly made from plastic, foam, balsa wood or paper. Card models are published in the form of a book, and some models are manufactured like 3-D puzzles. Professionally, building models are used by architects and salesmen.

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Architectural models
Architecture firms usually employ model makers to make models of projects to sell their designs to builders and investors. These models are traditionally hand-made, but can also be computer generated. Typical scales are 1:12, 1:24, 1:48, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, etc.

Dollhouses
Contemporary dollhouses have their roots in European baby house display cases from the 17th century. Early dollhouses were all handmade, but following the Industrial Revolution and World War II, they were increasingly mass produced and became more affordable. Children's dollhouses during the 20th century have been made from a variety of materials, including metal (tin litho), fibreboard, plastic, and wood. Furniture for children's dollhouses has most often been made of plastic. Contemporary kit and fully built houses for adult collectors are typically made of plywood or medium-density fiberboard. Children's dollhouses are commonly in 1:16 or 1:18 scale (3/4" and 2/3" scale respectively, 1 foot is represented by 3/4 or 2/3 of an inch), while dollhouses for adult collectors are usually in a scale of 1:12 (1inch equals 1 foot).

German dollhouse from Nuremberg, 17th century

House portrait models

Typically found in 1:50 scale and also called Model House, Model Home or Display House. This type of model is usually found in stately homes or specially designed houses. Sometimes this kind of model is commissioned to mark a special date like an anniversary or the completion of the architecture, or these models might be used by salesmen selling homes in a new neighborhood.

Model buses and trucks

Typically found in 1:50 scale, most manufacturers of commercial vehicles and heavy equipment will commission scale models made of diecast metal as 1:64 scale diecast trucks promotional items to be given to prospective customers. These are also popular children's toys and collectibles. The major manufacturers of these items are Conrad and NZG in Germany. Corgi also makes some 1:50 models, as well as Dutch maker Tekno. Trucks are also found as diecast models in 1:43 scale and injection moulded kits (and children's toys) in 1:24 scale. Recently some manufacturers have appeared in 1:64 scale like Code 3.

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Model cars
Although the British scale for 0 gauge was first used for model cars made of rectilinear and circular parts, it was the origin of the European scale for cast or injection moulded model cars. MOROP's specification of 1:45 scale for European 0 will not alter the series of cars in 1:43 scale, as it has the widest distribution in the world.

1:24 scale diecast cars including "promo" models of Chrysler Concord and Chevy Van

In America, a series of cars was developed from at first cast metal and later styrene models ("promos") offered at new-car dealerships to drum up interest. The firm Monogram, and later Tamiya, first produced them in a scale derived from the Architect's scale: 1:24 scale, while the firms AMT, Jo-Han, and Revell chose the scale of 1:25. Monogram later switched to this scale after the firm was purchased by Revell. Some cars are also made in 1:32 scale, and rolling toys are often made on the scale 1:64 scale. Chinese die-cast manufacturers have recently introduced 1/72 scale into their range. Model cars are also used in car design.

Model construction vehicles

A model construction vehicle (or engineering vehicle) is a scale model or Die-cast toy that represents a construction vehicle such as an excavator, crane, concrete pump, backhoe, etc. Construction vehicle models are almost always made in 1:50 scale, particularly because the cranes at this scale are often three to four feet tall when extended and larger scales would be unsuited for display on a desk or table. These models are popular as children's toys in Germany. In the US they are commonly sold as promotional models for new construction equipment, commissioned by the manufacturer of the prototype real-world equipment. The major manufacturers in Germany are Conrad and NZG, with some competition from Chinese firms that have been entering the market.

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Model railways
Model trains come in a variety of scales, from 1:8 on the large end and 1:450 (T scale) on the small. Each scale has its own strengths and weaknesses, and fills a different niche in the hobby. The largest models are as much as 3 meters long, the smallest a few centimeters. The most popular size is H0 scale (1:87) and second is N scale (1:160). Model railways originally used the term "gauge", which refers to the distance between the rails, just as full-size railways do. Although model railways were also built to different gauges, "standard gauge" in 1:1 scale railroads is 4'8.5." Therefore, a model railway reduces that standard to scale. An H0 scale model railway would have track that is 1/87 of 4'8.5," or about 0.65" from rail to rail. Now it is more typical to refer to the scale of the model, and the term scale has replaced "gauge" in most usages. This is despite considerable confusion between countries as to the definition of 0 scale and N scale. Considerable confusion often arises when referring to "scale" and "gauge", especially as some misinformed individuals tend to use the words interchangeably. The word "scale" only ever refers to the proportional size of the model, the word "gauge" only ever applies to the measurement between the inside faces of the rails. To highlight this difference, consider the various gauges used in H0 scale; A gauge of 16.5mm is used to represent the "Standard gauge" of 4 ft812in(1435 mm) (H0 scale), a gauge of 12mm is used to represent 1000 mm(3 ft338in) gauge (H0m) and the "Cape gauge" of 3 ft6in(1067 mm) (H0n3-1/2) and a gauge of 9mm is used to represent a prototype gauge of 2 ft(610 mm). It is completely incorrect to refer to the mainstream scales as "H0 gauge", "N gauge" or "Z gauge"

An H0 scale model railroad.

H0 scale locomotive showing size comparison with pencil.

An N scale locomotive.

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The most popular scale to go with a given gauge was often derived at by the following roundabout process. German artisans would take strips of metal of standard metric size to make things to blueprints whose dimensions were in inches: hence "4 mm to the foot" yields the 1:76.2 size of the "00 scale". This British scale is anomalously used on the standard H0/00 scale (16.5mm gauge from 3.5mm/foot scale) tracks, however, because early electric motors weren't available commercially in smaller sizes.
A propane fired 1:8 scale live steam train running on the Finnish Railway Museum's miniature track. The Germans have a more developed terminology, which can explain this a bit better. Baugrsse (English: "building size") is the alphanumeric designation, which is used in place of a numeric scale ratio. It's used for scale, as in "0 scale", "H0 scale", or "Z scale". Mastab (English: "measure") is the proportion, with a colon, as in the corresponding terms "1:43", "1:87.1", and "1:220". Spurweite (English: "track width") is the distance between the rails, or correspondingly "32mm", "16.5 mm", and "6.5 mm", and again gauge is used for this in English. One might add to these the old use of the term scale, of "7mm to the foot" and "3.5 mm to the foot" for the first two, while the last really isn't expressible in this manner. Early 20th century German mass-produced toys had a measured gauge from rail centre to rail centre of rolled tinplate rail, with much latitude between flange & rail.

There are three different standards for the "0" scale, each of which uses tracks of 32mm for the standard gauge. The American version continues a dollhouse scale of 1:48. It is sometimes called "quarter-gauge", as in "one-quarter-inch to the foot". The British version continued the pattern of sub-contracting to Germans; so, at 7mm to the foot, it works out to a scale of 1:43.5. Later, MOROP, the European authority of model railroad firms, declared that the "0" gauge (still 32mm) must use the scale of 1:45. That is, in Europe the below-chassis dimensions have to be slightly towards 4ft. 6inches, to allow wheel/tyre/splasher clearance for smaller than realistic curved sections. "Live steam" railways, that you actually ride on, are built in many scales, such as 1-1/2", 1", and 3/4" to the foot. Common gauges are 7-1/2" (Western US) and 7-1/4" (Eastern US & rest of the world), 5", 4-3/4". Smaller Live Steam gauges do exist, but as the scale gets smaller, the pulling power decreases. One of the smallest gauges on which a live steam engine can pull a passenger is the now almost defunct 2-1/2" gauge.

Model robots
Japanese firms have marketed toys and models of what are often called mecha, nimble humanoid fighting robots. The robots which appear in animated shows, or anime are often depicted at a size between 15-20m in height, and so scales of 1:100 and 1:144 are common for these subjects, though other scales such as 1:72 are commonly used for robots and related subjects of different size. The most prolific manufacturer of mecha models is Bandai, whose Gundam kit lines were a strong influence in the genre in the 1980s. Even today, Gundam kits are the most numerous in the mecha modeling genre, usually with dozens of new releases every year. The features of modern Gundam kits, such as color molding and snap-fit construction, have become the standard expectations for other mecha model kits. Due to the fantasy nature of most anime robots, and the necessary simplicity of cel-animated designs, mecha models lend themselves well to stylized work, improvisations, and simple scratchbuilds. One of Gundam's contributions to

Scale model the genre was the use of a gritty wartime backstory as a part of the fantasy, and so it is almost equally fashionable to build the robots in a weathered, beaten style, as would often be expected for AFV kits as to build them in a more stylish, pristine manner.

Model rockets and spacecraft

Model rocket kits began as a development of model aircraft kits, yet the scale of 1:72 [V.close to 4mm.::1foot] never caught on. Scales 1:48 and 1:96 are used. There are some rockets of scales 1:128, 1:144, and 1:200, but Russian firms put their large rockets in 1:288. Heller is maintaining its idiosyncratic standard by offering some models in the scale of 1:125. Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community. Models based on ships from such franchises as Star Trek, Star Wars, and Battlestar Galactica are regularly sold and created in scales ranging from 1:24 to 1:1400 to 1:2500 to 1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships. Finemolds in Japan have recently released a series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in 1:72, and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic.

Model living creatures

Scale models of people and animals are found in a wide variety of venues, and may be either single-piece objects or kits which must be assembled, usually depending on the purpose of the model itself. For instance, models of people as well as both domestic and wild animals are often produced for display in model cities or railroads to provide a measure of detail or realism, and scaled relative to the trains, buildings, and other accessories of a certain line of models. If a line of trains or buildings does not feature models of living creatures, those who build the models will often buy these items separately from another line in the interest of featuring people or animals. In other cases, scale model lines will feature living creatures exclusively, often focusing on educational interests. Sometimes animal figurines will not adhere to a particular scale, but some companies endeavor to produce models that are as accurately scaled as possible. One of the foremost producers of such scale models is Safari Ltd., known for such lines as the Carnegie Collection, a line of dinosaur replicas that adheres to a 1:40 scale, and the Vanishing Wild Collection, featuring mammal figures on a scale of 1:15. Another to specialize in this field is Tamiya, who produce dinosaurs in 1/35 scale. Models of living creatures requiring assembly are not as common as single-piece units, but certainly not unheard of. One of the most prolific kinds of kits requiring assembly that feature living creatures are models of human and animal skeletons. Like their single-piece counterparts, such kits are often touted as being educational activities. Skeleton kits often have unique features such as glow-in-the-dark pieces or attachable internal organs. Again, dinosaurs are a popular subject for such models. There are also garage kits which are often figures of anime characters in multiple parts which require assembly.

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Model ships and naval wargaming

In the first half of the 20th century, navies used hand-made models of warships for identification and instruction in a variety of scales. That of 1:500 was called "teacher scale." Besides models made in 1:1200 and 1:2400 scales, there were also ones made to 1:2000 and 1:5000. Some, made in Britain, were labelled "1 inch to 110 feet," which would be 1:1320 scale, but aren't necessarily accurate. Michele Morciano says small scale ship models were produced in about 1905 linked to the wargaming rules and other publications of Fred T Jane. The company Pendon Museum's model of Madderport that standardised on 1:1200 was Basset-Lowke in 1908. The British Admiralty subsequently contracted with Basset-Lowke and other companies and individual craftsmen to produce large numbers of recognition models, to this scale, in 1914-18.[2] Just before the Second World War, the American naval historian (and science fiction author) Fletcher Pratt published a book on naval wargaming as could be done by civilians using ship models cut off at the waterline to be moved on the floors of basketball courts and similar locales. The scale he used was non-standard (reported as 1:666), and may have been influenced by toy ships then available, but as the hobby 1:1250 scale die-cast models of ships progressed, and other rule sets came into use, it was progressively supplemented by the series 1:600, 1:1200, and 1:2400. In Britain, 1:3000 became popular and these models also have come into use in the USA. These had the advantage of approximating the nautical mile as 120inches, 60inches, and 30inches, respectively. As the knot is based on this mile and a 60-minute hour, this was quite handy. After the war, firms emerged to produce models from the same white metal used to make toy soldiers. One British firm offered a tremendously wide line of merchant ships and dockyard equipment in the scale 1:1200. In the US, at least one manufacturer, of the wartime 1:1200 recognition models, Comet, made them available for the civilian market postwar, which also drove the change to this scale. In addition, continental European manufacturers and European ship book publishers had adopted the 1:1250 drawing scale because of its similar convenience in size for both models and comparison drawings in books.

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11

A prestige scale for boats, comparable to that of 1:32 for fighter planes, is 1:72, producing huge models, but there are very few kits marketed in this scale. There are now several clubs around the world for those who choose to scratch-build radio-controlled model ships and submarines in 1:72, which is often done because of the compatibility with naval aircraft kits. For the smaller ships, plank-on-frame or other wood construction kits are offered in the traditional shipyard scales of 1:96, 1:108, or 1:192 (half of 1:96). In injection-molded plastic kits, Airfix makes full-hull models in the scale which the Royal Navy has used to Ship in bottle: this model ship is contained in an compare the relative sizes of ships: 1:600. Revell makes some kits to impossible bottle intended to mystify the viewer half the scale of the US Army standard: 1:570. Some American and about how it was encapsulated. foreign firms have made models in a proportion from the Engineer's scale: "one-sixtieth-of-an-inch-to-the-foot", or 1:720. But the continental Europeans have an on-going project of getting rid of all conversions and measurements which they consider non-standard. As they saw how four Japanese model-making firms (Tamiya, Hasegawa, Aoshima, and Fujimi) formed a cartel to apportion out the project of putting out waterline kits of the whole fleet of Japanese warships of the Second World War on the market in a proportion that no firm from any other country did - 1:700, the Europeans are attempting to have the scale of 1:400 standardized for full-hull model ships, even though some Japanese firms have produced larger ships in the luxury scale of 1:350. On the other hand, the rise of the resin kit industry in the 1990s led to the introduction of companies around the world producing kits in the 1:350 and 1:700 scales to match pre-existing injection molded kits, creating in limited production a large variety of kits of subjects which traditional injection-molding makers have not invested resources to produce, due to the expense of creating a large injection mold. In scales more conducive to wargaming, continental Europeans have long marketed waterline kits in the scales 1:1250 and more recently 1:2500 to supplement the British and American lines. The Chinese are joining them. Such trends toward standardization has not affected the Japanese firm Nichimo, which still produces fit-in-the-box sizes from old molds, and 1:450 size models.

Manned ship models

Many research workers, hydraulics specialists and engineers have used scale models for over a century, in particular in towing tanks. Manned models are small scale models that can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. They must behave just like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Physical conditions such as wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels and berths must be reproduced realistically. Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port layout) and for training in shiphandling (e.g. maritime pilots, masters and officers). They are usually at 1:25 scale.

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Model tanks and wargaming

Just before the 20th century, the British historian (and science fiction author and forgotten mainstream novelist) H. G. Wells published a book, Little Wars, on how to play at battles in miniature. His books use 54mm lead figures, particularly those manufactured by Britains. His fighting system employed spring-loaded model guns which shot matchsticks. This use of physical mechanisms was echoed in the later games of Fred Jane, whose rules required throwing darts at ship silhouettes; his collection of data on the world's fleets was later published and became renowned. Dice have largely replaced this toy mayhem for consumers.

American Civil War miniature battle at the HMGS "Cold Wars" convention in Lancaster, PA

For over a century, toy soldiers were made of white metal, a lead-based alloy, often in architect's scale-based ratios in the English-speaking countries, and called tin soldiers. After the Second World War, such toys were on the market for children but now made of a safe plastic softer than styrene. American children called these "army men". Many sets were made in the new scale of 1:40. A few styrene model kits of land equipment were offered in this and in 1:48 and 1:32 scales. However, these were swept away by the number of kits in the scale of 1:35. Those who continued to develop miniature wargaming preferred smaller scale models, the soldiers still made of soft plastic. Airfix particularly wanted people to buy 1:76 scale soldiers and tanks to go with "00" gauge train equipment. Roco offered 1:87 scale styrene military vehicles to go with "H0" gauge model houses. However, although there is no 1:72 scale model railroad, more toy soldiers are now offered in this scale because it is the same as the popular aircraft scale. The number of fighting vehicles in this scale is also increasing, although the number of auxiliary vehicles available is far fewer than in 1:87 scale. A more recent development, especially in wargaming of land battles is 15mm white metal miniatures, often referred to as 1:100. The use of 15mm scale metals has grown quickly since the early 1990s as they allow a more affordable option over 28mm if large battles are to be refought, or a large number of vehicles represented. The rapid rise in the detail and quality of castings at 15mm scale has also helped to fuel their uptake by the wargaming community. Armies use smaller scales still. The US Army specifies models of the scale 1:285 for its sand table wargaming. There are metal ground vehicles and helicopters in this scale, which is a near "one-quarter-inch-to-six-feet" scale. The continental powers of NATO have developed the similar scale of 1:300, even though metric standardizers really don't like any divisors other than factors of 10, 5, and 2, so maps are not commonly offered in Europe in scales with a "3" in the denominator. Consumer wargaming has since expanded into fantasy realms, employing scales large enough to be painted in imaginative detail - so called "heroic" 28mm figures, (roughly 1:64, or S scale). Firms which produce these do so in so small production lots that they are necessarily made of white metal.

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Engine models
Several kits for building an engine model are available, especially for kids.[3] The most popular are the internal combustion, steam, jet, and stirling model engine. Usually they move using an electric motor or a hand crank, and many of them have a transparent case to show the internal process in action.

Scales
For a more complete list of scale model sizes, see List of scale model sizes and Rail transport modelling scales Rail transport modellings have unique scale/gauge designations, such as: Z; N; H0; 00; EM; P4; 0; S; 1. Model figure scales are usually expressed as the height of a six-foot (1.83 m) figure; for example: 54mm. Other model scales are generally given as a ratio which expresses what a measurement on the model represents on the actual object. When buying a model train, scale sizes are referred to by letter name, not number ratio. For hydraulic models, specific scale rules are applied in order to obtain the correct reproduction of physical phenomenae.

Before the plastic model kit industry

Hobbyists' scale models derive from those used by the firms which made the full-sized products. Originally, a "scale" was a physical measuring instrument, a notion which survives as concerns weight. First among scales are the rulers that are triangular in cross-section and called architect's scales or engineer's scales. The terminology used was of this manner: "scale size to full size", or the reverse. An architect's scale was used to make the first affordable models: doll houses and their furniture. Its popular scales for these miniatures were "one inch to the foot" and "one-half inch to the foot"; there is also "three-quarters inch to the foot". The proportion of the model to the prototype was originally called "size", as in "full-sized" or "half-sized", as used on a blueprint for making something that would fit on a workbench. Shipyards were the first to use the scales to make models of things larger than a house. The scales they used were expressed in a different manner: "one-foot-to-the-inch" through "six-feet-to-the-inch" were common. During the Second World War, battleship models were made "eight-foot-to-the-inch", in the later phrasing, "one-eighth-inch to the foot"; you will find these models, used for training workers, in maritime museums. The model ship would be referred to as "one-ninety-sixth size", or "1/96th", but rarely, as there were few scales commonly used; it couldn't possibly be "1/98th scale", for example. There were also rotary instruments in which one would line up marks on two dials to be able to translate measurements from units on the prototype to units on the model. After the production of kits to make plastic models became an industry, there were developed rulers marked in the model units and which are called scales.

Comparing scales
Phrases used are those of "larger" and "smaller" scales. The scale of 1/8"-to-the-foot is a larger scale than 1/16"-to-the-foot, even though the denominator is smaller. So a larger model is made to a larger scale. You can remember this in that a full-size, or full-scale, model is larger than a half-size model.

Origins of the plastic model kit

For aircraft recognition in the Second World War, the RAF selected models to the scale of "one-sixth inch to the foot" (which was two British lines, a legal division of length which didn't make it to America, besides being a standard shipyard scale). Although some consumer models were sold pre-war in Britain to this scale, the airmens' models were pressed out of ground-up old rubber tires. This is of course the still-popular 1:72 scale. It wasn't predestined to succeed; there were competitors.

Scale model The US Navy, in contrast, had metal models made to the proportion 1:432, which is "nine-feet-to-the-quarter-inch". At this scale, a model six feet is about half a statute mile; and seven feet about half a nautical mile. After the war, firms that moulded models from polystyrene entered the consumer marketplace, the American firm Revell notably offering a model of the Royal Coach around the time of the 1953 coronation. In the early years, firms offered models of aircraft and ships in "fit-the-box" size. A box that would make an impressive gift was specified, and a mould was crafted to make a model that wouldn't ludicrously slide around inside. Modellers could not compare models, nor switch parts from one kit to another. It was the British firm Airfix, whose first self assembly model was a Ferguson tractor around 1950, that brought the idea of the constant scale to the marketplace, and they picked the RAF's scale. In the 1960s, the company Monogram offered an aircraft actually labeled as " scale, which may have been a common contraction in factories. They meant "one-quarter-inch to the foot", or "one-forty-eighth size". Shortly thereafter, hobbyists lost the ability to distinguish the two, and now the proportion is referred to as scale.

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Terminology
The terms and the means of writing them down have changed, and for model kits they are now standardized for the European Union. In English-speaking countries, such terms as "1/72" were used, but the format with a colon as "1:72" is often preferred. The slash format is usually avoided with decimal fractions: "1/76.2" is usually not used; it's "1:76.2" instead. That hybrid 00 gauge can also be expressed by explicitly using a mixed system of units as "4 mm:1 ft" or "1 mm:3 in", but the dimensionless form makes comparison with other scales easier.

Rational choice of scales

The nominal height of a man is simple in the inch-based system: six feet. Many traditional scales are derived so that a figure of such a height against the model can be readily imagined as a simple relation to an inch. Although the metric system has specified a limited series of scales for blueprints and maps, when it comes to models, there may be a problem with these scales for a readily imagined person of 180 centimetres. Model railways have the additional difficulty of having to present the rail gauge as a simple number, the height of a person being secondary. Trade authorities in metric countries are attempting to specify scales that are simple mulitiples of 2 and 5, but neither tracks nor people seem to fit. In such cases, rationalization may actually be invoked for competitive advantage, to prevent interoperability with products from another manufacturing country.

Freedom Plaza is a scale model depicting the layout of the Federal Triangle and part of the National Mall, Washington, DC; the diagonal slash across the layout depicts Pennsylvania Avenue

On the other hand, wargaming scales have traditionally been traced to metric system, where the number of millimetres relate to the relative height of the human figure based on 180cm standard man. Therefore 25mm scale (popular in historical and fantasy wargaming) refers to 1:72 scale, whilst the 15mm scale (nowadays the most popular scale in ancient, medieval and Renaissance wargaming) refers to 1:120 scale (Many manufacturers refer to 15mm as 1:100 scale). Likewise, 50mm scale is the same as 1:35 military model scale, and 5mm equals 1:350 naval scale.

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Rationalisation typically falls into 2 categories: Industrial Trade, and Hobbies. Industrial trade covers areas like building and maritime architecture where universally accepted scales have been established and are conformed to both in the construction of models and drawings, in order to facilitate smoother co-operation between commercial parties. The rationalisation of hobby scales has been more gradual and organic; largely driven by clubs lobbying industry, as well as tradition, and indirectly, consumer demand. A couple of artificial efforts to standardise have not been successful: i.e. Tamiya in the 1970s with A 1:5000 model of the entire Singapore City is aircraft models in 1/100th scale, and Heller with airline models in found in the URA Gallery Museum 1/125th scale. Even though rationalisation in hobby scales sounds appealing, it has not proved to be historically evident, although there may be some very gradual progress as consumer demand becomes more organised.

Miniatures in contemporary art

Miniatures and model kits are used in contemporary art whereby artists use both scratch built miniaturizations or commercially manufactured model kits to construct a dialogue between object and viewer. The role of the artist in this type of miniature is not necessarily to re-create an historical event or achieve naturalist realism, but rather to use scale as a mode of articulation in generating conceptual or theoretical exploration. Political, conceptual, and architectural examples are provided by noted artists such as Jake and Dinos Chapman (otherwise known as the Chapman Brothers), Ricky Swallow, John Timberlake, Shaun Wilson or the Psikhelekedana artists from Mozambique, James Casebere, Oliver Boberg, Daniel Dorall, Lori Nix and Bill Finger.

Cultural references
In the movie Zoolander the character Mugatu entices Derek Zoolander to model for his fashion label by offering to build an educational facility and shrine to Zoolander's dead friends called "Derek Zoolander's Centre for Kid's Who Can't Read Good and Other Things". Mugatu shows Zoolander a scale model of the centre and Zoolander freaks out because he thinks it is at 1:1 scale, and thus, very small. He demands that the building must be at least "3 times the size". In the movie This Is Spinal Tap, the band request a stage design of the Neolithic site Stonehenge to accompany their song of the same name. Instead of the full size, tiny models are built as it turns out the units on the construction drawing were marked as inches (") instead of feet (').

Daniel Dorall, Asylum, 2005, cardboard, sand, hydrocryl, plastic, 20 x 10 x 4 cm

Season 7 of TV series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation dealt with the pursuit of The Miniature Killer, a serial killer who would leave a half-inch scale model of the crime scene at each of her murders.

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See also
Computer-aided design Die-cast toy Historical Miniatures Gaming Society IPMS, International Plastic Modellers' Society Maquette Miniature effect Miniature faking Miniature figure Miniature park Miniature pioneering Plastic model Rail transport modelling scale standards Solar system model Standard gauge in model railways

References
[1] In the Lego community, micro scale can refer to anything smaller than minifig scale (1:48), but 1:192 is occasionally set as a standard micro scale. This ratio is arrived at by scaling a person (6 ft) to the height of a Lego brick (3/8 inches). See The Unofficial Lego Builder's Guide by Alan Bedford, No Starch Press, 2005. [2] Michele Morciano, 'Classic Waterline Ship Models in the 1:1200/1250 scale', self published, Rome 2003, page 5 [3] http:/ / www. discoverthis. com/ engine-kits. html

External links
Association of Professional Model Makers, APMM (http://www.modelmakers.org/) Scale model (http://www.dmoz.org/Recreation/Models/Scale/) at the Open Directory Project

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1:144 scale
1:144 scale is a scale used for some scale models such as micro/mini armor. 1:144 means that the dimensions of the model are 1/144 (0.694%) the dimensions of the original life-sized object. For instance, an airplane 30feet (9.14 m) in length would be a mere 2.5inches (63.5 mm) long as a 1:144 scale model. 1:144 scale finished and semi-finished Models are becoming a popular trend not just in Japan or Asia. Many European and American collectors welcoming them both in model military vehicle display and miniature wargaming purposes. It is twice as large as traditional micro armor / mini armor of the 1:285 (~6mm (0.236 in) figure) and 1:300 (~5mm (0.197 in) figure) scale yet practically just as useful.

1:144 (~12mm (0.472 in) figure) scale modeling and miniatures are considered closely related to N scale (1:148-1:160 scale) (~10mm (0.394 in) figure) and many pieces from both scales can be used interchangeably.

A 1:144 scale HACS-02HG-MPS Grizzly, from Dream Pod 9's tabletop miniatures wargame Heavy Gear Blitz!

Dollhouses and Miniatures

In the construction and use of dollhouses, 1:144 scale represents the scale that a 1:12 scale dollhouse would have in a 1:12 scale dollhouse. This is often called Dolls' dollhouse or Dollhouse's dollhouse. At this scale, a typical house is about 50mm (1.969 in) across. Making internal parts for such a house is a difficult task for the home hobbyist. Commercial manufacturers often use laser cutting technology to ensure clean lines.

Die-cast Models
1:144 is a popular scale for die-cast model airplanes. This scale is usually for large aircraft such as airliners and bombers. Racing Champions also made many lines of 1:144 scale cars and trucks during the late 1990s. Scale models were made of Nascar stock cars, NHRA funny cars and top fuel rail dragsters, classic automobiles, sought-after muscle cars, and even semi trucks. Although these Ertl-manufactured models are described as 1:144 scale; most, if not all, are actually 1.5in (38.1 mm) replicas.

Action Figures
1:144 scale is also the primary scale of High Grade Gundam model-kits and toys.

Plastic Military Models

There are also a growing number of 1:144 military models. The scale (compatible with the N scale of railroad modeling) gained popularity in Japan (perhaps due to the spatial constraints of the typical Japanese home). The available products include pre-painted and assembled WWII / modern armour such as Doyusha's CanDo line and Subarudo's World Tank Museum line, and pre-painted, semi-assembled WWII aircraft. Military miniature companies like Pendraken, Pithead Miniatures, Game Figures Inc. and Magister Militum produce a wide variety of artillery pieces, tanks, infantry vehicles and support weapons in this scale. 1:144 offers wargamers the satisfaction of much greater detail than "micro armour" (which comes in 1:285 and 1:300 scales and of which 1:144 scale is approximately and conveniently twice as large) with the models remaining small enough to fight entire battles on a

1:144 scale simple dinner table. So far the games meant specifically for 1:144 scale are Heavy_Gear (Dream Pod 9 (1994)) and World Tank Campaigns (Takara Tomy (2009)).

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Manufacturers of 1:144 Scale Micro Armor

Companies that produce 1:144 scale miniature tanks / micro armor sets include the following: Dragon Models Limited (Doyusha) "Can.Do"[1] "Pocket Army" (blind box) (pre-painted plastic) Takara Tomy (Subarudo, Kaiyodo) - Panzertales "World Tank Museum" [2] (Injection Molded Plastic) (blind box) To be used in the same companies "World Tank Campaigns" game 21st Century Toys (produces "Ultimate Soldier") - New Millennium Toys: "WWII Classic Armor" (sold at stores like Wal-Mart) Furuta Confectionery - Easy-Snap (blind box) MiniHobbyModels Trumpeter Pegasus Hobbies - "Military Museum Collection" (Plastic) Panzer Depot (Resin Cast) Unimax - Forces of Valor "Macho Machines" (pre-painted die cast metal) Konami - JSDF Series ACI Toys Company Ltd. - "Metal Troops Creation" Popy - "Projekt Panzer" Preiser (Plastic) (tank crews) DAMEYA (trucks) F-Toys - 1/144 Workshops (may be aircraft only) Combat Group Dynamix (CGD) - 1:144 Micro Dioramas and Accessories, 1:144 Wargaming series armour, and accessories for 1:144 wargaming (all have pre-painted and unpainted models). Pro Hobby Pendraken Miniatures - large range of vehicles from WWI through to Vietnam. Pithead Miniatures Magister Militum Wargames South

Manufacturers of N Scale Micro Armor

Minifigs / Game Figures Inc (GFI) - producers of N scale metallic micro armor specifically for miniature wargaming. GHQ - producers of N scale and primarily 1:285 scale metallic micro armor specifically for miniature wargaming since 1967. Combat Group Dynamix (CGD) - WarGoesOn series, "Micro-Diorama" series - dioramas for 1:144 scale, compatible with N scale/1:160 scale. Interestingly, this company uses a special 3D computer printer to produce its newer products. Perrin DM Toys Herpa/Roco - "Roco Minitanks"

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Model Warship Combat Models

The majority of model warships built for model warship combat are constructed from scratch or partial kits in 1/144 scale although some exist in other scales.

References
[1] Can.DO (http:/ / www. dragon-models. com/ catalog/ cando/ ) [2] World Tank Museum (http:/ / www. world-tank-museum. com/ )

External links
Panzer Depot (http://www.panzerdepot.com/) CGD Facebook (http://www.facebook.com/pages/CombatGroupDynamix/145539380721?ref=s) Pendraken Forum (http://www.pendrakenforum.co.uk/) 144 Mini Armour Discussion Forum (http://144miniarmour.yuku.com/) Kampfgruppe144 Blog (http://kampfgruppe144.blogspot.com/) - a popular blog about a lot of different 1/144 scale models. DivisionPanzer144 (http://divisionpanzer.webnode.es/)

John Adam (hoax)

John Adam is the name given by Islamic militants of a U.S. soldier that they claimed to have captured. A statement signed by the "Mujahedeen Brigades" claiming that they had captured "American military man John Adam" was posted on a Web site used by Islamic militants in January 2005, with a photo purporting to be Adam sitting with his hands tied behind his back with a rifle pointed at him. The U.S. military stated that no soldiers had been reported missing in Iraq, and a spokesperson for the American toy manufacturer Dragon Models USA, Inc. stated that the figure in the photo actually appears to be one of the "Special Ops Cody" action figures they manufacture, and the rifle pointed at "Adam" was one of the accessories that comes with the toy.

References
Roberts, Joel (2005-02-01). "'Captured GI' A Real Doll" [1]. CBS News. "So-called U.S. hostage appears to be toy" [2]. CNN. 2005-02-01. Archived from the original [3] on Feb 03, 2005.

References
[1] http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2005/ 02/ 01/ iraq/ main670972. shtml [2] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050203001402/ http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2005/ WORLD/ meast/ 02/ 01/ iraq. hostage/ index. html [3] http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2005/ WORLD/ meast/ 02/ 01/ iraq. hostage/ index. html

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Aluminum Model Toys

Aluminum Model Toys, or AMT for short, was a Troy, Michigan based company that manufactured various pre-assembled plastic promotional models starting in 1948, when attorney West Gallogly, Sr. started it as a side business. Later, a variety of kits became very popular. Most of the company's vehicle products were American cars and trucks in 1:25 scale. In the 1970s, hot rods, customs, and movie and TV vehicles were also produced.

Startup
Because Gallogly had solid connections with Ford, he was able to place his first models exclusively in Ford dealerships starting a long promotional relationship (Cawthon 2002). Gallogly's first model was a Ford sedan cast in aluminum and painted with official Ford paint (Cawthon 2002). After issuing successful Ford sedan models, the company set up shop on Eight Mile Run Road outside Detroit (Chrysler 2008). In 1949, injection plastic molding became available and the aluminum models were abandoned, since different colors of plastic could be used (Cawthon 2002; at times, though, official paints were still applied to the promotionals). De-emphasizing the 'aluminum' Gallogly started using the initials of the company and the name became AMT. It should not be forgotten that the company's first products were pre-assembled plastic promotional models, only available through automobile (usually Ford) dealerships. During the 1950s, Gallogly turned day-to-day operations of his company over to George Toteff so West could see to his law firm (Cawthon 2002). Model design was kept in-house, but molding was out-sourced. Continental plastics in Fraser, Michigan, was one company to commonly mold AMT's models (Cawthon 2002).

Beyond Banthrico
AMT was the most successful company in the mid-1950s to mold accurate plastic models in 1:25 scale and sell them to auto manufacturer dealerships, but that success was not immediate. The promotional models were often given away in the showroom after a test drive, usually to children. For example, a 1958 Edsel ad prompted, "Road Check the Big One, Get a Little One Free" (Feder 1990). The company came on the coat-tails of Banthrico, which started making promotional banks of animals and buildings in the 1930s. After World War II, Banthrico continued with a focus on precision metal replica banks of cars, accurately painted, and mostly in 1:25 scale. According to promo aficionado Clarence Young (accessed 2010), these car models were used as 'paint chips' to display real car colors to prospective buyers. Through the early 1950s, Banthrico was the leader in metal promotional models. In the mid-1950s, contemporary competitors to AMT making plastic promotional models were Scale Model Products (SMP), Product Miniature Corporation (PMC), and Ideal Models which later became Jo-Han because of the name conflict with the Ideal Toy Company. Among these companies, SMP, of Birmingham, Michigan, is the most significant to AMT. Gradually, Banthrico, PMC, and others faded while AMT and Jo-Han gained momentum on the promo scene.

SMP 1959 Corvette 1:25 scale 3 in 1 kit instructions. Note similarity of logo, design of sheet, and even same address as compared to 1959 Mercury to the right.

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About 1958, SMP started what was to become the plastic modeling craze by introducing the 'annual' kit, often with a 3-in-1 theme where the model could be built in stock, custom, or racing versions. When Aluminum Model Toys bought SMP in 1961, it adopted SMP's logo, then a diamond shape (Doty 2007, 86). Also, the universally recognizable red rectangle with rounded corners shifted from SMP to AMT. The diagonal white letters were simply changed. Thus, it is not well-known that SMP created the 3 in 1 annual kit and logo, not AMT. It appears that AMT may have marketed both the SMP and AMT names simultaneously for a couple of years. On promo boxes, the diagonal SMP logo was copied by AMT but that style did not stay around long.

Promotionals Came First

AMT then, through the early 1960s, ruled supreme in the promotional (and kit) market rivaled only by Jo-Han. Newcomer MPC (Model Products Corporation) entered the arena in 1964 with their Corvette kit, followed by 1965 promotionals of the Dodge car line. Plastic model makers like Pyro Plastics Corporation and Premier Products came and went, while other kit makers focused on different vehicles. Lindberg rarely touched the promo market. Monogram focused on custom, hot rod, TV, movie, racing cars, aircraft, and ships. Revell did U.S. vehicles, but focused on European Sports and racing cars. Aurora Plastics Corporation specialized in aircraft, TV, classic Universal Monsters, figure kits and 1/32 car kits. A main idea is that in the United States after World War II, plastic became the most important material for the modeling and collecting hobby. The thinner labor and business environment supported only the simpler casting of cheaper materials for toys (though in great detail). In Europe, by contrast, complex die-cast metal zamac toys in smaller sizes with many opening features became the norm. These were more complex products for a labor structure driven by a densely populated craft guild environment. Such was absent in the United States.

AMT 1959 Mercury 3 in 1 kit. Design, logo, wording and 3 in 1 concept thanks to SMP.

Promotional details
Promotional models were exquisitely detailed and proportioned, and AMT became the main supplier of the pre-assembled model to American car companies. AMT worked most closely with Ford Motor Company and General Motors Corporation, but promo duties between the model manufacturers seemed to alternate year to year. Shapes of the vehicles were near perfect, though in the 1950s, cellulose acetate, the plastic of choice, was prone to serious warping. By 1960, a change to styrene solved the problem - styrene models 50 years later still maintain their form.

AMT promotional 1966 Chevrolet pickup in the standard 1:25 scale

Models were molded in different colors, but often painted with actual company paints, a practice that went back to the 1930s. Also, like with the 1964 Pontiac Grand Prix, the roof was cast in "vinyl" black. Script and emblem details were intricately molded into plastic bodies, grilles, and wheels. Hoods did not open and there was no engine detail and no interiors on most models in the 1950s. Thus promos without interior or engine detail were called 'coaster models' - as opposed to built kits with more detail. With the development of kits, however, viewing the interior became practical and as important as exterior appearance. Speedometer numbers could be read on the instrument

Aluminum Model Toys panels. Horn rings on the steering wheels were accurately depicted brand by brand. Early on, AMT chassis were often made of metal, but later, they were usually a single piece of plastic with lower engine, exhaust, and suspension details molded in a single piece with metal axles fit transverse through holes in the sides of the plastic. Normally, no operating suspension parts were seen. What was really fun was that AMT was well-known for molding sales specifications into the chassis, especially on Ford Motor Company cars. The promo 1962 Ford Galaxie, for example, had 13 different phrases molded on the chassis - from the very factual "Vacation volume trunk - 28 cu. ft" to the more fantastic "Enduring elegance with the power to please."

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Frictions
Commercial versions of the promos were marketed in retail toy stores and dime stores like Zayre and Murphy. A few, in the mid-1950s, like the 1954 Buick Roadmaster or the 1954 Ford Customline sedan, were also offered in remote control versions (Doty 2004a,86-87). In the 1960s, they commonly were sold for $1.00. Differences from dealer promos were the lack of manufacturing paint schemes (they were simply molded in different colors, like many other promotionals) and usually the addition of a friction motor located on the front axle, noticeable by the studded white vinyl gear that protruded around the axle (and through the oil pan!). By contrast, the promo version often had a special lower engine plate that covered where the friction motor was placed on the commercial model. As collectibles today, the friction models are worth somewhat less than official promos, but the quaintness of the frictions makes them equally appealing. Nevertheless, not all models offered as promotionals were made also as commercial frictions (like the 1964 Comet Caliente, which came as a dealer promo only). Even different were unassembled versions of the promo cars, like the AMT 1971 Ford Torino. These were typically simpler and easier to assemble than the full blown kits. In fact, before the 3 in 1 kits, discussed below, unassembled promos were offered as kits, without all the extra custom and hot rod parts (Doty 2004b, 88). These were sometimes molded in color (instead of the traditional white for the kits) and easily assembled without glue. Sometime in the mid-1970s, the importance of promotionals dwindled, but had not disappeared. AMT produced their last dealer promos for the 1972 model year. Eventually, models were offered only for the most sporty or prestigious cars, and sold in dealerships - not given away. Also, the auto companies, which earlier had seen promotional models as easy and free advertising, began to charge fees in the late 1980s for the use of their names and designs (Clor 1990). Thus smaller companies had a more difficult time affording manufacturing licensing. Models began to appear in dealerships in metal by Ertl and Brookfield Collector's Guild - and in many scales besides 1:25. Through the 1990s, AMT/Ertl continued some plastic promotionals, in the traditional fashion, though metallic flake molded into the plastics was a new twist. These models were now made in China and mainly were Corvettes and Vipers. Plastic promotionals still exist, like the AMT/Ertl 2008 Dodge Challenger, but it costs at least $30.00 and is also molded in China. Not many kids are getting their hands on them.

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Then Came Kits

It is important to remember that, in the 1950s, promotional models came first, followed by kit development. Jim Donnelly, of Hemmings Classic Car wrote, "...once companies realized that built up promos were already licensed, they could be reintroduced as assembly kits" (Donnelly 2009). In typical AMT kits, parts were molded onto "trees" and could be easily separated and then assembled. Product lines of stock model cars were soon augmented with parts to complete custom cars and hot rod variants from stock production vehicles. So the 'annual kit' was an extra sales benefit coming from the annual promotional model. As mentioned above, this configuration was soon named the '3 in 1' kit where the modeler could build a car in 'stock', 'custom', or 'hot rod' form by selecting different parts offered in the box. Some of AMT's first successful kits were of 1932 and other early Fords, and these were reissued several times over the years (Doty 2009,87).

AMT 3 in 1 1957 Thunderbird kit instructions. Notice the distinction made between 'customizing' and 'stylizing'.

AMT's 3 in 1 'Trophy' kits in the early 1960s usually came with mini-biographies of popular customizers of the day such as Bill Cushenberry, Dean Jeffries, Alex Kraus, Gene Winfield, the Alexander Brothers, and, of course, George Barris, most of whom were employed by AMT. Gene Winfield closed his California shop to work with AMT (Cawthon 2002). Further, on the instructions, there was often a separate section on 'customizing hints' by George Barris exclusively. An extreme example was the 1957 Ford Thunderbird kit. Instructions gave 5 whole pages to 'stylizing', a practice of adding parts using body putty and sanding which went beyond mere 'customizing'. These were all tips besides the normal assembly instructions. Included in th '57 'Bird kit were also 'street rod', 'drag bird', and 'Bonneville' styles all suggested by George Barris. Thus AMT and other kit makers had made serious changes in their market approach by, say, 1965. Whereas the dealer focused promotionals were previously the most important business, by the mid-1960s a whole new market involving customizing and customizers, often linked to TV and Movie themes was driving AMT, and other model companies. AMT offered some foreign car kits, but usually only if they were associated with U.S. car companies or a film favorite. A prime example was the 1971 Opel GT which was a General Motors product. Foreign car kits were left to the likes of Monogram or Revell. Custom TV and movie custom cars, often by George Barris, like the ZZT, or the Monkeemobile, were also popular. By the early to mid-1960s, modeling had exploded in popularity and the business of kit sales easily overcame that of promotionals. Model Products Corporation, known as MPC, entered the promotional and kit scene in 1965, and by 1970 was just as popular as AMT. To fight back, AMT started offering kits for an even wider variety of machines and themes.

Big trucks
In in the 1960s, competition forced diversification and AMT added new product lines, specifically trucks. For example, its early "Dirt Hauler" kit was merely a generic tractor-trailer with dumping trailer. Then, in 1969, AMT released the "California Hauler 359" kit. This new kit was a revolution for model building, a realistic model of a Peterbilt 359 tractor-trailer, the design having been copied from the manufacturer's specifications. It also had an authentic 8V71 Detroit Diesel under the hood. The kit lacked a sleeper cab, but there was a coupon that could be sent in along with 10 cents to get it. The following year, the second version was issued - with sleeper cab. Due to the success of the California Hauler 359, AMT proceeded to issue more truck kits through the 1970s. Examples of

Aluminum Model Toys offerings were the Chevrolet Titan/GMC Astro, Peterbilt 352, Kenworth W925, Autocar A64B, and White Road Boss. Trailer kits to accompany these trucks, such as box, flatbeds, refrigerated, and tankers were introduced. These kits tended to cost about $5. When the TV series Movin' On debuted in 1974, AMT made new versions of many of their truck kits with new features such as CB radios, dragfoilers, and sometimes new engines. For example, the Peterbilt 359 kit was given a Cummins NTC-350 diesel engine, a larger-windowed 1100 series cab (as opposed to the small-windowed Unilite cab), and a larger bumper - in addition to the previously-mentioned CB radio and dragfoiler. When Ertl bought AMT in 1981 (forming AMT-Ertl), many of AMT's old truck kits were reissued, but completely new models were rare except for the Kenworth T600A. In addition, some of Ertl's plastic model truck kits were reissued under the AMT-Ertl brand. Many of the old AMT truck kits can be found on auction sites like eBay, often commanding fairly high prices.

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Star Trek, and other science fiction

Around 1966, AMT obtained the plastic model rights to Star Trek, and developed a model kit of the Starship Enterprise, beginning a long association between AMT and both science fiction and television. The original model of the Enterprise was equipped with battery-operated lights; even after the lights were deleted, a number of features from the lighted model persisted in the kit, including a removable "main deflector" assembly. By the 1980s, an ongoing series of revisions to the tooling to correct various inaccuracies (which unfortunately also created a few new inaccuracies, such as a deflector dish that is far too small, and incorrectly-shaped fins on the nacelle caps) and mechanical problems eventually included deletion of the removable deflector dish. There was also a kit of the Klingon ship seen on the TV show, and it too was lighted in the first couple of issues of the kit. By the mid 1970s, the Enterprise kit had been joined by a 1/12 scale figure of Spock, defending himself against a 3-headed reptile on an alien landscape, as well as models of a Romulan ship, a Starfleet Shuttlecraft, a model of the Enterprise Bridge, the Space Station K-7 (from the episode The Trouble With Tribbles), and a 3-piece "exploration set" (consisting of toylike, approximately 3/4 scale models of a phaser, a communicator, and a tricorder). To date (July 2010) Round 2 has reissued the Spock model, the Enterprise and the K-7 Space Station, all from the original AMT molds, with the Romulan ship scheduled for October 2010 reissue. The Shuttlecraft and the Klingon ship kits have been announced for a 2011 reissue. In 1968 AMT also produced a kit of a science fiction spaceship designed by Matt Jeffries (the man that designed the Enterprise for Star Trek ), the Leif Ericson. This tooling was reused in the middle 1970s, albeit without several engine and ship parts as well as the original stand and the landing gear to the scout ship, to produce a glow-in-the-dark "UFO" kit. The glow UFO model was reissued in 2010, from the original molds,(and this time including the missing ship parts and the Scout ship landing gear - although still missing the engine parts on the main ship,as well as the original ship stand, as the tooling couldn't be found when the kit was reissued), by Round 2, which owns all the original AMT tooling. AMT-Ertl has also reissued the former Model Products Corporation kits of various Star Wars spacecraft, and has added several new designs based on the prequel trilogy.

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Fire engines
In the 1970s, AMT issued models of at least three different pieces of American LaFrance fire-fighting apparatus, including a pumper, a rear-mount aerial ladder truck, and a rear-mount articulating boom truck. The prototypes were selected to maximize the number of shared parts (e.g., almost all of the cab and diesel motor parts), apparently in order to minimize tooling costs. All 3 kits have been reissued by AMT-Ertl in recent years. Surprisingly, given the company's penchant for licensing various television series, they did not offer models of any of the vehicles (e.g., the Crown Firecoach that was the first Engine 51, the Ward LaFrance P80 Ambassador that was the second Engine 51, or the Dodge rescue squad) from the then-current Emergency! series; neither did the decals supplied with the American LaFrance kits include markings for the Los Angeles County Fire Department (featured in the series). In addition, they also released a Chevrolet fire chief's car and a Chevrolet rescue van, the latter of which could be built in 4 configurations: stock, custom, fire department, or police department.

AMT Today
In 1977, British Lesney, makers of Matchbox bought AMT and moved the company to Baltimore (Cawthon 2002). By this time prices of plastics had increased and Detroit was squeezed by government regulations of safety, emissions, and fuel economy. Detroit sponsored fewer and fewer promotionals and model companies depended more on kits - but the building hobby declined as well. In 1981, AMT was purchased by Ertl from Lesney and renamed AMT/Ertl. AMT/Ertl then had a 26 year relationship until AMT was sold in 2007. For a time, AMT kits were reissued by independent companies such as Stevens International and Model King, before AMT came solidly into the stable of Round 2 LLC of South Bend, Indiana. In an ironic turn that parallels other large companies owning several brands that were previously competitors (read Mattel owning Matchbox), AMT now co-exists in the same organization alongside a revived MPC, Polar Lights, and - Ertl, which Round 2 also bought up.

References Cited
Bill Cawthon. 2002. 3 in 1:87, Promotex Online Articles [1], December 15. Chrysler Museum. 2008. Display text. Model display in museum basement. Auburn Hills, Michigan. John M. Clor. 1990. Squeeze Play, AutoWeek, December 3, pp.1719. Jim Donnelly. 2009. Promoting the Past, Hemmings Classic Car, April, P. 37. Dennis Doty. 2004a. '54s for Every Taste, Collectible Automobile, 20/5:86-89. Dennis Doty. 2004b. 'Birds in the Hand, Collectible Automobile, 21/1:88-90. Dennis Doty. 2007. A Ton of '61s, Collectible Automobile, 24/3:86-89. Dennis Doty. 2009. A Mountain of Models to Scale, Collectible Automobile, 25/6:86-89. Anne Feder. 1990. Preoccupied by Promotionals, AutoWeek, December 3, pp.2021. Clarence Young. 2010. Clarence Young Autohobby website. Accessed February 5.

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External links
AMT website [2] Clarence Young Autohobby [3] Leif Ericson plastic model [4]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / www. promotex. ca/ articles/ cawthon/ 2002/ 12-15-2002_article. html http:/ / www. round2models. com/ http:/ / www. carhobby. com/ index. html#Clarence http:/ / www. projectrho. com/ SSC/ model. html

Architectural model
Not be confused with Software Architectural Model An architectural model is a type of a scale model, tangible (also called sometimes physical) representation of a structure built to study aspects of an architectural design or to communicate design ideas to clients, committees, and the general public. Architectural models are a tool which may be used for show, presentation, fundraising, obtaining permits, and sale purposes. Rough study models can be made quickly using cardboard, wooden blocks, polystyrene, foam, foam boards and other materials. Such models are an efficient tool for three-dimensional understanding of a design, used by architects, interior designers and exhibit designers. For a highly detailed presentation model, architects would employ a professional model maker or model making company.

Architectural model promoting highrise condominium.

Purpose
Architectural models are used by architects for a range of purposes Quick, ad hoc models are sometimes made to study the interaction of volumes, or to get an idea of how they look from different angles. Designing a building using rough models can be a very open-ended and practical method of exploring ideas. Models are an efficient method for exhibiting and selling a design. Many people, including developers and would-be house buyers, cannot visualise a design in three dimensions (3-D) from two-dimensional (2-D) drawings. An architect may employ small-scale physical models, or digital computer models, to help explain the ideas. A model may be useful in explaining a complicated or unusual design to the building team, or as a focus for discussion between the design teams such as architects, engineers and town planners. Models are also used as show pieces, for instance as a feature in the reception of a prestigious building, or as part of a museum exhibition (for example scale replicas of historical buildings).

Architectural model

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Types
Some types of model include Exterior models are models of buildings which usually include some landscaping or civic spaces around the building. Interior models are models showing interior space planning, finishes, colors, furniture and beautification. Landscaping design models are models of landscape design and development representing features such as walkways, small bridges, pergolas, vegetation patterns and beautification. Landscaping design models usually represent public spaces and may, in some cases, include buildings as well. Urban models are models typically built at a much smaller scale (starting from 1:500 and less, 1:700, 1:1000, 1:1200, 1:2000, 1:20 000), representing several city blocks, even a whole town or village, large resort, campus, industrial facility, military base and so on. Urban models are a vital tool for town/city planning and development. Engineering and construction models show isolated building/structure elements and components and their interaction.

Model of a museum building.

Virtual modelling
Model of a building interior.

Over the last few decades, detailed construction has been increasingly designed in CAD (Computer Aided Design) systems. The technology is improving rapidly. Early virtual modelling involved the fixing of arbitrary lines and points in virtual space, mainly to produce technical drawings. Modern packages include advanced features such as databases of components, automated engineering calculations, visual fly-throughs, dynamic reflections, and accurate textures and colours. While virtual tours are undoubtedly useful, they are still limited to images on a computer screen and lack the sensory impact, or qualia, of a physical model.

Model of an historic building

Materials
Common materials used for centuries in architectural model building were card stock, balsa wood, basswood and other woods. Modern professional architectural model builders are taking advantage of twenty-first century materials, such as Taskboard, a variety of plastics, wooden and wooden-plastic composites, foams and urethane compounds. A number of companies produce ready-made pieces for structural components (e.g. girders, beams), siding, furniture, figures (people), vehicles, trees, bushes and other features which are found in the
Ancient Chinese model of two residential towers, made of earthenware during the Han Dynasty, 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD

Architectural model models. Features such as vehicles, people figurines, trees, street lights and other are called "scenery elements" and serve not only to beautify the model, but also to help the observer to obtain a correct feel of scale and proportions represented by the model. Increasingly, rapid prototyping and solid freeform fabrication ('3D printing') are used to automatically construct models straight from CAD plans.[1] The challenge with using these tools lies in the CAD file format. The majority of 3D printers accept the stereolithography (.STL for short) file format, which is basically a mesh that wraps around the object in 3-dimensions. It helps to visualize this as a bag of oranges wrapped in a mesh bag. If there is a "tear" in the bag, the oranges will spill out. This is similar to what happens when an STL file is not cleanly produced and prematurely sent to a 3D printer.[2] Clean STL files are a major challenge for architecture models produced using this technology. Other rapid prototyping technology, also CAD based, which become very useful for architectural model making is CNC carving. Large CNC carving plotters are able to carve out of high density foam boards up to 10' x 4' topography for architectural or urban model. Recently a small profile CNC carving plotter has been released which allows low-cost rapid prototyping of buildings and topography from other file types, including Google SketchUp's KMZ format and ArcGIS. ([3] )

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Scales
Architectural models are being constructed at much smaller scale than their 1:1 counterpart. Standard architectural scales are different, although some of them are close to the standard scales acknowledged in the model/hobby industry. Such similarities allow us to provide high quality scenery elements for architectural models. Sometimes model railroad scales such as 1:160 and 1:87 are used due to ready availability of commercial figures, vehicles and trees in those scales, and models of large buildings are most often built in approximately that range of scales due to size considerations. Models representing 1-2 buildings and a modest piece of surrounding landscape may be built at a larger scale such as 1:50 or even 1:24. Here is a useful *Scale Guide [4] to obtain more information about standard architectural scales and to help with scale selection. Architects usually employ a professional model maker or model making company to create such models.

Paper Architectural Model

Today, printable architectural models exist and are like origami. This takes a high level of skill in order to accomplish in a proper manner.*[5]

See also
Scale model Maquette Architectural rendering Building model (non-architectural)

Origamic Architecture (OA)

Paper Architectural Models of (left to right) a Bungalow, an Office and a House.

References
[1] Rapid prototyping for architectural models (http:/ / filebox. vt. edu/ users/ brmill12/ Academic/ p91. pdf) (PDF) - Gibson, Ian; Kvan, Thomas & Ming, Ling Wai; University of Hong Kong, Rapid Prototyping, Volume 8, Number 2, 2002, Pages 9199 [2] (http:/ / www. sweetonioncreations. com/ assets/ pdf/ 3dprinting_architecture. pdf) [3] 2Bot - "For Architects and GIS Professionals" (http:/ / www. 2bot. com) [4] http:/ / www. architectural-models. info/ scale. htm [5] http:/ / www. minibldg. com

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External links
Association of Professional Model Makers (APMM) (http://www.modelmakers.org/) Dolls House Theatre (http://www.dollshousetheatre.co.uk) The first performing model theatre in the word dedicated to keeping "theatre alive". "Buildings in Miniature" (http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1240_buildings_in_miniature/). Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-06-16. Construction scale models (http://www.lasmaquetas.com/) ( www.lasmaquetas.com ) Architectural and monuments scale models (Spanish)

Autofest City
Autofest City is India's largest collection of authentic scale models founded by brothers Clyde and Neil D'Costa. The collection has authentic replicas spanning over 140 years of transportation history, with special emphasis on automobiles. Autofest City has replicas of historically important automobiles from leading marques like Ferrari, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Lamborghini, Porsche, Jaguar and Volkswagen. Autofest City, is housed in a 720 sq. ft. building and has earned international acclaim for its unique displays.

Essentially teamwork at Autofest City - the 'A' Team (L to R) Clyde, Tessy, Deena & Neil D'Costa

The early years

The collection began with two Scale 40 models by Maisto bought at a store in Mysore in early 1996 and today has over 1,200 replicas of historically important automobiles. Adding value to the scale 40 & 43 models on display is dioramapetrol pumps, car washes, dealership buildings and theme parks, a truck stop, railway station, church, police station, construction site, club-house and business park.

Unique Displays

Autofest City's Scale 40 & 43 collection

Autofest City is a collection of interesting and informative displays of scale models. Within each display are technical details of the real automobile with a list of highlights, detailed photographs of the real automobile, printed logos, a photograph of the automobile companys founder (where applicable), a miniature flag of the country of origin and any other piece of information to enhance the value of the model on display.

Autofest City

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Autofest City's Firsts

The collection has authentic replicas of the world's first combustion engined automobiles, airplane and steam-engines. Scale 8, 1885 Daimler Reitwagen (the worlds 1st motorcycle)

The first motorized two-wheeler from Daimler

Scale 16, 1886 Daimler Motorcarriage (the worlds 1st 4-wheeled automobile)

The first car from Daimler

Scale 8, 1886 Benz Patent Motorwagen (the worlds 1st 3-wheeled automobile)

The first car by Karl Benz

Autofest City

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Scale8, 1893 Duryea Power Wagon (Americas 1st 4-wheeled car, which participated in and won the 1st automobile race in the world)

America's first four-wheeled car by the Duryea brothers

Scale 6, 1896 Ford Quadricycle (Henry Fords first car)

Henry Ford's first car

Scale 21, 1903 Wright Flyer One Under construction is a replica of the worlds first practical steam engineScale 26, 1829 Stevensons Locomotive. Being added to the collection very soon is the worlds first steam engine, the Scale 38, 1804 Trevithick's locomotive.

Autofest City's Series

Autofest City has its own exclusive series - The Decade Series, The Value Addition Series and The Nostalgic Cinema Series.
The world's first powered aircraft by the Wright Brothers

The Decade Series (20th Century) features at least one outstanding automobile from every decade in the 20th century, culminating with Motoring Around The World, featuring three outstanding automobiles from three major automobile manufacturing continents.

The Decade Series (1900-2000)

Autofest City

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The Nostalgic Cinema Series features automobiles either owned or used by film celebrities or used in motion pictures.

The Nostalgic Cinema Series

The Value Addition Series primarily features automobiles which have been customized by the brothers. The workshop scene displays too are a part of this series. Autofest City also has a good number of the final 100 nominees of the Car Of The Century which are a part of our COTC Series.

Models from Kits / Partially Scratch-built

Autofest City has a few models assembled from intricate kits, which in many instances have called for the use of more resourceful skills over the standard assembly instructions. The City also has customized scale models. Here are a few examples: Scale 18, 1956 Chevrolet tow-truck from a basic pickup by Mira. Modifications include, adding extra forward illumination on bumper, roof-mounted beacons, crane on the rear deck, overhead rear-illumination and hot-rod style, side-mounted muffler.
The Workshop Scene

Chevy Tow Truck

Scale 18, 1957 Mercedes-Benz 300 SLS modified from a regular 300SL model by Bburago. Modifications include removal of bumpers, stock windshield, filling up of corresponding holes in the body and re-spraying, fabrication of an aeroscreen, tonneau cover over passenger's seat, roll-over bar aft of driver's seat and chrome detailing on headlamps.

1957 Mercedes-Benz 300SLS

Autofest City

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Scale 16, 1930 Lincoln Towncar from an R Dietreich dual-phaeton body kit. Modifications include extending the length of the front door, re-hinging of rear door - 'suicide-style', fabrication of separator window and frame, fabrication of short top covering only passenger area, special two-tone town-car paint job.

1928 Lincoln Town Car

Scale 24, 1934 Rolls Royce Phantom II Towncar from standard open top kit by Minicraft Models. Modifications made to this model are almost similar to those of the 1930 Lincoln Towncar. Scale 24, Freightliner Tractor Trailer from wrecking truck kit by Minicraft Models.

1934 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Town Car

Scale 24, 2000 Volkswagen Beetle by Bburago with dual body paintwork.

2000 Volkswagen Neue Beetle

Autofest City's Diorama

Autofest City

34 Autofest City is essentially a family's effort. The D'Costa women are also actively involved gracing many displays with art and diorama.

HMMVV with Operation Desert Storm diorama

Antique roadway with a rural backdrop

Camping site : With a Scale 18, 1957 Cadillac Brougham and a 1957 Airstream Trailer, the other accessories are either bought out or hand-crafted by us for this display.

Camping Site Diorama

Recognition
Autofest City was first recognised by the Limca Book of Records, a Coca Cola Company publication in India, in its 2006 edition.[1] Since 2007 the collection was listed among noteworthy museums across the country. In 2009, the collection is declared the largest in the country and conferred with a National Record. The collection has been featured in a host of national magazines, national and regional newspapers[2] , and on two television channels. Rotary Mysore, the city's premier service club published a special edition bulletin on the collection after Neil delivered an audio-visual presentation at their club meeting jointly conducted with the Inner Wheel Club of Mysore.

The 'A' Team proudly presents the National Record Certificate 2009 from the Limca Book of Records

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Inspiration & Involvement

The collection has had visitors from all around the world. Everyone has been amazed by the presentation and the whole-hearted dedication of the DCosta family that goes to make Autofest City remarkably unique. Many have drawn inspiration from Autofest City and started their own scale model collections. Autofest City publishes a newsletter which informs its patrons, friends and well-wishers about various aspects of the collection, in addition to introducing new additions.

Automobile Passion
The brothers love for automobiles goes much beyond their scale modelstheir earlier Contessa Classics, their Kinetic Honda scooters and presently their TATA Indigos and Indica are impeccably maintained. At the Customer Meet 2007 organized under the joint auspices of TATA Motors and Mysores dealers M/s. Urs Kar Service Centre Pvt. Ltd., Neil was among the top ten TATA car owners of Mysore to be honoured.
Clyde & Neil's 1988 Contessa Classics

Autofest City's Web Links

Homepage [3] Web-album [4]

References
[1] Limca Book of Records 2006 (http:/ / www. limcabookofrecords. in/ home. asp). 2006. p.55. ISBN81-902837-3-1. . Retrieved 2006. [2] "Autofest City Of Miniature Automobiles". Star Of Mysore: pp.79. [3] http:/ / www. autofestcityindia. webs. com [4] http:/ / picasaweb. google. com/ autofestcityindia Neil's Award Winning 2002 TATA Indica V2 DLE 'Deena'

Sources
Mhapralkar, Bhushan (2000). Auto India, Model Mania The Factory Scales. Mumbai, India: Ashok H. Advani, Business India. pp.4. ISBNRNI No. 57128/93. Sorabjee, Hormazd (2000). Autocar India, Size Does Not Matter (http:/ / www. autocarindia. com). New Delhi, India: Sorabjee Automotive Communications (P) Ltd.. p.17. ISBNRNI No. 71739/99 Vol.1 No.10. Retrieved June, 2000. Stephen, David (2000). India Today, Auto Driven (http:/ / www. india-today. com/ itoday/ 20001127/ offtrack. shtml). New Delhi, India: Living Media India Ltd.. p.10. ISBN9-770254-839909 RNI No. 28587/75. Retrieved November 27, 2000. Vanali, Niranjan Dr. (2001). Sudha, Minicarugala Mahaloka. Bangalore, India: K. N. Harikumar. pp.2. ISBNCPMG/KA/BGE-183/2001 Vol.37 No.27. Rangaswamy, Basu Rtn. PHF (2001). Chamundi (Special Edition) Bulletin of Rotary Mysore, Autofest City Celebrating Automobiles. Mysore, India: Rotary Mysore. pp.4. Mudalahundi, Shivakumar (2001). Udayavani, Karnataka Sampada, Car, Car, Car, Elnodi, Car (http:/ / www. udayavani. com). Bangalore, India: K. Gopalakrishna Bhat, Manipal Media Network Ltd.. p.1.

Autofest City ISBNKA/BGE/174/2001 Vol.9 No.291. Retrieved October 22, 2001. Hussaini, S.K. (2001). Prajanudi, Car, Car, Car, Ilnodi, Car. Bangalore, India. p.1&4. Christopher, Kavya (2002). Bangalore Times (The Times of India), Miniature Cars With Memories (http:/ / www. indiatimes. com). Bangalore, India: Bennett Coleman & Co. Ltd.. p.5. ISBNCPMG/KA/BG-GPO-31/2003-05. Retrieved February 2, 2002. Sudhir, R. Edwin (2002). Aspirations (The Economic Times The Times of India Group) Collections (http:/ / www. indiatimes.com). Mumbai, India: K. R. Ramesh, Bennett Coleman & Co. Ltd.. pp.2. Retrieved September 2002. Kariappa, Anjali (2006). Spectrum (The Deccan Herald), Drive Into Autofest City (http://www.deccanherald.com). Bangalore, India: V. Padmanabhan. p.2. ISBNCPMG/KA/BGE-197/2001 Vol.54 No.188. Retrieved April 4, 2006. Ganapathy, Deepti (2006). Mysore Plus (The Times of India) Revving Up A Hobby (http:/ / www. indiatimes. com). Bangalore, India: Bennett Coleman & Co. Ltd.. p.1. ISBNCPMG/KA/BG-GPO-31/2003-05. Retrieved September 6, 2006. Rodrigues, Gracian (2006). Amchem Jivith Its Autofest City, For A Drive Of Your Lifetime (http:/ / www. kcammysore.com). Mysore, India: Konkani Christian Association, Mysore. p.106. Retrieved 2006. Chandran, Sirish (2007). http:/ / www. overdrive. co. in Overdrive, Small Wonders (http:/ / www. infomediaindia. com,). Navi Mumbai, India: Krishna Tewari, Infomedia India Ltd.. pp.2. ISBNRNI No. 69122/98. Retrieved November 2007. Murali, Vaishnavi (2008). Sunday Times (The Times of India), Mad About Models (http:/ / www. indiatimes. com). Bangalore, India: Bennett Coleman & Co. Ltd.. p.16. ISBNCPMG/KA/BG-GPO-31/2003-05. Retrieved October 26, 2008. Belur, Shankar (2009). District Plus (The Hindu) They Own Every Car In The World (http:/ / www. thehindu. com,http://www.thehindu.in). Chennai, India: N. Ram. p.2. Retrieved June 27, 2009.

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Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka

Leopold Blaschka (27 May 1822July 1895) and his son Rudolf Blaschka (17 June 18571 May 1939) were German glass artists, known for the production of biological models such as the Glass Flowers.

Early life of Leopold

Leopold Blaschke was born in esk Dub, Bohemia, to a family which originated from Antoniwald in the Izera Mountains, a region known for processing glass, metals and gems.[1] The family had also spent time in the glassblowing industry of Venice.[2]
Blaschka model of sea anemones

Leopold displayed artistic skills as a child, and was apprenticed to a goldsmith and gemcutter. He then joined the family business, which produced glass ornaments and glass eyes.[2] He developed a technique which he termed "glass-spinning", which permitted the construction of highly precise and detailed works in glass. He also Latinised his family name to "Blaschka", and began to focus the business on the manufacture of glass eyes.[1] In 1853, Leopold was suffering from ill health and was prescribed a sea voyage. He travelled to the United States and back, using the time at sea to study and draw sea animals, primarily invertebrates.[1]

Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka

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Early models
Leopold's son Rudolf was born in 1857, and the family moved to Dresden to give their child better educational opportunities.[1] Leopold began making glass models of exotic flowers which he had seen depicted in books. Prince Camille de Rohan heard about his work, and commissioned 100 models of orchids in his private collection.[2] In 1863,[1] the Staatliches Museum fr Tierkunde Dresden commissioned Leopold to produce twelve models of sea anenomes.[2] While these designs were based on drawings in books, Leopold was soon able to use his earlier drawings to produce highly detailed models of other species,[1] and his reputation quickly spread.[2]

Blaschka model of jellyfish

Leopold began selling models of marine invertebrates to museums, aquaria, universities and other educational bodies who wanted visual aids but were unable to satisfactorily preserve such animals.[1] [2] These represented a great improvement on previous methods of presenting such creatures: drawings, pressing, photographs and papier-mch or wax models.[1] He gradually extended his range of work by studying marine animals from the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Mediterranean,[1] and later constructed an aquarium at his house, in order to keep live specimens from which to model.[2]

Contact with Harvard

In about 1880, Rudolf began assisting his father with the models. In that year, they produced 131 models of sea slugs, jellyfish, and other animals for the Boston Society of Natural History Museum (now the Museum of Science). These models were seen by George Lincoln Goodale, who was in the process of setting up the Harvard Botanical Museum. In 1886, he travelled to meet the Blaschkas and, with some difficulty, convinced them to produce some new plant models for him.[1] Some reports claim that Goodale saw a few glass orchids in the room where they met, surviving from the work two decades earlier.[3] This commission required the Blaschkas to undertake considerable research into both the plant species and the manufacturing process.[1] The first few models the Blaschkas sent were badly damaged by U.S. Customs, but Goodale nonetheless appreciated the craftwork and showed them widely. Among the local residents who saw them were Elizabeth C. and Mary Lee Ware, who offered to pay for a long-term Part of the Harvard Glass Flowers collection contract for the Blaschkas to produce models of plants for the museum.[3] In 1887,[4] the parties signed a contract for the Blaschkas to spend half their time producing models for Harvard. They continued to spend their remaining time making marine invertebrate models. This time, arrangements were made to send the models directly to Harvard, where museum staff could open them safely, observed by Customs staff.[3] In 1890, the Blaschkas signed an exclusive ten-year contract with Harvard, for 8,800 marks per year, to make glass flowers.[4] It was decided that they should be asked to model the widest possible range of plants, and some were to be shown being pollinated, or diseased in some way.[1]

Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka

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Production of the Glass Flowers

The Blaschkas used a mixture of clear and coloured glass, sometimes supported with wire, to produce their models.[4] Many pieces were painted, this work being entirely given to Rudolf.[3] In order to represent plants which were not native to the Dresden area, the two studied the exotic plant collections at Stillnitz Castle[4] and the Dresden Botanical Garden, and also grew some from seed sent from the United States.[4] In 1892, Rudolf was sent on a trip to the Caribbean and the U.S. to study additional plants, making extensive drawings and notes.[3] Rudolf made a second trip to the U.S. in 1895. While he was overseas, Leopold died.[3] Rudolf continued to work alone.[5] By the early twentieth century, he found that he was unable to buy glass of suitably high quality, and so started making his own.[4] Rudolf continued making models for Harvard until 1938. By then aged 80, old and weary, he announced that he would retire.[6] Neither he nor his father had taken on an apprentice, and Rudolf left no successor.[1] For Harvard alone, Leopold and Rudolf made more than 3,000 models, 780 showing species at life-size, with others showing magnified details.[4]

References
[1] Frderverein "Naturwissenschaftliche Glaskunst Blaschka-Haus e. V" (http:/ / www. urania-dresden. de/ Blaschka_engl. html), URANIA Dresden [2] Leopold + Rudolf Blaschka / The Glass Aquarium (http:/ / designmuseum. org/ design/ leopold-rudolf-blaschka), Design Museum [3] " The Fragile Beauty of Harvard's Glass Flowers (http:/ / www. journalofantiques. com/ Feb04/ featurefeb04. htm)", The Journal of Antiques and Collectables, February 2004 [4] Patricia A. Emison, Growing with the grain, p.184 [5] "The Blaschka Flower Models", Popular Science, March 1897, p.668 [6] "Bohemian maker's retirement completes Harvard glass-flower collection", LIFE, 28 Feb 1938, p.24

External links
Corning Museum (http://www.cmog.org/dynamic.aspx?id=7808) Blaschka Marine Inverebrates at Cornell University (http://www.warmus.com/Blaschka Sea Creatures Cornell Warmus.htm)

Martin Bower

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Martin Bower
Martin Bower is a model maker who has created many wonderful special effects miniatures for both film and television. His credits include Space: 1999, Alien, Flash Gordon and Outland. He has a long standing working relationship with special effects master Brian Johnson.

Work examples
Mark IX Hawk from the Space: 1999 episode "War Games" Ultra Probe from the Space: 1999 episode "Dragon's Domain" Laser Tank from the Space: 1999 episode "Infernal Machine" Super swift from the Space: 1999' two part episode "The Bringers of Wonder" Voyager One from the Space: 1999 episode "Voyager's Return"

External links
Martin Bower's Model World [1] - A comprehensive website of all the work of Martin Bower

References
[1] http:/ / www. martinbowersmodelworld. com/

Brass model
Brass models are scale models, typically of railroad equipment, bridges and occasionally buildings, which are made of brass or similar alloys. Brass traditionally offered finer detail than traditional die-cast and plastic models, although both made considerable advances in the 1990s. Brass HO scale brass models, unpainted and painted models are considered collector pieces and are often used for display purposes, due to their museum quality, rather than model railroad operations. They are considerably more expensive than other types of models due to the limited production quantities and "handmade" nature of the product itself.

Manufacturers, many more exist than those shown below

Bavaria Fulgurex Lemaco Micro Metakit Overland (www.overlandmodels.com) Weinert Classic Construction Models

Max Gray Pacific Fast mail

Brass model West Side Model Ferro Swiss

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See also
Rail transport modelling Scale models HO scale

Brickplayer
Brickplayer was a British construction toy with four sizes of sets (1 to 4) made by J. W. Spear of Enfield in North London, later supplementary sets like a Farmyard version were introduced. They were designed in the same scale as '0' gauge model railways. The preference for 'HO' scale railways and the easy to use Lego type plastic toys saw it disappear by the mid 1960s. Its popularity suffered due to its complexity and dated pre-war Metroland style houses. The sets comprised baseboards, terracotta bricks and lintels, plastic door and window frames, card doors and roofing. The bricks were about 1inch long in scale proportion to regular house bricks. Building plans were accurate architect's blue prints. Buildings were constructed on allegedly waterproof waxed card bases. The bricks etc. were stuck together with a mortar made from a mixture of flour and chalk powder. It required a great amount of skill to erect buildings accurately, very time-consuming and beyond the patience of most of the children it was aimed at (8 to 14 years). Especially so in cold houses (as most British homes then were) it would take several days for the building to 'set'. Reusing the components involved a process of dunking the entire model in a large bowl of warm water. After the model fell apart the bricks and plaster pieces required lengthy rinsing to remove all organic traces to prevent mould growing on them. When well made, models were very realistic and many high road estate agents (realtors) would place a model or two in their shop windows. [1]

External links
http://www.brickplayer.co.uk/Default.aspx?page=2 http://www.lookandlearn.com/children's-newspaper/CN551210-009.pdf http://www.architoys.net/toys/toypages/brickpla.html http://www.trademe.co.nz/Toys-models/Vintage/auction-203019861.htm

For lots of information and photos please visit; www.brickplayer.co.uk

References
[1] http:/ / ndyarrissaykoaugeodelsallery. fotopic. net/ p55285342. html

Britains Deetail

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Britains Deetail
Britains Deetail toy soldiers were a popular product for retail stores in England in the 1970's and 1980's. Manufactured in England by W. Britain, they were plastic figures on mazak metal bases; an idea to keep the soldiers from falling down. In the early 1990's production moved to China. Britains still manufacture some models with different painting to the originals.[1] Figures from other moulds are now manufactured in Argentina by DSG Plastic Toy Soldiers.[2]

Development
In 1971 Britains began phasing out its plastic Herald Miniatures that had been produced in Hong Kong since 1966 with Hong Kong Herald ceasing operation in 1976. The new Deetail figures were moulded in PVC plastic rather than polythene that enabled separate arms could be glued on giving poses previously unavailable.[3] The rectangular metal base that enabled the figures to stand better than other plastic figures paid homage to Britains' metal figures as well as being thought by consumers to be of "better value" due to the weight of the figures.[4] The first figures chosen for Deetail were World War II American and German soldiers. Sculptor Rod Cameron rented uniforms from Berman's and Nathan's theatrical costumes with Cameron giving model Les Harden his air rifle to pose with.[5] In 1976 Britains developed Super Deetail, an overmoulding process where different coloured plastics came together in one figure. The first of these were a set of modern paratroopers in red berets, though the first set of figures that included walking with a rifle and holding a light machine gun were redesigned into different poses.

Types
Knights
Knights of the Sword Turks Robin Hood

WWII
US GI's German Soldiers (2 different sets) German Afrika Korps British Infantry British Desert Rats 8th Army Japanese Soldiers German Kubelwagen German Kettenkrad German PAK Field gun American Anti-aircraft gun British and German mortar U.S.75mm gun Japanese 75mm gun U.S. Jeep Desert Rats Scout Car British Assault Boat American Assault Boat

German Motorcycle w/ sidecar and without sidecar

Britains Deetail

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Civil War
Federal Infantry Confederate Infantry Federal Cavalry Confederate Cavalry

Cowboys & Indians

Cowboys mounted and dismounted Indians mounted and dismounted Mexicans 7th Cavalry mounted and dismounted Indian canoe Cowboy raft

Modern Troops
Scots Guards Sentry Box Task Force (US WWII in different coloured uniforms) British Paratroopers (red berets) British Commandos (green berets) British SAS (grey berets)

Space
Stargard Commandos Cyborg Assault Squad Aliens Mutants

Other
Farm figures Doctors and Nurses Royal Canadian Mounted Police French Foreign Legion Arabs Karate

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / www. wbritain. com/ products. cfm?catID=22 http:/ / www. dsgplastictoysoldiers. com/ p.121 Cole, Peter Suspended Animation: An Unauthorised History of Herald & Britains Plastic Figures 1997 Plastic Warrior p.123 Ibid p.124 Ibid

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Building model
Building models are scale models of structures. They are commonly used in model railroading as well as wargaming and diorama making. Architectural models are also made to demonstrate and promote buildings before they are constructed.

Highrise model from Vollmer

Many building models don't come from kits, but are hand-made.

Common supplies and building techniques

The walls of model buildings are generally made of materials such as Closed-cell PVC foamboard and the faade of buildings are Model buildings in HO scale (1:87) made from multiple layers of cardstock. Small scraps of random items found around the house often come in handy when creating many models. Color labels from magazine advertisements are often used as signage for modeled stores, for example. Some model makers commonly make copies of model-building items by constructing a simple mold from clay, inserting the item within the mold, then pouring plaster into the mold.

Internal References
Cardboard engineering

Cardboard modeling

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Cardboard modeling
Cardboard modeling is a form of modelling with paper, card stock, paperboard, and corrugated fiberboard.[1] The term "cardboard engineering" is sometimes used to differentiate from craft of making decorative cards. It is often referred to as paper modelling although in practice card is generally used.

History
Originally this was a form of modelling undertaken because of the low cost involved. Card, a means of cutting and glue all that is needed. Some models are 100% card, while others use items of other materials to reinforce the model. After World War II cardboard models were promoted by a number of model companies. One company, ERG (Bournemouth) Ltd. produced a book - [2] Books of printed models to cut out and make have been around a long time. Also special printed cards were available from which models could be made. In the UK Micromodels were well known for very small card models. Models to cut out were also a feature of paperboard folding cartons. For many years Weetabix had models to cut out on their breakfast cereal packets. The hobby has been revived through the use of IT based printers, especially the ink-jet and laser colour printers. Using a vector graphics package it is possible anyone to create their own models from scratch. Pre-printed models may be downloaded from the internet. A web ring[3] lists some of these while others offer a range of models from the simple to the complex.

See also
Net Paper model

References
[1] Cardboard Engineering, with Scissors and Paste by GH Deason. Model Aeronautical Press 1958 [2] Cardboard Rolling Stock and How to Build It by E Rankine Gray [3] "The Paper Model WebRing Paper Model,Papercraft,Free Models, Free Paper Models, Free Papercraft, Free Paper Craft, Paper Craft" (http:/ / i. webring. com/ hub?ring=papermodelwebrin). I.webring.com. . Retrieved 2009-07-30.

Carnegie collection

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Carnegie collection
The Carnegie Collection is a series of authentic replicas based on dinosaurs and other extinct prehistoric creatures, using fossils featured at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History as references. The line is produced by Florida-based company Safari Ltd., known for their hand-painted replicas.

Statistics
The collection was first released in 1989, seventeen models. The line has seen a steady stream of additions since that time, usually two or three each year. As of 2009, 70 models representing 49 species of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals have been produced for the line, although several of these have been retired during the course of its run. Each of the models is hand-painted, ensuring that no two copies of the same model are identical. Each animal featured is authenticated by paleontologists employed by the scientific data available (although models are occasionally outdated by newer findings, see below). Most of the dinosaurs are designed at a 1:40 scale (where one inch on the model represents 40 inches on the real creature), although some models representing smaller creatures were built at a scale of 1:10. Models in the collection range greatly in size from 24 inches long (Diplodocus) to only three inches long (Dimetrodon) with all shapes and sizes represented in-between. On the underside of each model is information detailing its name, year of initial production, and copyright information. The models feature an informational hang tag providing scientific details about the animal represented by the replica. In some cases, the dinosaurs were packaged in cardboard display boxes, in which case a small booklet featuring information on each dinosaur featured in the collection was included in lieu of the hang tags. In some instances, two or three models would be packaged together in a box. Examples include Dimetrodon and Deinonychus, Protoceratops and Euoplocephalus, Apatosaurus and Apatosaurus Baby, Elasmosaurus and Mosasaurus, and Australopithecus Male/Female pair and Smilodon. The boxes are not often seen today, and most of the time the dinosaurs are found free of packaging. Also produced for the collection was a specially-designed display "mountain". The display featured multiple tiers upon which the pieces in the collection could be placed in a variety of creative ways. This display was touted primarily to retailers in order to encourage sales of the replicas, but the display has also become popular with collectors. A second display set was made in gray plastic that featured a volcano, but this design was short-lived.

Models
Prior to 1996, each model was cast from a grey material and covered in a coat of paint corresponding to the base color of the finished model. The details of the model were then painted onto this layer of paint, resulting in a loss of the finer sculpting detail due to the thickness of the paint on each finished model. Beginning in 1996, each model was cast from a pigmented material corresponding to the base color of the finished model. The details of the model were then painted directly onto this material, resulting in greater detail and a less shiny appearance. To coincide with this change in production, eight models were retired between 1996 and 1997, and the sculpts of the remaining eighteen models were updated. Despite the modifications, the seventeen remaining models retained the same model numbers as their predecessors. This became the cause of some confusion as a single model number was used to refer to two versions of the same model, which was particularly noticeable with the new color schemes for Stegosaurus, Triceratops, and Pachycephalosaurus. Colorful name tags were also designed and attached to each model in place of the original folded paper name tags. In 2007, twelve more models received new color schemes. These models, however, did not retain the same model numbers as their predecessors. New model numbers were assigned to distinguish them as new versions. 1989 #400-01 Stegosaurus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4000-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996)

Carnegie collection #401-01 Tyrannosaurus rex (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4001-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #402-01 Brachiosaurus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4002-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #403-01 Apatosaurus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4003-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #404-01 Apatosaurus baby (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4004-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #405-01 Parasaurolophus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4005-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #406-01 Triceratops (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4006-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #407-01 Allosaurus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4007-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #408-01 Australopithecus male (1:10 scale, retired in 1996) #409-01 Australopithecus female (1:10 scale, retired in 1996) #410-01 Diplodocus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4010-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #411-01 Maiasaura (1:40 scale, retired in 1996) #412-01 Euoplocephalus (1:40 scale, retired in 1997) #413-01 Dimetrodon (1:40 scale, retired in 1997) #414-01 Pteranodon (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4014-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #415-01 Protoceratops (1:40 scale, retired in 1996) #416-01 Smilodon (1:10 scale, retired in 1997)

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1990 #417-01 Deinonychus (1:40 scale, retired in 1997) #418-01 Pachycephalosaurus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4018-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996, retired in 2002) 1991 #419-01 Elasmosaurus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4019-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #420-01 Mosasaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 1999) 1992 #421-01 Iguanodon (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4021-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) #422-01 Spinosaurus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4022-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) 1993 #423-01 Corythosaurus (1:40 scale, renumbered to #4023-01 in 1994, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996, retired in 2009) 1994 #424-01 Dilophosaurus pair (1:40 scale, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996, retired in 2009) 1995 #425-01 Plateosaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 1995, reissued in 1996) 1996 #4000-01: Stegosaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) - Updated sculpt and repaint of #400-01. #4001-01: Tyrannosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #4001-01. #4002-01: Brachiosaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) - Updated sculpt of #402-01. #4003-01: Apatosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #4003-01. #4004-01: Apatosaurus baby (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #4004-01. #4005-01: Parasaurolophus (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) - Updated sculpt of #405-01. #4006-01: Triceratops (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) - Updated sculpt and repaint of #406-01. #4007-01: Allosaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) - Updated sculpt of #407-01.

#4010-01: Diplodocus (1:40 scale, retired in 2007, reissued in 2008) - Updated sculpt of #410-01. #4014-01: Pteranodon (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #414-01.

Carnegie collection #4018-01: Pachycephalosaurus (1:40 scale, retired) - Updated sculpt and repaint of #417-01. #4019-01: Elasmosaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) - Updated sculpt of #419-01. #4020-01: Mosasaurus (1:40 scale, retired) - Updated sculpt of #420-01. #4021-01: Iguanodon (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) - Updated sculpt of #421-01. #4022-01: Spinosaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) - Updated sculpt of #422-01. #4023-01: Corythosaurus (1:40 scale, retired) - Updated sculpt of #423-01. #4024-01: Dilophosaurus pair (1:40 scale, retired) - Updated sculpt of #424-01. #4025-01: Plateosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #425-01. #4026-01: Deinosuchus (1:40 scale, active) #4027-01: Maiasaura and nest (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #411-01.

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1997 #4028-01: Carnotaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) #4029-01: Kronosaurus (1:40 scale, active) #4030-01: Saltasaurus (1:40 scale, active) 1998 #4031-01: Quetzalcoatlus (1:40 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) #4032-01: Deltadromeus (1:40 scale, retired in 2009) - Sometimes referred to as Deltadromeus agilis. #4033-01: Baryonyx (1:40 scale, active) 1999 #4034-01: Psittacosaurus (1:10 scale, retired in 2004) #4035-01: 10th Anniversary Commemorative Tyrannosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #4001-01. 2000 #4036-01: Triceratops (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #4006-01. #4037-01: Tanystropheus (1:10 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) 2001 #4038-01: Dimetrodon (1:15 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #413-01. #4039-01: Acrocanthosaurus (1:40 scale, active) 2002 #4040-01: Styracosaurus (1:40 scale, retired in 2005) #4041-01: Camarasaurus (1:40 scale, active) 2003 #4042-01: Woolly Mammoth (1:24 scale, active) #4043-01: Velociraptor (1:10 scale, retired in 2006, reissued in 2007) 2004 #4044-01: Albertosaurus (1:40 scale, active) #4045-01: Sinraptor (1:40 scale, retired in 2009) 2005 #4046-01: Oviraptor (1:10 scale, retired in 2009) #4047-01: Ankylosaurus (1:40 scale, active) 2006 #4049-01: Beipiaosaurus (1:10 scale, active) #4050-01: Microraptor (1:4 scale, active) #4212-01: Caudipteryx (1:4 scale, active)

Carnegie collection #4213-01: Dilong (1:10 scale, active) 2007 #4052-01: Amargasaurus (1:40 scale, active) #4053-01: Oviraptor (1:10 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #4046-01 #4101-01: Tanystropheus (1:10 scale, active) - Repaint of #4037-01. #4106-01: Velociraptor (1:10 scale, active) - Repaint of #4043-01. #4108-01: Iguanodon (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4021-01. #4109-01: Allosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4007-01. #4110-01: Spinosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4022-01. #4111-01: Parasaurolophus (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4005-01. #4115-01: Triceratops (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4006-01. #4116-01: Quetzalcoatlus (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4031-01. #4117-01: Elasmosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4019-01. #4118-01: Carnotaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4028-01. #4119-01: Stegosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4000-01. #4120-01: Brachiosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Repaint of #4002-01.

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2008 #4054-01: Diplodocus (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #4010-01. #4122-01: Giganotosaurus (1:40 scale, active) 2009 #4215-01: Tylosaurus (1:40 scale, active) #4216-01: Spinosaurus (1:40 scale, active) - Updated sculpt of #4110-01. 2010 #4217-01: Ichthyosaurus (1:10 scale, active) #4218-01: Cryolophosaurus (1:25 scale, active )

Miscellaneous Facts
4001-01 Tyrannosaurus originally featured a bulky body, a large head, painted on teeth, and an upright stance. This was adjusted sometime before the model was re-issued in pigmented material in 1996. The original mold for 4003-01 Apatosaurus had a tail that dragged on the ground. The updated model's tail is suspended in the air. 4004-01 Apatosaurus Baby was featured craning its neck backward on release. The 1996 revision has the neck outstretched. 4007-01 Allosaurus originally featured a bulky body and a large head with the snout facing the ground. The resculpt has a much slimmer head and body. 409-01 Australopithecus female holds a child. 411-01 Maiasaura was featured sitting on a nest of eggs. This is an inaccurate pose, as the creature's weight would have crushed the eggs. A new model was later released with a detached nest to account for this. 415-01 Protoceratops featured an adult and baby attached to a nest with eggs in it. Unlike Maiasaura, the parent is not shown sitting on the eggs. 417-01 Deinonychus features three figures on one stand; the figure on the right lacks the distinctive "terrible claw" on its right foot. The original version of 4019-01 Elasmosaurus had a neck that extended further outward than the current sculpt, which was changed to have its neck craning upward.

Carnegie collection Two slightly different color variations exist of 4020-01 Mosasaurus, one with vertical stripes across its sides and one without. 4026-01 Deinosuchus has different variations of its eye paint; one with completely black eyes similar to those of an alligator, and another with vertical slit pupils similar to those of a crocodile. Produced for only four years, 4040-01 Styracosaurus is the shortest-lived model in the collection thus far. It also has two variations; one with green eyes and one with gold eyes. Some 4035-01 Tyrannosaurus and 4122-01 Giganotosaurus are posed in a 'tripod' posture with their tail touching the ground to enable them to stand; while others have their legs posed slightly differently allowing them to stand without their tail touching the ground. There are also two variants of the Tyrannosaurus, one of which has bright red stripes running down its neck. 4217-01 Ichthyosaurus features an ammonite clenched in its jaws. A few of the active models have doubles, notably Tyrannosaurus, Triceratops, and Spinosaurus.

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See also
Dinosaur Collectible and Collecting Figurine Scale model Educational toy

External links
Safari, Ltd. [1] producers of the Carnegie Collection. Blog of Forest Rogers [2] sculptor for the Carnegie Collection

References
[1] http:/ / www. safariltd. com [2] http:/ / www. forestrogers. com/ carnegie_dinosaurs/

Cotswold Heritage

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Cotswold Heritage
Type Industry Founded Private Steam engines 1990's

Headquarters Stratford Upon Avon, Warwickshire, England Products Website Stationary Steam Engines
[1]

Originally branded as the Reeves Heritage Collection and supplied to the famous AJ Reeves model engineering supplies company, Cotswold Heritage subsequently developed in its own right as a UK manufacturer of small stationary steam engines. The Cotswold Heritage range initially consisted of 4 factory finished models varying from a simple mill engine; Perseus, to an A-framed beam engine; Vulcan, as shown by their 1998 promotional literature. Their 3rd Edition catalogue now shows the range to have developed further offering not just finished steam models, but machined kits, steam boilers and steam plants. A further enhancement to the range was launched in November 2002 with the introduction of the Stothert and Pitt Beam engine kit for the model engineer to machine. Cotswold Heritage have commissioned the authority on historical stationary engines, Anthony Mount to research their model engineering kits and write construction articles for model engineering magazines. The Stothert and Pitt articles appearing in 'Engineering in Miniature' from November 2002 - July 2003 and subsequent articles in the Model Engineer magazine. In 2007, a Cotswold Heritage 'Electrical Generation' plant features in the BBC Children's TV program, 'The Magic of Making' - showing young people how electrical power may be generated from steam.

External links
Cotswold Heritage Website [2] Cotswold Heritage company history [3] The Magic of Making Children's TV program [4] Online videos of Cotswold models running [5]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / www. modelsteamenginesuk. com http:/ / www. modelsteamenginesuk. com/ http:/ / www. modelsteamenginesuk. com/ acatalog/ Cotswold-Heritage-About-Us. html http:/ / www. magicofmaking. com/ info-electricity. php http:/ / www. modelstationarysteamengine. com/ Cotswold. html

Cox model engine

51

Cox model engine

Cox model engines are used to power small model airplanes, model cars and model boats. Cox engines were in production for more than 50 years between 1945 and 2006 by L.M. Cox Manufacturing Co. Inc. who later became "Cox Hobbies Inc." and then "Cox Products" before being sold to Estes Industries when it became Cox Models. On February 7, 2009 Estes Industries stopped producing Cox engines and sold all of their remaining inventory i.e. mainly spare parts, to several private buyers from Canada and USA. Two of the new owners of the remaining Cox engine and parts inventory have launched separate websites, Cox International [1] and Vintage Glow Engines [2]. Millions of engines were produced and they became the most common 1/2A Class 0.049 cubic inch engine in the world and probably still are today. Although the production of the engines ceased some years ago now, engines made as far back as the 1950s are still sold "as new" and in abundance on ebay [3] world wide.

Cox Model Engines

Cox history

Cox Fokker DVII Ready To Fly Control Line Model Plane

The Cox range of model engines were the brain child of entrepreneur Leroy M. Cox.[4] Cox Manufacturing started out in Leroy's garage in 1945 where he made wooden pop guns for kids and employed local housewives to assemble them. Metal was scarce due to the war which is why the toy guns were made of wood. In 1946 metal became readily available again and competitors quickly moved into the market making their metal pop guns cheaper, so Roy moved to something else, making metal tether cars for kids. In August 1946 a fire in Cox's garage forced him to move to newer and larger premises at 730 Poinsettia Ave, Santa Ana, California. In 1947 Cox developed a racing car which used an engine manufactured by Cameron Brothers. The cars sold for $19.95 and generated $200,000 in sales in their first year of production. In 1949 Cox developed their own engine for the racing tether car made from parts from other engines. This engine was called the "O Forty Five" as it was .045 cubic inch displacement.

Cox model engine In 1950 sales of the car began to fall so Cox moved on to development of a model plane engine. A project which took a year and nearly sent Cox bankrupt, the end result was the Space Bug .049 engine, Cox's first Model Plane engine. In 1952 first name change was made to L.M. Cox Manufacturing Company Inc. The Space Bug engine sets the scene for all the Cox engines that followed and it went into full production in 1952. This engine was so popular that it caused problems for other model engine manufacturers. In 1953 Cox produced their first Ready To Fly (RTF) airplane the TD1 which was powered by the Space Bug engine. In 1953 Leroy Cox (L.M. Cox Manufacturing) is sued by Jim Walker (American Junior Aircraft Co.) for copyright infringement because Cox was using Walker's patented bellcrank system in the TD1 and secondly because Walker believed the Cox Skylon Reel was a copy of his U-Reely control handle. The court case lasted for 3 years. In 1955 Cox wins the court case against Jim Walker. Walker's patent on the bellcrank control system is ruled void and invalid because it was determined that the system had been designed before Walker's patent and by someone else - a man named Oba St.Clair, who was the first man to fly a control line airplane (in the USA) back in 1937 and the design was published in 1938. Oba St.Clair had shown his design to Jim Walker who took it upon himself to patent the design! The court also ruled that the Cox reel was not a copyright infringement.[5] In 1956 Cox developed the Babe Bee 049, designed by William (Bill) Selzer, which had an extruded aluminum crankcase, not cast like the others, this engine sold for just $3.95 and stamped the final nail in the coffin of many competitors whose engines were selling for substantially more. The Babe Bee was a high quality high precision engine which started easily and was very reliable, unlike some of the competition. In 1957 Cox took over the Flying Circle at Disneyland which was a major coup for the company. The model planes were being flown each day in front of tens of thousands of people and they had a hobby shop right there full of Cox RTF planes. The Cox Flying Circle [6] remained in operation until 1965 when it was closed to make way for expansion of Tomorrowland. In 1960 Cox hired an engineer named Bill Atwood, (who had already build his own line of engines), to develop a new line of competition engines. Atwood was responsible for the Tee Dee and Medallion line of engines. These engines put Cox on the map as a leading engine in the world for many years to come. In 1963 due to continuing growth the company moved to larger (225,000 square feet) facilities which were three times larger than the old site. Shortly thereafter Cox got into Slot Cars and focused attention on gearing up for this fad. 1965 Cox International is established in Hong Kong to meet the demands of the Slot Car craze. 1967 The Slot Car fad ends, leaving Cox with excess stock that cannot be sold resulting in financial cash flow problems. In 1969 Mrs. Cox died and Leroy was having health problems of his own so he retired and sold the company to Leisure Dynamics Inc. Leisure Dynamics continued to expand the range of Cox Model Aircraft as well as adding trains, boats, rockets, kites and radio control boosting sales to 25 million dollars per year. Roy Cox retired with the distinction of being the world's most successful model engine manufacturer. In 1970 William H. Selzer was appointed as President of L.M. Cox Manufacturing Inc. (a subsidiary of Leisure Dynamics). In 1971 Leisure Dynamics breaks the company in two and moves the model production to Minnesota and leaves the engine production in Santa Ana, California. In 1976 Leisure Dynamics changes the company name to "Cox Hobbies Inc." In 1980 Leisure Dynamics filed for bankruptcy, taking Cox Hobbies Inc. with them.

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Cox model engine In 1981 Leroy (Roy) M. Cox passed away, age 75. In 1983 former Cox engineer and president Bill Selzer (whom Cox hired in 1952) purchased the company out of bankruptcy. All manufacturing was returned to Santa Ana. The company once again flourished into the 1990s with new products being added and another move to even bigger facilities. In 1990 Cox Hobbies moved to new facilities at Corona, California. In 1993 the company name changed again to "Cox Products". The Pee Wee, Babe Bee, and PT 19 Trainer still in production. In 1995 Cox celebrated 50 years and introduced some new engines and RTF models. In 1996 Cox sold to Estes Industries / Centuri Corp. and moved to Penrose, Colorado. Things went downhill from here and Cox as the world knew it had gone. One by one each item was withdrawn from sale. Engine parts from different engines were mixed and matched making bastardized versions and quality control was lacking. In 2005 an online company calling themselves Cox Hobby Distributors (owned by Estes Industries) appeared selling RC and electric products and some of the "classic" engines and RTF models. However as each item from the classic era sold out it wasn't replaced. In Feb. 2009 Estes Industries sold all of their remaining classic Cox stock to a private buyer from Canada. Bernie & Xena. In June 2009 they launched a website Cox International [1] to sell the remaining stock online and also via eBay. In Jan. 2010 Estes-Cox Corporation purchased by Hobbico based in Champaign, Illinois.

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The engines
Cox .049 Engine Specifications
(All Cox .049 Engines) Bore: Stroke: Displacement: 0.406 inches (10.31 mm) 0.386 inches (9.8 mm) 0.04997 cubic inches (0.8189 cc)

Bore/Stroke Ratio: 1.05:1 (Oversquare) Cox .051 Engine Specifications Bore: Stroke: Displacement: 0.41 inches (10.41 mm) 0.386 inches (9.8 mm) 0.0509 cubic inches (0.8341 cc)

Bore/Stroke Ratio: 1.06:1 (Oversquare)

The Cox .049 Engine is a 2-stroke internal combustion glow plug engine. These engines use a glow plug to heat the air within the cylinder to start. Once running it is disconnected and operates in the same manner as a diesel engine. The self ignition is due to the heat produced from the compression of the air/fuel mix. Fuel intake to the engine is controlled by a simple needle valve and venturi system. Fuel/air mixture intake to the crankcase is controlled via a reed valve or rotary valve depending on the engine design. In a reed valve engine the valve is drawn open by suction as the piston moves upward on the compression stroke. As the piston moves down on the power stoke, the pressure in the crankcase causes the reed valve to close. The fuel air mixture in the crankcase is then forced past the piston via the transfer/bypass ports in the cylinder. One characteristic of a reed valve is that the engine will run in either direction; an advantage for a "pusher" model but a disadvantage if the engine is finger started, as it may start in the wrong direction. (The cox engines employed a starting spring which kept fingers free of the propellor and generally ensured correct rotational direction.)

Cox model engine On rotary valve engines the process is similar except instead of a reed, a rotary valve is used, (incorporated in the crankshaft), which opens and closes as the piston moves up and down. The rotary valve is more efficient and adjustable (at design time) as there is a larger and clearer path to the crankcase than in the reed valve setup, but such engines can run in only one direction; pusher configurations require a special propellor, sometimes difficult to find. The fuel used to power the engine is called Model Engine Fuel, a mixture of methanol (70%-40%), castor oil (20%) and nitromethane (10%-40%). The Cox line of reed valve engines designed prior to 1960 used a rear reed valve induction system. In the late 1950s they played around with rear rotary valve induction (as used in the RR1) before moving forward with front rotary valve induction for their Tee Dee and Medallion lines.

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Early engines
1949 O Forty Five Power Pak (Special Racer Car Engine - Manufactured 1949) This engine was the first designed by Cox but included some major parts (i.e. piston and cylinder) of the Spitzy .045 engine designed by Mel Anderson. It employed a twin reed valve which was later used for the Space Bug. The engine was a major engineering achievement for its time, by incorporating reduction gears, fuel tank, flywheel and muffler all into one "Power Pak". The air intake was via one of the axles. A later version of this engine was the slightly more powerful O Sixty. 1952 Space Bug (Cat#349 - Manufactured 1952-1958) The Space Bug was the first engine built entirely by Cox. It was designed for Control Line flying use only and was marketed as a "Competition" engine and sold for $6.95. Back then there was no Radio Control and Free Flight hadn't been considered by Cox at this time. The piston and cylinder were made from mild steel bar stock and the crankcase and fuel tank were cast aluminum. 1953 Thermal Hopper (Cat#360 - Manufactured 1953-1958) The Thermal Hopper is basically a Space Bug without the fuel tank. It has a needle valve and venturi mounted on an aluminum plate instead. These were designed for free flight and could also be used for control line flying. It allowed the user to put a fuel tank of their choosing on. The engine output was recorded at 0.066bhp @ 17,000 rpm with a torque of 4.5 Oz.in at 10,000 rpm.[7] 1953 Space Bug Jnr. (Cat#370 - Manufactured 1953-1958) The Space Bug Junior is a Space Bug with a smaller plastic tank. This cheaper version also only had one intake bypass port and sold for $3.95. 1955 Strato Bug (Cat#380 - Manufactured 1955) The same engine as a Space Bug but included a two piece fuel tank which was cheaper to make than the original space bug tank. The later Babe Bee tank was simply a further developed version of this tank. This engine was only produced during 1955 and sold as a mid range sport engine for $5.95. As such not many exist today which makes them very rare and collectible selling for over $300US in 2008.

Cox Thimble Drome Space Bug

Cox Thimble Drome Thermal Hopper

Cox model engine

55

Standard Bees
1956 Babe Bee 049 (Cat#350 - Manufactured Nov 1956-Jan 1996) The classic Babe Bee was the first engine Cox produced with an extruded machined anodized bar stock aluminum crankcase. This crankcase was machine made and was much cheaper and faster to make than the cast aluminum crankcase of the earlier models. This engine was also supplied in thousands of RTF (Ready to Fly) airplanes sold in department stores worldwide. It has an integrated 5cc fuel tank. Max output power was recorded around 0.057bhp (42 watts) @ 13,500 rpm on 15% nitro.[8] 1957 Pee Wee .020 (Cat#100 - Manufactured Feb 1957-Jan 1996) Buoyed with excitement of the Babe Bee 049 Leroy wanted to make a half size version of the Babe Bee. So he did. And they called it a Pee Wee .020, just like a Babe Bee only half the size. 1958 Golden Bee (Cat#120 - Manufactured Oct 1957-Jan 1980) The Golden Bee is a Baby Bee that has a larger (8cc), stunt vented fuel tank and has been anodized gold. The larger tank allowed the planes to fly longer while the stunt vents allowed the airplanes to fly inverted without fuel running out or the engine cutting out. The first versions of the Golden Bee had a single bypass intake port but later versions had two bypass ports making them slightly more powerful. 1966 QZ (Cat#450 - Manufactured 1966-1996)
Custom Built Golden Bee .051 QZ stands for Quiet Zone. It is a Babe Bee with a muffler, twin bypass port cylinder with no sub piston induction and a high compression (#1702) glow head. An attempt to regain the power loss caused by the muffler. Very similar to the later QRC engine which reportedly worked better. Cox also sold the muffler, cylinder and high comp. glow head components of the QZ as a Muffler Conversion Kit (Cat#495) for $2.98.

Cox Babe Bee (left) Golden Bee (right)

1976 QRC (Cat#450-1 - Manufactured 1976-1996) The QRC was a modified Babe Bee engine that had a muffler and larger (8cc) fuel tank. In the 70's noise became and issue and the Cox engineers discovered that when adding a muffler the engine would lose significant power. This problem was alleviated by installing a cylinder with no sub piston induction.[9] The engine was designed for power launching Radio Controlled Gliders and had a red tank with a blue spinner. 1976 RC Bee (Cat#360 - Manufactured 1976-1996) This engine was designed for small Radio Controlled model planes. It has a plastic clunk tank and an unusual cast crankcase. The Leisure Dynamics team thought that cast crankcases would be cheaper to produce, however they discovered that there were many manufacturing defects and they were difficult to machine, resulting in a high failure rate, so they returned to the tried and proven machined aluminum bar stock crankcase. 1982 Dragon Fly (Cat#4505 - Manufactured 1982-1996) This engine was designed for the Radio Controlled model planes. It is basically a Baby Bee with a clunk tank and a muffler throttle. 1989 Texaco (Cat#4506 - Manufactured 1989-1996) The is engine was designed for 1/2A Texaco RC duration competition. The engine has an additional fin on the larger glow plug which dissipates heat better allowing the engine to swing a larger propeller. i.e. 7 or 8inches. This engine has a red 8cc fuel tank and a black crankcase. Original 1989 engines did not come out with 5 fin glow plug. The 5 fin

Cox model engine glow plug came later in the 1992 Catalog. 1995 Texaco Jnr (Cat#4507 - Manufactured 1995-1996) The same engine as the Texaco above except that it has a smaller 5cc fuel tank which is also red. First appeared in 1995 Cox Catalog.

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High-performance Bees
1956 RR1 (Cat#390 - Manufactured 1956-1965) The RR1 uses a rear rotary valve intake rather than a reed valve in an attempt to achieve more power. The engine came after the Babe Bee and looks very similar with its anodized, machined extruded aluminum crank case and fuel tank. The power improvement was negligible so Cox reverted to the cheaper easier to build Babe Bee. The engine was made for quite a few years and sold for $6.95. It has become a collectors item due to its uniqueness and pretty colors and is worth around $300500US in 2008. 1959 Space Hopper (Cat#150 - Manufactured Nov 1958-1961)
The Rare Cox RR1

The Space Hopper was Cox's first attempt at a beam mount engine plus the first steps towards their greatest engine, the Tee Dee. The engine was basically like the Thermal Hopper was to a Space Bug. That is a Babe Bee without a tank, but a venturi and needle valve relying on and external fuel tank. It is claimed it has as much power as a Tee Dee but how can this be if the Tee Dee was the most powerful engine? Anyway, this engine was short lived and made way for the Tee Dee in 1960. They look very retro and due to their apparent rareness are worth around $200US in 2008 1973 Black Widow (Cat#150 - Manufactured May 1973-Jan 1996) During the 70s a couple of Cox engineers were playing around with different colored Babe Bee and Golden Bee parts and came up with an all black engine with a red spinner. They hopped it up a bit with a dual bypass cylinder from a Medallion, a black Golden Bee tank and a slightly larger (0.062") venturi intake. The Black Widow was born. These engines were marketed as a High Powered Combat Engine. On later Black Widows the red rubber spinner was replaced by a red anodized aluminum Tee Dee style spinner. In the late 1990s some Black Widows were produced with the a dual bypass slit exhaust cylinder. The slit exhaust was to prevent fires. According to an Aeromodeller engine test done in August 1974 the Black Widow on 25% Nitro output power was 0.08bhp (60 watts) at 15,000 rpm with a max. torque of 6 oz.in at 9,000 rpm.[10] 1995 Killer Bee 049 (Cat#340 - Manufactured 1995-1996) The Killer Bee was a real good attempt at making a fast reed valve 049 engine from information that had been learned over the years of racing and competition. It had a tapered cylinder with SPI and lighter piston similar to the Tee Dee, a stronger balanced crankshaft and a new reed valve shape. They had a Yellow plastic needle valve. Later in 2002 Estes produced a Killer Bee that had none of these features but looked like the original Killer Bee except for the needle valve. 1996 Killer Bee 051 (Cat#360 - Manufactured 1996) The Killer Bee 051 existed so that modelers could fly the same plane in two competition classes (i.e. A and 1/2A) simply by changing the engine. This engine has the same performance features as the 049 and the piston has two thin

Cox Black Widow 049

Cox model engine lines (or grooves) in the skirt for positive identification. 1996 Venom (Cat#140 - Manufactured 1996) The Venom was Cox's last attempt at making a really fast 049 mouse racing engine. Again taken from ideas learned from years of competition, this engine put all those ideas into an off the shelf product. It used the Killer Bee crank shaft loosely fitted into the crankcase, and a cylinder with porting very similar Tee Dee cylinder and tapered like the Tee Dee and with a lightened piston like the Tee Dee. The rest of it was like a Black Widow. The problem was that the production engine was not the same as the prototype. A mistake had been made in manufacturing and the piston was lightened too much. This Cox Venom with Galbreath/Nelson Head made the engine fast but the piston weak and they would blow the top off the piston after a few runs at high speed. As such only 1000 were made and they never bothered to make any more. They are now worth a lot of money (around $300US in 2008) in the box.

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Tee Dees
1961 Tee Dee 049 (Cat#170 - Manufactured Nov 1960-Jan 1996) This is without a doubt, Cox's greatest and most famous engine. This engine was "THE" engine to use in competition for many years. It was designed by Bill Atwood who had been hired by Cox specifically to produce the Tee Dee line of competition engines. The important features of the Tee Dee are as follows: Tapered cylinder and a lightened and tapered piston Result: tighter piston fit at TDC and less piston mass = more performance.
The famous Cox Tee Dee .049 and .051

Two deep bypass ports with two bypass booster grooves on each bypass port, extending slightly above the main bypass groove Result: significantly better air fuel mixture induction = more performance True peripheral venturi Result: more efficient fuel intake, fuel draw and induction = more performance Precision balanced and milled crankshaft Result: better fuel intake, better balanced engine = more performance The Tee Dee was tested by Aeromodeller Magazine in 1962 and the output power was recorded to be .105bhp (78 watts) @ 22,000 rpm with a max torque of 5.5 oz.in. at 18,000 rpm on 25% Nitro.[11] (Note: The modern Norvel AME 049 engine which has a ceramic coated aluminum piston outputs .2bhp (150 watts)@ 17,000 rpm). In 1973 the bypass porting, crank shaft timing and venturi were modified slightly and a mesh screen was added to the venturi to keep out dirt. This resulted in a minor performance improvement over the earlier versions.

Cox model engine

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1961 Tee Dee 051 (Cat#200 - Manufactured Oct 1960-Jan 1996) The 051 was simply a Class A version of the engine, physically the same on the outside only the bore was different and the piston had a small groove in the skirt to differentiate it from the 049. The 051 also had a RED carb body. 1994 Tee Dee .05 RC (Cat#201 - Manufactured 1994) This engine had a proper RC carby and a full sized standard muffler and was designed specifically for RC flying. It had no Sub Piston Induction. Only two production runs of 1000 each were done so there are only 2000 of these in existence, making them the second rarest production engine next to the Venom. Note: Although the box said Tee Dee .05 the engine is actually .051 An .09 RC version also exists (Cat# 211 - Manufactured 1994 also) 1961 Tee Dee .010, .020, .09 & .15 Cox also built Tee Dee's in .010 (Cat#130), .020 (Cat#160), .09 (Cat#210) and .15 (Cat#180) size. All these engines were very successful. A little known fact was also this: One of the things Cox wanted Atwood to do was make him a .010 engine. Cox had already tried to halve the size of the Pee Wee .020 but couldn't get it to run for some reason. The suspicion surrounded a problem with the tiny reed valve. Atwood found that the front rotary valve worked well on the .010 size hence the .010 was born. Why? Because Leroy Cox wanted one.

A hopped up Cox Tee Dee .051

A Cox Tee Dee .05 RC

Medallions
1962 Medallion 049 (Cat#240 - Manufactured Nov 1961-Jan 1996) Also known as the "Poor man's Tee Dee" these were similar to the Tee Dee in appearance but had cheaper parts on them, making them cheaper to buy. The cylinder was a non tapered twin bypass with no boost ports (like the one used on the Black Widow), the crank shaft was drilled out rather than milled like the Tee Dee, and the carb body was a one piece unit with a conventional needle valve and spray bar. These engines were marketed as a Sport / Stunt engine as they were much tamer and much less cantankerous then the Tee Dee. These are a great reliable easy to use little engine even today. They can be purchased for under $100US in 2008.

Cox Medallion .049

The Medallion engine was also produced in (Cat#230).09 and (Cat#220) .15 cubic inch size. 1995 Medallion 051 (Manufactured 1995) The .051 came about when a special order for 300 Medallions was placed on Cox by the National Free Flight Society in the USA. It was a gentleman's agreement done on a handshake and it nearly didn't happen when Cox was sold to Estes. But the determination of the NFFS resulted in the deal happening, however Cox only came through with 258 engines. The NFFS engraved each engine with a serial number and kept a record of who purchased each engine. These are probably the rarest of all Cox Engines due to the small size of the production run.

Cox Medallion .051

Cox model engine

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Product engines
These are all variations of the Baby Bee with different backplates designed for different RTF aircraft. 1959 Super Bee (Cat# 350-1) Babe Bee with twin bypass cylinder to give more power for the P40 Warhawk RTF model. Early version had 'P40' stamped on the cylinder. It had a standard Babe Bee tank. 1964 Silver Bee (Cat# 350-6) Similar to the Super Bee but it had a larger 8cc non-vented fuel tank. It did not have P40 stamped on the cylinder but it did have the twin bypass ports. This engine came with the Spitfire RTF airplane. 1962 Series 190 Product Engine (Cat#190) Babe Bee with plastic backplate and brass needle valve. Various shapes were used depending on the model they were fitted to. Some had dual bypass port cylinders while others had single, it depended on the airplane. 1963 Series 290 / Spook Product Engine (Cat#290) Came on a blister pack as a "Two Ninety" replacement engine. Basically a replacement 190 engine. An aluminum back plate was used for the "Spook" flying wing combat model kit engine (290-1). 2000 Surestart (Cat#191) Another variation of the modern Babe Bee. These were pretty good because they have a choke tube attached to the grey plastic backplate. The choke tube makes the engine even easier to start. They were fitted to the very last RTFs (e.g. PT19 and Hyper Viper) before they went out of production.

Other Cox engines

Other engines made by Cox are: 1959 Sportsman .15 (Cat# 110 Manufactured 1958-1961) Rear reed valve .15 sized version of the Space Hopper 1959 Olympic .15 (Cat# 140 Manufactured 1959-1961) Sportsman with twin ball races - designed for FAI Power FF event. 1961 Special .15 (Cat# 260 Manufactured 1962-1964) Second version of Tee Dee 15 with thicker cylinder and wrist pin conrod instead of ball socket. 1964 Special .15 MkII (Cat# 270 Manufactured 1964-1968)
Cox Conquest 15 Free Flight/Control Line Engine

Third version of the Tee Dee .15 Single exhaust port Schnrle port intake system and gold crankcase. 1965 Olympic .15 Drum Valve Prototyped only (50 made by Bill Atwood) 1968 Concept II .35 & .40 Prototyped only - Bill Atwood 1976 Cox Conquest .15 (Cat# 2800 Manufactured 1976-1978) This engine took over from the Tee Dee .15 as "THE" engine for FAI racing, combat and free flight for many more years until the Russian AAC Engines came along. This engine was patterned on the Australian designed 1973 Taipan 2.5cc Twin Ball Race engine by Gordon Burford. The entire top end of the Cox Conquest and the Taipan TBR are interchangeable.

Cox model engine 1976 Cox Conquest .40 - prototyped only 1987 Queen Bee .074 RC(Cat# 3701 Manufactured 1987) Rear reed valve RC engine. Uses a standard glow plug. Power output is similar to Tee Dee .051. Came out Mid 1987 and is listed in Cox 1987 Catalog.

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Cylinders
There were a wide range of cylinders produced with three different wall thicknesses. Most are interchangeable between all engine types which can create problems when buying a used engine. All early cylinders had a thin wall which was later found to need improvement because they bent easily in a crash or when trying to undo with a Cox wrench. Some people refer to these as Mk1 cylinders. The next type was thickened at the exhaust ports and are also known by some people as Mk2. The third type was thick wall the way down from the cooling fins to the bottom. This one facilitated the exhaust throttle ring and some people refer to this as a Mk3 although Cox never referred to them like this.[12]

Cox 049 Cylinder Cross-sections

Referring to the Cylinder Cross-sections above: 1. depicts a thin wall Tee Dee .049 cylinder with dual booster ports on the bypass port. 2. is a late model thick wall cylinder with slit exhaust and a single bypass booster. 3. is a Black Widow #1 cylinder with no bypass booster with a stepped wall. 4. is a pre-1955 cylinder used on early Space Bug, Space Bug Jr, Thermal Hopper and Strato Bug. Note how the thread diameter for the glow head is much smaller. No engines produced after 1955 used this cylinder. The most powerful cylinder piston combination without a doubt is the number 4 Tee Dee 049 cylinder. This cylinder has a tapered grind and tapered and Cox Venom Cylinder lightened piston so the piston fit gets tighter as the piston reaches top dead center (TDC). The intake or bypass porting is 2 deep ports with 2 bypass booster ports on each bypass. This setup causes a swirling of the intake fuel air mixture which promotes better combustion. The Tee Dee cylinder was the basis for the design of the Venom and Killer Bee Cylinders.

Cox model engine

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Engine Space Bug Thermal Hopper Space Bug Jnr Space Hopper Strato Bug Product Engine SureStart Babe Bee Golden Bee Black Widow pre 96

Exhaust Ports Open Open Open Open Open Open Slit Open Open Open

Bypass Ports 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Bypass Boosters 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 2 2

SPI Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes

Tapered Grind No No No No No No No No No No No No No No Yes1 No Yes1 No No No Yes2 Yes

Number on cyl. None None None None None 2 None 2 2 1 None None 6 None None None None 1 None 7 4 5

Black Widow post 96 Slit Texaco QRC pre 96 QRC post 96 Killer Bee 96 Killer Bee 02 Venom Medallion pre 96 Medallion post 96 Medallion 051 Tee Dee 049 Tee Dee 051 Notes: SPI = Sub Piston Induction
1 2

Slit Open Slit Slit Slit Open Open Slit Slit Open Open

The Killer Bee and Venom had a special competition lightweight piston and a heavy duty crank shaft for speeds above 22K rpm. The Tee Dee also had a lightweight tapered piston and the crank was stronger and ported different to the Medallion crank.

Pistons
The early engines that were produced before 1957 had a light alloy piston rod which is retained in its socket by a slotted steel retaining cup which in turn is held in place by a steel circlip located in a shallow groove in the interior piston wall. This arrangement (known as a three piece piston) was abandoned as of 1957 in favour of a hardened steel rod which was swaged into a bearing cup formed integrally in the piston interior. The advantage of this latter set-up was that it simplified assembly and the bearing could be re-set to take up play using a suitable "reset" tool to re-swage the cup.[13]

Cox Pistons Pre and post 1957

Cox model engine The engines that used the early style three piece piston are any engines produed prior to 1957. i.e. Space Bug, Space Bug Jnr, Thermal Hopper and Strato Bug. Since the Space Bug, Space Bug Jr and Thermal Hopper where produced up until 1958 you will find versions of these early engines around with the later style pistons. (and cylinders) The post 1957 piston is coated with copper on the inside and top. This was done to prevent the nitrile hardening process from hardening the ball socket joint area. The outside wall of the piston was then finely machined and polished to produce a chromed appearance. The piston is not coated with chrome. To prove this point, if you can clean a Cox piston up with alcohol then place it in water overnight - it will rust.[14]

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Piston / Conrod ball socket joint free play

Sometimes, especially with engines that have had a lot of use, the piston / Cox Reset Tool conrod ball socket joint is very loose and will adversely affect performance. A Cox reset tool, available for the 020, 049/051 and the 09 series engines, is used to tighten the ball joint back up again. The correct free play is .001 to .003inches. The .15 engines use a wrist pin so a socket reset tool is not required for these.

Crankshafts
On the Bee engines there were 2 types of crankshaft produced. (and they are interchangeable) 1. All Bees with the exception of the Killer Bee and Venom had the same crankshaft that was only good for about 20,000 rpm before the conrod pin would break off. 2. The Killer Bees and Venom had a heavy duty balanced and lightened crankshaft that improved performance and could withstand speeds in excess of 22,000 rpm. A company named Davis Diesel Development in the USA also make a Babe Bee (left) - Killer Bee (right) similar crankshaft called a Killer crank for their diesel conversions. They found under the heavier torque loads caused by running diesel fuel, that the pins would break also; hence they produced their own killer crank. On the Tee Dees and Medallions the cranks are also interchangeable but quite different. The Tee Dee has a large square hole at the intake end of the crank whereas the Medallion has a smaller round hole. The timing is also different.

Cox model engine

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Glow heads
Cox Glow Heads
There were 5 main types of Cox Glow Heads produced for the Cox 049:

Cox 049 Heads

1. #302 Pre 1955 Standard Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - Smaller dia. threads - used on Space Bug, Thermal Hopper, Space Bug Jnr and Strato Bug Only.[15] 2. #302-1 Post 1955 Standard Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - Larger dia. threads - used on all engines produced post 1955 until the #325 head was produced in 1980.[16] 3. #325 Standard Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - Larger dia. threads - used on all post 1956 engines except Tee Dees, QZ, Killer Bees, Venom and Texaco. Replaced 302-1 head in 1980. 4. #1702 Hi Compression Head - Trumpet shaped - High Compression - knurled top - 2 fins - used on Tee Dees, Killer Bees, QZ and Venom 5. #315 Texaco Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - 5 fins - used on Texaco Engine only. Allows greater cooling for engine swinging larger propellers.

Special glow heads

Along the way there were also some special heads made: 1. #302RH 1953 Racing Head - Hemispherical shape High Compression - Smaller dia. threads as used on Space Bug, Thermal Hopper, Space Bug Jnr and Strato Bug Only. 2. #??? "W" element Standard Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - Larger dia. threads. The Left: #302RH Right: #302 concept was borrowed from either Atwood or Holland engines and Cox lost the ensuing patent fight therefore the production run was very short due to the legal situation.

Cox model engine

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Aftermarket glow heads

1. Standard glow plug headuses standard conventional glow pluglow compressionstandard performance 2. Turbo glow plug headlow compressionmedium performance 3. Norvel Freedom Glow Plughigh compressionhigh performancerare and hard to get.
W-style filament glow head 4. Galbreath Head with Nelson Plug Combohigh compressionhigh performancemost popular, gives the engine an immediate performance boost by up to 2,500 rpm depending on the engine.

Reed valves
There were three main types of reed valve produced: 1. Early enginesSpace Bug, Thermal Hopper, Strato Bugcircular twin copper reeds 2. Bee Enginesstar shaped single beryllium copper reed held in place by a circlip reed retainer. (see image on left) 3. Later Bees, Killer Bees, Venomoval shaped stainless steel reed which is held in place by a plastic reed retainer. (see image on right)
Original Star Shaped Copper Reed

Later variants of the star and oval reeds were made of Mylar and Teflon. Some say Mylar is the best while others prefer the stainless steel and then others prefer the Teflon. Claims are that Mylar and Teflon are lighter and make the engine easier to start and go faster, but they do not last as long as the stainless ones.

Propellers
049 engines run well on a 5x3 to 6x3 prop. A 5.7x3 APC works well. To get any suitable speed for mouse racing a 4inch pitch prop is required at high revs but to do this plenty of nitro-methane is also required, for example, a 4.75 X 4 prop with 40% Nitro. Texaco engines are designed to use bigger props. e.g. 7x4
Modern Stainless Steel Reed

Fuel
The highest performance is achieved with fuel of 30% or more nitro content. At least 20% oil (50/50 castor/synthetic) is required. With high Nitromethane (nitro) fuel it may be necessary to lower the compression by installing up to six or more additional head gaskets. When using Castor Oil it is advisable to clean the engine cylinder wall with a Scotch-Brite pad to remove castor oil varnish buildup that will occur, especially after lean running. This buildup of varnish will cause the engine to run inconsistently. To avoid this problem, it is advised to use a Synthetic oil or synthetic and castor oil blend. Synthetic oil contains detergents that will keep the cylinder wall clean, however these small engines do rely on some castor oil buildup to

Cox model engine maintain high compression at higher running temperatures. Using clean fuel and keeping everything clean and free from dust and dirt particles is also very important for consistent running in an engine of such small size as these.

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Diesel conversion
Davis Diesel Development [17] manufactures and sells heavy duty Bee cranks (Killer cranks) and diesel conversion heads. These can be purchased direct from their web site or from eBay. The DD cranks are similar to the original Cox Killer Bee crank.

Cox Ready to Fly Model Airplanes

Over the years, as well as producing millions of model engines Cox also produced a similar number of Ready To Fly (RTF) airplanes, as well as boats, cars, helicopters, trains, etc. The following is a list of the RTF airplanes produced by Cox between 1953 and 1977:
Year 1953 1954 1956 1957 1958 1958 1959 1960 1960 1960 1961 1962 1962 1962 1963 1963 1963 1963 1964 1964 1965 1966 1966 1966 1967 1968 TD1 TD3 TD4 Trainer Super Cub 105 Lil Stinker Super Sabre P40 Warhawk Commanche PT-19 Trainer Curtiss Pusher (Kit) Avion Shinn 2150-A Ju87D Stuka P51B Bendix Trophy Racer Super Cub 150 Curtiss SB2C Helldiver L-4 Grasshopper Spook Avion P51B Mustang P40 Kittyhawk Spitfire Curtiss A-25 Bomber RAF Spitfire T-28 QZ PT-19 Trainer AD-6 Skyraider F2G-1 Corsair Model 400 600 5100 5200 5300 5400 5500 5600 5700 5800 6200 6400 6600 5200 7000 7200 7420 7600 8400 7800 7100 7800 7900 5900 9700 7500 Cat. # Engine Space Bug .049 Space Bug Jnr .049 Babe Bee .049 Babe Bee .049 Pee Wee .020 Pee Wee 0.020 350-1 Super Bee .049 Dual bypass port Babe Bee 0.15 Sportsman Babe Bee .049 350-2 Babe Bee .049 190 Product Engine 190-1 Product Engine 190-1 has a dual bypass cylinder - drops bomb 190-2 Product Engine 190-4 Product Engine Updated version of earlier Super Cub 105 190-3 Product Engine 190-3 also has dual bypass - pilot bails out 190-4 Product Engine 290 Spook Engine 190-2 Product Engine Super Bee .049 RAF version of P40 Warhawk Flying wing (kit form) larger 2.5cc engine for Dads Also came out in 5710, 5761, 5900 and 6300 First kit form RTF Replaced by the Super Cub 150 First 020 powered plane Cox's first RTF Notes

350-6 Silver Bee .049 First version of Spitfire replaced in 1966 190-3 Product Engine Dive bomber - drops bombs in flight Silver Bee .049 290 Product Engine QZ .049 190-6 Product Engine 290 Product Engine #7562 with flying accessories PT-19 with QZ engine 2nd version with RAF colour scheme

Cox model engine

66
Pitts Special 8200 Pee Wee 020 290 Product Engine Pee Wee 020 Pee Wee 020 Also released as "Red Knight" Another version of the lil Stinker also available in trottled version 6200-80 same as 6200 & 6200-80 but in Army colors Chrome plated - left hand prop. Variation of the lil Stinker

1968 1969 1969 1969 1969 1969 1970 1971 1971 1971 1971 1972 1972 1972 1973 1973 1974 1975 1975 1976 1976 1976 1976 Notes:

Thompson Trophy Corsair 27 2900 Red Baron Mini Stunt Biplane Ryan ST-3 Super Sport Ryan PT Army Trainer Corsair II Acro Cub Rivets 5300 7300

6200 (&6200-80) Pee Wee 020 6300 (&6300-80) Pee Wee 020 3900 4600 6800 290 Product Engine

190-4 Product Engine variant of the Super Cub 350-9 Product Engine popular design sought by collectors 190-7 Product Engine Stars and stripes color scheme 190-6 Product Engine bubble canopy 191-0 Product Engine 191-2 Product Engine 191-0 Product Engine 191-3 Product Engine Pink aerobatics trainer 190-4 Product Engine convertible with floats and skis 191-7 Product Engine First design with foam wings 191-8 Product Engine Sure Flyer with autopilot 191-8 Product Engine Sure Flyer with autopilot 191-8 Product Engine Sure Flyer with autopilot 191-8 Product Engine Sure Flyer with autopilot Pee Wee 020 First helicopter (free flight)

P51D Miss America Mustang 6900 P51D Mustang Sopwith Camel Fokker DVII Fokker DR1 Triplane Super Sport Trainer Bushmaster Super Stunter Cessna 150 Piper Comanche Skymaster P-39 Airacobra Sky-Copter Crusader Stunt Trainer 7600 8000 8100 8300 8600 8700 5400 4000 4100 4200 4300 7100 9000

191-9 Product Engine Foam wing stunter

Part numbers appear to skip and jump, however cars, hellicopters and boats produced around same times had numbers similar to the airplanes, therefore causing gaps.

Notes
[1] http:/ / coxengines. ca [2] http:/ / www. vintageglowengines. com [3] http:/ / search. ebay. com. au/ search/ search. dll?sofocus=bs& sbrftog=1& dfsp=1& from=R40& satitle=cox+ engine& sacat=220%26catref%3DC6& floc=1& sargn=-1%26saslc%3D2& sabfmts=1& ftrt=1& ftrv=1& saprclo=& saprchi=& fsop=1%26fsoo%3D1& coaction=compare& copagenum=1& coentrypage=search [4] The Engine Collectors Journal, Issue 105, May 1993, History of the Cox Engines Part 1 by Dan Sitter [5] Biography of Oba St.Clair (http:/ / www. modelaircraft. org/ files/ museum/ bio/ StClair. pdf) - AMA National Aviation Museum [6] http:/ / davelandweb. com/ tomorrowland/ [7] Model Aircraft Magazine, August 1955 [8] Aeromodeller Magazine, May 1961 [9] 049 Collectors Forum, Larry Renger, Former Cox Engineer, Designer of the Black Widow and QRC engines. [10] Aeromodeller Magazine, August 1974, UK, Engine Test by Peter Chinn [11] Aeromodeller Magazine, November 1962, Engine Analysis 101 by R.H. Warring [12] Engine Collectors Journal, Issue 127, May 1997, Cox Product Engines Parts Breakdown by Dan Sitter [13] Keilkraft Cobra 049 and the British 1/2A Revolution by Adrian Duncan [14] Larry Renger - former Cox Engineer [15] Cox Dealer Catalogue Feb 1962

Cox model engine

[16] Cox Dealer Catalogue Feb 1962 [17] http:/ / davisdieseldevelopment. com/

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See also
Control line (model aircraft) Cox Models Free flight (model aircraft) Model aircraft

External references
Biography of Leroy M Cox (http://www.modelaircraft.org/museum/bio/Cox.pdf) The Cox Engines Museum (http://www.mh-aerotools.de/airfoils/cox_frameset.htm) Model Engine Collectors Journal (http://www.modelenginecollecting.com/collectors-journal.html) American Model Engines Encyclopedia (http://www.modelenginecollecting.com/collectors-journal.html) Yahoo 049 Collectors Forum (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/049Collectors/) Model Engineering and Model IC Engine Projects (http://www.modelenginenews.org/) Original Author: Warren Leadbeatter - Model Engine Collector - AUS-14782

Decal
A decal (pronounced /dikl, dkl, dkl/) or transfer is a plastic, cloth paper or ceramic substrate that has printed on it a pattern that can be moved to another surface upon contact, usually with the aid of heat or water. The word is short for decalcomania. The word decalcomania is derived from the French word decalquer, and was coined by Simon Franois Ravenet about 1750. The mania was added during the decal craze of the late 19th century.

Properties
Decal is composed of the following layers from top to bottom: 1. A paper or film facestock makes up the top layer of the labelstock. The printing is done on the upper side of the face stock. 2. An adhesive layer is applied to the bottom of the face stock. 3. A silicone or release coating layer is applied to the upper side of the backing material. 4. A paper or film liner provides the bottom layer of the labelstock. Different variations of decals include: water-slide or water-dip; and vinyl peel-and-stick. A water-slide (or water-dip) decal is screen-printed on a layer of water-soluble adhesive on a water-resistant paper, that must first be dipped in water prior to its application.[1] . Upon contact with water, the glue is loosened and the decal can be removed from its backing; overly long exposure, however, dissolves the glue completely causing the decal to fail to adhere. A peel-and-stick decal is actually not a decal as described above, but a vinyl sticker with adhesive backing, that can be transferred by peeling off its base. The sign industry calls these peel-and-stick vinyl stickers vinyl-cut-decals.[2] .

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Applications
Decals are commonly used on hot rod automobiles and plastic models. They are also used on guitars as a way of personalizing them. Government agencies of all types also use decals on vehicles for identification. These decals are referred to as fleet markings and are required by law on all fire and law enforcement vehicles in the US. Most fleet markings are created from reflective vinyl with an adhesive backing that is applied in a peel-and-stick manner. Vinyl comes in large rolls that are fed through a plotter (cutter) or large-format printer/cutter. The designs are created in specialized computer software and sent to the machines via cable link for production. Once the design is cut into the vinyl, the excess vinyl on the sheet is removed in a process called weeding. Finally, a paper pre-mask is applied to the top of the vinyl design to allow easy application of multiple letters and shapes at one time.

See also
Sticker Bumper sticker Lithography Guitar decal

References
[1] TravelDecals.com, "About Decals" (http:/ / www. traveldecals. com/ about_decals. html) [2] StickerGiant.com, "What Are Vinyl Cut Decals" (http:/ / www. stickergiant. com/ blog/ what-are-vinyl-cut-stickers/ )

External links
Industrial Transfers and the Art of Decalcomania (http://sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/collection/ industrial.cfm) History of Decals (http://ceramicdecals.org/History_of_Decals.html)

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Die-cast toy
The term die-cast toy here refers to any toy or collectible model produced by using the die casting method. The toys are made of metal, with plastic, rubber or glass details. Wholly plastic toys are made by a similar process of injection moulding, but the two are rarely confused. The metal used is either a lead alloy (in the first toys), or more commonly Zamak (or Mazak in the UK), an alloy of zinc with small quantities of aluminium and copper. Lead, as previously so widely used for cast metal toys, or iron are impurities that must be carefully Typical early diecast toy, with multiple parts and avoided in this alloy, as they give rise to zinc pest. These alloys are rubber tyres, but no glazed windows also referred to casually as white metal or pot metal, although these terms are also confused with the lead toy alloys. The most common die-cast toys are scale models of automobiles, aircraft, construction equipment and trains, although almost anything can be produced by this method.

History
Diecast (or die cast, or die-cast) toys were first produced early in the 20th century by manufacturers such as Meccano (Dinky Toys) in the United Kingdom and Dowst Brothers (TootsieToys) in the United States. The first models on the market were basic, consisting of a small car or van body with no interior. In the early days it was common for impurities in the alloy to result in zinc pest; the casting would distort or crack for no apparent reason. As a result, diecast toys made before World War II are difficult to find in good condition. The later high-purity Zamak alloy avoided this problem.
A Die Cast Boeing 747 model in 1:400 scale. Lesney began making diecast toys in 1947. Their popular Matchbox 1-75 series was so named because there were always 75 different vehicles in the line, each packaged in a small box designed to look like those used for matches. These toys became so popular that "Matchbox" was widely used as a generic term for any diecast toy car, regardless of who the actual manufacturer was.

The popularity of diecast toys as collectibles developed in the 1950s, as their detail and quality increased. Consequently, more companies entered the field, including the Corgi brand, produced by Mettoy, which appeared in 1956 and pioneered the use of interiors in their models. In 1968, Hot Wheels were introduced in the United States by Mattel, to address the complaint that they had no line of toys for boys to balance their line of Barbie dolls for girls. Because they looked fast and were fast (they were equipped with a low-friction wheel/axle assembly), Hot Wheels quickly gained an important niche in the diecast toy market, becoming one of the world's top sellers and challenging the Matchbox 1-75 series in popularity. During the 1960s various companies began to use diecast vehicles as promotional items for advertising. The idea that children can play a large part in a family's decision as to what products to buy came into wide circulation. In addition, by the 1980s it was apparent that many diecast vehicles were being purchased by adults as collectibles, not as toys for children. Companies such as McDonald's, Sears Roebuck, Kodak, and Texaco commissioned toymakers to produce promotional models featuring their names and logos, or licensed their use. One early example was an American Airlines London bus produced by Matchbox, an idea some other airlines quickly copied.

Die-cast toy Beginning in the mid '70s trucks and other commercial vehicles took a lion's share of the diecast market. Matchbox started the trend when they re-launched their Models of Yesteryear range. They made a score of different versions of their Y-12 Ford Model T van, along with other trucks in colorful liveries such as Coca-Cola, Colman's Mustard, and Cerebos Salt. They also made promotional versions for Smith's Crisps (potato chips) and Harrods department store. Some models were made exclusively for certain markets and immediately became quite expensive elsewhere: Arnott's Biscuits (Australia) and Sunlight Seife (soap, Germany) are examples. Corgi copied this idea when they expanded the Corgi Classics line in the mid-'80s, producing more than 50 versions of a 1920s era Thornycroft van. Some collectors disparaged this development as "collecting paint," as the castings were identical; only the decorations were different. Other collectors created what they called the "10-Foot Rule" when the collecting of minor variations of the same vehicle got out of hand. The idea was that, if you couldn't differentiate between two versions of a model from 10 feet away, it wasn't worthwhile to collect both of them.

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1:24 Diecast Model of the Honda Valkyrie

Despite their popularity, many diecast manufacturers went belly-up in the 1980s. Meccano (Dinky), Matchbox, and Corgi all went bankrupt within a three-year span, which essentially reflected the economic climate in the UK at that time. It had become virtually impossible to manufacture in England and compete on the world market. (Mattel had also long since shifted most of their production from the USA to the far east.) Matchbox was purchased by a Hong Kong conglomerate named Universal Holdings, which moved production from England to Macau. Later (1997), Mattel bought Matchbox, essentially making Hot Wheels and the Matchbox 1-75 line sister brands. The two brands continue to sell under their own separate names. Meanwhile, Corgi had been acquired by Mattel, which moved the office from Swansea, Wales to Leicester, England, and moved manufacturing to China. Matchbox also bought the Dinky Toys name, long after the Liverpool factory was closed. Manufacturing resumed in China. In a series of subsequent shifts, a group of Corgi executives bought back the Corgi Classics line from Mattel, and portions of the Matchbox line were sold to an Australian company named Tyco (no relation to the Tyco line of HO scale trains, originally made by Mantua Metalworking in New Jersey, USA). Effectively from the ashes of Matchbox's bankruptcy arose Lledo, a company created by former Matchbox partner Jack Odell. Odell believed that British collectibles for British collectors could still be profitably produced in England. Lledo took over part of the Matchbox factory in Enfield, and introduced their "Models of Days Gone" line of diecast vehicles in 1983. The first series of Days Gone models included re-makes of some of the most popular and respected first and second-generation Matchbox Models of Yesteryear. Lledo models were very popular collectibles in the '80s, leading to a period of diversification (incl. the Vanguards line A die cast Yamaha motorcycle model in 1:18 scale. of classic post-war British vehicles), but by the '90s they were eclipsed by other brands, and by 2002 Lledo went broke. Parts of their line were purchased by Corgi, which moved production to China.

Die-cast toy In addition to trucks, Corgi produced hundreds of versions of their 1/64 scale Routemaster bus in the '80s and '90s. Like other collecting and promotional model trends, it started as a trickle and soon became a flood. Many versions were made to be sold exclusively in the stores whose advertising appeared on the buses. Harrods, Selfridges, Gamley's, Hamley's, Army & Navy, Underwood's, and Beatties were among the British stores employing this idea. A South African chain called Dion was one of the few overseas firms to follow suit. Then 1/76 scale buses became very popular in Britain in the late '80s and early '90s, with competing lines from Corgi (the Original Omnibus Company) and Gilbow Holdings (Exclusive First Editions, or EFE) fighting for the market. The 1/76 scale fits in with British 'OO' scale model trains. By the 1990s NASCAR enjoyed increasing popularity in the USA, and a large number of racing-related Nascar diecast cars and trucks, painted in the colors of the different racing teams, appeared from various manufacturers. Racing Champions was a leading brand of such models, but there were many others. In addition to cars, trucks, buses, agricultual implements, and construction equipment, diecast aircraft and military models were popular. While Dinky had made such models decades earlier, new companies entered the field in the '80s and '90s. One producer was Dyna-Flytes, which went bankrupt in the 1990s, but their market share was quickly taken up by their competitors, including Schabak, GeminiJets, Herpa, and Dragon Wings.

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Model Scales
Die-cast toys and models come in various scales, the most popular ones being: 1:12 scale - Very large models usually about 14 or 15 inches long often targeted at adults who are more into serious collecting and high detail. These models are generally much more expensive than the 1:18 models. 1:18 scale - Large models usually about 7 or 8 inches long, often targeted at adults 1:24 scale - Similar to G scale Nascar Cars,which are 1:22.5 scale, extremely popular in America 1:36 scale - Also made from Maisto, Kinsmart and Welly 1:43 scale - made popular by Dinky and Corgi, the most popular scale with model car collectors internationally 1:48 scale - aircraft sold in this scale to match plastic model kits 1:50 scale - trucks, buses, construction equipment, promotional models, military vehicles 1:55 scale - used by Siku and the Disney-Pixar Cars Die-Cast Line by Mattel 1:60 scale - the scale of the immensely popular pre-war and post-war military vehicles series by Dinky Toys (including military Dinky Supertoys) 1:64 scale - popular for farm models and American model trucks. Matchbox, Hot Wheels and model Nascar cars are nominally this size. 1:72 scale - A growing scale for military die-cast AFVs 1:76 scale - highly detailed mainly British buses and lorries such as those by EFE and Corgi OOC, and Trax Models in Australia - same as OO scale model trains 1:87 scale - One of the smallest in scale products widely available in the markets. - same as H0 scale model trains

1:50 scale and 1:48 scale metal diecast models together

1:32 scale - Intermediate size most common for vintage cars and model tractors.

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Accessories
Items such as toy restaurants and filling stations are sometimes sold separately from the cars, to be used as playsets. Toy raceways are also sold for use with die-cast cars, which have become more complicated in recent years, usually involving loops and complicated curves. Also produced are carry cases made specifically for children to be able to travel with their cars.

References
Ramsay, John (1993). Catalogue of British Diecast Model Toys (5th ed.). Swapmeet Toys and Models. ISBN0-9509319-6-9.

See also
Scale model Diecast Collector Magazine

Digital character
A digital character is a relatively new concept to the world of film, while the earliest digital characters can be traced back to computer games. A digital character is a character usually seen in a film or game that has been made using a computer. The character is created by making a model out of clay (called a marquette) or through computer animation.

Clay model chavetta

After completing a clay model, it is scanned by a laser scanner and the resulting data is transferred to a computer. Using a 3D program a mesh is created which can then be manipulated by the artist. This mesh can be made manually using the 3D program, but it is more time consuming and therefore more expensive. However the results achieved using the manual method are often superior and is becoming easier with the advent of new technology. Once a mesh of a chavetta has been created it is attached to a rig, which is a system of bones which fit inside the chav. The rig has controls that are used to animate the chav.

Animated character
Animated characters are currently more common than clay models. These characters are completely made using computer graphic programs like Maya, 3Ds Max etc. All characters in animated films like Ice Age are animated characters. The best example of animated character is the mouse from the Stuart Little series of movies. The mouse was precisely designed hair by hair to make it as "real" as possible.

Static character
Static characters are minor characters in a work of fiction who do not undergo substantial change or growth in the course of a story. Also referred to as "two-dimensional characters" or "flat characters," they play a supporting role to the main character, who as a rule should be round, or complex.

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Diorama
The word diorama can either refer to a nineteenth century mobile theatre device, or, in modern usage, a three-dimensional full-size or miniature model, sometimes enclosed in a glass showcase for a museum. Dioramas are often built by hobbyists as part of related hobbies such as military vehicle modeling, miniature figure modeling or aircraft modeling. The art of creating miniature figures and landscapes first made its appearance in the sixth century, in Japan. This art of miniature landscapes is called "Bonkei." The art of "Bonsai", the art of growing miniature trees in pots, and making them look like their natural counterparts, is thought to have its origins at around this same time period.

Diorama of the Battle of Berlin in 1/35th scale

The modern diorama

The current, popular understanding of the term diorama denotes a partially three-dimensional, full-size replica or scale model of a landscape typically showing historical events, nature scenes or cityscapes, for purposes of education or entertainment. Miniature dioramas are typically much smaller, and use scale models and landscaping to create historical or fictional scenes. Such a scale-model based diorama is used, for example, in Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry to display railroading. This diorama employs a common model railroading scale of 1:87 (HO scale). Hobbyist dioramas often use popular scales such as 1/35 or 1/48. Shepard Paine, a prominent hobbyist, popularized the modern miniature diorama beginning in the 1970s.

Full size dioramas

Modern museum dioramas may be seen in most major natural history museums. Typically, these displays use a tilted plane to represent what would otherwise be a level surface, a painted background of distant objects, and often employ false perspective, carefully modifying the scale of objects placed on the plane to reinforce the illusion through depth perception of viewing a larger spacerepresentations of objects (of identical real-world size) placed further from the observer are smaller than those closer. Often the distant painted background or sky will be painted upon a continuous curved surface so that the viewer is A diorama in the Museum of Natural history in Milan (Italy). not distracted by corners, seams, or edges. All of these techniques are means of presenting a realistic view of a large scene in a compact space. A photograph or single-eye view of such a diorama can be especially convincing since in this case there is no distraction by the binocular perception of depth. Carl Akeley, a naturalist, sculptor, and taxidemist, is credited with creating the first ever habitat diorama in 1889. Akeley's diorama featured taxidermied beavers in a three-dimensional habitat with a realistic, painted background. With the support of curator Frank M. Chapman, Akeley designed the popular habitat dioramas featured at the American Museum of Natural History. Combining art with science, these exhibitions were intended to educate the public about the growing need for habitat conservation.[1]

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Miniature dioramas
Miniature dioramas may be used to represent scenes from historic events. A typical example of this type are the dioramas to be seen at Norway's Resistance Museum in Oslo, Norway. Landscapes built around model railways, although they often have to compromise scale accuracy for better operating characteristics, can also be considered dioramas. Hobbyists also build dioramas of historical or quasi-historical events using a variety of materials, including plastic models of military vehicles, ships or other equipment, along with scale figures and landscaping.

Miniature diorama of a knocked-out Panther tank

In the 19th and beginning 20th century, building dioramas of sailing ships had been a popular handcraft of seamen. Building a diorama instead of a normal model had the advantage, that the model was protected inside the frame and it could easily be stowed below the bunk or behind the sea chest. Nowadays, such antique sailing ship dioramas are valuable collectors items. One of the largest Dioramas ever created was a model of the entire state of California built for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition and that for a long time was installed in San Francisco's Ferry Building.

Historic dioramas
The Daguerre Dioramas
The Diorama was a popular entertainment that originated in Paris in 1822. An alternative to the also popular "Panorama" (panoramic painting), the Diorama was a theatrical experience viewed by an audience in a highly specialized theatre. As many as 350 patrons would file in to view a landscape painting that would change its appearance both subtly and dramatically. Most would stand, though limited seating was provided. The show lasted 10 to 15 minutes, after which time the entire audience (on a massive turntable) would rotate to view a second painting. Later models of the Diorama theater even held a third painting. The size of the proscenium was 24feet (7.3 m) wide by 21feet (6.4 m) high (7.3 meters x 6.4 meters). Each scene was hand-painted on linen, which was made transparent in selected areas. A series of these multi-layered, linen panels were arranged in a deep, truncated tunnel, then illuminated by sunlight re-directed via skylights, screens, shutters, and colored blinds. Depending on the direction and intensity of the skillfully manipulated light, the scene would appear to change. The effect was so subtle and finely rendered that both critics and the public were astounded, believing they were looking at a natural scene.

Ground-plan of the Diorama Building, London 1823, by A. Pugin and J. Morgan

The inventor and proprietor of the Diorama was Louis Jacques Mand Daguerre (17871851), formerly a decorator, manufacturer of mirrors, painter of Panoramas, and masterly designer and painter of theatrical stage illusions. Daguerre would later co-invent the daguerreotype, the first widely used method of photography.

Diorama Daguerre opened a second Diorama in Regent's Park in London in 1823, a year after the debut of his Paris original. The building which exhibited the diarama, was designed by Augustus Charles Pugin, father of the notable English architect and designer Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin. The show was a popular sensation, and spawned immediate imitations. English artists like Clarkson Stanfield and David Roberts produced ever-more elaborate dioramas through the 1830s; sound effects and even living performers were added. Some "typical diorama effects included moonlit nights, winter snow turning into a summer meadow, rainbows after a storm, illuminated fountains," waterfalls, thunder and lightning, and ringing bells.[2] A diorama painted by Daguerre is currently housed in the church of the French town Bry-sur-Marne, where he lived and died.[3] [4] Daguerre diorama exhibitions (R.D. Wood, 1993) Exhibition venues : Paris (Pa.1822-28) : London (Lo.1823-32) : Liverpool (Li.1827-32) : Manchester (Ma.1825-27) : Dublin (Du.1826-28) : Edinburgh (Ed.1828-36) The Valley of Sarnen :: (Pa.1822-23) : (Lo.1823-24) : (Li.1827-28) : (Ma.1825) : (Du.1826-27) : (Ed. 1828-29 & 1831) The Harbour of Brest :: (Pa.1823) : (Lo.1824-25 & 1837) : (Li.1825-26) : (Ma.1826-27) : (Ed. 1834-35) The Holyrood Chapel :: (Pa.1823-24) : (Lo.1825) : (Li.1827-28) : (Ma.1827) : (Du.1828) : (Ed.1829-30) The Roslin Chapel :: (Pa.1824-25) : (Lo.1826-27) : (Li.1828-29) : (Du.1827-28) : (Ed.1835) The Ruins in a Fog :: (Pa.1825-26) : (Lo.1827-28) : (Ed.1832-33) The Village of Unterseen :: (Pa.1826-27) : (Lo.1828-29) : (Li.1832) : (Ed.1833-34 & 1838) The Village of Thiers :: (Pa.1827-28) : (Lo.1829-30) : (Ed. 1838-39) The Mont St. Godard :: (Pa.1828-29) : (Lo.1830-32) : (Ed.1835-36)

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The Gottstein Dioramas

Until 1968 Britain boasted a large collection of dioramas, these collections were originally housed in the Royal United Services Institute Museum, (formerly the Banqueting House), in Whitehall. However, when the museum closed the various exhibits, and their 15 known dioramas, were distributed to smaller museums throughout England, some ending up in Canada, and elsewhere. These dioramas were the brainchild of the wealthy furrier Otto Gottstein (1892-1951) of Leipzig, a Jewish immigrant from Hitlers Germany, who was an avid collector and designer of flat model figures called flats. In 1930, Gottsteins influence is first seen at the Leipzig International Exhibition, along with the diaramas of Hahnemann of Kiel, Biebel of Berlin and Muller of Erfurt, all displaying their own figures, and those commissioned from such as Ludwig Frank in large diorama form. In 1933 Gottstein left Germany, and in 1935 founded the British Model Soldier Society. Gottstein persuaded designer and painter friends in both Germany and France to help in the construction of dioramas depicting notable events in English history. But due to the war, many of the figures arrived in England incomplete. The task of turning Gottsteins ideas into reality fell to his English friends and those friends who had managed to escape from the Continent. Dennis (Denny) C. Stokes, a talented painter and diorama maker in his own right, was responsible for the painting of the backgrounds of all the dioramas, creating a unity seen throughout the whole series. Denny Stokes was given the overall supervision of the fifteen dioramas. 1. The Landing of the Romans under Julius Caesar in 55 B.C. 2. The Battle of Hastings. 3. The Storming of Acre. (figures by Muller.) 4. The Battle of Crecy. (figures by Muller.) 5. The Field of the Cloth of Gold. 6. The Queen Elizabeth reviewing her troops at Tilbury. 7. The Battle of Marston Moor.

8. The Battle of Blenheim. (painted by Douchkine.) 9. The Battle of Plessey.

Diorama 10. The Battle of Quebec. (engraved by Krunert of Vienna.) 11. The Old Guard at Waterloo. 12. The Charge of the Light Brigade. 13. The Battle of Ulundi. (figures by Ochel, and Petrocochino - pseudonym of Paul Armont.) 14. The Battle of Fleurs. 15. The D-Day landings.

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Krunert, Schirmer, Frank, Frauendorf, Maier, Franz Rieche and Oesterrich were also involved in the manufacture and design of figures for the various dioramas. Krunert (a Viennese), like Gottstein an exile in London, was given the job of engraving for The Battle of Quebec. Unfortunately, the death of Wolfe was found to be inaccurate and had to be re-designed. The names of the vast majority of painters employed by Gottstein are mostly unknown, most lived and worked on the Continent, among them Gustave Kenmow, Leopold Rieche, L.Dunekate, M.Alexandre, A.Ochel, Honey Ray and, perhaps Gottsteins top painter, Vladimir Douchkine (a Russian migr who lived in Paris). Douchkine was responsible for painting two figures of Marlborough on horseback for The Blenheim Diorama, one of which was used, the other, Gottstein being the true collector, was never released. Denny Stokes painted all the backgrounds of all the dioramas, Herbert Norris, the Historical Costume Designer, whom Dr. J.F. Lovel-Barnes introduced to Gottstein, was responsible for the costume design of the Ancient Britons, the Normans and Saxons, some of the figures of The Field of the Cloth of Gold and the Elizabethan figures for Queen Elizabeth at Tilbury. Dr. J.F. Lovel-Barnes was himself responsible for the Battle of Blenheim diorama, selecting the figures, and arrangement of the scene. Due to World War II, when flat figures became unavailable, Gottstein completed his ideas by using Greenwood and Balls 20mm figures. In time a fifteenth diorama was added, using these 20mm figures, this diorama representing the D-Day landings. When all the dioramas were completed, they were displayed along one wall in the Royal United Services Institute Museum. When the museum was closed the fifteen dioramas were distributed to various museums and institutions. The greatest number are to be found at the Glenbow Museum, (130-9th Avenue, S. E. Calgary, Alberta, Canada): RE: 'The Landing of the Romans under Julius Caesar in 55 BC', 'The Battle Of Crecy', 'The Battle of Blenheim', 'The Old Guard at Waterloo', 'The Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaclava'. The state of these dioramas is one of debate; John Garratt (The World of Model Soldiers) claimed in 1968, that the dioramas appear to have been partially broken up and individual figures have been sold to collectors. According to the Glenbow Institute (Barry Agnew, Curator) the figures are still in reasonable condition, but the plaster groundwork has suffered considerable deterioration. Unfortunately, there are no photographs available of the dioramas. The Battle of Hastings diorama was to be found in the Old Town Museum, Hastings, and is still in reasonable condition. It shows the Norman cavalry charging up Senlac Hill towards the Saxon lines. The Storming of Acre is in the Museum of Artillery at the Rotunda, Woolwich. John Garratt, in the "Encyclopedia of Model Soldiers", states that The Field of the Cloth of Gold was in the possession of the Royal Military School of Music, Kneller Hall; however, according to the Curator, the diorama had not been in his possession since 1980, nor is it listed in their Accession Book, so the whereabouts of this diorama is unknown. [5]

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The Denny Stokes dioramas

Very little is known about Dennis C. Stokes, (d.1989), except that he lived in Ealing in London, 1956/57, and was the subject of a 1957 Pathe Film documentary, which narrated his creation of five of his own miniature military dioramas [6] . According to issue one of the Journal of the British Flat Figure Society (1986); The five known Denny Stokes dioramas, as depicted and narrated by Pathe film 1957. (See here:[7]) 1. Scotland after the '45 rebellion: 2. The Battle of Quebec: 3. The D-Day Landing: 4. Fur trading station in Canada: 5. Hunting scene from Luis 14th:

Scotland after the '45 rebellion This is a miniature diorama, part of a collection of Mr. Denny Stokes from London. The main subject of Mr. Stokes' dioramas is military history. He uses all sorts of materials to depict the events from military history in greatest detail possible. (L/S) of fairy tale landscape: a castle, little boat, mountains in the fog - all in shades of blue. (C/U) shot of the detail - entrance into the castle with opened gates and people inside. (C/U) shot of another details - a little boat, soldiers marching, a man and his horse... Voiceover talks about what this represents: "Scotland after the '45 rebellion, showing the English troops occupying a castle, and the opposing Highland rebels of Bonnie Prince Charlie." This Scotland after the '45 rebellion, is the only one of his depicted dioramas, which can be seen, during the filming of this Pathe documentary, as being finished in January 1957. This diorama was never commissioned for a museum, but was designed and created for his personal collection, and remained in his possession as such, until his death in 1989. With the exception of its appearance on this Pathe film in 1957, this rare diorama had never appeared in any public exhibition, until exhibited (without provenance or film), as part of a larger collection of model soldiers, cavalry, and other dioramas, exhibited at the Soldiers Life Exhibition, Newcastle upon Tyne Discovery Museum, between 1998-1999. [8] Two dioramas depict the scaling of the Heights of Abraham at Quebec by General Wolfe and the East Yorkshires in 1759, and of the D-day landing at Colleville-Sur-Orne, which were both, commissioned for, and can be seen at, the "East Yorkshire Regiment Museum". Another diorama represents a fur trading station in Canada, with a canoe in a river, wigwams, log cabins, and background mountains. Another depicts a hunting scene of Luis the 14th, showing people on horses, and a deer in the woods, the whereabouts of both these are unknown.

Other dioramas
Painters of the Romantic era like John Martin and Francis Danby were influenced to create large and highly dramatic pictures by the sensational dioramas and panoramas of their day. In one case, the connection between life and diorama art became intensely circular. On 1 February 1829, John Martin's brother Jonathan, known as "Mad Martin," set fire to the roof of York Minster. Clarkson Stanfield created a diorama re-enactment of the event, which premiered on 20 April of the same year; it employed a "safe fire" via chemical reaction as a special effect. On 27 May, the "safe" fire proved to be less safe than planned: it set a real fire in the painted cloths of the imitation fire, which burned down the theater and all of its dioramas.[9] Nonetheless, dioramas remained popular in England, Scotland, and Ireland through most of the nineteenth century, lasting until 1880. A small scale version of the diorama called the Polyrama Panoptique could display images in the home. and was marketed from the 1820s.[10]

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See also
Model military vehicle Model figure Nativity scene Cosmorama Cyclorama Moving panorama Myriorama Panorama Panoramic painting Planetarium Armor Modeling and Preservation Society Model railroading

Notes
[1] Stephen Christopher Quinn, Windows on Nature: The Great Habitat Dioramas of the American Museum of Natural History, Abrams, New York 2006. [2] Lionel Lambourne, Victorian Painting, London, Phaidon Press, 1999; p. 156. [3] (French) All about Daguerre's diorama in Bry (http:/ / www. bry94. fr/ sites/ bry/ fichier/ diaporama_diorama. pdf) [4] (French) About the diorama on Bry's official website (http:/ / www. bry94. fr/ bry/ 2308. htm) [5] Journal of the British Flat Figure Society: Issue One April 1986. The Gottstein Dioramas - Englands Flat Heritage. by Jan Redley [6] Pathe film archives. http:/ / www. britishpathe. com/ record. php?id=106 [7] http:/ / www. britishpathe. com/ record. php?id=106 [8] Newcastle Evening Chronicle. April 22 1999.(p3. by P Spillar) Model army of Stephen McDermott at the Discovery Museum. [9] Lambourne, p. 157. [10] Science & Society Picture Library: the collections of the Science Museum, the National Railway Museum and the National Museum of Photography, Film & Television (http:/ / www. scienceandsociety. co. uk/ results. asp?image=10302430& wwwflag=2& imagepos=1)

References
Helmut and Alison Gernsheim, L.J.M. Daguerre, The History of The Diorama and the Daguerreotype, Dover Publications, 1968.

External links
R. D. Wood's Essays on the early history of photography and the Diorama (http://www.webarchive.org.uk/ wayback/archive/20100311230213/http://www.midley.co.uk/) The world's largest collection of antique sailing ship dioramas (http://www.segelschiffmuseum-in-hamburg.de/ slideshow5.html) World War II Dioramas in 1:35 scale (http://scalecombat.narod.ru/) A tutorial on how to make a miniature diorama (http://www.stormthecastle.com/mainpages/dioramas/ diorama_tutorial1.htm)

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Diorama (Efteling)

The Diorama is a miniature world in Efteling amusement park in the Netherlands. The highly detailed mountainous world, or Diorama, was designed by Anton Pieck and opened its doors in 1971, in honour of the 20th birthday of Efteling [1] . The visitors can walk around a 60 meter long show-case with mountains, little villages, castles and churches, moving trains and automobiles and flowing water. Most of the Diorama is set in day-time, but a smaller part is devoted to night-time The landscape has been built entirely out of styrofoam. The Diorama is the first attraction with contributions of Ton van de Ven, the creative director of Efteling at that time. He made some sketches for it, but they werent used for the Diorama; years later they were used for one of the scenes in the dark-ride Dreamflight[2] .

Trivia
One of the wooden bridges over the railroad tracks in the first scene has collapsed and a new wooden bridge has been built next to it. It seems to be a creative idea, but it was actually stepped on by one of the builders by accident. Exceptionally, Mrklin for many years manufactured the Minex steam trains specially for Efteling.

References
[1] Park ride presentation (http:/ / www. efteling. com/ NL/ Park/ Attracties/ Diorama. html) [2] Fan site about the diorama (http:/ / www. wonderlijkewcweb. org/ index. htm?http& & & www. wonderlijkewcweb. org/ diorama/ dioramamain. htm?http& & & www. wonderlijkewcweb. org/ diorama/ diorama-opening. htm)

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Dollhouse
A dollhouse is a toy home, made in miniature. For the last century, dollhouses have primarily been the domain of children but their collection and crafting is also a hobby for many adults. Today's dollhouses trace their history back about four hundred years to the baby house display cases of Europe, which showed idealized interiors. Smaller doll houses with more realistic exteriors appeared in Europe in the 18th century. Early dollhouses were all handmade, but following the Industrial Revolution and World War II, they were increasingly mass produced and became more standardized and affordable. Contemporary children's play dollhouses are commonly in 1:18 (or 2/3") scale, while 1:12 (or 1") scale is common for dollhouses made for adult collectors. The term dollhouse is common in the United States and Canada. In UK usage, dolls' house or dollshouse is usual.
Exterior of a hand-built American dollhouse

History
Miniature homes, furnished with domestic articles and resident inhabitants, both people and animals, have been made for thousands of years. The earliest known examples were found in the Egyptian tombs of the Old Kingdom, created nearly five thousand years ago. These wooden models of servants, furnishings, boats, livestock and pets placed in the Pyramids almost certainly were made for religious purposes. The earliest known European dollhouses were the baby houses from the 16th century, which were cabinet display cases made up of rooms. They showed idealized interiors complete with extremely detailed furnishings and accessories. The cabinets were built with architectural details and filled with miniature household items and were solely the playthings of adults. They were off-limits to children, not because of safety concerns for the child but for the dollhouse. Such cabinet houses [1] were trophy collections owned by the few matrons living in the cities of Holland, England and Germany who were wealthy enough to afford them, and, fully furnished, were worth the price of a modest full-size house's construction.

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Smaller doll houses such as the Tate house, with more realistic exteriors, appeared in Europe in the 18th century.[2] The early European dollhouses were each unique, constructed on a custom basis by individual craftsmen. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, factories began mass producing toys, including dollhouses and miniatures suitable for furnishing them. German companies noted for their dollhouses included Christian Hacker, Moritz Gottschalk, Elastolin, and Moritz Reichel. The list of important English companies includes Siber & Fleming, Evans & Cartwright, and Lines Brothers (which became Tri-ang). By the end of the 19th century American dollhouses were being made in the United States by The Bliss Manufacturing Company. Germany was the producer of the most prized dollhouses and doll house miniatures up until World War I. Notable German miniature companies included Mrklin, Rock and Garner and others. Their German dollhouse from Nuremberg, 17th century products were not only avidly collected in Central Europe, but regularly exported to Britain and North America. Germany's involvement in WWI seriously impeded both production and export. New manufacturers in other countries arose. The TynieToy Company of Providence, Rhode Island, made authentic replicas of American antique houses and furniture in a uniform scale beginning in about 1917.[3] Other American companies of the early 20th century were Roger Williams Toys, Tootsietoy, Schoenhut, and the Wisconsin Toy Co. Dollhouse dolls and miniatures were also produced in Japan, mostly by copying original German designs. After World War II, dollshouses became mass produced in factories on a much larger scale with less detailed craftsmanship than ever before. By the 1950s, the typical dollhouse sold commercially was made of Living Room of Dollhouse. Maine, USA painted sheet metal filled with plastic furniture. Such houses cost little enough that the great majority of girls from the developed western countries that were not struggling with rebuilding after World War II could own one.

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As a hobby
Dollhouses are available in different forms. From ready-made and decorated houses to kits to custom built houses made to the customer's design. Some design and build their own dollhouse. Simpler designs might consist of boxes stacked together and used as rooms. Miniature objects used for decoration inside dollhouses include furniture, interior decorations, dolls and items like books and clocks. Some of these are available ready-made, but may also be homemade. There are dozens of miniature trade shows held throughout the year by various Dollhouse items in the scale 1:12. miniature organizations, where artisans and dealers display and sell miniatures. Often, how-to seminars and workshops are part of the show features. Miniature stores also hold classes. There are Internet forums, blogs and using other online social media concentrated in dollhouses and miniatures. Enthusiasts also share images online.

Construction
In the United States, most houses have an open back and a fancy front facade, while British houses are more likely to have a hinged front that opens to reveal the rooms. Children's dollhouses during the 20th century have been made from a variety of materials, including metal (tin litho), fibreboard, plastic, and wood. With the exception of Lundby, 2/3-scale furniture for children's dollhouses has most often been made of plastic. Contemporary kit and fully built houses are typically made of plywood or medium-density fiberboard. Tab-and-slot kits use a thinner plywood and are held together by a system of tabs and slots (plus glue). These houses are usually light-weight and lower cost but often require siding, shingles, or other exterior treatments to look realistic. Kits made from heavier plywood or MDF are held together with nails and glue.

Standard scales

Dollhouse

83 The baby houses of the seventeenth and 18th centuries, and the toy dollhouses of the nineteenth and early 20th century rarely had uniform scales, even for the features or contents of any one individual house. Although a number of manufacturers made lines of miniature toy furniture in the 19th century, these products were not to a strict scale. Children's play dollhouses from most of the 20th and 21st centuries are 1:18 or two third inch scale (where 1 foot is represented by 2/3 of an inch). Common brands include Lundby (Sweden), Renwal, Plasco, Marx, Petite Princess, and T. Cohn (all American) and Caroline's Home, Barton, Dol-Toi and Triang (English). A few brands use 1:16 or 3/4"-scale.

From left: half inch scale, three quarter inch scale, 1 inch scale, 1/10th scale

The most common standard for adult collectors is 1:12 scale, also called 1" or one inch scale (where 1 foot is represented by 1inch.) Among adult collectors there are also smaller scales which are much more common in the United States than in Britain. 1:24 or half inch scale (1 foot is 1/2") was popular in Marx dollhouses in the 1950s but only became widely available in collectible houses after 2002, about the same time that even smaller scales became more popular, like 1:48 or quarter inch scale (1 foot is 1/4") and 1:144 or "dollhouse for a dollhouse" scale. In Germany during the middle part of the 20th century 1:10 scale became popular based on the metric system. Dollhouses coming out of Germany today remain closer in scale to 1:10 than 1:12. The largest common size for dollhouses is Playscale or 1:6 which is proportionate for Barbie, Ken, Blythe and other dolls 11-12inches tall.

Notable dollhouses
The Doll's House of Petronella Oortman c. 1686-1705. The Rijksmuseum Amsterdam estimates that P. Oortman spent twenty to thirty thousand guilders on her model house, the price of a real house along one of Amsterdams canals at that time. This dollhouse shows the linen room (laundry room), kitchen, and bedrooms in great detail.[1] The Tate House (1760), on exhibit in the Museum of Childhood in London, England.[2] In Egeskov Castle in Denmark, Titania's Palace is on display, a miniature castle that was hand-built by James Hicks & Sons, Irish Cabinet Makers who were commissioned by Sir Neville Wilkinson from 1907 to 1922. The palace consists of 18 rooms and salons.[4] Queen Mary's Dolls' House was designed for Queen Mary in 1924 by Sir Edwin Lutyens, a leading architect of the time, and is on display at Windsor Castle. The house has working plumbing and lights and is filled with miniature items of the finest and most modern goods of the period. Writers like Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Rudyard Kipling contributed special books which were written and bound in scale size.[5] Colleen Moore's Fairy castle has been on display since 1950s at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois.[6] The 68 miniature Thorne Rooms, each with a different theme, were designed by Narcissa Niblack Thorne and furniture for them was created by craftsmen in the 1930s and 40s. They are now at the Art Institute of Chicago, Phoenix Art Museum and the Knoxville Museum of Art.[7] In Tampere in Finland, the Moomin Museum displays the Moomin house, a dollhouse created around the Moomin characters of Tove Jansson. The house was built by Jansson, Tuulikki Pietil and Pentti Eistola and later donated to the town of Tampere.[8] The museum contains also dozens of roomboxes with Moomin characters, all made b Tuulikki Pietil. The Dollhouse Museum (German: Puppenhausmuseum) in Basel is the largest museum of its kind in Europe.

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See also
Room box

References
[1] Doll's house - Rijksmuseum Amsterdam - Museum for Art and History (http:/ / www. rijksmuseum. nl/ aria/ aria_assets/ BK-NM-1010?lang=en) [2] Tate Baby House - 1760 (http:/ / www. vam. ac. uk/ moc/ collections/ dolls_houses/ tatebaby/ index. html) [3] A Brief TinyToy History (http:/ / tynietoy. com/ About/ history. htm) [4] http:/ / egeskov. dk/ en/ titanias-palace [5] (http:/ / www. victorianstation. com/ interior. html) [6] (http:/ / www. msichicago. org/ exhibit/ fairy_castle/ fchome. html) [7] Thorne Miniature Rooms - The Art Institute of Chicago (http:/ / www. artic. edu/ aic/ collections/ thorne) [8] http:/ / inter9. tampere. fi/ muumilaakso/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=24& Itemid=47

External links
Dolls' houses (http://www.vam.ac.uk/moc/collections/dolls_houses/index.html) at the V&A Museum of Childhood Kruger Collection (http://krugercollection.unl.edu/) - collection of dollhouse miniatures at the University of NebraskaLincoln

Freelance model
Introduction
The term freelance, in the aerial, railway, naval, or bus model building, indicates a company which does not base its products on existing livery. freelance models are sometimes frowned upon in the model building community, although the adopted material is in reduced scale, they are not models of existing items, but are designed by the model builder. Due to the lower cost (no licensing Freelance's company Locomotive fees etc.), this type of model is quite popular in the United States. In Europe, it has yet to catch on, although there are a few companies with freelance model lines.

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Freelance Companies
Railway
FTL - Ferrovie e Tranvie Locali - Local Railroads and Tramways Beetrains SAFF - Societ Anonima Ferrovie Federate - Joint-stock company Federate Railroads So.Ge.R.I.T. SITAV Societ Intermodale Trasporti Alta Valle - High Valley Intermodal Society Transport

Bus
SAFF - Societ Anonima Ferrovie Federate - Joint-stock company Federate Railroads

Garage kit
A garage kit or resin kit is an assembly scale model kit most commonly cast in polyurethane resin. They are often figures portraying humans or other living creatures. In Japan they are usually female anime characters, and in the US movie monsters. But kits are produced of a wide range of subjects, from characters from horror, science fiction, fantasy films, television and comic books to nudes and pin-up girls to dinosaurs to original works of art, as well as upgrade and conversion kits for existing models and airsoft guns. Originally garage kits were amateur-produced and the term originated with dedicated hobbyists using their garages as workshops. Unable to find model kits of subjects they wanted on the market, they began producing kits of their own. As the market expanded professional companies began making similar kits. Sometimes a distinction is made between true garage kits, made by amateurs, and resin kits, manufactured professionally by companies. Because of the labor intensive casting process, garage kits are usually produced in limited numbers and are more expensive than injection-molded plastic kits. The parts are glued together using cyanoacrylate (Super Glue) or an epoxy cement and the completed figure is painted. Some figures are sold completed, but most commonly they are sold in parts for the buyer to assemble and finish. The legality of amateur garage kits can be questionable as they are not always properly licensed and sometimes recast copies of kits are sold without permission.

Japan
Most Japanese garage kits are female anime figures, sometimes in lurid or even pornographic poses. Another major subject is "Kaiju" monsters such as Godzilla, and they also include subjects like mecha and science fiction space ships. Garage kits can be as simple as a one piece figure, or as complex as kits with well over one hundred parts. Most commonly they are cast in polyurethane resin, but may also be fabricated of such diverse substances as soft vinyl, white metal a type of lead alloy and fabric. Originally the kits were sold and traded between hobbyists at conventions like Wonder Festival. As the market grew a number of companies began producing resin kits professionally, such as Federation Models, Volks, WAVE/Be-J, Kaiyodo, Kotobukiya and B-Club, a subsidiary of Bandai producing Gundam kits. The scale of figure kits varies, but as of 2008 1/8 seems to be predominant. Prior to 1990 the dominant scale was 1/6. This scale shrink coincided with rise in material, labor, and licensing costs. Other scales, such as 1/3, 1/4, 1/6, 1/7 also exist, but are less common. Larger kits (1/3, 1/4, etc.) generally command higher prices due to the greater amounts of material required to produce them.

Garage kit Japanese garage kits are usually cast as separate parts which are packed with instructions and sometimes photographs of the final product. Most professionally manufactured kits come in a box while amateur-produced kits sold at conventions come in a plastic bag. They are usually completely unpainted and do not come with decals. The builder has to paint the assembled model, preferably with an airbrush. Asian ball-jointed dolls (BJDs) have their roots in garage kits, and are still made similarly, by casting in polyurethane resin. Some garage kit designers and producers, like Volks, Cerberus Project and Gentaro Araki, now create BJDs as well.

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USA
In the 1950s and 60s Aurora and other companies produced cheap plastic models of movie monsters, comic book heroes, and movie and television characters. This market disappeared, but through the 1980s an underground market grew through which enthusiasts could acquire the old plastic model kits. In the early to mid-1980s, hobbyists began creating their own garage kits of movie monsters. There was a small but enthusiastic market for these new model kits. They were making flexible molds which could produce accurate reproductions of new figures which were sculpted more accurately and with more detail than the old plastic model kits, but often done without permission from copyright holders. They were usually produced in limited numbers and sold primarily by mail order and at toy and hobby conventions. In the mid- to late 1980s the monster model kit hobby grew toward the mainstream. By the 1990s model kits were produced in the US, UK as well as Japan and distributed through hobby and comic stores. There was an unprecedented variety of licensed models figure kits. In the late 1990s model kit sales went down. Hobby and comic stores and their distributors began carrying fewer garage kits or closed down and producers shut their doors. As of 2009, there are two American garage kit magazines, Kitbuilders Magazine[1] and Amazing Figure Modeler,[2] and there are garage kit conventions held each year, like WonderFest USA in Louisville, Kentucky.[3]

Production
Garage kits are generally produced in small quantities, from the tens to a few hundred copies, compared to injection-molded plastic kits which are produced in many thousands. This is due to the labor intensive nature of the manufacturing process and the relatively low market demand. Resin casting garage kit production is the most labor-intensive. The upside is that creating the initial mold is much less costly than in the injection-molding process. Vinyl garage kits are produced by using liquid vinyl Plastisol in a spin casting process known as slush molding. It is more complex than resin casting, but less expensive and less sophisticated than the injection molding used for most plastic products. It is not something that is commonly done in a basement or garage.

Intellectual property issues

The legality of amateur garage kits can be questionable as they are not always properly licensed. The model might be of a copyrighted character or design that was produced by fans because no official model exists. In an effort to legitimize amateur garage kit production and sales in Japan, it is not uncommon for license holder to issue 'single day license' (ja:) where for one day only, license is granted for sale of amateur garage kits. These licensing agreement are typically negotiated between an event organizer (Wonder Festival, Character Hobby, Figure Mania, etc.) and varies licensing entities for license to characters from specific TV shows and movies. Typically the event organizer publishes in advance, a list of licenses available, and sculptors intending to sell their sculptures then submit applications (including photos of sculpture) for approval. It is not uncommon for applications

Garage kit to be rejected. The relatively low initial investment and ease of resin casting means that it's also easy to create recast copies of existing original kits. Recasts are produced by making molds of parts from original model kits and then doing recasts from the new molds. This can be done for personal use, such as modification of an existing kit, but unlicensed recast copies of are sometimes sold unlawfully. In some cases the original kit is no longer available, but in others they are still in active production. The recasts can be of officially licensed model kits, but when they are of unlicensed kits the sculptor usually has a hard time pursuing litigation. The recasts are usually of inferior quality and offered at a price that undercuts the original. Recast kits can be found on online auction sites, where they can be difficult to control due to cumbersome site policies and seller pseudonymity. Many recasters are in East Asia but can be found all over the globe.

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See also
Scale model Model figure Wonder Festival

References
[1] http:/ / www. kitbuildersmagazine. com/ [2] http:/ / www. amazingmodeler. com/ [3] http:/ / www. wonderfest. com/

WonderFest - Introduction to Garage Kits (http://www.wonderfest.com/gk-what.htm) WonderFest - Garage Kit history - from a personal viewpoint... (http://www.wonderfest.com/gk-hist.htm) WonderFest - What are recasts? (http://www.wonderfest.com/faq.htm)

External links
Federation Models (http://www.federationmodels.com) Volks (http://www.volks.co.jp) Be-J (http://www.be-j.com/) Kaiyodo (http://www.kaiyodo.co.jp) Kotobukiya (http://www.kotobukiya.co.jp)

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Grenadier Models Inc.

Industry Fate Successor Founded Defunct Wargaming Role-playing game Closed Mirliton S.G. 1975 1996

Headquarters Springfield, Pennsylvania, U.S. Key people Sculptors: Andrew Chernak Julie Guthrie Bob Charrette Sandra Garrity Nick Lund Robert Watts Owners: Andrew Chernak Ray Rubin miniature figures

Products

Grenadier Models Inc. of Springfield, Pennsylvania produced lead miniature figures for wargames and role-playing games with fantasy, science fiction and heroic themes between 1975 and 1996. Grenadier Models Inc. is best known for their figures for TSR Inc.'s Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game, collectible Dragon-of-the-Month and Giants Club figures, and their marketing of paint and miniature sets through traditional retail outlets. The company began as a basement enterprise, but by 1983 they had grown to a company of 50 people and had the third highest gross sales in the gaming market[1] . Grenadier's sculptors included John Dennett, Janine Bennett, Julie Guthrie, Robert Watts, Nick Lund, Mark Copplestone, Michael Daley, Sandra Garrity, Bob Naismith, William Watt and Ian Symonds. Grenadier closed its doors in 1996, but many of their products remain in production by companies in Italy and the United States.

History
The company was founded by Andrew Chernak, president and head sculptor, and Ray Rubin, vice president and head artist, when they reorganized Canterbury Pewter Ltd., a gift-market sculpting business which they had established in 1972. The duo were not new to historical miniatures. Chernak had previously sculpted for Superior Models and Rubin was a co-founder of Squadron-Rubin Miniatures. Grenadier Model's first product was a line of 25mm American Revolution figures released in anticipation of the 1976 United States Bicentennial. The company received its name from their first miniature, a grenadier[1] .

Historical Miniatures, 1975-1980

By the end of 1976, Grenadier had produced miniatures soldiers from Classical Antiquity and the American Civil War, and American Old West gunfighters. Although they were primarily focused on the well established market for historical miniatures, their early produced included spaceships dubbed Space Squadrons and Stellardate: 2998 (product codes SS1-19, #5008), 25 mm fantasy figures called Wizzards & Warriors (W1-60, WS1-5), and a small selection of 15mm fantasy figures [2] . As the fantasy market began to out-pace historical miniatures in 1978, Grenadier released box sets containing select portions of their fantasy, space ships, and gunslinger lines[3] [4] .

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"Your D. & D. Figure Company," 1981-1982

By 1981 Grenadier Models had begun to refer to itself as "Your D. & D. Figure Company" and established a newsletter to advertise its status as the official producer of miniatures for TSR Inc.'s AD&D and Gamma World role-playing games. The company established The Grenadier Bulletin in the fall of 1981[1] . The periodical had a short run, but its first editor Kim Eastland became an influential author of role-playing games and fiction published by TSR Inc.. The AD&D lines included blister packs of monsters (#101-116), small box sets (#2001-2013), and large box sets (#5001-5004, 5009). A collateral product was Action Art box sets (#8001-8004) which included paint and miniature figurines. The Gamma World role-playing game was supported by a series of blister packs (Gxx), a box sets of adventurers (#5005) and post-apocalyptic monsters (#5006). Grenadier also produced figures (SN1-4) for TSR Inc.'s Snit's Revenge board game[5] . With the popularity of fantasy and science fiction gaming Grenadier discontinued many of their historical period figures. However, they continued to produce 54mm figures (#5401-5409) featuring historical figures like "5401Jesus of Nazareth," and a 77mm series of figures (#9001-9003, 9006) based on the calendar art of Boris Vallejo[5] . The 77mm figures were dropped the following year [1] . In late 1982 Grenadier Models and TSR Inc. ended their business relationship[6] [1] . The issue appeared to have been over Grenadier's plans to produce figures for other game companies. Several years after the fact Grenadier described the separation as "a bold decision... in order to provide players of all fantasy games with a broader range of quality fantasy miniatures" [1] . Since many of Chernak's sculptures predated TSR Inc.'s artwork, Grenadier Models retained the rights to their sculptures and re-released many of the them in the Dragon Lords (#2001-2013, 5001-5004), Fantasy Lords (#6001-6005, 101-112), and Action Art (#8003, 8004) lines[3] . There may have been issues with the reuse of the sculpts, and the following year some sets (#2010-2012, 8003, 8004) were replaced with new sculpts[1] .

Collect and Paint, 1983-1990

As Grenadier parted ways with TSR Inc. they continued to reach out to the burgeoning adventure gaming market. In 1983 they became the official producer of miniatures for Chaosium's Call of Cthulhu (#6501, 6502), Game Designers' Workshop's Traveller (#1001-1003), and FASA's Star Trek role-playing game (FASA)[1] . At that same time the owners of Grenadier Models spun off a subsidiary called Pinnacle Products with an orientation toward mainstream retail outlets. They produced The Dark Crystal Adventure Collection which included two boxes sets (#9001, 9002, n.b. reuse of product code) containing paints and miniatures of the characters and furniture in the December 1982 movie The Dark Crystal. Other Pinnacle Products merchandise included the Paint and Collect Series consisting of 2201 - Dinosaurs, 2202 - Fantasy Lords, 2203 - Fantasy Monsters, and 2204 - G.I. Assault Team[1] . In early 1983 Grenadier added four Paint and Playsets (#9101-9104) to coincide with Mattel's Masters of the Universe cartoon and 1/285 scale tanks and artillery for Steve Jackson Games' Ogre (#6101, 6110-6115, 6118, 6122) and 1/180 scale vehicles Car Wars AutoDuel (#6201-6210) games[1] . In 1983 Grenadier began its Wizard's Gold Contest in which they placed gold-plated castings within random boxes of 6001 - Dragons of the Emerald Idol and 6002 - Skeleton-Raiders of the Undead box sets[1] . In October of 1983 Grenadier added a line of Secret Agents (#3001, 3002)[1] . In the twelve months between March 1984 and February 1985 Grenadier released monthly installments in the popular Dragon-of-the-Month series. Each installment consisted of a variety of fantasy dragon which included a jeweled base and a portion of a map. Those who collected all twelve dragons were eligible to receive an additional dragon figure. Other 1984 introductions included the Masterpiece Editions 5501 - War Mammoth of the Undead Legion, 5501 - Death Dragon, futuristic war machines called Warbots (#4501, 4502), and miniatures for Mayfair Games's Champions (#4001, 4002). Grenadier also released four gaming scenarios: The Horrible Secret Of Monhegan Island by Gary Pilkington for Call of Cthulhu, Cloudland by Tony Fiorito for Tunnels and Trolls or Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, Raid on Rajallapor by Gary Pilkington for Blades' Mercenaries, Spies and Private Eyes, and Disappearance on Aramat for Game Designers' Workshop's Traveller[1] [1] [1] .

Grenadier Models Inc. Grenadier celebrated its 10th anniversary by adding 10,000 commemorative Paladin figures to boxes of 6007 Fantasy Lords Dungeon Raiders[1] . Due to the popularity of the "Dragon-of-the-Month" series, Grenadier released a second series of dragons in March of 1985, "The Giant's Club" whose first installment was 3501 - Fire Giant, and the "Monster Manuscript" which included dungeon creatures organized in alphabetical order. Also in 1985 Grenadier released the official miniatures for I.C.E.'s Middle-earth in the world of J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord Of The Rings, a line of 15mm soldiers for Game Designers' Workshop's Twilight 2000 skirmish game which takes place in a world where the Cold War was resolved with arms, superheroes for Hero Games' Champions, Pacesetter's Chill, Mayfair Games' D.C. Heroes, and West End Games' Paranoia role-playing games[7] [1] [1] [8] . Grenadier signed on Julie Guthrie in 1987 to sculpt their first signature line Julie Guthrie's Fantasy Personalities[1] . By 1988 Grenadier became the manufacturer of miniatures for West End Games' role-playing system, Star Wars. This miniatures series was based upon the characters and creatures of the first three George Lucas films, and consisted of everything from the main characters, Rebel troops, droids, villains, storm troopers, and vehicles. In 1989 Grenadier released the first Shadowrun miniatures for FASA's role-playing game[3] .

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Grenadier Models U.K., 1991-1996

By 1991 Grenadier had begun selling Nick Lund's Fantasy Warriors: a game of fantasy battles a boxed game which included 102 plastic figures sculpted by Mark Copplestone. Branches of the company were established in Auckland, New Zealand, and Deeside, Clwyd, Wales to support British and Australian customers and connect with British sculptors Grenadier's British sculptors The British shop was placed under the supervision of Bob Watts, Andrew Chernak's brother-in-law, in order to remove the cost of exporting miniatures to Europe and take advantage of the growing popularity of Games Workshop's Citadel Miniatures[3] . Grenadier Models' office in Wales became the new center of product design and British artists Mark Copplestone, Bob Naismith, and Nick Lund[9] . In 1992 Grenadier Models underwent a period of revitalization. The company's founders Andrew Chernak and Ray Rubin returned to their creative responsibilities. [10] . Kim Eastland returned to Grenadier Models[11] [8] . The return to the early structure of the company may have been prompted by the limited success of their partnerships with game manufacturers. By the beginning of 1993 Grenadier Models only produced Andrew Chernak and Sandra Garrity's sculptures for R. Talisorian Games' Cyberpunk. Nick Lund's Fantasy Warriors the center piece of the 1993 catalog[10] with a similar space-themed game called Future Warriors (#1501-1509, 1701) released later that same year [11] . Fantasy war gamers were targeted with the Lost Lands boxed sets of 25mm scale miniatures (#3001-3006), Fantasy Warriors artillery pieces and battlefield accessories (#9201-9203, 402-406) and a 15mm Warlords(#1801-1818) line of military units [11] . The fantasy role-playing market was addressed by Julie Guthrie's large signature series (#801-899, 701-724, 7001, 7002, 8101-8145), a Fantasy Legends line (#3101-3128) sculpted by William Watt, Sandra Garrity, and Julie Guthrie, and selected pieces of their existing lines[10] . Also in 1993 Grenadier Models produced Dragon Lords the Game (#5700-5711) a 6mm scale skirmish game featuring dragon riders, and 25mm plastic space marines called Space Rangers (#87003) [11] . Initially, Grenadier Models' figures were cast from lead and tin alloy, but in 1993 New York legislators nearly passed a public health bill barring the use of lead in toys and miniatures[12] . Despite the additional cost, numerous manufacturers anticipated parental concerns, similar legislation in other states, and their own workplace safety and began using white metal alloys. Grenadier began converting its lines to a non-lead alloy they called Luminite in the winter of 1992[11] . The use of non-lead alloy marks a clear benchmark for dating old figures. In time, New York Governor Mario Cuomo relented to hobbyists' concerns and exempted miniatures from the state's Public Health Law[13] . However, Grenadier Models did not return to producing in lead.

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Grenadier's Mold and Sculpts

At Gen Con in August 1996 it was revealed that the molds and masters of Grenadier Models had been purchased by Stratelibri, their long-time distributor in Milan, Italy. The rights have since passed to Mirliton S.G. who continues to produce many of the figures from Grenadier's last years in business. Many of Grenadier's artists retained right to their work. In 2001 Mega Miniatures purchased the production rights to 180 of the Julie Guthrie's Grenadier Personalities.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] The Grenadier Bulletin, vol. 1.10, Fall 1983, Scott Slingsby, editor. Dragon Magazine #10, 1977 The Fantastic Worlds of Grenadier, Terence Gunn (2003), published by the author Judge's Guild Dungeoneer Compendium #1-6, 1979, page 50 Grenadier's Consumer Catalogue 1982 Sacco, Ciro Alessandro. "The Ultimate Interview with Gary Gygax" (http:/ / www. thekyngdoms. com/ forums/ viewtopic. php?t=37). thekyngdoms.com. . Retrieved 2008-10-24. [7] The Grenadier Bulletin, vol. 1.15, March 1985, Don Wellman, editor [8] Grenadier Models Inc. 1987 Photographic Compendium. [9] Grenadier Models Inc. 1991Catalog [10] Grenadier Models 1993 Catalog, Grenadier Models Inc. [11] The Grenadier Bulletin, vol. 2.1, Summer 1993, Kim Eastland, editor [12] "Through the Looking Glass" by Robert Bigalow, Dragon #192, April 1993. [13] "Through the Looking Glass" by Robert Bigalow, Dragon #205, May 1994.

Gundam FIX Figuration

The Gundam FIX Figuration[1] (aka G.F.F.) series of collectible figures was started based on the Gundam mechanical designs of Hajime Katoki and his 'Gundam FIX' illustration artbook and are released by Tamashii, a Bandai's characters based toys line. These figures share similar features as those found in the MSiA series, but are considerably more detailed and often include more accessories. Changeable parts and variant models are often utilized throughout the line, offering the collector a wide variety of display abilities. The collectible figures use PVC (with some ABS plastic) for construction materials, and a recently introduced expansion to the line use metal in the skeleton of the figure. Gundam FIX figures are designed to be true to Hajime Katoki's vision, and as such often adopt design elements and styling found throughout his artwork. The Fix series caters to Gundam fans who enjoy the scale, posability and durability of the MSiA line, but seek the extensive details and variations that can often only be found in the Master Grade Gundam model-kits. Bandai also created similar toy lines: G.F.F. Metal Composite - a spin-off of the G.F.F series utilizing injection-molded ABS plastic and die-cast metal.[2] Zeonography - a spin-off of the G.F.F series that showcases mobile suits from the Zeon forces.[3] Cosmic Region - high-quality line of mobile suits, similar to G.F.F., that appear in Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny.[4] 00 (Double O) Region - high-quality line of mobile suits, similar to G.F.F., that appear in Mobile Suit Gundam 00.[5] G.F.F.N - Gundam Fix Figuration Next, '004X' Series utilizing metallic parts, slightly larger scale, better quality paint job and markings. The first figure is a re-release of the #0030 MSZ-008 Zeta II, released March 2009.[6] K.F.F (Keroro Fix Figuration) - a spinoff lines features characters in Sgt. Frog (which the series itself plays lots of parody towards Gundam series) with original mechas designed by Hajime Katoki. As being a parody, the boxart sticks as much what as the original G.F.F. is.

Gundam FIX Figuration

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See also
Gundam Model

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] http:/ / tamashii. jp/ item/ category09. php http:/ / tamashii. jp/ item/ itemlist. php?pref=30 http:/ / tamashii. jp/ item/ itemlist. php?pref=45 http:/ / tamashii. jp/ item/ itemlist. php?pref=35 http:/ / tamashii. jp/ item/ itemlist. php?pref=40 http:/ / tamashii. jp/ item/ itemlist. php?pref=360

External links
Tamashii Web (http://tamashii.jp-network.co.jp/item/item_cte02.php) (Japanese) - Official Gundam fix figuration series website. Hobby Link Japan (http://www.hlj.com/hljlist2/?MacroType=ActFig&SeriesID=660&searchpage=Guntop& Dis=-2&GenreCode=Gun) (English) - Huge Japanese online hobby store. GFF Maniax (http://f52.aaa.livedoor.jp/~gffm/lineup/index.html#top) (Japanese) - Updated site with lot of information and photos about GFF. Gundam Fix Figuration (http://gundam.wikia.com/wiki/Gundam_Fix_Figuration) list at Gundam Wiki (Wikia)

Gundam model
Gundam Models refers to plastic and non-plastic model kits depicting the mechas, vehicles and characters of the fictional Mobile Suit Gundam universe. These kits have become popular among anime fans and model-lovers, especially in Japan and in other nearby Asian countries since 1980s. The popularity of Gundam models increased in the 1990s with North America and Europe being exposed to Gundam through television, video and manga. These Gundam Models may also be called Gunpla ( Ganpura), a portmanteau of "Gundam plastic model". "Gunpla" more commonly refers to the practice of building Gundam models, rather than the models themselves.

History
Late 1970s - 1980s Mobile Suit Gundam debuted in 1979 and the first Gunpla kits came in 1980, following the show's cancellation. Models produced during this era were considered non-graded models. Parts came in up to 3 different colored sprues. They lacked articulation and detail and required glue and paint to build and finish. Following the completion of the TV series line, Bandai introduced the MSV (Mobile Suit Variation) line, featuring alternate variants of the series' mobile suits. One of the highlights of the line was the RX-78 Perfect Gundam, which introduced System Injection (a process where one sprue - sometimes even one part - was molded in multiple colors), which minimized the need to paint the model. Mid 1980s - 1990s Following a line of kits from the Round Vernian Vifam series, the 1985 Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam kit line incorporated the use of polycaps. These kits, although still needing glue and paint to build, featured polycaps (soft plastic, typically Polyethylene) as connectors for better articulation of joints. The 1987 Gundam Sentinel model line introduced the concept of snap-fit models, reducing the need to use glue. And starting from the 1988 Mobile Suit Gundam: Char's Counterattack line, all Gunpla kits feature snap-fit assembly with many incorporating System

Gundam model Injection molding. In 1990, Bandai introduced the High Grade (HG) line, which featured newer 1:144 scale versions the RX-78-2 Gundam, the RX-178 Gundam Mk. II, the MSZ-006 Zeta Gundam and the MSZ-010 ZZ Gundam. Each kit boasted exceptional detail and articulation, as well as features normally found in their larger-scale versions such as the Gundam's Core Block System and the Zeta's transformation feature. Since then, the HG line has become the top-end range of the 1:144 Gunpla series, as well as middle-range for 1:100 and 1:60 scales. Beginning with Mobile Suit Victory Gundam in 1993, a unified set of polycap joints was created for smaller scale models that allowed easy mass production of models that all shared the same basic skeletal frame. This standardization allowed Bandai to release more models over a shorter period. As a result, the Gundam shows of the '90s usually received sizable 1:144 model lines. These were all of similar quality, with some attention to colors molded in the right area, a reasonable level of detail for their price point, and mobility as such that all major joints had at least some degree of mobility. In 1995, the 1:100 Master Grade (MG) line was introduced. This line features more parts, better detail and improved articulation than past kits of the same scale. Until now, the MG line has become the high-end segment of the 1:100 Gunpla series. Following the release of the Perfect Grade Evangelion, Bandai introduced the 1:60 Perfect Grade (PG) line to the Gundam series in 1998. This line features extensive detail and articulation, as well as working skeletal systems and light-up features. The PG line is the most expensive among all Gunpla kits, and only a select few mobile suits have been released in this line. To celebrate the 20th anniversary of the franchise in 1999, Bandai released 1:144 First Grade (FG) kits of mobile suits from the original series. Marketed as budget models, these snap-fit kits featured the simplicity of the original kits, but with more modern designs based upon the corresponding Perfect Grade kits. 2000s Mobile Suit Gundam SEED introduced a new type of a non-graded model, with a completely different design plan. While these still feature snap-fit and color molding, they omit major joints, opting instead to only allow critical pieces to move - typically the neck, hips, shoulders, and feet. These are budget models, usually retailing much lower than other models; and this line was extensive, covering nearly every machine to be featured in the TV series. Gundam SEED also featured non graded 1:100 models, identical in quality to Bandai's High Grade offerings. In 2010, Bandai released the 1:48 Mega Size Model RX-78-2 Gundam kit as part of the franchise's 30th anniversary campaign. This kit features many innovations that make it easy to assemble for first-time Gunpla collectors. For example, the parts are attached to sprue gates thin enough to break without the need to use of plastic cutters, and excess gate plastic can be removed from the parts without using a hobby knife. some sprues have been designed to snap together for easy and quick removal of assembled parts.[1] Also in the same year, Bandai introduced the 1:144 Real Grade (RG) line, which takes design elements from the MG line such as an inner skeletal frame.

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Plastic
Plastic Gundam model kits are manufactured by Bandai in Japan (or China) which has an exclusive license in manufacturing and marketing them around the world, the first of them being sold in 1980 in Japan. The models are typical of Plastic model; frames of injection-molded Polystyrene (PS) parts which must be cut out of the frame before assembly. The majority of post-1990 models have snap-fit parts, with models prior to that requiring an adhesive such as plastic cement. Plastic Gundam models kits are typically supplied with stickers and sometimes decals to apply extra colors and markings as seen in popular media such as TV shows, movies, manga or video games. Smaller or lower-grade kits often require paint to give the model a finished appearance, due to color discrepancies.

Gundam model The kits range in different scales with the most popular scales being: 1:550 , 1:220, 1:144, 1:100 and 1:60, and more recently the 1:35 (UC HardGraph) line. Generally in real world terms, kits range from 4~5inches for small-scale models, 6 to 8inches for mid-scale models, and 12inches for big-scale models, although these sizes vary from model to model. With a few exceptions, all currently produced kits bear grade ratings that give a good idea about their final quality. The following lists the most well-known and common categories with humanoid designs (very roughly) in their order of quality, from lowest to highest. Please note that other categories, such as EX Model, do exist. Additionally, Bandai often produces limited-run kits for special events such as JAFCON or C3 conventions. These have different packaging, and usually only differ from their common counterparts in that they are metal-plated or made of translucent plastic.

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Furoku Grade
Only available for Dengeki Hobby occasionally, this grade usually has limited edition models. This grade can sometimes be confused with Bandai's 'FG' - First Grade model kit series, but its actually far from a First Grade. A straight built model kit from the Furoku Grade series is usually white in appearance, and requires a lot of painting. Furoku Grade also releases models that usually aren't available in any Bandai Toyline series, and are from side stories. A few examples would be Gundam Rasiel from the Gundam 00 side story series, and the XN-Raiser, a modded 0 Raiser also from the Gundam 00 side story series.

Super Deformed
Not based on any particular scale, the super-deformed style features comically-proportioned models, the most noticeable features of which are their very large heads. Super Deformed Gundam kits are often very easy to construct but offer very limited articulation and require paint and detailing to truly "finish" the kit. The most famous line is the BB Senshi (or "SD GUNDAM BB Warriors" in English). There are also separate product lines: for instance, Superior Defender Gundam Force and Ganso SD Gundam (discontinued in the 1990s). Most kits of this line are from the Musha Gundam series and the Knight Gundam series.

1:144 scale
The very first kits have been running for 30 years (starting with RX-78-2 Gundam) and are routinely re-released by Bandai. As these kits are limited in articulation and require glue (for the early kits) and paint to assemble, these have retroactively been categorized as NG (No Grade), to differentiate them from FG (First Grade). Limited Edition 1:144 scale 1:144 scale No-Grade kits based on certain mobile suits and mobile armor in New Mobile Report: Gundam Wing and After War: Gundam-X, as well as a single unit from Mobile Suit Gundam: The 08th MS Team. These are called Limited Model (LM) kits since it consists of various mobile units and at least one support aircraft, aside from being produced in limited numbers only. These kits needed paint to finish the model. The only known mobile units to have an LM kit are: OZ-06MS Leo, OZ-012SMS Taurus Custom, DT-6800A Daughtress, RMS-006G Jenice Custom, GS-9900 G-Falcon, and the RB-79K Ball. First Grade Introduced in 1999, these kits feature plastic internal joints that do not use polycaps. Initially only three model kits were produced (RX-78-2 Gundam, MS-06 Zaku II Mass-Production Type, and MS-06S Zaku II Commander Type Char Aznable custom); however this line was reintroduced in mid-2007 to accommodate the four Gundams from Mobile Suit Gundam 00 (and later GN-000 0 Gundam). The FG 00 line was cancelled in favor of BB Senshi (a super-deformed line) versions of the designs. The first FGs are all colored in their pre-dominant color (painting is required), while the latest models are multi-colored and include polycaps, and do not require cutters to remove parts

Gundam model from their specific gates. High Grade 1:144 scale During the mid- to late-1980s, the quality of molding improved and HG (High Grade) level kits were introduced in 1990, starting from the titular mobile suits of the first four TV series. These limited-run kits featured full snap fit assembly, an "internal frame" (for the first two kits, which provides better range of motion and were more poseable), and utilized the molding technique known as System Injection, wherein multiple colors would be cast on the same part. These kits have since been produced from the mid-90s onward and feature better quality plastic and details as well as snap-fit assembly. While the practice of applying multiple colors to a single part did not continue due to quality control issues, parts from this line onwards were molded in multiple colors, even if they are on one sprue or frame. It would later lend its name to the more advanced High Grade Universal Century, and more recently High Grade Gundam 00. High Grade Universal Century (HGUC) High Grade Universal Century (HGUC) is a line of 1:144 scale Gundam model kits based on units found in Gundam productions set in the Universal Century timeline. First introduced in May 1999, the HGUC line represented the chance to release many upgraded designs for the first time in kit form with modern injection molding technology. These are of good quality, with new designs plus model improvements continue to be introduced into this line even today. This grade is largely considered to be the rightful heir of the original HG line. This line has grown in complexity and detail, with some kits boasting full internal skeletons similar to those previously found only in higher-grade models. The vast majority of these kits require only the tools needed to remove parts from the runners. Gluing and painting is not necessary, although many model builders continue do so. The layout of the box art, including the lineup numbering, is shared with the other Gundam Timelines after #108 (D-50C Loto (twin set), from Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn). However, all Universal Century units from the line are mobile suits on or before U.C. 0096 and over 50% of the units are from the One Year War (including variations). High Grade Across the Universal Century 1:144 kits based on the remaining Gundam series not based on Universal Century, Cosmic Era, nor Anno Domini (Gundam 00) Eras. These kits are set to be as an extension of the current HGUC line and will continue the numbering of HGUC. First of these kits are the Gundam X (#109; from After War Gundam X),[2] God Gundam (#110; from Mobile Fighter G Gundam). High Grade Fighting Action 1:144 kits based on the models seen in the OVA and movie New Mobile Report: Gundam Wing Endless Waltz. It is called "Fighting Action" since their respective models include certain parts (usually additional chest parts depicted bending forward) to recreate their "signature" action poses depicted at their respective box arts.

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Gundam model High Grade Gundam SEED 1:144 kits based on the models seen in the C.E. productions, mainly Mobile Suit Gundam SEED, Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Astray, Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny, and Mobile Suit Gundam SEED C.E. 73 Stargazer. They are considered equivalent in quality to earlier HGUC models. High Grade Gundam SEED MSV Same as the kits from the High Grade Gundam SEED line, now based from the mobile suits from Mobile Suit Gundam SEED MSV. High Grade Gundam 00 1:144 kits based on the units in Mobile Suit Gundam 00, currently about 60 units have been released in this series. Unlike HG Gundam SEED, more advanced skills which has been previously applied on recent models in High Grade Universal Century has been used. Real Grade Introduced in 2010, Real Grade (RG) surpasses HG as the top-end series of the 1:144 Gunpla line. The kits feature extensive detail and articulation, as well as a poseable skeletal frame comparable to the 1:100 Master Grade kits. The first RG kit is the 1/144 RX-78-2 Gundam, with the second being the 1/144 MS-06S Char's Zaku II coming out sometime in November[3] .

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1:100 scale
Just like the 1:144 scale model kits, these kits started about the same time with the very first 1:144 model kits, again starting from RX-78-2 Gundam. "Generic" 1:100 kits may also be called "No-Grade" (NG 1:100) to differentiate from other specific 1:100 kits. Later kits (from Turn-A Gundam onwards) are clearly inspired from the post-HG 1:100 kits and features a similar (or greater) level of quality and detail. High Grade 1:100 scale Much like their 1:144 counterpart, these models offer much more detail than a "regular" 1:100 scale kit. These model kits can be identified by the HG logo at the box to differentiate them from other 1:100 scale model kits. Beginning with Victory Gundam in 1993, the HG line would shift to relatively well detailed larger scale kits in the 1:100 scale. There were need for little painting and detailing. These applied for the 1:100 scale models produced between 1993 and 1998, including Victory Gundam, G Gundam, Gundam Wing, Gundam X, and New Mobile Report: Gundam Wing Endless Waltz. Each TV series would receive on average between 6 to 8 models in this scale and grade. Designer's Color Version 1:100 scale Only introduced in 1:100 Gundam 00 model kits, a Designer's Color Version kit is a recolored version of an original 1:100 model with added weaponry, an alternate color scheme chosen by the designers themselves (with a lighter hue compared to the original), and special water-slide decals as well. Most of the polycaps are replaced by stronger, mist-clear PVC polycaps that can support weight better, and also allow for placing a special LED into the chest which illuminates the head of the model. The only models in the series so far is the GN-0000 + GNR-010 00-Raiser, GN-006 Cherudim Gundam, GN-007 Arios Gundam, and GN-008/9 Seravee/Seraphim Gundam.

Gundam model Master Grade 1:100 kits, Master Grade (MG) models were first introduced in the summer of 1995, designed and made to higher standards than most other models. These take much longer to construct and are often much more expensive than their lower-grade counterparts. These kits consists of features similar to those of the HG and HGUC but better. This line of plastic kits was the first to feature a movable inner frame system which enables extensive movement and bending of joints. The popularity of this line was so great that a lot of old and new kits from non-graded series were cast as Master Grade models. MG models are very presentable even straight from the box, but like previous grades can be improved through further detailing and painting. A notable design difference from lower grades is that MG models are supported by a detailed endoskeleton of sorts (known as the "inner frame system"), which most if not all external features attach onto; in comparison, most lower-grade models simply support their own weight as it is. Some require screws and usually come with decals. The vast majority of MG offerings are from Gundam, with the rest coming from mechas in Patlabor and Dunbine, as well as character figures of Dragonball Z, Kamen Rider W[4] , and One Piece[4] (under the name of MG Figurerise). As the MG line has become a symbol of Gunpla, Bandai released another lineup called Real Robot Revolution (R3), for the non-Gundam type real robots like Layzner and L-Gaim, made using their experience in MG model production. Master Grade Crystal Model
Ex-S Gundam kit when fully assembled. 1:100 Master Grade kits that wholly consists of clear parts (except the polycaps and certain components such as mesh tubes, screws, etc.), hence the name Crystal Model. First appeared in October 1996, only 3 types of kits were produced. They are RX-78-2 Gundam, MS-06F/J Zaku II Mass-Production Type, and MS-06S Zaku II Commander Type (Char Aznable custom). Note that these kits are the crystal version of their respective MG version 1.0 models.

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MG Ex-S Gundam kit.

Gundam 20th Anniversary Edition In line with the celebration of Mobile Suit Gundam's 20th anniversary, Bandai produced metallic plating versions of certain MG kits. First produced in July 1998, it only features 6 mobile suits in Mobile Suit Gundam, Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory, and Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam. These mobile suits are: RX-78-2 Gundam (ver. 1.0), MS-06F/J Zaku II Mass-Production Type (ver. 1.0), MS-06S Zaku II Commander Type (Char Aznable custom) (ver. 1.0), RX-78GP01Fb Gundam GP01 "Zephyrantes" full-vernian type, RX-78GP02A Gundam GP02A "Physalis", and MSZ-006 Zeta Gundam (ver. 1.0). Aside from metallic-plated parts (except the polycaps and other related parts), these kits also featured unpainted figures of their respective pilots (except for the Zaku II F/J which featured a generic Zeon pilot figure).

Gundam model Master Grade 10th Anniversary Model In line with the 10th anniversary of the Master Grade line, Bandai produced another kit of RX-78-2 Gundam (ver. 1.0), this time in predominant red and white colors and with new sets of marking decals which commemorates the E.F.S.F.'s victory over Zeon in the One Year War. According to the data from the kit, this Gundam is remade from RGM-79 GM (since the original RX-78-2 was destroyed in that war) and used in official ceremonies only. Master Grade "Version Katoki" These kits (known as MG "ver. Ka") are designed by mechanical designer Hajime Katoki as official redesigns of the original units designed by Kunio Okawara, and later as original designs from other series. Master Grade Version 2.0 This kits are re-engineered and redesigned versions of previous kits in the Master Grade line. They offer an extensive inner frame and articulation that was unachievable by their predecessors. Preceded by the Gundam ver. 1.5, the first ver. 2.0 kits were the RX-178 Gundam Mk-II ver. 2.0 (AEUG and Titans colors) and MSZ-006 Zeta Gundam ver 2.0 of Zeta Gundam series. Subsequent models in this line came from Mobile Suit Gundam and include Zeon variants. Master Grade "One Year War" Versions After Bandai produced the MG kit of the "One Year War" PS2 game version of the RX-78-2 Gundam, they also produced 3 more kits of that same version. They are MS-06F/J Zaku II Mass-Production Type, MS-07B Gouf, MS-09 Dom, MS-14S Gelgoog Commander Type (Char Aznable custom), and RX-78-2 Gundam (in its original anime colors). Only the Gundam in the line featured new construction-only including the leg internals from the previous version of the kit. The rest of the line are no more than reissues of their respective kits in game-accurate color schemes. Master Grade "Hyper-Mode" Version This line includes the GF13-017NJII God Gundam and the GF13-001NHII Master Gundam. All frames and body are painted with shining gold and certain parts are coated in gold chrome. Master Grade "Extra-Finish" Version The kits in this line includes "extra-finish" metallic (chrome) coating parts on the outside. Only kits are the ZGMF-X10A Freedom Gundam, YMS-15 Gyan and ZGMF-X20A Strike Freedom Gundam. Master Grade Special Versions Along with the regular version, special versions were also available which may include additional/plated parts and "special effect parts". These include the ZGMF-X20A Strike Freedom Gundam "Full-Burst Mode", the ZGMF-X42S Destiny Gundam "Extreme Blast Mode", and the GN-001 Gundam Exia "Ignition Mode".

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Gundam model Master Grade "HD Color" editions Coinciding with the release of the original Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam on Blu-ray, Bandai released the MSN-00100 Hyaku-Shiki and "version 2.0" MSZ-006 Zeta Gundam and RX-178 Gundam Mk.-II (AEUG and Titans colors) kits in "HD Color" editions, featuring a glossy finish and metallic water-slide decals identical to the markings seen in the box art for the BD sets.

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1:60 scale
High Grade EX 1:60 kits from various eras. These kits are enhanced High Grade models with extra details and LED gimmicks. These models are known for having ridiculous amounts of panel line detail, more so than the Real Detail line and even several Perfect Grade kits. Only 3 HGEX kits have been made to date: the LM314V21 Victory 2 Gundam, GF13-017NJ "Shining Gundam", and GF13-017NJII "God Gundam". Real Detail 1:60 kits based on designs seen in the Gundam SEED, Gundam SEED Destiny and the Gundam 00 series. Although much larger than most of their brethren, Real Detail designs are functionally scaled-up HG models with slightly-improved detail and enhanced poseability. Real Detail "Lighting Edition" 1:60 Real Detail kits with embedded lighting. Only applies to 1:60 scale ZGMF-X20A Strike Freedom Gundam. Perfect Grade Upon releasing the Master Grade line, Bandai also created a much more detailed series of figures. The Perfect Grade (also known as PG) model kits come in standard 1:60 scale but are superbly detailed in terms of color and its inner frame, as well as normally possessing more points of articulation, such as hands that articulate at the knuckles. Perfect Grade kits are unmatched in sheer quality, but are extremely limited in range, and usually only highly popular kits are serialized in PG 1/60. First released in late 1998, these are made of even higher quality plastic and metal components than the MG kits. These kits include parts that have to be secured with screws, and often require some minor wiring for small LEDs. The market for the Perfect Grade models is limited due to their high cost, often topping $150. Highly complex design makes PG models a true challenge and their construction can take a few days. This line also includes optional parts for certain kits (particularly for RX-78-2 Gundam, MS-06 Zaku II Mass-Production Type and MS-06S Zaku II Commander Type Char Aznable custom) which includes clear armor parts, additional weapons, and light-up beam saber. The Skygrasper (from Gundam SEED) and the 0-Raiser(from Gundam 00) are the only non-humanoid mobile weapons in this line, while the 0-Raiser is treated as the component of 00-Raiser, the Skygrasper had sold on its own as well as a set with the Strike Rouge. In addition, most of the guide books in Perfect Grade models usually given a lot of data behind the designs of mecha of working concepts in reference to animation settings. Most of them are unexplained in animation or in official data books.

Gundam model HY2M "Glorious Series" 1:60 kits from the MS of the Zeon Faction. These kits include multiple embedded LED lighting located on various parts on the body. The only kits released so far are the 1:60 scale of MS-07B Gouf, MS-09R Rick-Dom, and MS-09RS Rick-Dom Commander Type (Char Aznable custom).

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1:48 scale
Mega Size Model Released in 2010, the 1:48 Mega Size model RX-78-2 Gundam is the largest Gunpla model kit by Bandai. The kit is essentially a scaled-up version of the 1:144 HGUC Gundam with more parts, but a simpler assembly with no need for cutters to remove the parts from the sprues. Some sprues are also designed to snap together for faster assembly.

Speed Grade
Bandai put the First "Speed Grade" Gundam Model kits into production in 2007. They are packaged in a bag, and come with minimal, pre-colored and painted pieces and a display stand. The kits are in the 1:200 scale. The Speed Grade series of kits are made in China, not Japan with lower quality. Only two waves of kits were produced; the first (RX-78-2 Gundam and Wing Gundam) were sold in foil bags whilst the second (Zeta Gundam and God Gundam) were sold in thin cardboard boxes. The line was unpopular, with stores often unable to move the line even at discounted prices.

1:400 scale
This scale of model is designed for large mobile armours and battle ships in the Gundam Collection line, which the line's ordinary mobile suits are figures, not models. Only extremely large mobile armour needs assembly and can be counted in this line. This line includes the Big-Zam from Mobile Suit Gundam, RX-78GP03D Gundam GP03 'Dendrobium', AMA-002 Neue Ziel (both mobile armor in a boxset) in Gundam 0083, NZ-000 Quin Mantha in Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ, and NZ-333 Alpha Azieru in Char's Counterattack. However, the three semi-assembled battleship in Gundam Collection Line, which are the White Base and Musai from Mobile Suit Gundam, and Ptolemaios from Mobile Suit Gundam 00, are usually not counted.

1:550 scale
High Grade Mechanics This line was reserved for huge mobile units, as their size in the fiction is such that normal Gundam model scaling would leave them too big for conventional display. As an example, one of the units in this line is the RX-78GP03D Gundam GP03 'Dendrobium', whose 1:144 HGUC counterpart has a gross length of over 1 m. This line's only models are the aforementioned Dendrobium , the AMX-002 Neue Ziel and the MA-06 Val-Walo , all of which are come from the Gundam 0083 production. The series would later be succeeded by the Gundam Collection series.

Gundam model

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1:35 scale
UC HardGraph Unlike most of the other lines mentioned, Universal Century HardGraph does not primarily center around the humanoids of the Gundam universe. Rather, it centers on military things on a more conventional scale such as land vehicles, tanks and troops. However, some kits do include detailed to-scale mecha parts which are particularly useful for the creation of dioramas. For instance, the Anti-MS Squad kit includes an articulated lower Gundam arm.

Other/Mixed Scales
EX Model Another high-detail line from Bandai, in scales of 1:144 and 1:100 (non-humanoid units like aircraft) and 1:1600/1:1700 (spaceships), ranging from the Universal Century to Cosmic Era productions. This series is not Gundam-exclusive, having models from other series like some of the jet aircraft from Sent Ysei Yukikaze and at least one aircraft from Ace Combat 5.

Special Editions
Over the years, Bandai released special limited editions of various kits, usually as competition (such as the yearly Bandai Action Kits Asia (now Universal) Cup held in Hong Kong) prizes, or as an event-limited (such as Japanese toy expos, movie launch premieres) item, although sometimes these kits are sold as limited web-shop items or discreetly sold by Bandai. These kits usually come in clear plastic, metal-plated (certain kits are in so-called 24-k gold finish), "gloss-finish", "pearl-finish", "titanium-finish", or any combination of these. Their prices are usually much higher than their regular-release counterparts.

Non Plastic
Bandai has also released some Gundam garage kit under their branch, B-Club. These models are composed of unpainted resin with no decals provided, often needing modification by the modeler due to the inherent properties of the manufacturing process. While comparably more expensive (some surpassing $400) compared to plastic kits, they offer an unparalleled level of detail for the dedicated and experienced model builder. A few select kits have also appeared manufactured from metal. These kits are offered by several different manufacturers and most commonly will result in a finished model of about MG level. These types of models (real detail) usually take days to build.

For display only

For trade shows and toy fairs, Bandai displays some extremely large models in 1:6 or 1:12 scale. True to the scaling, some of these models are well over 5 feet (1.50 m) tall. Although most of these are one off promotional models used for display purposes, Bandai has produced a few of these for commercial purposes under their HY2M line. Notably, these are MS-06S "Zaku II Commander Type" (Char Aznable custom), which is now out of production, and the RX-78-2 "Gundam". These generally retail for approximately $2,000 and are intended to be sold primarily to store owners as display fronts.

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Chinese copy controversy

On April 2010, Bandai sued two Chinese toy manufacturers for manufacturing and selling counterfeit Gunpla kits. The lawsuit states that Bandai demands 3.69 million RMB (roughly US$540,000) compensation from the companies.[5]

See also
Gundam FIX Figuration

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] HobbyLink Japan - 1/48 Mega Size Model RX-78-2 Gundam (http:/ / www. hlj. com/ product/ ban962027) http:/ / superrobotwar. wordpress. com/ 2010/ 02/ 22/ this-months-japanese-hobby-magazine/ http:/ / ngeekhiong. blogspot. com/ search?q=RG+ zaku+ II "Shizuoka Hobby Show 2010 at Ngee Khiong [[blogspot (http:/ / ngeekhiong. blogspot. com/ 2010/ 05/ mg-o-from-shizuoka-hobby-show-2010. html)]"]. . Retrieved 2010-05-12. [5] CNFOL - Bandai Demands 4 Million Renminbi from Pirated Gunpla Manufacturer & Seller in China (http:/ / news. cnfol. com/ 100427/ 101,1609,7607190,00. shtml)

External links
Bandai Hobby Site (http://bandai-hobby.net/) (Japanese) Bandai Hobby Site (http://bandai-hobby.net/english/) (English) Bandai Action Kits Universal Cup (BAKUC) Online Competition (http://www.bakuc.com/) (English)

International Plastic Modellers' Society

The International Plastic Modellers' Society (IPMS) consist of local and national chapters of hobbyists interested in building Plastic model kits. The first chapter was established in the United Kingdom in 1963. These chapters usually organise regular meetings or attend events of interest such as air shows. Within each chapter, Special Interest Groups (SIG) are formed which focus on a specific area or type of model building, for instance aircraft or science fiction figures.

The following is a current list of IPMS (UK) SIG's

Aerobatic Display Teams ; Aircraft Carrier ; Airfix Modelling ; Airliner ; Airport, Aerodrome & Airfields ; Armour TAS Armour ; Australia ; Aviation Ireland ; Battle of Britain ; Battleship ; Between The Wars ; Beyond the Box ; Biggles ; Bomber Command ; CAFFE ; Canberra ; Car & Motorcycle ; Civil Aircraft 1/72 ; Classic British Jets ; Classic British Kit ; Classic US Jets ; Coastal Command ; Cold War ; Cruiser ; Czech & Slovak ; DC3 / C47 Dakota ; Eighth USAAF 1942 - 45 ; English Electric ; F-4 Phantom ; Fine Waterline ; Finnish ; Fleet Air Arm ; Formula 1 & Motorsports ; French Airforces ; Gulf War ; Harrier ; Harvard ; Hawk AJT ; Hawker Hurricane ; Hot Rod and Custom Car ; Israeli Defence Forces ; Italia ; Japanese Aviation ; Landing Craft ; Latin American Aviation ; Luftwaffe ; NASA ; New Zealand Aviation ; Night Fighter ; Photo-Recce ; Portuguese Military Aviation ; Project Cancelled ; Racing and Record Aircraft ; Red Cross Wings ; SAAF ; Sci-Fi and Fantasy ; SIG 144 ; Small Warships ; South Atlantic ; Soviet Aircraft ; Special Schemes ; Spitfire ; Splash ; Swedish Airforces ; 1/32 Scale ; Truck ; UK and Commonwealth Armed Forces ; US Air Forces of WWII ; US Airforces ; US Naval Aircraft ; Vietnam ; Warbirds ; What If? ; World Helicopters ; World War Two ; IPMS is divided up into different Chapters representing a country. Some countries i.e. Mexico will build models for IPMS USA, or IPMS Canada.

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List of International IPMS Chapters

IPMS Argentina IPMS Australia IPMS Belgium IPMS Canada IPMS Colombia IPMS Denmark IPMS Finland IPMS Germany IPMS Greece IPMS Guatemala IPMS Ireland IPMS Malta IPMS Manila IPMS Netherlands IPMS New Zealand IPMS Philippines IPMS South Africa IPMS Sweden IPMS UK IPMS Uruguay IPMS USA

See also
Similar societies Armor Modeling and Preservation Society (AMPS) Models and model building list of model aircraft manufacturers. Kitbashing, creating a model by combining different kits. Model military vehicles Ship models, some of which are plastic kits. Gundam Models, plastic models of Japanese science fiction.

Manufacturers Tamiya Corporation Academy Plastic Model Co. Revell Aoshima Bunka Kyozai Co. Dragon Models Limited DML. Hasegawa Kyosho Airfix

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External links
IPMS Australia [1] IPMS Belgium [2] IPMS Canada [3] IPMS Denmark [4] IPMS Greece [5] IPMS Guatemala [6] IPMS Malta [7] IPMS Netherlands [8] IPMS New Zealand [9] IPMS Manila [10] IPMS Philippines Bert Anido [11] IPMS South Africa [12] IPMS UK [13] IPMS Uruguay [14] IPMS USA [15] IPMS Panam [16]

IPMS ALTO VALLE - NEUQUEN, ARGENTINA [17] APMA Sydney Australia [18]

References
[1] http:/ / www. ipmsaustralia. com. au [2] http:/ / www. ipms. be/ index-eng. htm [3] http:/ / ipmscanada. com/ [4] http:/ / www. ipms. dk [5] http:/ / www. ipms-hellas. gr [6] http:/ / www. ipmsguatemala. org/ [7] http:/ / www. ipmsmalta. com [8] http:/ / www. ipms. nl [9] http:/ / ipmsnz. hobbyvista. com [10] http:/ / www. ipmsmanila. com [11] http:/ / ipmsphilippines. com/ [12] http:/ / newsite. ipmssa. za. org [13] http:/ / www. ipms-uk. co. uk [14] http:/ / www. ipmsuruguay. com [15] http:/ / www. ipmsusa. org [16] http:/ / www. ipmspanama. org [17] http:/ / www. choiquehobbies. com. ar/ ipms/ [18] http:/ / apma. sydney. googlepages. com

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Kitbashing
Kitbashing or model bashing is a practice whereby a new scale model is created by taking pieces out of commercial kits. These pieces may be added to a custom project or to another kit. For professional modelmakers, kitbashing is popular to create concept models for detailing movie special effects. Commercial model kits are a ready source of "detailing", providing any amounts of identical, mass-produced components that can be used to add fine detail to an existing model. Professionals often kitbash to build prototype parts which are then recreated with lightweight materials.[1] For the hobbyist, kitbashing saves time that would be spent scratch building an entire model. Hobbyists may kitbash to create a model of a subject (real[2] or imaginary) for which there is not a commercial kit. Although it has a long history, kitbashing came to the attention of a wider public via the fine modelwork seen in TV series such as Thunderbirds and the films 2001: A Space Odyssey and Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. Many of the spaceship models created for these programs incorporated details from tank, speedboat and car kits. Another example is the Tumbler from the 2005 film Batman Begins, as seen in the special features disc of the film's DVD.

Commercial model of a EMD SW9 kitbashed into a 'lookalike' of a Victorian Railways Y class.

A center cab switcher made by Bachmann has parts added to look more realistic.

Sometimes source kits are selected primarily due to kit quality, and sometimes because a kit closely resembles the desired model result. Kitbashing is common in sci-fi modeling. It is not uncommon for parts to be cut and filed into shapes leaving gaps that are later filled with putty. Although a model with putty often looks unprofessional at an early stage, careful painting can completely hide defects. Textural details known as greebles may be added to enhance a model. A popular venue for kitbashing is diecast emergency vehicles such as fire apparatuses. Kitbashers frequently utilize models from manufacturers such as Code 3 and Corgi. The kitbash in such cases can be as simple as painting or redecaling a model, or as complex as tearing the model down and adding scratch-built components, followed by custom decals. The popularity of ready-to-run, pre-assembled models, even coupled with the increased availability of many unique prototypes using resin castings, seems not to have seriously impacted the art of kitbashing. In model rocketry, kitbashing refers simply to using the pieces from a one kit to build a different model. This is typically used to create unusual and/or especially complex models.

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See also
Greeble Scratch building Mashup

References
[1] http:/ / www. space1999. org/ features/ ask_brianjohnson/ 2001-11a. html [2] http:/ / www. samolet. co. uk/ s37model. html

Matchstick model
Matchstick models are scale models made from matches as a hobby. Regular matches are not used, however, but a special modeling type which do not have the combustible heads, and can be bought from art and craft shops. Though before the serial production of these, actual matches were used with heads trimmed off, or kept on to add coloured detail. History Originally, matchstick models were a pastime of prisoners (especially naval prisoners of war) during the 18th century. At the time, better funded modelers preferred to use more replicated parts for their models, like professionals today, and the poor couldn't afford to use up so many matches.

A matchstick model of a steam road locomotive

Construction The matches are cut by means of a sharp knife and fixed together using glue, often being held in place by paperboard "formers" until the glue is dry. While the smallest gaps can be filled with glue, larger ones can be filled with specially carved matches. A number of hobbyists prefer to build their models from scratch. Many kits are available, consisting of instructions, pre-cut card formers and sufficient modeling matches for the project. A number of hobbyists prefer to build their models from scratch. A exceptionally large and impressive matchstick model was a scratch-built replica of Norwich Cathedral which included electric lights and measured over six feet in length. One distinguished model kit maker is Roland Quinton, founder of "Matchitecture" models. His site is located at: http://www.matchitecture.com/index.asp There is also polish website about this hobby at: http://forum-zapalki.eu/.

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Micro armour
Micro armour refers to small figurines made of lead, pewter, die cast metal or plastic, usually used for wargaming purposes. Variations of the name include: micro armor, mini armor, mini armour, microscale, mini tanks, miniature armour, miniature armor, miniature tanks, micro tanks, minitanks, minifigs, armor figurines, tank figurines, etc. are also used. Micro armour is a sub-category of model military vehicle miniature figures used for military simulation, miniature wargaming, scale models, dioramas and collecting.

History
The specific term "micro armour" originated and was trademarked by GHQ founder Gregory Dean Scott in 1967[1] for a line of metal 1:285 scale armour miniatures. GHQ also published Micro Armour: The Game - WWII in 2001[2] some 34 years after founding the company. Early on, a competing company called C in C offered 1:285 scale micro armour starting in 1974. Currently, games such as Flames of War and Axis & Allies Miniatures are widely popular and use 1:100 scale mini armour figurines and 15 mm infantry.

Scale
Micro and mini armour consists primarily of the following scales, from smallest to largest:[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] 1:300/1:285 (6 mm figure scale) 1:144 - 1:183 (10 mm - 12.5 mm figure scale) or N scale 1:100 - 1:122 (15 mm figure scale) 1:72-1:92 (20 mm - 28 mm figure scale)
overall scale 1:72 - 1:92 figure scale game scale 20 - 28 mm 1:100 - 1:122 15 mm 1:144 - 1:183 (also N Scale) 1:285 - 1:300 10 - 12.5 mm 6 mm ~platoon & armour skirmish

infantry & armour skirmish infantry & armour skirmish squad & armour skirmish

Beyond squad-level scale there is half-platoon scale, platoon scale, company scale, battalion scale and division scale.

Armour Skirmish Vs. Infantry Skirmish Scale

Micro armour is usually differentiated from tabletop games based on human shaped heroic scale / infantry skirmish game scale figures (even if the high and low ends of each respective category overlap) because the scales used by most micro armour games are smaller (armour skirmish game scale) and the represented playing field larger - though it is not nearly as large as in naval wargaming. In typical micro armour based games (such as Micro Armour: The Game - WWII[9] ) a single tank would represent a typical military unit. Contrast to larger scaled games, such as those using 20 mm - 54 mm heroic scale / infantry skirmish game scale miniatures, (such as MechWarrior, Warhammer 40,000, Warhammer, AT-43, Warmachine or Dungeons & Dragons), a tank would be unusually large and more akin to units like dragons or large catapults which human sized units must gang-up against to defeat. Infantry skirmish games such as The Face of Battle[10] and I Ain't Been Shot, Mum![11] demonstrate this very well as they are designed to be played with 15mm, 20mm and 25/28mm scale figures, as contrasted with 6mm - 12.5mm armor skirmish figures.

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Early Games
Early (pre-1990) games using lead or pewter miniature armour (for World War II and modern battle simulation) included Angriff! by Z&M Publishing Enterprises (1968) and (1972)[12] [13] , Fast Rules by Armored Operations Society (1970) published later by Guidon Games (1972), Tractics by Guidon Games (1971) later by TSR, Inc. (1975), War Games Rules Armour & Infantry 1925-1950 by Wargames Research Group (WRG) (1973), Panzer Warfare by TSR, Inc. (1975)[14] , Kampfgruppe by Historical Alternatives Game Co. (1979)[15] , Corps Commander: OMG & Korps Commander by Table Top Games (1986) and Command Decision by Game Designers' Workshop (1986). There were also some science fiction-based games that used micro armour, such as Starguard by Reviresco (1974)[16] , Ogre by Steve Jackson Games (1977)[17] , Striker by Game Designers' Workshop (1981), Classic BattleTech by FASA (1984) and Space Marine by Games Workshop (1989)[18] .

Recent Games
Recent (1990 and later) games include Flames of War, Axis & Allies Miniatures, Micro Armour: The Game WWII[19] , Heavy Gear, Blitzkrieg Commander[20] , Dirtside II[21] , Crossfire, I Ain't Been Shot, Mum!, Cold War Commander, Megablitz, Panzer War[22] , Panzertruppe[23] Panzer Miniatures[24] , Panzer Marsch[25] , First Watch[26] . Jagdpanzer[27] , Command Decision - Test of Battle 4th Edition[28] , the upcoming World Tank Campaigns[29] ."BGMR Modern Rules"[30]

Game Piece Manufacturers

Metal (and some plastic) gaming pieces are traditionally manufactured by companies such as GHQ (US), GFI (US), CGD (Hong Kong),Pendraken Miniatures (UK), Perrin Miniatures (Dist. by Noble Miniatures in the US & Chariot Miniatures in the UK), QRF Models Ltd. (1:100 scale), Stevens International, DM Toys (Germany), C in C, Scotia Micro Models, Skytrex, Heroics & Ros, In-Service Miniatures, Irregular Miniatures, I-94 Enterprises, Armstrong Models (UK), Herpa/Roco/Preiser, SHQ Miniatures (1:76 scale/20 mm) and Battlefront Miniatures Limited (1:100 scale).

Collectables Manufacturers
Recent plastic and diecast metal series' intended for collecting and made in the 1:144 scale are manufactured by companies such as Dragon Models Limited (Hong Kong), Takara Tomy (Japan), Trumpeter (China), Pegasus Hobbies (US), ACI Toys Company Ltd. (Hong Kong) and others.

Notes
[1] Article Welcome to the World of GHQ (http:/ / www. ghqmodels. com/ pages/ military/ index. asp) [2] Review (http:/ / www. boardgamegeek. com/ boardgame/ 17379/ wwii-micro-armour-the-game) [3] The Miniatures Page: WWII Land Rules (http:/ / theminiaturespage. com/ rules/ ww2/ land. html) [4] Metal Miniatures - Size and Scale Compatibility (http:/ / www. warflag. com/ shadow/ cast/ figuresize/ figures. htm) [5] Miniature figure (gaming)#Scales [6] Miniature wargaming#Scale [7] Wargaming#Unit or map scale [8] List of scale model sizes [9] Info (http:/ / www. ghqmodels. com/ store/ mg1. html) [10] The Face of Battle Web Site: (http:/ / www. thefaceofbattle. com/ ) [11] I Ain't Been Shot Mum! Web Site: (http:/ / toofatlardies. co. uk/ index. php?main_page=product_info& products_id=30) [12] Angriff! Info (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ scifi/ weirdozone/ wargames/ angriff. htm) [13] Zimmerman & Myers' Angriff! (http:/ / www. ucs. mun. ca/ ~tmarshal/ angriff/ ) [14] Review: (http:/ / rss. boardgamegeek. com/ boardgame/ 41789/ panzer-warfare)

Micro armour
[15] The Tactical Wargamer: Listing of Tactical Miniatures Wargames (http:/ / tacticalwargamer. com/ miniatures/ miniaturesgames. htm) [16] Review: (http:/ / theminiaturespage. com/ rules/ scf/ starguard. html) [17] See Ogre Miniatures - Collector's Checklist (http:/ / www. sjgames. com/ ogre/ miniatures/ checklist. html) [18] Review: (http:/ / www. boardgamegeek. com/ boardgame/ 4001/ space-marine) [19] Info (http:/ / www. ghqmodels. com/ store/ mg1. html) [20] Web site: (http:/ / www. blitzkrieg-commander. com/ default. aspx?Area=BKC) [21] Review: (http:/ / theminiaturespage. com/ rules/ scf/ drts. html) [22] Rules (http:/ / www. panzer-war. com/ ) [23] Info (http:/ / games. groups. yahoo. com/ group/ panzertruppe_game/ ) [24] Info (http:/ / www. strikenet-games. com/ ) [25] Info (http:/ / www. worgaimz. karoo. net/ pm/ ) [26] Rules (http:/ / theminiaturespage. com/ rules/ ww2/ fw. html) [27] Review: (http:/ / www. boardgamegeek. com/ boardgame/ 18930/ jagdpanzer) [28] Review: Command Decision - Test of Battle 4th Edition (http:/ / www. warweb. com/ command-decision-test-battle-4th-edition-p-23380. html) [29] Info (http:/ / www. world-tank-campaigns. com/ ) [30] Info (http:/ / uk. groups. yahoo. com/ group/ BGMR)

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Micromodel
Micromodels are a type of card model or paper model that was popular during the 1940s and 1950s in the United Kingdom. In 1941, Geoffrey Heighway invented and marketed a new concept in card models. He took the available concept of card models and miniaturized them so that an entire train or building could be wrapped in a packet of post cards. These packets usually sold for about a shilling, or pocket change. When he released his product in the 1940s it caught on and Micro-modeling became a national pastime. The slogan "Your Workshop in a Cigar Box" is still widely quoted today among paper modelers. Their other slogan was: Three-Dimensional, Volumetric. During the war years, the models were especially popular as they were extremely portable and builders were able to work on them anywhere. Anecdotes say people liked them because they were small enough to take with you, so if you got stuck in a bomb shelter during an air raid, you had something interesting to do. Several of the railway Micromodels were distributed in Australia in the form of small stapled books, rather than individual postcards. The subjects of original Micromodels included among other things, Trains, Planes, Ships, Boats, Buildings, Cars and a Dragon. There were 82 original Micromodel Packets. From these packets one could make up 121 separate models. Micromodels also released some items including how-to booklets and powdered glue. Heighway continued to release models from 1941 until he became seriously ill in 1956. He died in 1959. There were several models that Heighway had mentioned in his catalogs and advertising, that for one reason or another were never released. These were known as the "Might have beens." Micromodels are considered collectable, and some rare originals can only be had for thousands of dollars. Others are more easily obtainable. There have been other products similar to or based on Micromodels, including Modelcraft Ltd. and a set of books based on enlargements of some of Heighway's Micromodels, finished by Myles Mandell. Several designers have released new Micromodel style models, including MicromodelsUSA.

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See also
Cardboard engineering

External links (alphabetical)

DG Models [1] - Owner of the original plates and producer of various Micromodels.

References
[1] http:/ / www. autocraft. plus. com/ page30. html

Military miniaturism
Military miniaturism describes a hobby that covers military themed miniaturism of many types including, aircraft figures, tin soldiers ships vehicles weapons, emplacements or equipment science fiction themes Emphasis on realism, historical accuracy and scale congruity of the miniatures and their painting/finishing are important aspects of this hobby. Knowledge of history, events and geography also play a role in the development of subjects and themes. Complexity ranges from the simple assembly and painting of a model kit out of the box to the complete scratch building of a vehicle, aircraft or ship from materials such wood, plastic, metal or resin. Miniaturists compete for prizes and recognition among their peers in contests in most countries at various times of the year. The cost and skills involves mean that this has increasingly become a hobby for grown-ups rather than children, though there are still many kits suitable for completion by youngsters. Often the military miniaturist will combine different kinds of miniatures in the same diorama; for example: vehicles and figures; aircraft and vehicles.

In 1:6 Scale
Military miniaturism was brought into the 1:6 scale with the advent of G.I. Joe in 1964.

Related
1:6 G.I. Joe Action Man Tommy Gunn

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Miniature figure (gaming)

A miniature figure, also known as a "miniature", "mini", "figure", or "fig". is a small-scale representation of a historical or mythological entity used in miniature wargames, role-playing games, and dioramas. Miniature figures are commonly manufactured from metal, plastic or paper and are used to augment the visual aspects of the game, and track position, facing, and line of sight of actors within the game. Miniatures are typically painted, and are often artfully sculpted and are collectible in their own right. The hobby of painting, collecting, and gaming with miniatures originated with the toy soldier hobby with the distinction that toys are sold pre-painted, and miniatures require painting. This distinction has blurred with the recent introduction of painted plastic figures, such as those used in Clix games.

Materials
Traditionally, miniatures were cast in white metal, an alloy of lead and tin. Sometimes a small amount of antimony was added to improve the alloy's ability to take fine detail. In 1993, the New York legislature nearly passed a bill outlawing lead in miniatures, citing public health concerns. Many miniatures manufacturers, anticipating that other states would follow with more bans, immediately began making miniatures with lead-free alloys, which often resulted in price increases.[1] After many months of debate and protests by miniature manufacturers and enthusiasts, New York Governor Mario Cuomo signed a bill which exempted miniatures from the state's Public Health Law.[2] Still, most American manufacturers continued to use non-lead alloys.[3] Recently manufacturers offer plastic (polyethylene or hard polystyrene) minis; others offer resin (mostly polyurethane) minis. Some war games use box miniatures, a simple cuboid made from folded card stock. Art work representing a view of each side of the subject is printed on the outside.

Scales
With the metrication in the United Kingdom, United States manufacturers began to describe miniature scale in the metric system rather than fractions of inches in order to match military models with miniatures for table-top wargaming. Miniature figure scales are commonly expressed as the height of a six-foot (183cm) human male. In 28mm scale, children and short characters such as dwarves, hobbits, and goblins will be typically be smaller than 28mm, whereas large characters like ogres, trolls and dragons will be taller. Scales of 25mm, 28mm, 30mm, 32mm, and 35mm are the most common for role-playing and table-top games. Smaller scales of 10mm, 15mm, and 20mm are used in wargames representing massed warfare. Larger figures of 54mm and more are commonly used for painters and collectors. The use of scale is not uniform and can deviate by as much as 33-percent. A manufacturer might advertise its figures as "28mm", but their products may be over 30mm tall. A contributing factor is the different methods for calculating scale. Some manufacturers measure figure height from the feet to level of the figure's eyes rather than the top of its head. Therefore a 6-foot (1.83m) figure in 28mm scale would be 30mm tall. As a result, 15mm figures are interpreted as 1:100 real-life height by some and 1:120 by others. A further complication is differential interpretations of body proportions. For example, a 30mm figure from Privateer Press and compare it to the accurate scaled proportions of a real person, one sees that the figure has exaggerated proportions making it look much wider, with bigger features like the head, hands and weapons. Figures from other manufacturers display similar deviations. Some of these began as concessions to the limitations of primitive mold-making, but they have evolved to artistic and stylistic choices over the years.

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Scale

Scale foot

Ratio

Comments

2mm 5.92mm

1:888 1:300

Useful for gaming in tight spaces or representing large forces. Popular scale for VSf play. The NATO/EU standard scale for sand-table wargames involving micro armor. Closely related to 1:285 scale and is generalized as "6 mm" figure scale. The USA standard for large-scale historical armor battles involving micro armor. Other genres such as ancients, fantasy, and sci-fi are growing in popularity. Closely related to 1:300 scale and is generalized as "6 mm" figure scale.

6.2mm

1:285

10mm

1.667mm 1:182.88 Newer scale, becoming very popular across a wide range of periods, especially WW2 gaming. 10mm sci-fi is an up and coming niche. Scale is roughly equal to N scale railroad trains. Growing in popularity, with companies like Pendraken Miniatures leading the way. Newer scale, closely related to 10mm. Scale is roughly equal to 1:144 scale and N scale (which ranges from 1:148 scale to 1:160 scale) model mini armor. Growing in popularity. 2.5mm 1:121.92 The most popular scale in use by historical wargamers playing in the Modern Period, such as for Flames of War or Axis & Allies Miniatures mini armor and figures. Widely used in ancients war gaming such as De Bellis Multitudinis (DBMM & DBM), DBA and Fields of Glory. Seldom used for RPGs. Ranges roughly from 1:100 scale to 1:122 scale. Highly popular for WWII wargaming, as the figures are of the same scale (more or less) of 1:76 or 1:72 models (actually closer to 1:87 or 3.5mm/ft which is HO model railroad scale). Seldom used for RPGs.

12mm

15mm

20mm

3.333mm 1:91.44

25/28mm 4.167mm 1:73.152 Original 25s matched 1:76 (4 mm scale/00 gauge) and 1:72 models, but there is a wide upwards variation in figure height, even when not described as "Heroic 25 mm" or 28mm. True 28mm figures are very close to 1:64 (S-scale) in height, but bulky sculpting and thick bases can make some look more in scale with 1/48 or 1/50 scale vehicles. This is the most common size, as 28mm is the size that Games Workshop uses. 30mm 5mm 1:60.96 Common for pre-1970s wargaming figures; modern minis may really be up to 35mm. (Note: model railroad "S" scale is 1:64 which is close) Idiosyncratic to Mithril: genuine 32mm

32mm 35mm 54mm

5.333mm 1:57.15

5.833mm 1:52.251 Genuine 30mm 9mm 1:33.867 Collectible figures, a good match for 1:35 models, but oversize 54mm figures would fit better with 1:32 models. Plastic dollar-store Army Men are often sold at this scale.

Painting
Many role-playing gamers and wargamers will paint their miniature figures to be able to differentiate characters or units on a gaming surface (terrain, battle mat, or unadorned table top). Although many gamers are indifferent to the quality of the paint job, for some the skillful painting of minis is a hobby in itself, on a par with the "more serious" modelling of historical and military figures. Skillful mini painting is a difficult, exacting, time-consuming process, but the results can be quite amazing. Fantasy, role-playing, miniatures and wargaming conventions will sometimes feature miniature painting competitions, such as Games Workshop's Golden Demon contest, and there are many painting competitions on the internet. Professional painting services exist for hobbyist and corporate customers. Painting tutorials and help can be found in books and on many internet sites.

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Manufacture
There are two basic methods to manufacture figures: centrifugal/gravity casting and plastic injection casting. Most metal and resin figures are made through spin casting. Larger resin models, like buildings and vehicles, are sometimes gravity cast which is a slower process. For this process a sculptor will deliver a master figure which is then used to create rubber master and production moulds. The production moulds are then used to cast the actual figures you find in the stores. Polyethylene and polystyrene figures are made through injection moulding. A machine heats plastic and injects it under high pressure into a steel mould. This is a very expensive process which is only cost effective when you manufacture very large amounts of figures since the cost per cast is minimal. Many miniatures companies do not do the actual production themselves but leave this to specialised casting companies or miniatures companies that do have a casting facility. Notable miniatures companies include (in alphabetical order) the following, among others: Alternative armies (Flintloque) Artizan Design - UK based manufacturer of 28mm high pewter figurines Assault Group, 28mm historical miniatures. Battlefront (Flames of War)15mm (WWII)[4] Black Cat Bases (28mm historical and fantasy miniatures) Black Scorpion Miniatures 28mm/30mm. Blood Moon Miniatures 30mm scale fantasy miniatures Citadel Miniatures (Games Workshop) - (formed 1979, plastic and metal for Warhammer Fantasy, Warhammer 40,000, The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game, and other games) Crocodile Games - 28mm fantasy figures, WarGods of Aegyptus, Miniature design for Paizo Publishing's Pathfinder RPG Dark Horse Games Eureka Miniatures Steel Crown Productions - produces Exodus Wars miniatures ShadowForge - Female miniatures only, for sport, western, fantasy, and future settings. Forge World - a Games Workshop subsidiary company working primarily in resin Hasslefree Miniatures - 28mm, Grymn sci-fi dwarves, Post apocalyptic, guns, girls, Zombies. HaT Industrie - The most prolific 1:72 company based in America. Very large Napoleonic range. Heresy Miniatures - 28mm, Demons, Sci-fi, Deathball, Thrud the Barbarian Iron Wind Metals - Based in Cincinnati are the direct heirs to the original Ral Partha molds and employ many of the same employees as the late Ral Partha Corp, including behing helmed by Mike Noe, former Line Director for Ral Partha. They currently make miniatures for Dungeons and Dragons, Battletech, Crimson Skies, Shadowrun, and Wargods of gyptus. Kingdom Death (35mm Nightmare Fantasy) Kingsford Miniatures (28mm samurai) Magister Militum - a company particularly known for their 10mm figures but also make a wide range of figures from 6mm to 28mm incorporating Navigator Miniatures and Chariot Miniatures[5] Miniature Figurines (AKA "Minifigs") Minos Miniatures[6] 28mm fantasy and Sci-Fi metal miniatures. Also produces resin custom bases. Mithril Miniatures - Lord of the Rings miniatures Old Glory - US figures manufacturer - 10mm, 15mm and 25mm

Peter Pig - An English figure manufacturing widely known for their WWII figures and Ruleset - (Poor Bloody Infantry). 15mm. Pendraken Miniatures - UK company, started in 1992, and has the largest range of 10mm figures available.

Miniature figure (gaming) Privateer Press - Warmachine, Hordes and Iron Kingdoms RPG figures Quality Casting Miniatures - 15mm (modern and WWII) RAFM Miniatures (They have been around since 1975 until present and have produced their own lines as well as lines for Ral Partha, Citadel, Dark Age, and Heavy Gear.) Ral Partha - 1975-2001; many founding members later formed Iron Wind Metals, LLC Reaper Miniatures - since 1992, Warlord, CAV, and RPG figure lines Schleich - Animals, comic book characters Valdemar - Produces very well sculpted medieval miniatures in a 1:72 scale. Many Are based on the lager Pegaso figures. Based in Denmark Wargames Foundry Warmodelling - Producers of figures for wargaming and modelling miniatures in 15mm and 20mm - 1/72 escale. Napoleonic, Ancients, WWII ... Wizkids - Heroclix, Horrorclix Wizards of the Coast - Dungeons & Dragons Miniatures Game - Heroscape - Axis & Allies Miniatures Zvezda - Russian company that very rarely has a negative output.

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Sculpting
Most miniatures are hand sculpted in the same size as the final figure using two component epoxy putties. The components are mixed together to create a sculpting compound which hardens in a period of approximately 48 hours. There are many brands of putties and each has its own properties. Some commonly used ones are Polymerics Kneadatite blue\yellow (also known as "green stuff" and "Duro" in Europe), Milliput, A&B and Magic sculp. There is also ProCreate from the Kraftmark company. Polymer clays have been avoided for a long time as they can not withstand the traditional mouldmaking process. Modern techniques using RTV and softer quality rubbers have made it possible to use weaker materials and polymer clay masters are more common now. Fimo is the most popular of these clays though only specific colours are used since each has its own properties. Masters for plastic miniatures are often made in a larger scale (often 3 times the required size). The master is measured with a probe linked to a pantograph which reduces the measurements to the correct size and drives the cutter that makes the moulds. A more recent development is the use of digital 3D models made by computer artists. These models can be used to create a physical model for mouldmaking using rapid prototyping techniques or they can be used directly to drive a CNC machine which cuts the steel mould.

Miniatures in Dungeons & Dragons

Manufacture
The original Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game bore the subtitle, "Rules for Fantastic Miniature Wargames Campaigns Playable with Paper and Pencil and Miniature Figures". Initially, fantasy wargamers used figures designed for historical wargaming, but eventually, new lines of fantasy figures appeared. TSR, Inc. produced a line of official Advanced Dungeons & Dragons miniatures. Other companies have produced a multitude of figures for Dungeons & Dragons and other games in various scales. Hasbro, in the early states of publishing Dungeon & Dragons Third Edition, produced a new game called Chainmail based on simplified D&D rules. That project was abandoned, and the Dungeons & Dragons Miniatures Game now serves as the game's official line of miniatures, in addition to being played as a standalone game. Traditionally, figures were made of lead or pewter and cast from silicone rubber vulcanised moulds. Many are still made of pewter or other alloys, but plastic miniatures have grown in popularity. Both Mage Knight and the Dungeons & Dragons Miniatures Game use prepainted, collectible plastic figures.

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Gameplay
Originally, D&D was an evolution of the original Chainmail miniatures game[7] , with the distinction that each player controlled a single figure and a wider variety of moves or plays were possible. As the game grew and changed, miniatures became more of an optional add-on.[8] Dungeons & Dragons did not require miniatures, referring to them as "only esthetically pleasing".[9] Advanced Dungeons & Dragons likewise included a relatively short section suggesting their use, in conjunction with the official AD&D miniatures being produced at the time.[10] Player's Option: Combat & Tactics introduced a more elaborate grid-based combat system that emphasized the use of miniatures; a streamlined version of some of these concepts made their way into Dungeons & Dragons Third Edition. Although not strictly necessary, the use of miniatures is assumed in the third and fourth editions of the game, and many game mechanics refer explicitly to the combat grid. In addition to reducing ambiguity about the size and position of characters, this allows the game rules to define rules such as reach, threatened areas, and movement rates intended to simulate a particular reality. A side benefit, from the standpoint of Hasbro, is driving miniature sales, which are potentially an evergreen market compared to the easily saturated market for more books among customers who already own the core rulebooks.

See also
Miniature conversion Miniature wargaming Model figure Toy soldier

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Bigalow, Robert 1993. "Through the Looking Glass", Dragon Magazine 192:112118 (April 1993). N.Y. P.B.H. Law 1376-a (http:/ / public. leginfo. state. ny. us/ menugetf. cgi) Bigalow, Robert 1984. "Through the Looking Glass", Dragon 205:114122 (May 1994). FlamesOfWar.com (http:/ / www. flamesofwar. com) MagisterMilitum.com (http:/ / www. magistermilitum. com) Minos Miniatures (http:/ / www. minos-miniatures. com) Gygax and Arneson, 1974, Dungeons & Dragons Vol-1, p. 3 Gygax, 2003, ENWorld game forums: "I don't usually employ miniatures in my RPG play. We ceased that when we moved from CHAINMAIL Fantasy to D&D." http:/ / www. enworld. org/ forum/ 1263669-post6. html [9] Gygax and Arneson, 1974, Dungeons & Dragons Vol-1, p. 5 [10] Gygax, 1979, AD&D Dungeon Masters Guide, p. 10-11: "The special figures cast for ADVANCED DUNGEONS & DRAGONS add color to play and make refereeing far easier. Each player might be required to furnish painted figures representing his or her player character and all henchmen and/or hirelings included in the game session."

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Miniature effect
In the field of special effects a miniature effect is a special effect generated by the use of scale models. Scale models are often combined with high speed photography to make gravitational and other effects scale properly. Where a miniature appears in the foreground of a shot, this is often very close to the camera lens for example when matte painted backgrounds are used. Since the exposure is set to the object being filmed so the actors appear well lit, the miniature must be over-lit in order to balance the exposure and eliminate any depth of field differences that would otherwise be visible. This foreground miniature usage is referred to as forced perspective. Another form of miniature effect uses stop motion animation. Use of scale models in the creation of visual effects by the entertainment industry dates back to the earliest days of cinema. Models and miniatures are copies of people, animals, buildings, settings and objects. Miniatures or models are used to represent things that do not really exist, or that are too expensive or difficult to film in reality, such as explosions, floods or fires.[1]

Early history (19001976)

French director Georges Mlis incorporated special effects in his 1902 film Le Voyage dans la Lune (A Trip to the Moon) including double-exposure, split screens, miniatures and stop-action.[2] Some of the most influential visual effects films of these early years such as Metropolis, The Ten Commandments[3] , Citizen Kane, and 2001: A Space Odyssey utilized miniatures.[4] In the early 1970s, miniatures were often used to depict disasters in such films as The Poseidon Adventure, Earthquake and The Towering Inferno.

The golden years (19771993)

In the days before widespread use of computer generated imagery was practical, miniatures were a common tool in the visual effects artist's arsenal.

Early model use from "A Trip to the Moon"

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The resurgence of the science fiction genre in film in the late 1970s saw miniature fabrication rise to new heights in such films as Star Wars, Alien, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Blade Runner, and Star Trek: The Motion Picture. Iconic film sequences such as the tanker truck explosion from The Terminator and the bridge destruction in True Lies were achieved through the use of large-scale miniatures.

2001's Discovery miniature

1993 saw the release of Jurassic Park, which for many marked the turning point in the use of computers to create effects for which models and miniatures would have previously been employed.

Modern use
While the use of computer generated imagery has largely overtaken physical models and miniatures in recent years, they are still often employed, especially for projects requiring physical interaction with fire, explosions or water.[5] Independence Day, Titanic, the Lord of the Rings trilogy, Godzilla, Casino Royale and The Dark Knight[6] are examples of highly successful films that have utilized miniatures for a large component of their visual effects work.

Techniques
Carpentry Plastic Fabrication Vacuum Forming Mold Making and Casting Fiberglass Welding Rapid Prototyping Laser Cutting Acid Etching Metal Machining Kit-Bashing Miniature Lighting and Electronics Painting Motion Control Photography

Slurpasaur
Slurpasaur (or Slurposaur) is a nickname given to optically enlarged lizards that are presented as dinosaurs in motion pictures. In spite of the pioneering work of Willis O'Brien and others in making stop-motion animated dinosaurs since the early days of cinema, producers have used optically enlarged lizards (often with horns and fins glued on) to represent dinosaurs to cut costs as, it was felt, the public saw dinosaurs as being simply giant lizards. The first film that used reptiles dressed as dinosaurs was D.W. Griffith's Brute Force. Various slurpasaurs appeared in the 1929 film version of The Mysterious Island, the 1933 British film Secret of the Loch, and the 1936 Flash Gordon serial. The first major

Miniature effect use of the 'slurpasaur' was in One Million B.C. (1940, which included a pig dressed as a triceratops) and, indeed, the special effects in this film were re-used often (in, for example, the 1955 movie King Dinosaur). Other notable films with 'slurpasaurs' include Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959) and The Lost World (1960). The former is a rare example of lizards actually being convincing in their role they are supposed to be Dimetrodons and actually look superficially similar to those creatures. The latter is notable for a 'dinosaur battle' wherein a monitor lizard and a young crocodile fight each other for real. On the remake of The Lost World, O'Brien, who did the stop-motion dinosaurs for the original, was hired as the effects technician, but was disappointed that producer Irwin Allen opted for live lizards.

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Notable model-makers
Steve Gawley [7]: Star Wars,[8] Raiders of the Lost Ark Greg Jein: Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Star Trek: The Next Generation David Jones [9]: Star Wars, The Hunt for Red October Michael Joyce [10]: The Terminator, Independence Day Patrick McClung [11]: The Empire Strikes Back, Aliens, The Abyss, True Lies Lorne Peterson [12]: Star Wars,[13] War of the Worlds Brick Price [14]: The Abyss

Mark Stetson [15]: Blade Runner, Die Hard, The Fifth Element, The Lord of the Rings Richard Taylor [16]: The Lord of the Rings, Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World Lorne Peterson [12] Star Wars Episodes 1 - 6, Raiders of the Lost Ark, Battlestar Galactica. Grant McCune [17] Star Wars, Battlestar Galactica, Star Trek: The Motion Picture. Ian Hunter [18] The Dark Knight, Live Free or Die Hard, The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe Matthew Gratzner [19]: The Aviator, The Good Shepherd, Pitch Black, Alien Resurrection.

Miniature effects companies

Boss Film Studios Cinema Production Services [20] Cinesite Digital Domain Fantasy II Film Effects [21] Grant McCune Design [22] Industrial Light & Magic New Deal Studios [23] KernerFX [24] Surreal World Stetson Visual Services Vision Crew Unlimited Weta Workshop WonderWorks [25] Magicon GmbH [26]

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References
[1] Visual Effects | Activity 1 | Teacher's Resource Guide | YMI, Ltd./AMPAS (http:/ / www. oscars. org/ teachersguide/ visualeffects/ activity1. html) [2] A medium in motion - Los Angeles Times (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ entertainment/ news/ cl-ca-125filmtech21may21,0,6395197. story) [3] Motion Picture Directing (http:/ / www. cinemaweb. com/ silentfilm/ bookshelf/ 10_cbd_4. htm) [4] VES Unveils 50 Most Influential Visual Effects Films of All Time (http:/ / www. animated-news. com/ 2007/ ves-unveils-50-most-influential-visual-effects-films-of-all-time) [5] Miniatures In a Digital World (http:/ / digitalcontentproducer. com/ mag/ video_miniatures_digital_world/ ) [6] Miniature Dark Knight Physics, 50 Coraline Boxes, & The Digital Pitts... (http:/ / vfxplanet. vox. com/ library/ post/ miniature-dark-knight-physics-50-coraline-boxes-the-digital-pitts. html) [7] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0310697/ [8] Star Wars: Biography | Steve Gawley (http:/ / www. starwars. com/ bio/ stevegawley. html) [9] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0427860/ [10] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0431573/ [11] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0565957/ [12] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0677285/ [13] Star Wars: Biography | Lorne Peterson (http:/ / www. starwars. com/ bio/ lornepeterson. html) [14] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0696814/ [15] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0828078/ [16] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0853050/ [17] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0567263/ [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0402843/ http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0336054/ http:/ / www. cpsfx. com/ http:/ / www. fantasyii. com/ Default. Asp?User=& Pass= http:/ / www. gmdfx. com/ http:/ / www. newdealstudios. com/ http:/ / www. kerner. com/ http:/ / www. wonderworksweb. com http:/ / www. magicon. de/

External links
Howard & Theodore Lydecker, miniature effects pioneers (http://www.vttbots.com/page20.html)

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Miniature pioneering
Miniature Pioneering or Model Pioneering is an art form featuring the miniaturized version of pioneering construction. This technique was originally used by Boy Scouts to create a model for campsite planning. Models are a convenient way to plan a construction project, requiring the same techniques as a full scale model, and allowing for accurate equipment lists to be developed, as well as for difficulties in sequencing construction to be identified. However, scout troops in Malaysia are innovating it into a new form of art through competitions. While real pioneering is a combination of wooden spars and ropes, these materials are replaced by wooden sticks and white thread in Miniature Pioneering. Although design and complexity plays a major part in judging the value of a model, lashing quality plays a major role whereby it is evaluated based on the three criteria of tightness, tidiness, and cleanliness. Similar to all handmade models, the activity of making a miniature pioneering model is good training for patience and perfection.

2003 Atlantis Tower

See also
Scale model
2001 Pyramids

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Physical model
A physical model (most commonly referred to simply as a model, however in this sense it is distinguished from a conceptual model) is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. The object being modelled may be small (for example, an atom) or large (for example, the Solar System). The geometry of the model and the object it represents are often similar in the sense that one is a rescaling of the other; in such cases the scale is an important characteristic. However, in many cases the similarity is only approximate or even intentionally distorted. Sometimes the distortion is systematic with e.g. a fixed scale horizontally and a larger fixed scale vertically when modelling topography of a large area (as opposed to a model of a smaller mountain region, which may well use the same scale horizontally and vertically, and show the true slopes). Physical models allow visualization, from examining the model, of information about the thing the model represents. A model can be a physical object such as an architectural model of a building. Uses of an architectural model include visualization of internal relationships within the structure or external relationships of the structure to the environment. Other uses of models in this sense are as toys.
A scale model of the Singapore City Centre.

Model of a burning house at Bekonscot, Beaconsfield, UK.

Instrumented physical models are the most effective way of investigating fluid flows such as around hydraulic structures. These models are scaled in terms of both geometry and important forces, for example using Froude number or Reynolds number scaling (see Similitude). A physical model of something large is usually smaller, and of something very small is larger. A physical model of something that can move, like a vehicle or machine, may be completely static, or have parts that can be moved manually, or be powered. A physical model may show inner parts that are normally not visible. The purpose of a Model of a war scene Australian War Memorial, Canberra. physical model on a smaller scale may be to have a better overview, for testing purposes, as hobby or toy. The purpose of a physical model on a larger scale may be to see the structure of things that are normally too small to see properly or to see at all, for example a model of an insect or of a molecule. A physical model of an animal shows the animals physical composition without it walking or flying away, and without danger, and if the real animal is not available. A soft model of an animal is popular among children and some adults as cuddly toy. A model of a person may e.g. be a doll, a statue, and in fiction a robotic humanoid, e.g. the mechas in the movie A.I.. A model is a 3D alternative for a 2D representation such as a drawing or photograph, or in the case of a globe, a 3D, undistorted alternative for a flat world map.

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See also
Scale model Model organism Model nation Metamodel

Physical models
Model airplane Model car Model railway Model rocket
Part of the one-tenth scale model of Bourton-on-the-Water at Bourton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire, England

Model building
Model building as a hobby involves the creation of models either from kits or from materials and components acquired by the builder. Categories of modelling include: Scale model building Live steam models Matchstick models Military models Model aircraft Model cars Model commercial vehicles Model construction vehicles Building models Architectural models Model figures Model military vehicles Rail transport modelling Model rockets Model ships Freelance model Cardboard engineering model building (particle physics) Firearm models (See Airsoft guns) Gundam Models
Model builder in deep concentration

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Model commercial vehicle

A model commercial vehicle is a scale model or die-cast toy that represents a commercial vehicle: truck (lorry), bus, etc.
1:64 scale diecast trucks

Overview
Like model cars, model commercial vehicles are sold both as kits for the enthusiast to construct and paint and as pre-built, pre-painted collectible models. Model kits may be made in plastic, resin, metal (including white metal), and wood; collectables are usually made of die-cast metal and plastic. One of the most used alloys is Zamac, a combination of Zinc and Aluminium. Z.A.M.A.C.: Zinc and Aluminium Metal Alloy Casting. This material is also known as ZAMAK or Mazak.

Tekno 1:50 scale models

1:50 scale model buses

History
Winross (Rochester, New York) pioneered 1/64 scale promotional model trucks in the early 1960s. Other American brands followed suit, including Ertl, SpecCast, Liberty Classics, Hartoy (AHL - American Highway Legends and PEM - Precision Engineered Models), Road Champs, Penjoy, Die Cast Promotions, GearBox, and Tonkin (which took over the AHL and PEM lines following the demise of Hartoy. In Britain, Lledo made some 1/64 scale lorries in its Vanguards range. The classic Corgi Routemaster bus is approximately 1/64 scale, too. Few other companies outside the US have used 1/64 scale for commercial vehicles. 1/76 scale is very popular in Britain and Hong Kong for models of transit buses and coaches (intercity buses). The EFE (Exclusive First Editions) line, which appeared in 1989, included both buses and trucks. The models were designed in the UK but manufactured in China. Most EFE models have been replicas of British vehicles and by 2006 over 1500 different models had been released. Corgi Classics Limited followed EFE in 1995 with their own Original Omnibus Company (OOC) line of 1/76th scale UK, US, and Hong Kong vehicles, well over 800 models have been produced to date. Other manufacturers such as Britbus and Creative Master Northcord have also entered the UK market with their own lines of bus models since 2002. Trax Models and Creative Master Northcord provide localised 1/76 models to the Australian market.

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Explanation of Scale
Enthusiasts may pursue commercial vehicle modeling in its own right or as an adjunct to model railways, where the vehicles add verisimilitude to a layout (for example: trucks in a goods yard; buses at a station). The most popular diecast scales for commercial vehicles are 1:43 and 1:50, coming from their initial role as props in 0 scale model railway layouts. While 0 scale has become less popular for trains, its 1:43 scale and 1:50 scale have grown and prospered for diecast commercial vehicles. Other scales which are popular include 1:64 scale (the same as S scale American Flyer trains), 1/87 (the same as H0 scale trains), and 1/34 (which has no parallel in model railroading). Outside Britain H0 gauge (1/87) trains are more popular than 00 gauge (1/76). For that reason 1/76 scale commercial vehicles have less appeal outside the UK, but 1/87 scale trucks are very popular, not only with model railroaders but with truck collectors as well. Most HO scale trucks are primarily plastic, whereas trucks in other scales tend to be diecast metal, often with some plastic parts.

Model engine
For the band (previously known as Black Eyed Sceva), see Model Engine. In radio-controlled modeling, a model engine is an internal combustion engine used to power a radio-controlled aircraft, radio-controlled car, radio-controlled boat, free flight and control line aircraft, and tether car models also use these engines. Because of the square-cube law, the behaviour of many machines does not always scale up or down at the same rate as the machine's size (and often not even in a linear way), usually at best causing a dramatic loss of power or efficiency, and at worst causing them not to work at all. Methanol and nitromethane are proven solutions to enhance the power of an automobile engine (Top Fuel) and they can even get these small engines running.

An old Cox Babe Bee 0.049 cubic inch (0.8 cubic cm.) reed valve engine disassembled. The weight is two and a quarter ounces with the propeller and large fuel tank, but without fuel.

Overview
The fully-functional, albeit small, engines vary from the most common single-cylinder two-stroke to the exotic single and multiple-cylinder four-stroke, the latter taking shape in boxer, v-twin, inline and radial form, a few Wankel engine designs are also used. Most model engines run on a blend of methanol, nitromethane, and lubricant (either castor or synthetic oil). Two-stroke model engines, most often designed since 1970 with Schnuerle porting for best performance, range in typical size from .12 cubic inches (2 cubic centimeters) to 1.2 ci (19.6 cc) and generate between .5 horsepower (370 watts) to 5hp (3.7kW), can get The same Cox Babe Bee 0.049 assembled. The left rotating propeller and horizontal cylinder as small as .010 ci (.16 cc) and as large as 3-4 ci (4966 cc). contribute to keeping the control lines tight. Four-stroke model engines have been made in sizes as small as 0.20 in3 (3.3 cm3) for the smallest single-cylinder models, all the way up to 3.05 in3 (50 cm3) for the largest size for single-cylinder units, with twin- and multi-cylinder engines on the market being as small as 10 cm3 for opposed-cylinder twins, while going somewhat larger in size than 50 cm3 for some model radial engines. While the methanol and nitromethane blended "glow fuel" engines are the most common,

Model engine many larger (especially above 15 cm3/0.90 cu.in. displacement) model engines, both two-stroke and a few four-stroke examples, are spark ignition, and are fueled with gasoline. This article concerns itself with the methanol engines; gasoline-powered model engines are similar to those built for use in string trimmers, chainsaws, and other yard equipment. The majority of model engines have used, and continue to use, the two-stroke cycle principle to avoid needing valves in the combustion chamber, but a growing number of model engines use the four-stroke cycle design instead. Both reed valve and rotary valve-type two-strokes are common, with four-stroke model engines using either conventional poppet valve, and rotary valve formats for induction and exhaust. The engine shown to the right has its carburetor in the center of the zinc alloy casting to the left. (It uses a flow restriction, like the choke on an old car engine, because the venturi effect is not effective on such a small scale.) The valve reed, cross shaped above its retainer spring, is still beryllium copper alloy, in this old engine. The glow plug is built into the cylinder head. Large production volume makes it possible to use a machined cylinder and an extruded crank case (cut away by hand in the example shown). These Cox Bee reed valve engines are notable for their low cost and ability to survive crashes. The components of the engine shown come from several different engines.

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Glowplug engines
Glow plugs are used for starting as well as continuing the power cycle. The glow plug consists of a durable, mostly platinum, helically wound wire filament, within a cylindrical pocket in the plug body, exposed to the combustion chamber. A small direct current voltage (around 1.5 volts) is applied to the glow plug, the engine is then started, and the voltage is removed. The burning of the fuel/air mixture in a glow-plug model engine, which requires methanol for the glow plug to work in the first place, and sometimes with the use of nitromethane for greater power output and steadier idle, occurs due to the catalytic reaction of the methanol vapor to the presence of the platinum in the filament, thus causing the ignition. This keeps the plug's filament glowing hot, and allows it to ignite the next charge. Since the ignition timing is not controlled electrically, as in a spark ignition engine or by fuel injection, as in an ordinary diesel, it must be adjusted by the richness of the mixture, the ratio of nitromethane to methanol, the compression ratio, the cooling of the cylinder head, the type of glow plug, etc. A richer mixture will tend to cool the filament and so retard ignition, slowing the engine, and a rich mixture also eases starting. After starting the engine can easily be leaned (by adjusting a needle valve in the spraybar) to obtain maximum power. Glowplug engines are also known as nitro engines. Nitro engines require a 1.5 volt ignitor to light the glow plug in the heat sink. Once primed, pulling the starter with the ignitor in will start the engine.

Diesel engines
Diesel engines are an alternative to methanol glow plug engines. These "diesels" run on a mixture of kerosene, ether, castor oil or vegetable oil, and Amsoil cetane or amyl nitrate booster. Despite their name, their use of compression ignition, and the use of a kerosene fuel that is similar to diesel, model diesels share very little with full-size diesel engines. Full-size diesel engine, such as those found in a truck, are fuel injected and either two-stroke or four-stroke. They use compression ignition to ignite the mixture: the compression within the cylinder heats the inlet charge sufficiently to cause ignition, without requiring an electrical spark. A fundamental feature of such engines, unlike petrol (gasoline) engines, is that they draw in air alone and the fuel is only mixed by being injected into the combustion chamber separately. Model diesel engines are instead a carbureted two-stroke using the crankcase for compression. Their carburettor supplies a mixture of fuel and air into the engine, with the proportions kept fairly constant and their total volume throttled to control the engine power. Apart from sharing the diesel's use of compression ignition, their construction has more in common with a small two-stroke motorcycle or lawnmower engine. In addition to this, model diesels have variable compression ratios. This variable compression is achieved by a "contra-piston," at the top of the cylinder, which can be adjusted by a screwed "T-bar". The swept volume of the engine remains the same,

Model engine but as the volume of the combustion chamber at top dead centre is changed by adjusting the contra-piston, the compression ratio (swept volume + combustion chamber / combustion chamber) changes accordingly. Model diesels are found to produce more torque than glow engines of the same displacement, and are thought to get better fuel efficiency, because the same power is produced at a lower RPM, and in a smaller displacement engine. However, the specific power may not be significantly superior to a glow engine, due to overbuilding, to assure that the engine can withstand the much higher compression, sometimes reaching ratios of as high as 30:1. Diesels also run significantly quieter, due to the more rapid combustion, unlike glow engines, in which combustion may still be occurring when the exhaust ports are uncovered, causing a significant amount of noise.

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See also
Cox Model Engines Glow plug O.S. Engines

Model Products Corporation

Model Products Corporation or MPC for short, was a plastic model company started in 1963. It produced highly accurate and detailed kits and pre-assembled promotional models, mainly of cars. These were all normally molded in plastic at 1:25 scale, but sometimes larger.

History and Promotionals

MPC began when George Toteff resigned from the presidency of AMT to start his own model car company in Mount Clemens, Michigan[1] , bringing customizer Dean Jeffries with him.[2] . While AMT more commonly produced promotional models for Ford and Jo-Han produced for Chrysler and American Motors Corporation, the new model company quickly had success with licensing contracts with General Motors Corporation, with its first models appearing about 1965, yet some of the first models were also Chrysler Corporation vehicles. MPC then was a late-comer on the promotional and modeling scene, preceded by AMT and Jo-Han. It is interesting to compare origins - while AMT had its beginnings in manufacturing promotionals first and kits later, by the 1960s, kits were the big money makers and MPC mainly profited from kits first and promotionals secondarily. Kit makers Aurora, Pyro, Revell and Monogram also appeared earlier than MPC, but did not enter the promotional business of pre-assembled models. By the early 1970s, however, it could be argued that MPC was the most popular of all model makers. MPC produced its first promotional models in 1965. Among the first of these were 1965 Dodge Coronet 500s in both convertible and hardtop versions. One difference between the MPC Coronets and period AMT promotionals is that MPC exhaust systems and rear suspension parts were often highlighted in silver.[3] Later MPC promotionals did not feature this highlighting.

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Diversification
Like most model makers, MPC products included a mix of current year car models, race and modified cars, as well as film and TV tie-ins. Among those were a line of George Barris-designed custom and film cars, special customs by Dean Jeffries as well as kits based on the Star Wars film series. In the early 1970s, MPC also ventured into caricature model creations similar to Aurora's Ed Roth 'Ratfink' based kits. MPC's versions were called 'Zingers', and featured comical stubby and swollen looking vehicles with huge drag engines. One example was the VW transporter bus - but these were different compared to Ed Roth's Aurora Plastics Corporation models because they didn't feature strange people or animals. The Zinger line was reintroduced in 2009 as Round 2 LLC took MPC into its growing stable of venerable kit makers.

Aircraft Kits
Unlike other model firms which made their own, MPC imported aircraft kits made in the UK by Airfix. These were packaged and distributed by MPC with the MPC logo. In addition to standard versions, they offered a "Profile" series (named after a set of popular aircraft monographs of the time) which offered alternative decals for different aircraft, and a "custom" series which offered chrome parts and car-like decals to customize standard aircraft.

MPC Today
About 1969, General Mills bought MPC from Toteff, who stayed as president. General Mills, in its 'toy' period, also acquired Lionel trains which Toteff also directed.[1] MPC was eventually absorbed by Ertl. Today the brand has been resurrected by Round 2 LLC, which also owns AMT, Polar Lights (the descendant of Aurora plastics) and Ertl.

References
[1] Chrysler Museum. 2008. Display text. Model display in museum basement. Auburn Hills, Michigan. [2] Bill Cawthon. 2002. 3 in 1:87, Promotex Online Articles December 15 (http:/ / www. promotex. ca/ articles/ cawthon/ 2002/ 12-15-2002_article. html) [3] Dennis Doty. 2010. Scaling Down Midsize Mopars. Collectible Automobile, 26/6:88-90.

External links
For vintage MPC aircraft and space kits, see http://www.oldmodelkits.com Round 2 LLC website. http://www.round2corp.com/

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Model robot
Model robots is an area of modeling with its origin in the Japanese anime genre of mecha. The majority of model robots are produced by Bandai and are based on the Mobile Suit Gundam anime metaseries. This has given rise to the hobby's common name in Japan, Gunpla (or gan-pura, a Japanese portmanteau of "Gundam" and "plastic model"). Though there are exceptions, the model robot genre is dominated by anime tie-ins, with anime series and movies frequently serving as merchandising platform.

Construction
Modern mecha models are generally color injection-molded styrene with snap-together construction requiring minimal to no glue or paint. Mecha model kits, being generally humanoid and structurally simple, are traditionally posable. Older mecha models were usually styrene-only, and the plastic-on-plastic joints used for posing were prone to wearing down over time. Polycaps made of soft polyvinyl were introduced in the early 1980s, in kit lines such as the ARII Macross kits, and have since become a common means of creating durable posable joints. More recently, the use of "ABS" parts for joints has become common. Hard plastic joints generally exhibit greater friction than polyvinyl joints, and are similarly more durable than styrene joints. ABS joints, however, require greater precision in tooling to ensure easy assembly, and in some cases, they require screws and a small gap between parts. Gundam kits are the most common and popular variety of mecha models and so exemplify the general characteristics of models in the genre. Gundam kits are typically oriented toward beginners, and most often feature simple construction, simple designs, and rugged constructionless durable than a pre-assembled toy, but more durable than a true scale model. The result is that the majority of Gundam kits feature hands and other parts that favor poseability or easy assembly over accurate shape. They may also exhibit various draft-angle problems, and features like antennae that are oversized to prevent breakage. For the most part, other kit lines and other kit manufacturers in the genre follow suit, though there are exceptions.

Scale
Anime mecha subjects such as Gundam are most often portrayed as being between 1520 meters tall, and so the kits are scaled in a manner that brings the subject to an economical and manageable size. For machines in this size range, scales of 1:100 and 1:144 are most common, with 1:60 being reserved for larger (and usually more expensive or elaborate) kits. For smaller subjects, scales such as 1:20, 1:35, and 1:72 are common. Bandai kits are commonly based upon fairly extensive and radical redesigns, rather than the original designs themselves. Some of this inconsistency representation may be due to the inherent difficulties in turning a 2-D cel-animated design into a 3-D design. Additionally, newer versions of the same mecha could be very different from an older version, due to better manufacturing technologies.

Practice
Gunpla is a major hobby in Japan, with entire magazines dedicated to variations on Bandai models. As mecha are fictional humanoid objects, there is considerable leeway for custom models and "kitbashes." A large amount of artistry goes in to action poses and personalized variations on classic machines. There is also a market for custom resin kits which fill in gaps in the Bandai model line. Gundam is not the only line of model robots. Eureka Seven, Neon Genesis Evangelion, Patlabor, Dunbine and L-Gaim, to name a few, are all represented by Bandai model lines. Other manufacturers, such as Hasegawa, Wave, and Kotobukiya, have in recent years offered products from other series, such as Macross, Votoms, Five Star Stories, Armored Core, Virtual-On, and Maschinen Krieger, with results rivaling Bandai's best products.

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Model airport
A new trend among aircraft model collectors is to build model airports. While airport models have been around, in a way, since air fields were open to the public, early model airports were basically restricted to public showcases about the airport and its surroundings to the public; these were usually located inside the airport themselves. One of the first model airport toys available to the public was Fisher-Price's Little People's airport set, released in the 1970s. However, since Herpa Wings's introduction of their airport set series to their line of airline related toys, there has been an increase of aircraft modellers who have made mock airports to showcase their private collection of model aircraft. Usually, the collector will model their airport after a real life airport. Many of these collectors have internet sites in which they show their airports to other collectors. Most of the time, collectors who make model airports use die-cast airline models for their creation. Among the brands of die cast aircraft models most commonly used on these airports are Schabak, Herpa Wings, Dragon Wings, Gemini Jets and others. Model airports could be made to look very realistic, with many real airport features such as toy terminals, control towers, cargo terminals, hangars, passenger bridges and more. Conversely, they could also be very simple, as some collectors just get a piece of paper, draw a runway on it, place it over a table, add their plane models and call it their model airport. This is a new trend going on in the last years of model airports have website of their own, showing "fantasy flights" or some information about the imaginary airport, for example- London Bexley International. There are some forum communities such as DA.C forums, Wings900.com, and 400 Scale Hangar for developing the hobby of collecting models and creating model airports. Some fictitious alliances were made to bond together some model airports of the world. Some of these include the Global Airports Alliance and Blue Sky Alliance.

External links
Photos of Model Airports [1] Photos, Blogs and Construction "How-To's" of Model Airports [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. wings900. com/ gallery/ showgallery. php?cat=505& thumb=1 [2] http:/ / www. modelairports. net

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Model engineering
Model engineering is the hobby of constructing machines in miniature. The term was in use by 1888.[1] There is some debate about the appropriateness of the term. Some say that all 'engineers' should be professionally qualified as such; however, the historic meaning of 'engineer' is one who constructs or tends engines, and as such is a fitting epithet for those who make working models as a hobby. In the United States, the term home shop machinist is often used. The 'classic' areas of interest are live steam models (typically steam locomotives, stationary engines and traction engines), internal combustion engines, and clock making. Other popular subjects are Stirling engines, workshop equipment, miniature machine tools and ornamental turning. These constitute stable genres which are often reflected in competition categories at model engineering exhibitions. In the past, amateur electrical experimentation (the precursor to hobby electronics) and ship modelling were considered as part of model engineering, but these are no longer regarded as core genres. Model engineers typically produce models made in project. metal. These are machined from stock metal and castings. Some of these are intended as utilitarian working models, others as highly meticulous display models, or sometimes a combination of both. The model engineer usually purchases commercially available drawings which are used as reference to make the models. However some people produce their own drawings, or even work without drawings. The most elaborate models involve hand manufacture of thousands of parts, taking thousands of hours to complete, usually over a number of years or even decades. There are some complete pre-manufactured kits available, but these are limited in the choice of subject matter and are usually expensive.
Stuart Turner No.10 V, built from castings. A typical beginner's

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Model engineering kits

These fall into two categories. Machined kits or unmachined kits. The unmachined kits often consist of drawings, castings, stock metal and all the necessary nuts, bolts and other fixings necessary to complete the model. They require machining facilities to complete. Typically this will include a lathe, drilling machine and possibly a milling machine. A good level of knowledge about machining is necessary to successfully complete these kits. Machined kits are a set of parts that are fully machined and only require finishing with hand tools, painting, etc. Workshop machinery is not required. The A more demanding model engineering project, a propane fired 1:8 kit will typically contain all the parts necessary to scale live steam train, here seen running on the Finnish Railway complete the kit, including all fixings, pressure gauges Museum's miniature 7.25" (184 mm) track. and other steam fittings, etc. These kits require a lot less work than an unmachined kit, but are very expensive. Availability tends to be limited as productions runs are small due to the high price.

Building from scratch

Many builders do not use any pre-fabricated parts, ready-made castings, or even drawings. This is called "building from scratch", and it adds another facet to the hobby.

Model engineers
Historically, some of the leading names in the hobby have been those who encourage others through their writings, notably Edgar T. Westbury, "LBSC" (Lillian "Curly" Lawrence), Martin Evans and "Tubal Cain" (Tom D. Walshaw), all writing for the British Model Engineer magazine. Kozo Hiraoka has authored several series of logging locomotive articles in the U.S. magazine Live Steam. Many of the projects published by these authors contain detailed instructions and drawings for building steam and petrol engines, as well as locomotives in scales ranging from 1:24 to 1:8, capable of carrying passengers on a backyard railroad track. The quality of work of some modern proponents of the hobby is astonishing, foremost among living model engineers are Cherry Hill, Gerald Wingrove and Barry Jordan.

Tools
Tools used for model engineering include the Lathe, the mill, the shaper, and the drill press. Until the introduction of cheap mini-lathes, lathes produced by Myford were fairly ubiquitous in model engineering.[2]

See also
Bassett-Lowke Machining Metalworking

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External links
Model Engine News [3] Model Engineering [4] at the Open Directory Project

References
[1] Hasluck, P.N., 1888, "The Model Engineer's Handybook", 1st edition. London: Crosby, Lockwood & Son. [2] Clark, Andrew J.. "The Model Engineering Clearing House" (http:/ / www. modeleng. org/ ). . Retrieved 2009-03-10. "For many years Myford lathes were considered as 'standard issue' for model engineers" [3] http:/ / www. modelenginenews. org/ [4] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Arts/ Crafts/ Metal_Craft/ Model_Engineering/ /

Model figure
A model figure is a scale model representing a human, monster or other creature. Human figures may be either a generic figure of a type (such as "World War II Luftwaffe pilot"), a historical personage (such as "King Henry VIII"), or a fictional character (such as "Conan"). Model figures are sold both as kits for enthusiast to construct and paint and as pre-built, pre-painted collectable figurines. Model kits may be made in plastic (usually polystyrene), polyurethane resin, or metal (including white metal); collectables are usually made of plastic, porcelain, or (rarely) bronze. There are larger size (12-inch or 30cm) that have been produced for recent movie characters (Princess Leia from Star Wars, for example). Large plastic military figures are made by some model soldier firms as a sideline.

Military models
Enthusiasts may pursue figure modeling in its own right or as an adjunct to military modeling. There is also overlap with miniature figures (minis) used in wargames and role-playing games: minis are usually less than 54mm scale, and do not necessarily represent any given personage. Model figures are usually 54mm/1:32 scale or greater while miniature wargaming figures tend to be smaller. However, serious 1:72-1:32 modelers (Or, collectors, rather than wargamers) do no refer to these as "minis". Figures in 1:72 usually come alone, and in large numbers, without an AFV to qualify with them, like in larger scales. This allows manufacturers to go before the AFV age and produce ancient, medieval, Napoleonic.etc. sets. The quality of these vary greatly; While well-funded, high-volume producers, such as Zvezda can produce very high quality figures, small, obscure fims often make little sets of mediocre quality. Model aircraft and vehicle kits in even smaller scales will also often include "model figures," or can be purchased as accessories. There are also kits of the drivers and servicers of cars, and the series of figurines that stand in the streets and platforms of model railroads.

Japanese figures
Collecting of model figures based on icons like Hello Kitty, as well as characters appearing in anime, manga, kaiju (monster) serials, science fiction/fantasy films and video games is a major part of otaku fandom. Some hobbyists concentrate specifically on a certain type of figure, such as garage kits, gashapon (capsule toys), or PVC bishojo (pretty girl) statues. Such figures prominently featured in work of modern artist Takashi Murakami. Through his company Kaikai Kiki, he has produced a number of limited designer toys to be sold in otaku oriented stores.

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Garage Kits
Garage kit figures are often produced by amateur hobbyists, and cast out of polyurethane resin. In Japan they often portray anime characters and in the US they are often movie monsters. Garage kits are usually produced in limited numbers and are more expensive than typical injection molded plastic figures and kits.

US history
In the 50s and 60s plastic model kits such as cars, planes or space ships became common in the US. There were also cheap plastic models for the popular market of movie monsters, comic book heroes, and movie and television characters in 1:8 size (about 9inches or 23cm in height). These included monsters like Frankenstein, The Wolf Man, Dracula, and the Creature from the Black Lagoon. One of the largest producers of monster figures were the Aurora Plastics Corporation, who produced many thousands figures from each mould. This market disappeared and no firm since has produced anything to match their quantities. Instead smaller (3-inch or 10cm) action figures of have taken over the popular market. In the 1970s, Aurora's figure molds for had been sold to Monogram and by the mid-to late 1970s, the models had been discontinued and were difficult to find in hobby stores. In the mid-1980s some who were kids in the 1950s and 60s resumed their interest in the old Aurora monster models. An underground market developed through which enthusiasts could acquire the original plastic model kits. While the prices in the 50s and 60s had been only a few dollars, now the kits were selling for as much as $125 for some of the rarer monster models. In the early to mid-1980s, hobbyists began creating their own garage kits of movie monsters, often without permission from copyright holders. They were usually produced in limited numbers and sold primarily by mail order and at toy and hobby conventions. In the mid- to late 1980s, two model kit companies moved the monster model kit hobby toward the mainstream. Horizon Models in California and Screamin' Models in New York began licensing vinyl model kits of movie monsters. Horizon focused primarily on classic horror film characters (like Bride of Frankenstein, Invisible Man, The Phantom of the Opera) and comic book characters (like Captain America and Iron Man). Screamin' focused primarily on characters from more contemporary slasher movies like A Nightmare on Elm Street, Hellraiser and franchises like Star Wars and Mars Attacks.[1] Hobby stores began to carry these products in limited supply. By the 1990s model kits were produced in the US, UK as well as Japan and distributed through hobby and comic stores. Large hobby companies like AMT-Ertl and Revell/Monogram (the same Monogram that bought the Aurora monster molds) began marketing vinyl model kits of movie monsters, the classic Star Trek characters, and characters from one of the Batman films. There was an unprecedented variety of licensed models figure kits. In the late 1990s model kit sales went down. Hobby and comic stores and their distributors began carrying fewer garage kits or closed down. Producers like Horizon and Screamin' shut their doors. As of 2009, there are two American garage kit magazines, Kitbuilders Magazine[2] and Amazing Figure Modeler,[3] and there are garage kit conventions held each year, like WonderFest USA in Louisville, Kentucky.[4]

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See also
Figurine Action figure Toy soldier Model horse

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / figuredreams. awardspace. com/ screamin-1-4. htm http:/ / www. kitbuildersmagazine. com/ http:/ / www. amazingmodeler. com/ http:/ / www. wonderfest. com/

Model maker
A model maker is a professional craftsperson who creates a 3 dimensional representation of a design or concept. Most products in use and in development today first take form as a model. This "model" may be an exacting duplicate (prototype) of the future design or a simple mock-up of the general shape or concept. Many prototype models are used for testing physical properties of the design, others for usability and marketing studies. Mock-ups are generally used as part of the design process to help convey each new iteration. Some model makers specialize in "scale models" that allow an easier grasp of the whole design or for portability of the model to a trade show or an architect or client's office. Other scale models are used in museum displays and in the movie special effects industry. Model makers work in many environments from private studio/shops to corporate design and engineering facilities to research laboratories. The model maker must be highly skilled in the use of many machines including but not limited to: manual lathes, manual mills, CNC machines, lasers, wire EDM, water jet saws, tig welders, sheet metal fabrication tools and wood working tools. Some model makers also use increasingly automated processes, for example cutting parts directly with digital data from CAD plans on a CNC mill or creating the parts through rapid prototyping. There are two basic processes used by the model maker to create models: additive and subtractive. Additive can be as simple as adding clay to create a form, sculpting and smoothing to the final shape. Body fillers, foam and resins are also used in the same manner. Most rapid prototyping technologies are based on the additive process, solidfying thin layered sections or slices one on top of each other. Subtractive is like whittling a solid block of wood or chiseling stone to the desired form. Most milling and other machining methods are subtractive, progressively using smaller and finer tools to remove material from the rough shape to get to the level of detail needed in the final model. Model makers may use a combination of these methods and technologies to create the model in the most expeditious manner. The parts are usually test fitted, then sanded and painted to represent the intended finish or look. Model makers are required to recreate many faux finishes like brick, stone, grass, molded plastic textures, glass, skin and even water.

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See also
Architectural model Architectural rendering Architectural visualization Scale model

External links
Association of Professional Model Makers (APMM) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. modelmakers. org/

Model military vehicle

1/35 scale T-34 tank model with a landscaped base.

1/35 scale Tiger I heavy tank model by Tamiya, including a simple landscaped base and some weathering.

The term 'scale' refers to the proportion of actual size the replica or model represents. Scale is usually expressed as a ratio (e.g. '1:35') or as a fraction (e.g. '1/35th'). In either case it conveys the notion that the replica or model is accurately scaled in all visible proportions from a full-size prototype object. Thus a 1/35th scale model tank is 1/35th the size of the actual vehicle upon which the model is based. Models generally make no attempt to replicate scale weight, only size. Scales for commercially produced kits include 1/9, 1/16, 1/24, 1/35, 1/48, 1/72, 1/87 (railroad HO scale), 1/144, 1/250 and 1/300. However, 1/35 scale GMC truck model with a landscaped 1/35 and 1/72 are by far the most popular. A relatively new trend led base. by Tamiya is military vehicle kits in 1/48 scale a popular scale for military aircraft models. Scratchbuilt models may be in any scale but tend to follow the most popular kit scales due to the ease of finding kit components which may be used in the scratchbuilt model. Larger-scale models tend to incorporate higher levels of detail, but even smaller-scale models may be quite intricate.

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Subjects
Military vehicle modelers build a wide variety of models. Tanks and other armored fighting vehicles are the most popular subjects at model contests. Modelers also build ordnance, military trucks and half-tracks, and lighter vehicles such as jeeps and motorcycles. Models may be displayed in stand-alone mode, that is, with no base, or on a decorative base, often with a label of some kind. More elaborate bases may include scale scenery, intended to depict the setting in which the vehicle served. This trends towards the closely-related hobby of diorama building.
An example of a highly customized 1/35th scale

Modelers tend to focus on vehicles from three eras. World War I, kit (unpainted). This is a Soviet T-38 tank from World War II. World War II, and the modern era. The first denotes armored vehicles from their inception into combat during the first World War until approximately 1939. Vehicles of this time period are considered to be experimental for the most part and did not make major contributions to what few battles they took part in. Vehicles between 19141918 are not as populous as their later world war counterparts, but are often just as commonly available, being produced by high-volume companies such as Emhar. Recently, there has been a trend amongst small producers to make resin add-ons and extra tank tracks, since those supplies by Emhar are tapes of soft plastic (Much like in 1:72 scale rather than individual track links (As seen in most 1:35 scale models). Some companies (regardless of production number), particularly in Eastern Europe make little-known WWI designs such as the Tsar Tank or the K-Wagen. These are expensive and scarcely available outside the production country. Vehicles used between 1939 and 1945 fall into the Second World War category. Even though this area spans the shortest number of years, it is by far the most popular for armor modelers due to the enormous range of vehicles used and the vast improvements in armor technology. During the early part of the war, most armored vehicles were smaller, less heavily armored, and lightly armed. Major tank engagements early on convinced governments on all sides of the need for more survivable and deadlier vehicles. Any vehicle serving in a setting after 1945 is considered "modern". This encompasses a longer time span and very large number of armor designs from all countries. Models may also be categorized by place of service, for example, US or Soviet. They may also be categorized by function, for example, combat engineering vehicles, recovery vehicles, etc. In all cases, the national and unit markings on the replica determine the era and user nationality. For example, a model of a Sherman tank, a World War II design, would be considered a 'modern' model if the tank were shown in Israeli markings from the Six-Day War. The same vehicle in World War II US Army markings would be considered a World War II Allied subject. Models are generally built with historical accuracy in mind, and each model may represent many hours of research effort on the part of the modeler. Frequently, modelers display some of their research work alongside their model. There is generally some crossover of modelers between the eras, though some focus solely on a specific era, country of origin/operation, or even to a specific vehicle.

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Models and model kits

Kits
Models are usually assembled from commercial kits (but see below). Typically, a model kit consists of a set of parts, instructions for their assembly, and a small sheet of markings in decal form. Parts are produced by injection of liquid styrene plastic under very high pressure into complex steel molds. These molds are generally composed of two halves that sandwich the parts; however, 'slide molds' may consist of many steel components to allow greater levels of detail to be incorporated into a single sprue. Once the plastic cools, it is removed from the mold. In the 1960s and 1970s, typical vehicle kits might contain 50 to 200 individual parts. Today it is common for a single vehicle kit to contain from 300 to 1200 parts. Each part must be carefully cut from the 'sprue' (the plastic channels that allow the plastic to flow into the mold and which hold the parts in place), cleaned of any flaws or mold marks, and then assembled. Instructions consist of paper booklets or sheets supplied with each kit. Usually, instructions show drawings of the parts. A recent trend has been the use of photographs rather than drawings, but these types of instructions have not proven popular and may be declining in use. For a kit with hundreds of parts, good instructions are vital. Flaws in instructions are not uncommon. Markings for the model usually are provided as decals. Several companies produce armor model kits, the most famous of which are Airfix, Dragon Models Limited, Tamiya, Trumpeter, Academy, Hobby Fan, Italeri, Revell-Germany/Monogram and AFV Club. The focus of many manufacturers of late has been to increase the accuracy of their kits and provide alternative types of material such as photo etch details and turned metal barrels.

The plastic 'sprue' holds the components of a 1/35 scale ZIS-2 antitank gun kit.

Instructions for the assembly of a 1/35 scale T-34 tank interior set.

Models
Completed models can be categorized generally into three classes: kits built 'out of the box', customized kits, and scratchbuilt models. "Out of the box" models Models built 'out of the box' are built according to kit instructions, using no materials except those provided in the kit itself. In the past, there was some tendency to view 'out of the box' builds as simpler or of a lower standard of detail than modified kits (see below). However, recent trends in which kits contain over 1,000 individual pieces including parts from plastic, etched brass, and aluminum have given new meaning to the 'out of the box' build. Today, a stock kit can be very highly detailed.
Photoetched metal parts, still on their carrier frame, for a 1/35 scale German tank model.

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Customized models Customized kits are typically built by more experienced modelers who take a kit and add components, either scratchbuilt or commercial conversion or aftermarket accessories. Such models may be more highly detailed than a straight build 'out of the box' though the trend to more detailed kits is decreasing the difference. The term 'kitbashing' denotes models built using parts from more than one kit to make a single, more accurate or different model. Many armor modelers engage in the use of aftermarket sets and built from scratch (scratchbuilt) parts to make their models more accurate or simply unique. In extreme, master-level cases, a model with hundreds of kit components may be detailed with several hundred additional commercial and home-fabricated parts to reach a very high level of realism.

Dry-transfer markings for a 1/35 scale Stuart tank model in French service.

Scratchbuilt models Scratchbuilt models are those for which no kit exists; highly skilled modelers create their vehicle from sheet plastic and components they fabricate themselves. Some scratchbuilt models may contain a few commercial components, but typically it is a small proportion of all the model's parts.

Aftermarket
"Aftermarket" is a term that denotes any kit or detail set that is sold to replace existing kit parts in order to reproduce a more accurate model or simply a different version not otherwise available. The media used by aftermarket companies range from turned aluminum and brass, photo-etched steel or brass sheets, pre-bent brass wire, cast metals, and resin. Notable aftermarket companies include Formations, The Tank Workshop, Tank, Azimut, Eduard, Verlinden, Friulmodel, Legend, and Modelkasten. Aftermarket markings are also available. Firms such as Archer Dry Transfers or Decalomaniacs produce stand-alone sheets of wet or dry transfer markings to allow the modeler to complete a different or more accurate variant. Enthusiasts may pursue military vehicle modeling in its own right or as an adjunct to other military modeling. There is also some crossover with wargaming, diorama building, and re-enacting.

Displays
Models may be displayed on their own, on a base or as part of a diorama. Many models are displayed with no base or other setting. Their wheels or track rest upon the shelf or table on which they are displayed. This display method is the easiest and cheapest, but has the disadvantage that the fragile model may be damaged when handled. A simple wooden base adds an element of protection to the model, because the model itself does not need to be handled. The model can be moved by handling the base. Bases may also hold a plate with some information about the model, such as the title of the work or some historical background. The base typically consists of a frame of wood or other material. Finishes on bases range from painted plastic to stained wood to simple landscaping. The disadvantage is that the base adds expense and time to the project.

Model military vehicle A diorama is a more elaborate base with landscaping to provide a setting for the model, and often includes a story with figures. Dioramas have the same advantages and disadvantages of plain bases, but to a greater degree. Models are often displayed in competition such as the AMPS annual show, or in club displays at hobby shops and other events.

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Organizations and Publications

Several organizations and publications exist to support and promote the hobby of modeling military vehicles. The Armor Modeling and Preservation Society or AMPS is a 800-plus member organization devoted to the hobby. The International Plastic Model Society supports modelers of all types including military vehicle modelers. The Miniature Armoured Fighting Vehicle Association (MAFVA, http:/ / www. mafva. net/ ) is a UK-based military vehicle modeling group. Commercial publications devoted to or including military vehicle modeling include AFVModeller, Military Miniatures In Review (MMiR), Armour Modelling, and Military Modelling.

Model vehicles displayed at a recent Armor Modeling and Preservation Society show.

External links
[http://www.scaleplasticandrail.com [1]/] Reviews, builds and news site. Focussed on quality reviews [2] ModelArmour AMPS [3] AFV modeling society Armorama.com [4] Armor/AFV scale modeling Missing-Lynx [5] AFV model making, all scales Track-Link [6] AFV model making, all scales Track 48 [7] AFV model making focused on 1/48 scale On The Way [8] AFV model making focused on 1/72 scale ScaleModel.NET [9] Searchable web directory of military scale model related websites around the world Small Scale AFV [10] AFV model making focused on 1/72 and 1/76 scales Diecast 72 [11] Information on 1/72 prebuilt & prepainted AFV's Panzermodel Forum [12] Panzermodel Forum - Brazilian Forum, Armor/AFV and Information, all scales English translation SOON! planetArmor [13] planetArmor forum

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References
[1] http:/ / www. scaleplasticandrail. com [2] http:/ / www. modelarmour. com/ [3] http:/ / www. amps-armor. org/ [4] http:/ / www. armorama. com/ [5] http:/ / www. missing-lynx. com/ [6] http:/ / www. track-link. net/ [7] http:/ / www. track48. com/ [8] http:/ / www. ontheway. org. uk/ [9] http:/ / scalemodel. net/ asp/ catresult2. aspx?category=Military [10] http:/ / smallscaleafv. com/ [11] http:/ / www. diecast72. com/ [12] http:/ / www. panzermodel. com/ Forum/ index. php [13] http:/ / www. planetarmor. com/ forums/ index. php?

Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death

The Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death is a series of eighteen intricately designed dollhouse-style dioramas created by Frances Glessner Lee, a millionaire heiress with an interest in forensic science.[1] She designed detailed scenarios, based on composites of real criminal acts, and presented them physically in miniature. Students were instructed to study the scene and draw conclusions from the evidence presented. Lee used her inheritance to set up Harvard's department of legal medicine, and donated the Nutshell dioramas in 1945 for use in her lectures on the subject of crime scene investigation. In 1966 the department was dissolved, and the dioramas went to the Maryland Medical Examiners Office in Baltimore, where they're on permanent loan; there, Harvard Magazine reports that they are still used for forensic seminars.

In popular culture
The dioramas were used as inspiration by CSI writers in their creation of the Miniature Killer, a serial murderer who leaves miniature dollhouses behind at crime scenes. Of Dolls and Murder, Susan Marks' documentary film, looks at how the dioramas are still used as training material by the Baltimore Police Department.

Further reading
The Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death, by photographer Corinne May Botz

References
[1] Monroe, Rachel. "The Art of Murder," Baltimore City Paper, May 5, 2010. (http:/ / www. citypaper. com/ film/ story. asp?id=20174)

External links
Goldfarb, Bruce. "The Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death," American Medical News, August 17, 1992. (http:/ /brucegoldfarb.com/the-nutshell-studies-of-unexplained-death) Harvard Magazine article on Lee (http://harvardmagazine.com/2005/09/frances-glessner-lee.html) National Institutes of Health article on Lee (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/galleries/biographies/lee. html) Of Dolls and Murder website (http://www.wildestdreamsmovie.com/about/)

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OOO scale
OOO scale was initially used as a trademark for model railways manufactured to the scale of 2mm to 1 foot by British toy manufacturer, Lone Star Toys, itself an imprint of Die Cast Machine Tools Ltd (DCMT). The track gauge was 9mm. The system was introduced in 1960 and became obsolete in 1965. Much later, the same scale was revived as British N scale by several manufacturers.

Orrery
An orrery is a mechanical device that illustrates the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons in the solar system in a heliocentric model. They are typically driven by a clockwork mechanism with a globe representing the Sun at the centre, and with a planet at the end of each of the arms.

A small orrery showing earth and the inner planets

History
According to Cicero, the Greek philosopher Posidonius constructed an orrery, possibly similar or identical to the Antikythera mechanism, that exhibited the diurnal motions of the sun, moon, and the five known planets. Cicero's account was written in the first century BC. The Antikythera mechanism may be considered one of the first orreries. It is an ancient mechanical calculator (also described as the first mechanical computer) designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to about 150-100 BC. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not appear until a thousand years later.

Antikythera mechanism (main fragment), ca. 125 BC

The first modern orrery was built circa 1704 by George Graham and Thomas Tompion.[1] Graham gave the first model (or its design) to the celebrated instrument maker John Rowley of London to make a copy for Prince Eugene of Savoy. Rowley was commissioned to make another copy for his patron Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery, from which the device took its name.[2] This model was presented to Charles' son John, later the 5th Earl.

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Joseph Wright's picture "A Philosopher giving a Lecture on the Orrery in which a lamp is put in place of the Sun" (ca. 1766) which hangs in Derby Museum and Art Gallery, features a group (three men, three children, and a lone woman) listening to a lecture by a 'natural philosopher'the only light in the otherwise darkened room is from the "sun" in the brass orrery, which, in this case, has rings that cause it to appear to be similar to an armillary sphere. The demonstration was thereby able to cover eclipses.[3] Shoemaker John Fulton of Fenwick, Ayrshire, built three between 1823 and 1833 - the last is in Glasgow's Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum. Eisinga's "Planetarium" (actually, an orrery) was built from 1774 to 1781 by Eise Eisinga in his home in Franeker, in the Netherlands. It displays the planets across the width of a room's ceiling, and has been in operation almost continually since it was http:.2F.2Fwww.planetarium-friesland.nl.2Fengels.html created.

Orrery (Vatican Museums).

Explanation
Orreries are sometimes called planetariums, although this word usually refers to hemispherical theatres in which images of the night sky are projected onto an overhead surface. Orreries can range widely in size from hand-held to room-sized. Orreries are usually not built to scale. Some fixed solar system scale models have been built and are often many kilometres in size. An innovative concept is to have people play the role of the moving planets and other Solar system objects. Such a model, called a human orrery, has been laid out with precision at the Armagh Observatory. A normal mechanical clock could be used to produce an extremely simple orrery with the Sun in the centre, Earth on the minute hand and Jupiter on the hour hand; Earth would make 12 revolutions around the Sun for every 1 revolution of Jupiter. Note however that Jupiter's actual year is 11.86 Earth years long, so this particular example would lose accuracy rapidly. A real orrery would be more accurate and include more planets, and would perhaps make the planets rotate as well. Many planetariums have a projection orrery, which projects onto the A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (ca. 1766) dome of the planetarium a Sun with either dots or small images of the by Joseph Wright of Derby planets. These usually are limited to the planets from Mercury to Saturn, although some include Uranus. The light sources for the planets are projected onto mirrors which are geared to a motor which drives the images on the dome. Typically the Earth will circle the Sun in one minute, while the other planets will complete an orbit in time periods proportional to their actual motion. Thus Venus, which takes 224.7 days to orbit the Sun, will take 42 seconds to complete an orbit on an orrery, and Jupiter will take 11.86 minutes.

Portrait of Wilhelm Schickard (1592-1635) holding a "hand planetarium" (orrery) of his own invention.

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Some planetariums have taken advantage of this to use orreries to simulate planets and their moons. Thus Mercury orbits the Sun in 0.24 of an Earth year, while Phobos and Deimos orbit Mars in a similar 4:1 time ratio. Planetarium operators wishing to show this have placed a red cap on the Sun (to make it resemble Mars) and turned off all the planets but Mercury and Earth. Similar tricks can be used to show Pluto and its three moons.

See also
Astrarium Astrolabe Astronomical clock Ephemeris Eratosthenes Rees's Cyclopaedia

Orrery built in 1813 by British astronomer William Pearson. In addition to the planets and their moons, it shows the orbits of asteroids Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas.

Stability of the Solar System Tellurion Torquetum

References
[1] Carlisle, Rodney (2004). Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, p.189. John Wiley & Songs, Inc., New Jersey. ISBN 0471244104. [2] " orrery (http:/ / oed. com/ cgi/ findword?query_type=word& find=Find+ word& queryword=orrery)". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989. [3] "Revolutionary Players" (http:/ / www. search. revolutionaryplayers. org. uk/ engine/ resource/ exhibition/ standard/ child. asp?txtKeywords=& lstContext=& lstResourceType=& lstExhibitionType=& chkPurchaseVisible=& txtDateFrom=& txtDateTo=& x1=& y1=& x2=& y2=& scale=& theme=& album=& resource=5230& viewpage=/ engine/ resource/ exhibition/ standard/ default. asp& originator=& page=& records=& direction=& pointer=& text=& exhibition=1652& offset=0). Search.revolutionaryplayers.org.uk. . Retrieved 2010-02-09.

External links
JPL Solar System Simulator (http://space.jpl.nasa.gov/) Armagh Observatory Human Orrery (http://star.arm.ac.uk/orrery/) Long Now Foundation Orrery (http://www.longnow.org/projects/clock/orrery/) University of Pennsylvania Orrery (http://www.library.upenn.edu/exhibits/pennhistory/orrery/orrery.html)

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Paper model
Paper models, also called card models or papercraft, are models constructed mainly from sheets of heavy paper, paperboard, or card stock.

Details
This may be considered a broad category that contains origami and card modeling. Origami is the process of making a paper model by folding paper without using glue. Card modeling is making scale models from sheets of cardstock on which the parts were printed, usually in full color. These pieces would be cut out, folded, scored and glued together. They are generally more popular in Europe and Japan than in the United States.

Paper model of Mount Vernon

Sometimes the model pieces can be punched out. More frequently the printed parts must be cut out. Edges may be scored to aid folding. The parts are usually glued together with polyvinyl acetate glue ("white glue" "PVA"). In this kind of modeling the sections are usually pre-painted, so there is no need to paint the model after completion. Some enthusiasts may enhance the model by painting and detailing. Due to the nature of the paper medium, the model may be sealed with varnish to last longer.

History
Printed card models became common in magazines in the early part of the 20th century. The popularity of card modeling boomed during World War II, when paper was one of the few items whose use and production was not heavily regulated. Micromodels, designed and published in England from 1941 were very popular with 100 different models, including architecture, ships, and aircraft. But as plastic model kits became more commonly available, interest in paper decreased.

Availability
Since papercraft patterns can be easily printed and assembled, the Internet has become a popular means of exchanging them. Commercial corporations have recently begun using downloadable papercraft for their marketing (examples are Yamaha [1] and Canon [2]).

Example of a cat papercraft

The availability of numerous models on the Internet at little or no cost, which can then be downloaded and printed on inexpensive inkjet printers has caused its popularity again to increase worldwide. Home printing also allows models to be scaled up or down easily (for example, in order to make two models from different authors, in different scales, match each other in size), although the paper weight might need to be adjusted in the same ratio.

Paper model Inexpensive kits are available from dedicated publishers (mostly based in Eastern Europe; examples include Halinski and Maly Modelarz, a portion of the catalog of which date back to 1950. Experienced hobbyists often scratchbuild models, either by first hand drawing or using software such as Adobe Illustrator. CAD and CG software, such as Rhino 3D, 3DS Max, Blender (software), and specialist software, like Pepakura Designer from Tama Software and Waybe, may be employed to convert 3D computer models into two-dimensional printable templates for assembly. Because of this, there is a vast number of models available. Ships, automobiles, aircraft, spacecraft, buildings, and animals are all common. In recent years, Japanese subjects, such as Gundams and anime figures, have become common subjects in papercraft.

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Video games papercrafts

Because people can create their own patterns, papercraft models of various video games characters have been created: Mario, Link (The Legend of Zelda), Donkey Kong (character), etc. The designer usually runs the game on a emulator (or by simply taking the appropriate file) while at the same time extracting the desired 3D model. After the person gets the model he wants, he arranges the textures and the model on a 3D program, such as 3DS MAX, then export the model to Pepakura Designer by Tama software.

See also
Net Cardboard modeling Paper Aeroplane Origamic architecture Paper prototyping

References
[1] http:/ / www. yamaha-motor. co. jp/ global/ entertainment/ papercraft/ index. html [2] http:/ / cp. c-ij. com/ english/ 3D-papercraft/

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Pinning (modelling)
Pinning is a technique used when assembling large or heavy model kits (such as metal wargaming miniatures) that involves drilling a hole in two pieces of the model to be joined, and using a "pin" to strengthen the bond when they are glued. Pinning is a useful technique for reinforcing joints and is essential when making models from parts that were not designed to go together, such as a miniature conversion.[1] While models that are used for display purposes do not often require pinning, heavy models that are frequently handled (such as large metal miniatures used for wargaming) will often benefit from pinning to ensure that the model does not come apart.[2] Some modellers also use Blu Tack or another temporary adhesive as an aid when pinning.[3]

See also
Miniature conversion

References
[1] "Modelling Workshop: Tools and Techniques" (http:/ / www. dropship. org. uk/ library/ 40k002. asp). Dropship 40000. . [2] "Tips for Assembling Your Dragon" (http:/ / uk. games-workshop. com/ khazaddum/ dragon/ 1/ ). Games Workshop. . Retrieved 2008-02-21. [3] "Tutorial: Pinning with Blu Tack" (http:/ / www. tabletop-terrain. com/ archives/ 2006/ 12/ 15/ 712/ ). Tabletop Terrain. 2006-12-15. .

Plan-relief
A plan-relief is a scale model of a landscape and buildings produced for military usage, made to visualise building projects on fortifications or campaigns surrounding fortified locations.

History
The first examples seem to have been used by the Venetian Republic and more generally by the Italian city states of the Renaissance era. The wood turner Jakob Sandtner (fl. 1561-1579) produced plans-relief Plan-relief of Strasbourg, one of the 1:600 scale models requested by Louis XIV. On display at of many Bavarian towns, whilst in France Louis XIV's war minister Strasbourg historical museum Louvois initiated a collection of plans-relief of French strongholds on a 1:600 scale in 1688. This collection included 144 examples according to Vauban's 1697 inventory of it and was put on show at the palais des Tuileries. Vauban's successors expanded the collection as and when operational necessity demanded, right up until 1870, when they were rendered obsolete by advances in the power of artillery. Some examples from this collection were destroyed and as a whole it fell into disrepair until being made a Monument historique on 22 July 1927. 100 examples from this collection survive, of which most are on show in the Museum of Plans-reliefs at Les Invalides and some others in the Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille, still providing a witness to the towns and fortresses of France at this era.

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Plan-relief of the Tower of London.

Citadel of Brouage - reproduction of the 17th century plan-relief (exhibited in the Halle aux vivres of the citadel)

External links
Official site of the Museum of Plans-reliefs [1] at Les Invalides

References
[1] http:/ / www. museedesplansreliefs. culture. fr/

Plastic model
Plastic models, often called scale models, are models manufactured as kits which are assembled by hobbyists, and intended for static display.

4-year-old boy starts painting a plastic model he has assembled of the South Goodwin Lightship

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Subjects
The most popular subjects of plastic models by far are vehicles such as aircraft, ships, automobiles, and armored vehicles such as tanks. The majority of models depict military vehicles, due to the wider variety of form and historical context compared to civilian vehicles. Other subjects include science fiction vehicles and robots (Most famously the "Mobile Suits" from the various Gundam series), real spacecraft, buildings, animals, human figures, and characters from motion pictures. While military, ship, and aircraft modelers prize accuracy above all, modelers of automobiles and science-fiction themes may 1/35 scale T-34 tank model with a landscaped attempt to duplicate an existing subject, or may depict a completely base. imaginary subject. The creation of custom automobile models is related to the creation of actual custom cars and often an individual may have an interest in both, although the cost of customizing a real car is obviously enormously greater than that of customizing a model.

Construction and techniques

Most plastic models are injection-molded in polystyrene, and the parts are glued together, usually with a plastic solvent-based adhesive, although experienced modelers may also use epoxy, cyanoacrylate, and white glue where their particular properties would be advantageous. While often omitted by novice modellers, specially formulated paint is sold for application to plastic models. Complex markings such as aircraft insignia or automobile body decorative details and model identification badges are typically provided with kits as screen-printed water-slide decals. Recently, models requiring less skill, time, and/or effort have been marketed, targeted to younger or less skilled modelers as well as those who just wish to reduce the time and effort required to complete a model. One such trend has been to offer a fully detailed kit requiring normal assembly and gluing, but eliminate the often frustrating task of painting the kit by molding it out of colored plastic, or by supplying it prepainted and with decals applied. Often these kits are identical to another kit supplied in normal white or gray plastic except for the colored plastic or the prepainting, thus eliminating the large expense of creating another set of molds.

Unassembled parts of a Hasegawa 1/72 F-18E kit

Another trend which has become very extensive is to produce kits where the parts snap together, with no glue needed; sometimes the majority of the parts snap together with a few requiring glue. Often there is some simplification of detail as well; for instance, automotive kits without opening hoods and no engine detail, or sometimes opaque windows with no interior detail. These are often supplied in colored plastic, although smaller details would still require painting. Decals are usually not supplied with these but sometimes vinyl stickers are provided for insignia and similar details. Resin casting and vacuum forming are also used to produce models, or particular parts where the scale of production is not such as to support the investment required for injection molding. Plastic ship model kits typically provide thread in several sizes and colors for the rigging. Automobile kits typically contain vinyl tires, although sometimes these are molded from polystyrene as well, particularly in very inexpensive kits. Thin metal details produced by photoetching have become popular relatively recently, both as detailing parts manufactured and sold by small businesses, and as parts of a complete kit. Detail parts of other materials are

Plastic model sometimes included in kits or sold separately, such as metal tubing to simulate exhaust systems, or vinyl tubing to simulate hoses or wiring.

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Scales
Almost all plastic models are designed in a well-established scale. Each type of subject has one or more common scales, though they differ from one to the other. The general aim is to allow the finished model to be of a reasonable size, while maintaining consistency across models for collections. The following are the most common scales for popular subjects: Aircraft: 1/24, 1/32, 1/48, 1/72, 1/100, and 1/144, with 1/48 and 1/72 being the most popular Military vehicles: 1/16, 1/35, 1/48 ,1/72, 1/76 Automobiles: 1/8,1/12,1/16,1/18,1/20,1/24,1/25,1/32,1/35,1/43 Ships: 1/72, 1/144, 1/96, 1/350, 1/450, 1/600, 1/700 Railways: 1:43.5 (7mm/1ft : O scale), 1:76.2 (4mm/1 ft : OO scale), 1:87 (3.5mm/1 ft : HO scale)

In reality, models do not always conform to their nominal scale; there are 1/25 scale automobile models which are larger than some 1/24 scale models, for instance. For example, the engine in the recent reissue of the AMT Ala Kart show truck is significantly smaller than the engine in the original issue. AMT employees from the 1960s note that, at that time, all AMT kits were packaged into boxes of a standardized size, to simplify shipping; and the overriding requirement of designing any kit was that it had to fit into that precise size of box, no matter how large or small the original vehicle. This practice was common for other genres and manufacturers of models as well. In modern times this practice has become known as fit-the-box scale. In practice, this means that kits of the same subject in nominally identical scales may produce finished models which actually differ in size, and that hypothetically identical parts in such kits may not be easily swapped between them, even when the kits are both by the same manufacturer. The shape of the model may not entirely conform to the subject, as well; reviews of kits in modeling magazines often comment on how well the model depicts the original.

History
The first plastic models were manufactured in the mid 1930s by Frog in the UK. In the late 1940s several American companies such as Hawk, Renwal and Lindberg began to produce plastic models. Many manufacturers began production in the 1950s and gained ascendancy in the 1960s such as Aurora, Revell, AMT, and Monogram in America, Airfix in UK and Heller SA in France. American model companies who had been producing assembled promotional scale models of new automobiles each year for automobile dealers found a lucrative side business selling the unassembled parts of these "promos" to hobbyists to assemble, thus finding a new revenue stream for the injection molds which were so expensive to update each year. These early models were typically lower in detail than currently standard, with non-opening hoods and no engines, and simplified or no detail on the chassis, which attached to the body with very visible screws. Within a short time, the kit business began to overshadow the production of promos, and the level of accuracy and detail was raised to satisfy the demands of the marketplace. Since the 1970s, Japanese firms such as Hasegawa and Tamiya, and since the 1990s also Chinese firms such as DML, AFV Club and Trumpeter have dominated the field and represent the highest level of technology. Brands from Russia, Central Europe,and Korea have also become prominent recently. Many smaller companies have also produced plastic models, both in the past and currently. Prior to the rise of plastic models, shaped wood models were offered to model builders. These wood model kits often required extensive work to create results easily obtained by the plastic models.

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Manufacture
While injection-molding is the predominant manufacturing process for plastic models, the high costs of equipment and making molds make it unsuitable for lower-yield production. Thus, models of minor and obscure subjects are often manufactured using alternative processes. Vacuum forming is popular for aircraft models, though assembly is more difficult than for injection-molded kits. Resin-casting, popular with smaller manufacturers, particularly aftermarket firms (but also producers of full kits), yields a greater degree of detail moulded in situ, but as the moulds used don't last as long, the price of such kits is considerably higher. In recent times, the latest releases from major manufacturers offer unprecedented detail that is a match for the finest resin kits, often including high-quality mixed-media (photo-etched brass, turned aluminum) parts.

Variations
Many modellers build dioramas as landscaped scenes built around one or more models. They are most common for military vehicles such as tanks, but airfield scenes and 2-3 ships in formation are also popular. Conversions use a kit as a starting point, and modify it to be something else. For instance, kits of the USS Constitution ("Old Ironsides") are readily available, but the Constitution was just one of six sister ships, and an ambitious modeller will modify the kit, by sawing, filing, adding pieces, and so forth, to make a model of one of the others. Scratch building is the creation of a model "from scratch" rather than a manufactured kit. True scratchbuilt models consist of parts made by hand and do not incorporate parts from other kits. These are rare. When parts from other kits are included, the art is technically called "Kit Bashing." Most pieces referred to as "scratchbuilt" are actually a combination of kit bashing and scratchbuilding. Thus, it has become common for either term to be used loosely to refer to these more common hybrid models. Kitbashing is a modelling technique where parts from multiple model kits are combined to create a novel model form. For example, the effects crews on the various Star Trek TV shows frequently kitbashed multiple starship models to quickly create new classes of ship for use in background scenes where details would not be particularly obvious.

Issues
The demographics of plastic modeling have changed in its half-century of existence, from young boys buying them as toys to older adults building them to assemble large collections. In the United States, as well as some other countries, many modelers are former members of the military who like to recreate the actual equipment they used in service. Technological advances have made model-building more and more sophisticated, and the proliferation of expensive detailing add-ons have raised the bar for competition within modeling clubs. As a result, a kit built "out of the box" on a weekend cannot compare with a kit built over months where a tiny add-on part such as an aircraft seat can cost more than the entire kit itself. Though plastic modeling is generally an uncontroversial hobby, it's not immune to social pressures: In the 1990s, various countries banned Formula One racecars from carrying advertising for tobacco sponsors. In response, manufacturers such as Tamiya removed tobacco logo decals from their race car kits, even those of cars which appeared before the tobacco ban. The Nazi swastika, which appears on World War 2 Luftwaffe aircraft, is illegal to display in Germany, and disappeared from almost all manufacturers' box illustrations in the 1990s. Some makers still include the emblem on the decal sheet, others have "broken" it into two elements which must be reassembled by the builder, while others have omitted it altogether. Aftermarket decal sheets exist that consist entirely of Luftwaffe swastikas.

Plastic model A long lasting legal conflict exists between aerospace corporations and the manufacturers of plastic models. Manufacturers of aircraft have sought royalties from model makers for using their designs and intellectual property in their kits. Hobbyists argue that model kits provide free advertising for the makers of the real vehicles and that any royalties collected would be insignificant compared to the profits made from aircraft construction contracts. They also argue that forcing manufacturers to pay royalties and licensing fees would financially ruin all but the largest model kit makers. Some proponents of the aerospace industry contest that the issue is not of financial damages, but of intellectual property and brand image. In contrast, most of the world's commercial airlines allow their fleet to be modeled, as a form of publicity. Many cottage industry manufacturers, particularly of sci-fi subjects, avoid the issue by selling their products under generic untrademarked names (e.g. selling a figure that clearly depicts Batman as "Bat Hero Figure"). Similarly, automobile manufacturers occasionally make an effort to collect royalties from companies modeling their products. Recently, the UK's Ministry of defense has required model and decal manufacturers to pay licencing fees in order to use Royal Air Force insignia.

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See also
model aircraft ship model Model military vehicle Armor Modeling and Preservation Society Diorama Airfix Kitmaster Tamiya Mini 4wd Revell

External links
Aircraft Resource Center [1] Armor Modeling and Preservation Society [2] Armor Modeling and Preservation Society, Albany chapter [3] International list of Scale Model Related WEB Sites [4] Fine Scale Modeler [5] Greatest Plastic Model Show in the German speaking area [6] International Plastic Modeller's Society UK [13] International Plastic Modeler's Society USA [15] KitMaker Network [7] Missing-Lynx [8] Model Painting [9] One35th Armor Modeling [10] RTV/Modelismo Militar - Armors from WWII to modern, Galleries, Museum pics and more [11] The Scale Firehouse - Emergency Vehicle Models [12] SprueCutters.com [13] IPMS Queensland Australia [14] Queensland Scale Model Championships Website [15]

Australian Plastic Modellers' Association [18]

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References
[1] http:/ / www. arcair. com [2] http:/ / www. amps-armor. org [3] http:/ / www. ampsalbany. com [4] http:/ / scalemodel. net [5] http:/ / www. finescale. com/ fsm/ [6] http:/ / www. euro-modell. com [7] http:/ / www. kitmaker. net [8] http:/ / missing-lynx. com/ index. htm [9] http:/ / paintassistant. com [10] http:/ / www. one35th. com [11] http:/ / www. rtvmodeler. com [12] http:/ / www. scalefirehouse. com [13] http:/ / www. spruecutters. com/ [14] http:/ / www. ipmsqld. org. au [15] http:/ / www. qmhe. com

Port Revel
The Port Revel Shiphandling Training Centre is a French maritime pilotage school that trains pilots, masters, and officers on large ships like supertankers, container ships, LNG carriers and cruise ships . The facility uses manned models at a 1:25 scale on a man-made lake designed to simulate natural conditions including harbours, canals, and open seas. It was the first such facility in the world. The Centre was created in 1967 near Grenoble, (France) by Laboratoire Dauphinois d'Hydraulique (now Sogreah [1]). The courses are given by former maritime pilots. Since 1967, the Centre has trained over 6 000 maritime pilots, captains and officers from all over the world. French, European and North American pilots make up 90% of the Centre's students. The manned model training regime is now recommended by the International Maritime Organization under Resolution A 960 (23) [2] of December 2005. The facility was written about by John McPhee in an article for The Atlantic Monthly, also published in his book Uncommon Carriers.
View from the bridge of a manned model tanker at Port Revel

History

Model of a supertanker with 250 000metric tons deadweight (DWT) at Port Revel

The centres origin goes back to the fifties, when Port Revels mother company, Sogreah, was studying bank erosion on the Suez Canal using model ships sailing on a scale model with a movable bed (i.e. granular material subjected to erosion by turbulent water movement). At the end of the sixties this experience with free sailing model ships was used by Esso to anticipate the manoeuvring behaviour of the new, much larger, oil tankers.

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After three years spent with Esso captains between 1967 and 1970, the Centre was taken over by Sogreah in 1970. During the 1970s, most students were captains, while the first maritime pilots came to discover the centre. In the 1990s, the first refresher courses were organised for pilots, who returned every 5 years. These courses are less directive and leave more room for customisation, which is a way of optimising port operations to increase port accessibility.
Emergency stop of tanker with escort tug at Port Revel

Manned model shiphandling training has improved over the years because: the instructors have become more proficient in delivering the courses and in their ability to structure courses as required, lake facilities have undergone changes, such as the creation of extensive shallow water areas with currents, and can mimic specific port scenarios, all kinds of large ships are available and model electronics have become more sophisticated in order to reproduce real ship manoeuvring behaviour, tugs have become a part of the courses since 2000, providing realistic capability for berthing/unberthing operations and escort work, pod propulsion is now available, introducing quality assurance has increased the reliability of ships and equipment, the lake area was extended from four to five hectares during the winter 2008-2009, a large container ship (8 500 TEU) was added to the fleet in 2009, a large LNG carrier of 266 000 m3, the Q-Max, was added in 2010.

Manned models
Manned models are small scale models that can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. They must behave like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels and berths must be reproduced realistically. Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port layout) and for training in shiphandling (e.g. maritime pilots, masters and officers). They are usually at 1:25 scale. The aim of training on manned models is to enable seamen to acquire or to develop manoeuvring skills through a better understanding of a ships behaviour as it sails in restricted water conditions at manoeuvring speed. Manned models are considered by ships' captains and maritime pilots as the next best thing to a full-scale prototype for understanding a ship's behaviour. Those who have trained on both claim that scale models are complementary to computer simulators. While manoeuvres with currents, waves, tugs, anchors, bank effects, etc. are reproduced more accurately on scale models, numerical simulators are more realistic when it comes to the bridge environment.

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Lake
The 5 hectare lake is located in the lower Alps near Grenoble where the wind regime is very mild. Moreover, it is sheltered by a forest. Hence uncontrolled wind effects on ships are minimised. At 1:25 scale, the lake area represents a navigable zone of about 5 by 2 nautical miles, allowing several models to sail at the same time at normal manoeuvring speeds and to berth at one of the 50 berths and piers. Shallow and very shallow water areas (less than 10% under keel-clearance for certain ships) are to be found on about 70% of the lake area. The lake is fitted with wave, current and wind generators and complex port approach configurations. Around 50% of the lake is subjected to currents.

Fleet
The model ships are all at 1:25 scale. There are 11 ships and 3 tugs. All ships are equipped with indicators giving rudder angle, engine speed, ship speed, wind speed, etc. Most of the ships are equipped with bow and stern thrusters and anchors. Five ships are equipped with a DGPS tracking system. See similitude of ship models for details of the scaling factors involved.

References
John Mc Phee, 2006 - Uncommon Carriers - pp43-65 Michel R. Denis, 2006 - Rcits Insolites - p49 & p113 The Nautical Institute, 1997 - On Pilotage and Shiphandling - p37, p181, p260, p280, p305

External links
Port Revel [3] website AFCAN [4] website Marine-Marchande.net [5] website Geographical coordinates: 451725N 51855E

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / www. sogreah. fr http:/ / www. imo. org/ Newsroom/ mainframe. asp?topic_id=144& doc_id=3440 http:/ / www. portrevel. com/ http:/ / www. afcan. org/ dossiers_techniques/ port_revel2_gb. html http:/ / www. marine-marchande. net/ groupe%20mar-mar/ Documents/ F. Massard/ Port-Revel_Marine-marchande/ Port-Revel_GB_1_Marine-marchande. htm

RC Egypt

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RC Egypt
RC Egypt is an organization devoted to building and flying radio-controlled (RC) models in Egypt. One of their principal activities is to provide information and training to novice modelers. The RC Egypt team was invited, in March 2006, to participate in the Avex air show and aviation trade exposition sponsored by the Egyptian Ministry of Civil Aviation at the Sharm El Sheikh International Airport in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt.

Status of RC modeling in Egypt

RC Egypt Team in Avex 2006 expo

Until relatively recently, flying RC models was restricted by Egyptian authorities for security reasons, but a couple of years ago, these restrictions were partially lifted in response to requests from the RC Egypt modelers. At the end of the Avex event, they received a promise of more flexibility and greater accommodations for RC modeling in the future from Air Marshal Ahmed Shafik, the Egyptian Minster of Aviation.

See also
Model airport Radio-controlled model Radio-controlled airplane Aviation history

External links
RC Egypt Official website [1] Al-Ahram weekly article about RC Egypt participation in Avex 2006 [2] Avex 2006 official website [3]

References
[1] http:/ / www. rcegypt. starnet. com. eg/ [2] http:/ / weekly. ahram. org. eg/ 2006/ 786/ fe4. htm [3] http:/ / www. avex-2006. com

Radio-controlled model

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Radio-controlled model
A radio-controlled model (or RC model) is a model that is steerable with the use of radio control. All types of vehicles imaginable have had RC systems installed in them, including cars, boats, planes, and even helicopters and scale railway locomotives.

History
Radio control has been around since Nikola Tesla demonstrated a remote control boat in 1893. World War II saw increased development in radio control technology. The Luftwaffe used controllable winged bombs for targeting Allied ships. During the 1930s the Good brothers Bill and Walt pioneered valve vacuum tube based control units for R/C hobby use. Their "Guff" radio controlled plane is on display at the National Aerospace museum. Ed Lorenze published a 1:10 scale radio-controlled car design in Model Airplane News that was built by many (Saab Sonett II) hobbyists. Later, after WW2, in the late 1940s to mid 1950 many other R/C designs emerged and some were sold commercially, Berkeley's Super Aerotrol, was one such example. Originally simple 'on-off' systems, these evolved to use complex systems of relays to control a rubber powered escapements speed and direction. In another more sophisticated version developed by the Good brothers called TTPW, information was encoded by varying the signal's mark/space ratio (pulse proportional). Commercial versions of these systems quickly became available. The tuned reed system brought new sophistication, using metal reed switches to resonate with the transmitted signal and operate one of a number of different relays. In the 1960s the availability of transistor-based equipment led to the rapid development of fully proportional servo-based systems, again driven largely by amateurs but resulting in commercial products. In the 1970s, integrated circuits made the electronics small, light and cheap enough for multi-channel fully proportional control to become widely available. In the 1990s miniaturised equipment became widely available, allowing radio control of the smallest models, and by the 2000s radio control was commonplace even for the control of inexpensive toys. At the same time the ingenuity of modellers has been sustained and the achievements of amateur modelers using new technologies has extended to such applications as gas-turbine powered aircraft, aerobatic helicopters and submarines. Before radio control, many models would use simple burning fuses or clockwork mechanisms to control flight or sailing times. Sometimes clockwork controllers would also control and vary direction or behaviour. Other methods included tethering to a central point (popular for model cars and hydroplanes), round the pole control for electric model aircraft and control lines (called u-control in the US) for internal combustion powered aircraft. The first general use of radio control systems in models started in the late 1940s with single-channel self-built equipment; commercial equipment came soon thereafter. Initially remote control systems used escapement (often rubber driven) mechanical actuation in the model. Commercial sets often used ground standing transmitters, long whip antennas with separate ground poles and single electron-tube (valve) receivers. The first kits had dual tubes for more selectivity. Such early systems were invariably super regenerative circuits, which meant that two controllers used in close proximity would interfere with one another. The requirement for heavy batteries to drive tubes also meant that model boat systems were more successful than model aircraft.

Radio-controlled model The advent of transistors greatly reduced the battery requirements, since the current requirements at low voltage were greatly reduced and the high voltage battery was eliminated. Low cost systems employed a superregenerative transistor receiver sensitive to a specific audio tone modulation, the latter greatly reducing interference from 27MHz Citizens' band radio communications on nearby frequencies. Use of an output transistor further increased reliability by eliminating the sensitive output relay, a device subject to both motor-induced vibration and stray dust contamination. In both tube and early transistor sets the model's control surfaces were usually operated by an electromagnetic escapement controlling the stored energy in a rubber-band loop, allowing simple rudder control (right, left, and neutral) and sometimes other functions such as motor speed, and kick-up elevator.[1] By the early 1960s transistors had replaced the tube and electric motors driving control surfaces were more common. The first low cost "proportional" systems did not use servos, but rather employed a bidirectional motor with a proportional pulse train that consisted of two tones, pulse width modulated (TTPW). This system, and another commonly known as "Kicking Duck/Galloping Ghost", was driven with a pulse train that caused the rudder and elevator to "wag" though a small angle (not affecting flight owing to small excursions and high speed), with the average position determined by the proportions of the pulse train. A more sophisticated and unique proportional system was Click image for explanation of radio escapement operation developed by Hershel Toomin of Electrosolids corporation called the Space Control. This benchmark system used two tones, pulse width and rate modulated to drive 4 fully proportional servos, and was manufactured and refined by Zel Ritchie, who ultimately gave the technology to the Dunhams of Orbit in 1964. The system was widely imitated, and others (Sampey, ACL, DeeBee) tried their hand at developing what was then know as analog proportional. But these early analog proportional radios were very expensive, putting them out of the reach for most modelers. Eventually, single-channel gave way to multi channel devices (at significantly higher cost) with various audio tones driving electromagnets affecting tuned resonant reeds for channel selection. Crystal oscillator superheterodyne receivers with better selectivity and stability made control equipment more capable and at lower cost. The constantly diminishing equipment weight was crucial to ever increasing modelling applications. Superheterodyne circuits became more common, enabling several transmitters to operate closely together and enabling further rejection of interference from adjacent Citizen's Band voice radio bands. Multi-channel developments were of particular use to aircraft which really needed a minimum of three control dimensions (yaw, pitch and motor speed), as opposed to boats which can be controlled with two or one. Radio control 'channels' were originally outputs from a reed array, in other words, a simple on-off switch. To provide a usable control signal a control surface needs to be moved in two directions, so at least two 'channels' would be needed unless a complex mechanical link could be made to provide two-directional movement from a single switch. Several of these complex links were marketed during the 1960s, including the Graupner Kinematic Orbit, Bramco, and Kraft simultaneous reed sets. Doug Spreng is credited with developing the first "digital" pulse width feedack servo and along with Don Mathis developed and sold the first digital proportional radio called the "Digicon" followed by Bonner's Digimite, and Hoovers F&M Digital 5. With the electronics revolution, single-signal channel circuit design became redundant and instead, radios provided coded signal streams which a servomechanism could interpret. Each of these streams replaced two of the original 'channels', and, confusingly, the signal streams began to be called 'channels'. So an old 6-channel transmitter which could drive the rudder, elevator and throttle of an aircraft was replaced with a new

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Radio-controlled model 3-channel transmitter doing the same job. Controlling all the primary controls of a powered aircraft (rudder, elevator, ailerons and throttle) was known as 'full-house' control. A glider could be 'full-house' with only three channels. Soon a competitive marketplace emerged, bringing rapid development. By the 1970s the trend for 'full-house' proportional radio control was fully established. Typical radio control systems for radio-controlled models employ pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM) and more recently spread spectrum technology, and actuate the various control surfaces using servomechanisms. These systems made 'proportional control' possible, where the position of the control surface in the model is proportional to the position of the control stick on the transmitter. PWM is most commonly used in radio control equipment today, where transmitter controls change the width (duration) of the pulse for that channel between 920 s and 2120 s, 1520 s being the center (neutral) position. The pulse is repeated in a frame of between 10 and 30 milliseconds in length. Off-the-shelf servos respond directly to pulse trains of this type using integrated decoder circuits, and in response they actuate a rotating arm or lever on the top of the servo. An electric motor and reduction gearbox is used to drive the output arm and a variable component such as a resistor "potentiometer" or tuning capacitor. The variable capacitor or resistor produces an error signal voltage proportional to the output position which is then compared with the position commanded by the input pulse and the motor is driven until a match is obtained. The pulse trains representing the whole set of channels is easily decoded into separate channels at the receiver using very simple circuits such as a Johnson counter. The relative simplicity of this system allows receivers to be small and light, and has been widely used since the early 1970s. More recently, high-end hobby systems using Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM) features have come on the market that provide a computerized digital bit-stream signal to the receiving device instead of analog type pulse modulation. Advantages include bit error checking capabilities of the data stream (good for signal integrity checking) and fail-safe options including motor (if the model has a motor) throttle down and similar automatic actions based on signal loss. However, those systems that use pulse code modulation generally induce more lag due to lesser frames sent per second as bandwidth is needed for error checking bits. It should also be noted that PCM devices can only detect errors and thus hold the last verified position or go into failsafe mode. They cannot correct transmission errors. In the early 21st century, 2.4 gigahertz (GHz) tramsissions have become increasingly utilised in high-end control of model vehicles and aircraft. This range of frequencies has many advantages. Because the 2.4GHz wavelengths are so small (around 10 centimetres), the antennas on the receivers do not need to exceed 3 to 5cm. Electromagnetic noise, for example from electric motors, is not 'seen' by 2.4GHz receivers due to the noise's frequency (which tends to be around 10 to 150MHz). The transmitter antenna only needs to be 10 to 20cm long, and receiver power usage is much lower; batteries can therefore last longer. In addition, no crystals or frequency selection is required as the latter is performed automatically by the transmitter. However, the short wavelengths do not diffract as easily as the longer wavelengths of PCM/PPM, so 'line of sight' is required between the transmitting antenna and the receiver. Also, should the receiver lose power, even for a few milliseconds, or get 'swamped' by 2.4GHz interference, it can take a few seconds for the receiver - which, in the case of 2.4GHz, is almost invariably a digital device - to 'reboot'.

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Radio-controlled model

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Design
RC electronics have three essential elements. The transmitter is the controller. Transmitters have control sticks, triggers, switches, and dials at the user's finger tips. The receiver is mounted in the model. It receives and processes the signal from the transmitter, translating it into signals that are sent to the servos. The number of servos in a model determines the number of channels the radio must provide. Typically the transmitter multiplexes all the channels into a single pulse-position modulation radio signal. The receiver demodulates and demultiplexes the signal and translates it to the special kind of pulse-width modulation used by standard RC servos. In recent years, electronic speed controllers (ESCs) have been developed to replace the old variable resistors, which were extremely inefficient. They are entirely electronic, so they do not require any moving parts or servos. In the 1980s, a Japanese electronics company, Futaba, copied wheeled steering for RC cars. It was originally developed by Orbit for a transmitter specially designed for Associated cars It has been widely accepted along with a trigger control for throttle. Often configured for right hand users, the transmitter looks like a pistol with a wheel attached on its right side. Pulling the trigger would accelerate the car forward, while pushing it would either stop the car or cause it to go into reverse. Some models are available in left-handed versions.

Mass production
There are thousands of RC vehicles available. Most are toys suitable for children. What separates toy grade RC from hobby grade RC is the modular characteristic of the standard RC equipment. RC toys generally have simplified circuits, often with the receiver and servos incorporated into one circuit. It's almost impossible to take that particular toy circuit and transplant it into other RCs.

Hobby grade RC
Hobby grade RC systems have modular designs. Many cars, boats, and aircraft can accept equipment from different manufacturers, so it is possible to take RC equipment from a car and install it into a boat, for example. However, moving the receiver component between aircraft and surface vehicles is illegal in most countries as radio frequency laws allocate separate bands for air and surface models. This is done for safety reasons.
The 'Shumacher S.S.T.2000' RC Car. Shown here without the body kit or battery Most manufacturers now offer "frequency pack installed to allow for a clearer view of a hobby grade car. modules" (known as crystals) that simply plug into the back of their transmitters, allowing one to change frequencies, and even bands, at will. Some of these modules are capable of "synthesizing" many different channels within their assigned band.

Hobby grade models can be fine tuned, unlike most toy grade models. For example, cars often allow toe-in, camber and caster angle adjustments, just like their real-life counterparts. All modern "computer" radios allow each function to be adjusted over several parameters for ease in setup and adjustment of the model. Many of these transmitters are capable of "mixing" several functions at once, which is required for some models.

Radio-controlled model Many of the most popular hobby grade radios were first developed, and mass produced in Southern California by Orbit, Bonner, Kraft, Babcock, Deans, Larson, RS, S&O, and Milcott. Later, Japanese companies like Futaba, Sanwa and JR took over the market.

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Types
Aircraft
Radio-controlled aircraft (also called RC aircraft) are small aircraft that can be controlled remotely. There are many different types, ranging from small park flyers to large jets and mid-sized aerobatic models. The aircraft use many different methods of propulsion, ranging from brushed or brushless electric motors, to internal combustion engines, to the most expensive gas turbines. The fastest aircraft, with gas turbines, can reach speeds of up to 250mph (400 km/h). Newer jets can achieve above 300mph (480 km/h) in a short distance.

Tanks
Radio-controlled tanks are replicas of armoured fighting vehicles that can move, rotate the turret and some even shoot all by using the hand-held transmitter. Radio controlled tanks come generally in commercial offerings in: 1/35th scale. Probably the best known make in this scale is by Tamiya. These can cost about $80. 1/24th scale. This scale often includes a mounted Airsoftgun, the possibly the best offering is by Tokyo-Marui, but there are imitations by Heng Long, who offer cheap remakes of the tanks. The downsides to the Heng Long imitations are that they were standardized to their Type 90 tank which has 6 road wheels, then they produced a Leopard 2 and M1A2 Abrams on the same chassis but both of the tanks have 7 road wheels. These are usually the cheapest at the lowest price of around $50. 1/16th scale is the more intimidating vehicle design scale. Tamiya produce some of the best of this scale, these usually include little realistic features like flashing lights, engine sounds and on their Leopard 2A6 offering, an optional gyro-stabilized gun system. The only real downside to the person who has not the largest budget is that these tanks can cost anywhere from $750. Although some 1/16 tanks are cheaper, the prices may range to $100750. As with cars, tanks can come from ready to run to a full assembly kit. In more private offerings there are 1/6th and 1/4th scale vehicles available. The largest RC tank available anywhere in the world is the King tiger in 1/4th scale, over 8feet (2.4 m) long. These GRP fiberglass tanks were originally created and produced by Alex Shlakhter (http://www.rctanks.ru/)

Cars
A radio-controlled car is a powered model car driven from a distance. Both gas and electric cars exist, designed to be run both on and off-road. "Gas" cars traditionally use petrol (gasoline) though the majority now use nitromethanol, mixture of methanol and nitromethane, to get their power. Building, driving, and modifying radio-controlled car kits is a hobby enjoyed by enthusiasts of all ages.

Helicopters
Radio-controlled helicopters, although often grouped with RC aircraft, are unique because of the differences in construction, aerodynamics and flight training. Several designs of RC helicopters exist, some with limited maneuverability (and thus easier to learn to fly), and those with more maneuverability (and thus harder to learn to fly).

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Boats
Radio-controlled boats are model boats controlled remotely with radio control equipment. The main types of RC boat are: scale models (12inches (30cm) 144" (365cm) in size), the sailing boat and the power boat. The latter is the more popular amongst toy grade models. Radio controlled models were used for the children's television program Theodore Tugboat. Out of radio-controlled model boats sprang up a new hobbygas-powered model boating. Radio-controlled, gasoline-powered model boats first appeared in 1962 designed by engineer Tom Perzinka of Octura Models, who is now regarded as the 'Father of Model Boating'. The gas model boats were powered with O&R (Ohlsson and Rice) small 20 cc ignition gasoline utility engines. This was a completely new concept in the early years of available radio-control systems. The boat was called the 'White Heat' and was a hydro design, meaning it had more than one wetted surface. Towards the late 1960s and early 1970s another gasoline-powered model was created and powered with a similar chainsaw engine. This boat was named "The Moppie" after its full-size counterpart. Again like the White Heat, between the costs of production, engine, and radio equipment, the project failed at market and perished. By 1970, nitro (glow ignition) power became the norm for model boating. In 1982 Tony Castronovo, a hobbyist in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, marketed the first production gasoline string trimmer engine powered (22 cc gasoline ignition engine) radio-controlled model boat in a 44-inch vee-bottom boat. It achieved a top speed of 30 miles per hour. The boat was marketed under the trade name "Enforcer" and sold by his company Warehouse Hobbies, Inc. The following years of marketing and distribution aided the spread of gasoline-powered model boating throughout the USA and onto Europe. To date, gasoline radio-controlled model boating has become a worldwide phenom. The industry has spawned many manufacturers and thousands of avid model boaters. Today the average gasoline powered boat can easily run at speeds over 45mph, with the more exotic gas boats running at speeds exceeding 90mph. Many of Tony Castronovo's designs and innovations in gasoline model boating are considered the foundation upon which the industry has been built. He was first to introduce surface drive on a Vee hull (propeller hub above the water line) to model boating which he named "SPD" (surface plaining drive) as well as numerous products and developments relative to gasoline powered model boating. He and his company continue to produce gasoline powered model boats and components to the present day.

Combat robotics
The majority of robots used in shows such as battlebots and Robot Wars are remotely controlled, relying on most of the same electronics as other radio-controlled vehicles.

Power
Internal combustion
Internal combustion engines for remote control models have typically been two stroke engines that run on specially blended fuel. Engine sizes are typically given in cm or cubic inches, ranging from tiny engines like these .02 in to huge 1.60 in or larger. For even larger sizes, many modelers turn to four stroke or gasoline engines (see below.) Glow plug engines have an ignition device that possesses a platinum wire coil in the glow plug, that catalytically glows in the presence of the methanol in glow engine fuel, providing the combustion source. Since 1976, practical "glow" ignition four stroke model engines have been available on the market, ranging in size from 3.5cm upwards to 35cm in single cylinder designs. Various twin and multi-cylinder glow ignition four stroke model engines are also available, echoing the appearance of full sized radial, inline and opposed cylinder aircraft powerplants. The multi-cylinder models can become enormous, such as the Saito five cylinder radial. They tend to

Radio-controlled model be quieter in operation than two stroke engines, using smaller mufflers, and also use less fuel. Glow engines tend to produce large amounts of oily mess due to the oil in the fuel. They are also much louder than electric motors. Another alternative is the gasoline engine. While glow engines run on special and expensive hobby fuel, gasoline runs on the same fuel that powers cars,lawnmowers, weed whackers etc. These typically run on a two-stroke cycle, but are radically different from glow two-stroke engines. They are typically much, much larger, like the 80cm Zenoah. These engines can develop several horsepower, incredible for something that can be held in the palm of the hand.

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Electrical
Electric power is often the chosen form of power for aircraft, cars and boats. Electric power in aircraft in particular has become popular recently, mainly due to the popularity of park flyers and the development of technologies like brushless motors and lithium polymer batteries. These allow electric motors to produce much more power rivaling that of fuel-powered engines. It is also relatively simple to increase the torque of an electric motor at the expense of speed, while it is much less common to do so with a fuel engine, perhaps due to its roughness. This permits a more efficient larger-diameter propeller to be used which provides more thrust at lower airspeeds. (e.g. an electric glider climbing steeply to a good thermalling altitude.) In aircraft, cars, trucks and boats, glow and gas engines are still used even though electric power has been the most common form of power for a while. The following picture shows a typical brushless motor and speed controller used with radio controlled cars. As you can see, due to the integrated heat sink, the speed controller is almost as large as the motor itself. Due to size and weight limitations, heat sinks are not common in RC aircraft Electronic speed controller (ESCs), therefore the ESC is almost always smaller than the motor.

References
[1] Fort Smith Flightmasters: Radio Control Systems (Part 2) (http:/ / www. fortsmithflightmasters. com/ fp/ fp040701. html) with illustrations of an early installation and descriptions of various escapements.

Ral Partha Enterprises

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Ral Partha Enterprises

Industry Fate Successor Founded Defunct Wargaming Role-playing games Melted & Recast Iron Wind Metals, LLC. 1975 2001

Headquarters Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S. Key people Sculptors: Tom Meier Dennis Mize Julie Guthrie Bob Charrette Sandra Garrity Richard Kerr Dave Summers Presidents: Glenn E. Kidd Chuck Crain Jack Hesselbrock miniature figures

Products

Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. of Cincinnati, Ohio produced 25mm, 30mm, 15mm, and 54mm scale miniature figures between 1975 and 2001. Their products were manufactured by spin-casting and depicted soldiers, adventurers and monsters inspired by history and fiction. The miniatures were sold at gaming conventions, in hobby shops, and by mail order for use in role playing games, wargaming, dioramas, competitive painting, and collecting. The company was founded by five historical wargamers around the talents of Tom Meier, a 16-year old sculptor. The company grew with the increasing popularity of miniature gaming and is best known for its historical figures, Fantasy Collector's series of elves, dwarves and goblins, and the lines produced for TSR, Inc.'s Advanced Dungeons & Dragons and FASA's BattleTech games. Unless otherwise noted, the designs discussed below were produced in 25mm scale. Tom Meier became a freelance sculptor in 1988, but retains rights to much of his work for Ral Partha. He currently works on commission and operates Thunderbolt Mountain Miniatures, a boutique company for pet projects involving dioramas, 54mm figurines, and a new series of elves and goblins. During its 26-year history Ral Partha employed more than two dozen sculptors, of whom the most prolific were Dennis Mize, Julie Guthrie, Sandra Garrity, Bob Charrette, and Dave Summers. The owners of Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. sold the company to FASA in 1998, and was one of the assets acquired by Wizards of the Coast in 2000. The following year Ral Partha was recast as Iron Wind Metals LLC. of Cincinnati, Ohio who continues to produce many of the old lines.

Licensees and Distributors

As early as 1979 Citadel Miniatures acquired the license to produce and distribute Ral Partha figures in Britain[1] [2] . Citadel Miniatures attempted to establish a U.S. division in 1982 with Ral Partha as the local manufacturer[3] [4] . However, by 1984 the Citadel Miniatures were brought under the Ral Partha logo and marketed as Ral Partha Imports[5] . In 1985 the import lines included the FTx-xx Fantasy Tribes, FAx-xx Fantasy Adventurer, FF/31-xxx Fiend Factory, FS/32-xx Fantasy Special, the popular WF-xx Weird Fantasy series with whimsical themes, FMM-xx Fantasy Mysterious Miniatures, and LB-xx Tabletop's Laser Burn line of space marines. Historical lines included

Ral Partha Enterprises Romans AR-xx, Dark Ages DA-xx, Medievals M-xxx and Samurai SAM-xx[6] . At least two figures (FTT 3 Troll hurling rock and FTT 4 Troll in chainmail with scimitar) were sculpted by Tom Meier while visiting England in 1981[7] . The co-operative relationship between Ral Partha and Citadel Miniatures appears to have dissolved in the mid-1980s. Collectors have noted that as early as 1984 Ral Partha had begun replacing the Citadel figures in the "Imports" line with new sculpts[8] . In 1986 Minifigs gained the rights to manufacture and distribute their fantasy range in Britain[9] . The following year Ral Partha dropped Citadel Miniatures' historical lines and began to distribute Denizen Miniatures' dwarves (33-xxx), orcs (34-xxx), 36-xxx Legion of the Damned skeletons and 39-xxx Fantastic Adventurers[10] . In 1980 Ral Partha licensed select designs to Rawcliffe Pewter for the gift-ware market [11] . That same year Ral Partha established a licensing agreement with RAFM, a Canadian miniatures manufacturer[12] . It was probably about that time, and at least by 1989 that Jeux Descartes of Paris, France gained the rights to distribute Ral Partha figures in Continental Europe[13] [14] . Some early Ral Partha advertisements erroneously give the name as "Jeaux Descartes." The relationship was on-going in 1997[15] , but was probably severed when FASA purchased Ral Partha the following year.

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Product Codes
Only a product code marked Ral Partha's early packaging and customers required a contemporary catalog in order to identify the miniature. In late 1979 the company switched from product codes using descriptive letter and number codes to a numeric system. For example the first figures of the series "Personalities and Things that Go Bump in the Night", "ES-001 Evil Wizard, casting spell" became 01-001, and the first figure of the 15th century Renaissance series "1501 Command Set" became 54-001[16] [17] [18] . The change was not universal. Ral Partha used letter codes for Citadel Miniatures and Denizen Miniatures in their line of Ral Partha Imports until 1992[3] [5] [19] . Ral Partha's international partners used their own systems. RAFM of Canada used the descriptive product codes as late as 1984[20] . Jeux Descartes, initially used Ral Partha's numeric codes on packaging of their own design, but new lines were introduced selectively and given sequential codes which often differed from those used in the United States. Throughout the companies history, figures were modified to improve reproducibility, unpopular designs were re-sculpted, and existing product codes were used for new designs. A common cause of modification was a level of detail or animation which challenged the casting technology. An industry-wide reorientation of scale from 25mm to 30mm in the late 1990s, and interest in removing lines from artist's royalties, also prompted new sculpts of existing lines. Few of Ral Partha's miniatures were marked with product codes and the company's advertisements and catalogs remain a critical resource for collectors. Advertisements by Ral Partha and its British and Canadian partners appear in most editions of TSR Inc.'s Dragon and Games Workshop's White Dwarf magazines. Annual catalogs were published from 1978 to 1980, 1982 to 1997, and in 2000. The 1998 and 1999 catalogs were combined into a single issue. There does not appear to have been a 1981 catalog. The company's relocation to Carthage Court[18] had pushed the 1980 catalog to the end of the year, and the collage of past covers on the 1995 20th Anniversary catalog does not include an image for 1981[21] . In addition, Ral Partha also released Christmas catalogs in 1982 and 1983, Imports catalog in 1984, historical miniatures catalogs in 1985 and 1996, 2000 Direct Mail Catalog, and sporadically updated order forms which listed all the figures in production.

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History
Ral Partha Enterprises was formed in 1975 by Glenn E. Kidd, Marc Rubin, Chuck Crain, Rich Smethurst, and Jack Hesselbrock in order to produce the work of a teenage sculptor Tom Meier's figures. Meier pioneered the sculpture of miniatures in Epoxy putty, a two-part ribbon epoxy designed for automotive repair, which held detail better than traditional media.[22] The company had its origins in the established hobby of historical war-gaming, but the company's growth was because of the popularity of role-playing games. The company was named after "Ral-Partha" a Dungeons & Dragons wizard created by Tom's young friend John Winkler. Like their popular line of "3-stage characters," Ral Partha has had a trio of aspects. The first was a Winkler's gaming character, depicted as ES-001 Evil Wizard, casting spell. Then as "Ral" Winkler himself, who became one of the company's chief casters. Lastly, "Ral" was the company's totemic progenitor credited with collaborative projects and depicted as 10-412 Lord of the Balrogs.[23] [24] Products were originally cast in the basement of 3642 Hyde Park Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio, the home of one of the owners.[24] [25] In the spring of 1978, the company relocated to 3726 Lonsdale Avenue,[26] and then was briefly at 2732 Lonsdale Avenue.[16] By November 1980 Ral Partha had relocated to industrial space at 5938 Carthage Court, where it remained until 2001.[18] [27] [28] Ral Partha's formative years were the late 1970s, when the company was a part-time basement enterprise producing the art of a teenage sculptor for a nascent gaming market. In 1979, the company became a full-time endeavor with two professional sculptors designing products for multiple themes made popular by the rapidly expanding gaming market. The number of sculptors and catalog of miniatures grew rapidly. In the mid-1980s, the preponderance of work moved from Ral Partha's sculptors' lines to manufacturing for nationally-marketed games. In the short-run the move was economically beneficial. However, the lack of product diversity left the company vulnerable to the marketing decisions of clients for whom miniatures were a minor interest. Ral Partha's final years were spent as a subsidiary of large game producers, until the core of the company was recast as Iron Wind Metals in 2001.

Elves and Hoplites, 1975-1978

The young company received early encouragement from the sale of its entire stock at Gen Con 1975, a convention of gaming enthusiasts.[24] Ral Partha's lines and customer base grew quickly and they regularly won multiple categories of the Origins Award.[29] Ral Partha's figures were popular with historical wargamers, but fans of fantasy themed role-playing games, like TSR Inc.'s Dungeons & Dragons accounted for the majority of their sales.[11] Meier's sculpts tended to carry greater detail than many of his contemporaries, but some early products had casting issues.[30] One of Tom Meier's earliest lines was the Fantasy Line, which included about two dozen figures in late 1976.[25] [30] Meier's ES18 Adventuress is credited as being the first female character for role-playing games.[31] The fantasy line was renamed ES/01-xxx Personalities and Things that Go Bump in the Night in 1978, and Meier augmented the line throughout the 1980s.[10] [16] [23] [32] [33] [34] [35] As early as 1976, Meier had begun a series of soldiers from Classical antiquity which were collected together as AN/35-xxx The Hoplites.[36] By 1978 the line was essentially complete and included Greeks, Carthaginians, Persians, Gauls, Early Republic Romans and Macedonians.[16] Another series begun by Meier in 1976 was a line of 11th-century knights and footmen called 11/42-xxx 1200 A.D..[25] By 1978, series was mostly complete and included Vikings, English, French, Spanish, Moorish, Mongol, and Sung Chinese soldiers.[16] Ral Partha put E-xxx Wizards, Warriors and Warlocks which were put into production in 1976, 1977, and 1979.[16] [17] The line included some of Meier's earliest work and much of it was executed in the style of Heritage Models for whom he had briefly worked.[37] The E-xxx series was retired in 1980, but portions of it were re-released in 1995 as part of the 19-xxx Ral Partha Remembered line commemorating the company's 20th anniversary.[18] As president of the company, Glenn E. Kidd oversaw the 1978 acquisition of The Old Guard's Legions of the Petal Throne line of figures for TSR Inc.'s Empire of the Petal Throne, a role-playing game based on M. A. R. Barker's

Ral Partha Enterprises world of Tkumel.[16] [25] Ral Partha retained the services of William Murray, the line's sculptor. Tom Meier and Brian Apple made contributions to the series (T, Y, P, M, NH-xxx) in 1979, but it was discontinued later that year.[17]
[18]

166

As early as 1978, Ral Partha produced three series of 15mm historical miniatures sculpted by George Freeman. They included Napoleonic era figures N-xxx Days of the Empire, AW-xxx American Civil War, and AK-xxx Desert Rats modeling the North African Campaign of World War II. Ann Gallup also contributed an AC-xxx series to the American Civil War line.[16] In 1979, Ral Partha added Freeman's 25mm W-xxx Waterloo Collector's Series,[17] but all of Freeman and Gallup's figures were discontinued in 1980.[18] Ral Partha's first venture into science fiction was Meier's 1978 line of space marines and space aliens GG-xxx Galactic Grenadiers: Strike Force Alpha. Their release was in tandem with Gamescience's Strike Team Alpha, a set of rule designed by Michael Scott Kurtick for Meier's Galactic Grenadiers.[38] [39] Other early lines included collectible 54mm figures called S/97-xxx Partha Personalities', and lines of 25mm dungeon accessories (D/97-xxx) and weapons (D/97-5xx).[16]

Goblins and Samurai, 1979-1985

In the summer of 1978, Tom Meier began reworking the themes of the E-xxx series to create the CS/02-xxx Fantasy Collectors line of elves.[40] The figures were sold in multiples in order to compose fantasy armies. Meier's lines were successful he began sculpting full-time in 1979. The addition of dwarves in 1979 and goblins in 1980 almost entirely replaced the E-xxx series.[17] [18] Meier added halfings in 1982 and begun a series of fantasy vehicles. The first was 02-030 Dwarf Steam Cannon released in 1983. Meier's contribution to the series was completed when 02-078 The Warmachine and 02-020 The Elf Chariot were put into production in 1984.[32] [33] [34] In 1979, Meier introduced 15/54-xxx Condotitieri, a line of Renaissance era figures.[17] The first offering were "Imperialists" to which he added Swiss and Turks in 1980.[18] Meier expanded the historical ranges with the 1983 addition of 88-xxx The Colonials.[33] Sculpts for the Anglo-Zulu War were augmented in 1984 with figures for the Northwest Frontier, and the Sudan Campaign in 1985.[6] [34] Ral Partha hired Dennis Mize in 1979. With two full-time sculptors, Ral Partha's product lines increases rapidly. Mize's first project was H-xxx Royal Armies of the Hyborean Age to accompany Fantasy Games Unlimited game of the same name based on the world of Robert E. Howard's Conan.[17] The Hyborean line was dropped in 1980, but Mize introduced 53-7xx The Samurai and a line of 15mm fantasy soldiers called 05-xxx Armies of Myth and Legend[18] . His popular CN/13-xxx Children of the Night was begun by 1982 and expanded over the course of the next two years.[32] [33] [34] In 1982 Mize and Meier created figures for small thematic box sets called 98-xxx The Adventurers.[32] [41] Mize also added and remade parts of Meier's The Hoplites and 1200 A.D. lines in 1984.[34] Ral Partha entered the game market in 1980 with the release of 99-001 Witch's Caldron, 99-002 Caverns Deep, 99-003 Final Frontier, and 99-004 Galactic Grenadiers, skirmish games designed by Glenn E. Kidd and Marc Rubin. "Galactic Grenadiers" included miniatures from the GG-xxx series and the 15mm figures from Final Frontiers were released in 1982 as 08-xxx Star Warriors.[32] War gamers were not yet ready for 15mm fantasy figures and both were taken out of production by 1983. Figures from the Caverns Deep and Witch's Cauldron games were incorporated into 98-xxx The Adventurers that same year.[33] In 1985, the company joined with Leggett Games Inc. to publish Fortress a skirmish-based board game which used plastic versions of Ral Partha sculpts.[42] In 1985, the company launched 77-xxx Partha Paints and Dragonscale metallic cremes which were packaged with dragon figures.[35] Julie Guthrie began freelance sculpting for Ral Partha in 1983. Her first line was the 02-9xx All Things Dark and Dangerous and worked with Meier and Mize on 98-xxx The Adventurers.[33] Later that year, box sets of 10-3xx The Best of Ral Partha and Julie Guthrie's 96-xxx Elfquest figures for Chasosium's game of the same name were put into production.[43] Julie Guthrie expanded the All Things Dark and Dangerous line in 1984, 1985 and 1986. In 1984, she joined Meier and Mize to develop a short series of miniatures (95-xxx) for Nova Games' Lost Worlds series of

Ral Partha Enterprises combat books.[23] [34] [35] In 1985, Guthrie contributed two sculpts of unicorns to PO-3xx Once Upon a Time series designed for the gift-ware market, cast in lead-free alloy, and marketed as "Partha Pewter" by Rawcliffe Pewter.[44] Their work with pewter allowed Ral Partha's mold-makers to develop the technical expertise necessary to transition to non-lead alloys in the early 1990s. Bob Charrette joined Ral Partha in 1984 & contributed to Meier's The Hoplites, 1200 A.D., and CS/02-xxx Collector Series lines.[34] In 1985, Charrette introduced figures for Chaosium's RuneQuest and a line of pulp adventurers which was initially called "20th Century Plus" but was later renamed 20-xxx The Roaring Twenties.[35] Charrette had created a line of the same name in 1979 to accompany Fantasy Games Unlimited's Gangster!. Ral Partha's line included re-sculpts of some of the same themes Charrette had created for Fantasy Figures Unlimited's short-lived sculpting shop.[45] [46] [47] Charrette later updated the line to include new and old cinematic themes such as the intrepid archaeologist. In 1986, Bob Charrette added to Meier's CS/02-xxx line, and inaugurated a line for his own game Bushido (53-9xx Bushido) published by Fantasy Games Unlimited.[23] [48] Ral Partha's Bushido figures included new sculpts but covered some of the same themes as Charrette's earlier line.[46] Rather quietly, Ral Partha began producing a line of miniature robot war machines in 1985. The miniatures were for a game that was first called "Battledroids", and then renamed BattleTech in 1986 for FASA's game of the same name.[23] It was the beginning of a permanent relationship between the two companies that would eventually lead to Ral Partha's sale to FASA.

167

Mechs and Dragons, 1986-1995

At the same time that integrated campaign worlds like Games Workshop's Warhammer Fantasy Battle were showing early success, Ral Partha introduced the "Chaos Wars" theme into their 1986 and 1987 product lines[10] [23] . It was the first step toward unifying a collection of disparate themes into an integrated brand. In the 1986 catalog sculptors were no longer credited and a mythical "Ral Partha" rather than the president of the company addressed customers in the prologue[23] . At about that same time, the Ral Partha staff had developed a four-page Rules According to Ral for medieval battles. A fantasy version by Bob Charrette was released in 1987 as part of a boxed set Rules According to Ral: Chaos Wars[23] [48] [49] [50] . The Chaos Wars theme collected together numerous existing products, many from Meier's ES/01-xxx line and their packaging was marked with stickers. The new initiative was to include 10-2xx Free Companies of Chaos Wars box sets, but they never materialized and the figures were appended to the CS/02-xxx Collector's Series. Among these sets were Bob Charrette's the popular Fangs of Fury beastmen, Tom Meier's Korg's Killers orcs, and Meier's Starbrow's Select elves. Having never fully materialized, the Chaos Wars theme was dropped in 1988 in order to give necessary attention to producing official miniatures for TSR, Inc.'s popular Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game. In 1986 Ral Partha inaugurated 01-3xx 3-Stage Characters line which consisted of three aspects of the a single character's game career[23] . The line was folded into the ES/01-xxx line in 1987[10] . Because of their popularity with collectors and role-players, they regained a status as a separate line and a place of prominence in the 1991catalog[14] . In 1988, Tom Meier began his own company Thunderbolt Mountain Miniatures, but continued to do freelance work for Ral Partha[11] . Then president, Chuck Crain hired Sandra L. Garrity, Dave Summers and Richard Kerr as full-time sculptors[14] [51] [52] to produce an official line of monsters and personalities for AD&D figures[29] . The earliest figures included 10-56x Battlesystem Brigades (25mm) which included an entire 25mm military unit in for tabletop wargames, and adventurers (11-0xx) and monsters (11-4xx) for role-playing games[14] . The following year Ral Partha launched 11-9xx Battlesystem Brigades (15mm), 10-5xx Dragonlance and Dungeons & Dragons boxed sets, and figures for the 11-5xx Ravenloft, 10-54x Dark Sun boxed sets and additions to the existing lines. The 11-05x, 11-06x AD&D Personalities of heroes and villeins was released in 1994, and additional figures for the Planescape, Ravenloft, and Forgotten Realms game worlds followed in 1995[21] . By 1997 Ral Partha had also added figures for TSR, Inc.'s Dark Sun, Council of Wyrms, and Birthright game worlds[15] . The breadth and earning

Ral Partha Enterprises potential of the Dungeons & Dragons franchise drove new releases and Ral Partha scrambled to acquire the sculpting talents of British and American sculptors including Nick Bibby, Jeff Wilhelm, Bob Olley, Chris Atkin, Walter Vail, John M. Garrity, and Jim Johnson by 1992, and Chis Fitzpatrick and Geoff Valley by 1995[19] [21] . By 1991 the 20-xxx BattleTech line had grown to include eleven box sets, and more than one hundred 'Mechs, Aerospace fighters, and ground vehicles. Ral Partha also produced 25mm 20-9xx Mechwarriors depicting pilots, mechanics and guards for role-playing in the BattleTech game world. That same year, Ral Partha sculptors had begun crafting figures for FASA's games, Shadowrun a role-playing game set in a futuristic cyber-world[14] [29] . Shadowrun miniatures had previously been produced by Grenadier Miniatures. Ral Partha introduced their sculpts (20-5xx Shadowrun) in 1992[19] . The 12-xxx The All American Line of fighters, orcs, magic-users, undead, dwarves, and elves was released in 1991 and 1992[14] [19] . The name of the line appears to refer to fact that all the figures were sculpted Ral Partha's four staff sculptors. Other new lines included Richard Kerr's 1992 futuristic tanks for Steve Jackson Games' Ogre[29] and the introduction of the "69-xxx" series for White Wolf, Inc.'s Werewolf: The Apocalypse and Vampire: The Masquerade in late 1993[53] . Figures for White Wolf, Inc.'s Mage: The Ascension followed soon after. In 1994 Dennis Mize conceptualized and sculpted 01-7xx Beastmasters a line of carnivores and their trainers. The line was expanded the following year, but wouldn't be completed until 1998[21] [54] . In 1995 Ral Partha's sculptors crafted figures for Steve Jackson Games' Space Knight, and multi-piece dioramas called Sculptors' Row, The Sterling Collection, and "Encounters of the Imagination.[21] . Initially, Ral Partha figures were cast from lead and tin alloy, but in 1993 New York legislators nearly passed a public health bill barring the use of lead in toys and miniatures[55] . Despite the additional cost, numerous manufacturers anticipated parental concerns, similar legislation in other states, and their own workplace safety and began using white metal alloys. Ral Partha's staff had previously developed a lead-free alloy for their "Partha Pewter" line sold in the gift-ware market. In September 1993 they began using Ralidium in all their products[56] and its use marks a clear benchmark for dating old figures. The move away from lead was promoted in advertisements and bright red stickers on existing packaging. In time, New York Governor Mario Cuomo relented to hobbyists' concerns and exempted miniatures from the state's Public Health Law[57] . Ral Partha correctly anticipated the movement away from lead, but the associated price increases came at a time when miniatures and role playing games like Dungeons & Dragons were being eclipsed by CCG like Wizards of the Coast's 1993 hit Magic: The Gathering. Ral Partha introduced Partha Plastics, figures or parts of figures composed of resin into their product line in 1995[21] . The move was made well after Citadel Miniatures had successfully introduced plastic figures in 1987, but the figures were not popular with Ral Partha's older customer base[58] .

168

The Trouble with Wizards, 1996-2001

Under Ral Partha's third president, Jack Hesselbrock, Ral Partha faced a number of licensing setbacks. Steve Jackson Games' Ogre miniatures and all three White Wolf lines were discontinued in 1996[59] and Dennis Mize's 18-xxx Runequest figures were discontinued the following year[15] [59] . In 1997 Wizards of the Coast acquired TSR, Inc. and with it, control of the rights to Dungeons & Dragons miniatures[60] . After an extension to their contract, Wizards of the Coast did not renew Ral Partha's license for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons miniatures and the figures went out of production at the end of 1997. Ral Partha's Advanced Dungeons & Dragons line are highly sought after by collectors who believe that Wizards of the Coast ordered the master molds and all remaining product to be destroyed. In October 2008 Wizards of the Coast announced its development of a large-scale, pre-painted, plastic Dungeons & Dragons Miniatures Game toys[61] . The 1997 Ral Partha catalog included a loose flier for 14-001 Bloodstorm a set of miniatures rules developed by an outside work group called Ral Partha Publishing. The project was retitled Battlestorm and published later that year[62] [58] . The game was advertised as the first volume of the "Fables Gamesystem," but no subsequent installments were issued and it did not appear in subsequent product catalogs [63] .

Ral Partha Enterprises The loss of the Dungeons & Dragons and other licenses meant that FASA's BattleTech figures became the majority of Ral Partha's revenue. Under threat of also losing those lines and financial difficulties, the owners of Ral Partha sold the company in 1998 to FASA and Lanier Hurdle and Mike Hurdle, owners of Zocchi Distribution [64] . FASA gained sole ownership in the spring of 1999[64] , and Ral Partha began to produce miniatures for FASA's Crimson Skies, Crucible: Conquest of the Final Realm and VOR: The Maelstrom games.[28] . No sooner were these lines in production when FASA ceased production of all their games [65] . In January 2001 WizKids acquired the bulk of Ral Partha's product lines as part of their purchase of FASA's BattleTech and Shadowrun games [60] . At that time WizKids purchased the rights to some figures from Ral Partha sculptors and the remainder reverted to the artist. Tom Meier retained his 15/54-xxx Condotitieri, 88-xxx The Colonials, and most of the CS/02-xxx Fantasy Collectors lines [66] . Bob Charrette remained in possession of his 53-9xx Bushido figures [48] . In March 2001 Ral Partha began producing collectible metal versions of WizKids 64 figure Mage Knight Rebellion set[67] [68] .

169

Epilogue: An Iron Wind, 2001 - present

In late 2001 Ral Partha was spun off from WizKids and renamed Iron Wind Metals, LLC of Cincinnati, Ohio with longtime general manager Michael Noe as president[69] . Iron Wind Metals reestablished production with a previous owner, some of the same staff, molds, and license agreements. They continue to use the name Ral Partha in reference to the early designs and continue to produce figures under license from Ral Partha era sculptors.

Sculptors, Artists and Mold-makers

Ral Partha's sculptors, artists, and mold-makers and the years in which they worked for the company:[6]
[17] [18] [23] [32] [33] [34] [35] [43] [10] [15] [16]

Tom Meier, freelance 1975-1978, staff 1979-1988, freelance 1989-1991. Michael Murphy, mold-maker, production manager 1977-1986. Gary Wilkerson, mold-maker 1977-1984. George Freman, freelance 1977-1978. Ann Gallup, freelance 1977. William Murray, freelance 1977-1978. Jay Adams, staff circa 1979 Brian Apple, freelance 1979 Dennis Mize, staff 1979-1988, freelance 1989-1994 Jule Guthrie, freelance 1983-1992 Bob Charrette, staff 1984-1988 Brian Hitsman, mold-maker, staff circa 1985-2001 Douglas Mize, graphics 1987 Chub Pearson, freelance 1987 Sandra Garrity, staff 1988-1992 Dave Summers, staff 1988-1996 Richard Kerr, staff 1987-1994 Nick Bibby, freelance 1990 Jeff Wilhelm, staff 1991-2000[70] Bob Olley, freelance 1991,1998 Chris Atkin, staff 1991-1997 John M. Garrity, freelance 1991

Walter B. Vail, freelance 1991 Jim Johnson, staff 1992-1996

Ral Partha Enterprises Steve Saunders, freelance 1994-1996, staff 1997-2001 Robert Kyde, staff 1995-1996 Joseph Kyde, freelance 1995-2001 Geoff Valley, 1995-2001 Chris FitzPatrick, 1995-2001 Brady Bugge, 1997-2001 Jeff Grace, 1997-2001 K. Kersey, 1997-2001 Bobby Jackson, 1999-2001 John Winter, 1999-2001 James Van Schaik, 2000-2001

170

Awards
Origins Awards / H.G. Wells Awards[29] 1977 - Best Fantasy Figure Series (ES/01-xxx Fantasy Line Tom Meier). 1978 - Best Historical Figure Series (11/42-xxx 1200 A.D. Tom Meier). 1978 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - Fantasy Collectors Series (CS/02-xxx Tom Meier). 1979 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - Collectibles (CS/02-xxx Tom Meier). 1980 - Best Historical Figure Series - Condottieri (15/54-xxx Tom Meier). 1980 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - Personalities (ES/01-xxx Tom Meier). 1981 - Best Historical Figure Series - Condottieri (15/54-xxx Tom Meier). 1982 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - Personalities & Things That Go Bump In The Night (ES/01-xxx Tom Meier). 1983 - Best Vehicular Series - 25mm Dwarf Steam Cannon (02-030 Tom Meier). 1984 - Best Historical Figure Series - 25mm Colonials (88-xxx Zulus and Northwest Frontier, Tom Meier). 1984 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - 25mm Personalities (ES/01-xxx Tom Meier). 1985 - Best Historical Figure Series - 25mm Samurai (53-7xx Bob Charrette, Dennis Mize). 1986 - Best Vehicular or Accessory Series - BattleTech Mech. (20-8xx Bob Charrette, Julie Guthrie, Tom Meier). 1987 - Best Historical Figure Series - Shogun Hardguys: The New Samurai (53-7xx Dennis Mize, Bob Charrette).[71] 1988 - Best Historical Figure Series - 1200 A.D., Aztecs (42-3xx Richard Kerr).[72] 1988 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - TSR's AD&D Series (11-xxx Tom Meier, Dennis Mize).[72] 1988 - Best Vehicular or Accessory Series - BattleTech Mechs (20-8xx Bob Charrette, Julie Guthrie, Tom Meier).[72] 1989 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - Dragonlance Heroes Line (10-502 Dennis Mize, Tom Meier, Richard Kerr). 1989 - Best Vehicular Miniatures Series - BattleTech Mechs and Vehicles (20-xxx Dave Summers, Sandy Garrity, Richard Kerr, Tom Meier, Bob Charrette, Julie Guthrie). 1990 - Best Historical Figure Series - 25mm Ancients (35-7xx North African Ancients Dave Summers, Sandra Garrity). 1990 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - AD&D Monsters (11-4xx Dennis Mize, Nick Bibby, Richard Kerr, Sandra Garrity).

1991 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - Shadowrun (20-5xx Tom Meier, Dennis Mize, Dave Summers). 1991 - Best Vehicular Miniatures Series - BattleTech Mechs & Vehicles (20-xxx Jeff Wilhelm, Dave Summers, Sandy Garrity, Richard Kerr, Tom Meier, Bob Charrette, Julie Guthrie).

Ral Partha Enterprises 1992 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - Ravenloft (11-1xx Dennis Mize). 1992 - Best Vehicular Miniatures Series - BattleTech Mechs & Vehicles (20-8xx Jeff Wilhelm, Dave Summers, Sandy Garrity, Richard Kerr, Tom Meier, Bob Charrette, Julie Guthrie). 1992 - Best Vehicular Miniatures Series - Ogre Miniatures (Jeff Wilhelm, Dave Summers, Richard Kerr). 1992 - Best Historical Figure Series - Hyksos Ancient Biblical (Jim Johnson). 1993 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - AD&D (11-xxx Dennis Mize, Jim Johnson, Geoffrey Valley, Dave Summers, Jeff Wilhelm, Richard Kerr). 1993 - Best Vehicular Series - BattleTech (20-8xx Dave Summers, Jim Johnson, Richard Kerr, Jeff Wilhelm). 1994 - Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Figure Series - AD&D Personalities (11-xxx Jim Johnson, Dennis Mize, Jeff Wilhelm). 1994 - Best Vehicular Series - BattleTech: Vehicles & 'Mechs (20-xxx Chris Atkin, Jim Johnson, Richard Kerr, Dave Summers, Jeff Wilhelm). 1995 - Best Vehicular Series - BattleTech: Vehicles & 'Mechs (20-xxx Chris Atkin, Robert Kyde, Jim Johnson, Dave Summers, Jeff Wilhelm). 1996 - Best Vehicular Miniatures Series - BattleTech: Mechs & Vehicles (20-xxx Chuck Crain, Chris Atkin, Jim Johnson, Robert Kyde, Dave Summers, Jeff Wilhelm). Origins Hall of Fame[29] 1991 - Tom Meier 1995 - Julie Guthrie 1997 - Ral Partha BattleTech Mechs & Vehicles (Chuck Crain, Developer). 2003 - Bob Charrette 2005 - Dennis Mize[73]

171

Strategist Club "Creativity in Wargaming" Award[34] 1978 - Outstanding Miniature Figure Line - Fantasy Collectors Series (CS/02-xxx, Tom Meier). 1979 - Outstanding Miniatures Figure Line - Condottieri (15/54-xxx Tom Meier). The Courier Award[34] 1979 - Best Historical Miniature Line - Condottieri (15/54-xxx Tom Meier). Games Day Awards 1979 - Best Range SF/F Figures - Personalities and Things that Go Bump in the Night (ES/01-xxx Tom Meier).[74] 1980 - Best Figures Range, Historical - 1200 A.D. (11-xxx Tom Meier).[75]

References in Popular Culture

The company was honored by the writers of the television show Andromeda by the naming of a fictional planet Ral Parthea, a nature preserve of an ancient race of aliens[76] . The miniature company's name has also been adopted by the San Francisco "Scandinavian Preppy" band Ral Partha Vogelbacher[77] . Reportedly the last part of the band's name was the surname of a childhood bully of one of the members[78] , and forms a clear statement of the nerd pride movement.

References
[1] White Dwarf #11, February/March 1979. [2] Citadel Compendium 1, Games Workshop 1984 [3] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #82, February 1984. [4] Citadel Miniatures U.S. 1983 Catalog. [5] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1984 Imports Catalog. [6] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1985 Historical Catalog.

Ral Partha Enterprises

[7] White Dwarf #24, April/May 1981 [8] (http:/ / www. cs. cmu. edu/ ~tpope/ sol/ ral-partha/ history. html), Stuff of Legends, Ral Partha History, Accessed January 10, 2009. [9] (http:/ / www. miniaturefigurines. co. uk/ About. aspx), History of Miniature Figurine Production, Accessed December 7, 2008. [10] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1987 Catalog. [11] (https:/ / www. thunderboltmountain. com/ autobio. htm), Tom Meier Autobiography, Accessed November 23, 2008. [12] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #36, April 1980. [13] Through the Looking Glass by Robert Bigelow, Dragon Magazine #144, page 73. [14] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1991 Catalog. [15] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1997 Catalog. [16] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1978 Catalog. [17] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1979 Catalog. [18] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1980 Catalog. [19] Ral Partha Enterprises Inc. 1992 Catalog. [20] RAFM advertisement in Dragon Magazine #90, October 1984. [21] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1995 Catalog. [22] (https:/ / www. thunderboltmountain. com/ bio. html), Tom Meier Biography by Carin Meier, Accessed November 23, 2008 [23] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1986 Catalog. [24] Ral Partha Gaming Club Newsletter Issue #1 June 30, 1996. [25] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #4, March 1977. [26] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #16, July 1978. [27] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #43, November 1980. [28] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 2000 Catalog. [29] (http:/ / www. originsgamefair. com/ ), Origins Game Fair, Accessed November 24, 2008. [30] Wargaming World, Dragon #3, October 1976 [31] From the Fantasy Forge, Dragon Magazine #8, July 1977. [32] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1982 Catalog. [33] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1983 Catalog. [34] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1984 Catalog. [35] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1985 Fantasy Catalog. [36] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #11, December 1977. [37] (http:/ / www. thunderboltmountain. com/ forum/ viewtopic. php?t=383& sid=f0a0f738517a04c587f5c65be6e05380), Tom Meier on Thunderbolt Mountain Miniatures Forums, December 3, 2008. [38] (http:/ / www. boardgamegeek. com/ game/ 10224), Strike Team Alpha, Board Game Geek. Accessed December 22, 2008. [39] Games Workshop Advertisement, White Dwarf Magazine #13, June/July 1979. [40] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #19, October 1978. [41] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #49, May 1981. [42] (http:/ / www. boardgamegeek. com/ game/ 17429), Fortress, at Board Game Geek. [43] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1983 Christmas Catalog. [44] Ral Partha Advertisement, Dragon Magazine #93, January 1985. [45] Report on Origins '79, Dragon Magazine #29, September 1979. [46] (http:/ / www. space-opera. net/ mirror/ fgu/ default. htm), Mirror of FGU website, Accessed December 17, 2008 [47] Molten Magic in White Dwarf #14, August/September 1979 [48] (http:/ / www. charrette. parroom. net/ minigames1. html), Bob Charrette Games, Accessed November 23, 2008. [49] (http:/ / www. boardgamegeek. com/ publisher/ 547), Board Game Geek, Ral Partha Games, Accessed November 24, 2008. [50] (http:/ / theminiaturespage. com/ rules/ fan/ chaoswars. html), TMP: Chaos Wars, Accessed November 23, 2008. [51] (http:/ / miniature-painting. net/ SandraGarrity/ sandra. html), Interview with Sandra Garrity, Accessed November 24, 2008. [52] (http:/ / theminiaturespage. com/ news/ 621905/ ), TMP: In Memory of Charles B. Crain III, Accessed November 24, 2008. [53] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. Advertisement, Dragon #118, August 1993. [54] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. Winter '98/'99 Catalog. [55] "Through the Looking Glass" by Robert Bigalow, Dragon #192, April 1993. [56] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. Advertisement, Dragon #197, September 1993. [57] "Through the Looking Glass" by Robert Bigalow, Dragon #205, May 1994. [58] Ral Partha Gaming Club Newsletter #6, September 30, 1997. [59] Ral Partha Gaming Club Newsletter #3, September 30, 1996. [60] (http:/ / www. gamecabinet. com/ news/ TSRWotC. html), Game Cabinet - Wizards of the Coast to acquire TSR, Accessed November 24, 2008. [61] (http:/ / www. wizards. com/ default. asp?x=dnd/ 4news/ 20081023), Wizards of the Coast, D&D Miniatures Changes Explained. [62] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. 1997 Catalog Insert - The Final Battle Begins, Bloodstorm. [63] Ral Partha Enterprises, Inc. Winter '98/'99 Catalog.

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Ral Partha Enterprises

[64] (http:/ / www. sjgames. com/ pyramid/ sample. html?id=693), Pyramid Magazine Industry News, Accessed November 23, 2008. [65] (http:/ / www. carnagecon. com/ Files/ FASA_Closing_FAQ. html), FASA Closing FAQ. [66] (http:/ / www. thunderboltmountain. com/ forum/ viewtopic. php?t=384), Tom Meier, Thunderbolt Miniatures Forums, Accessed December 12, 2008. [67] (http:/ / www. icv2. com/ articles/ news/ 197. html), Mage Knight Metal Collectible Pewter Figures, Accessed November 23, 2008. [68] (http:/ / www. wizkidsgames. com/ documents/ pr/ 03_01_01MKMetalAnnounce. pdf), WizKids Announces Mage Knight Metal, Accessed November 23, 2008. [69] (http:/ / www. icv2. com/ articles/ news/ 972. html), WizKids to Spin Off Ral Partha on its own in January, Accessed December 1, 2008. [70] (http:/ / www. dragonforge. com/ Painting service/ bio. htm), Biography of Jeffrey P. Wilhelm. [71] And the Winner Is... Dragon Magazine #139, p. 56, November 1988 [72] Dragon Magazine #149, September 1989. [73] Panzeri Jr., Peter F. (2006-07-01). "32nd Hall of Fame Inductees Announced" (http:/ / www. talsorian. com/ OA-Hall-of-Fame-2006. pdf) (PDF). Talsorian. . Retrieved 2008-12-04. [74] White Dwarf Magazine #16, December/January 1979/1980. [75] White Dwarf Magazine #22, December/January 1980/1981 [76] (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0213327/ ), IMDB "Andromeda" (2000), Accessed December 18, 2008. [77] (http:/ / www. myspace. com/ ralpartha), Ral Partha Vogelbacher MySpace Page, Accessed December 18, 2008. [78] (http:/ / audiversity. com/ 2007/ 03/ new-music-ral-partha-vogelbacher. html), New Music: Ral Partha Vogelbacher, Brother Ali, Accessed December 18, 2008.

173

External links
Sources for Ral Partha Miniatures: USA - Iron Wind Metals http://ironwindmetals.com/d/index.php USA - Royal Armies of the Hyborian Age, Classic Miniatures http://www.classicminiatures.net USA - Ogre, Steve Jackson Games http://warehouse23.sjgames.com/ UK - Colonials, Great Endeavours - http://www.greatendeavours.co.uk/colonials/rp_list.php

Companies who employ or have employed Ral Partha's sculptors, artists and mold-makers: Thunderbolt Mountain Miniatures - http://www.thunderboltmountain.com Iron Wind Metals - http://ironwindmetals.com/d/index.php Lance & Laser - http://www.lance-and-laser.com Dark Sword Miniatures - http://darkswordminiatures.com Fox Miniatures - http://www.foxminiatures.com Olleys Armies - http://www.olleysarmies.co.uk Reaper Miniatures - http://www.reapermini.com Dragon Forge Design - http://www.dragonforge.com/index.html Image Replicas - http://www.archimagestudios.us/replicaprod.html Crocodile Games - http://www.crocodilegames.com Majestic Mold Making Co. - http://www.manta.com/coms2/dnbcompany_cxx1vr

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

174

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

Hundreds of smaller replicas of the Statue of Liberty have been created worldwide.

France
Paris

One of the 200 Lady Liberty statues donated by the Boy Scouts of America is located on Michigans Mackinac Island in historic Haldimand Bay

Jardin du Luxembourg One stands in the Jardin du Luxembourg: an information panel on the pedestal claims that it is a bronze model used by Bartholdi as part of the preparatory work for the New York statue; the artist offered it to the Luxembourg museum in 1900 and it was placed in the park in 1906.[1] The date written on this statue's tablet (where the New York statue has "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI") is "15 de novembre 1889" (November 15, 1889), the date at which the larger Parisian replica was inaugurated.

Model in Jardin du Luxembourg, Paris

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty Pont de Grenelle This second Statue of Liberty in Paris is near the Grenelle Bridge on the le des Cygnes, a man-made island in the river Seine (48510N 21647E), 11.50 m (37 feet 9inches) high. Inaugurated on July 4, 1889, it looks southwest, downriver along the Seine. Its tablet bears two dates: "IV JUILLET 1776" (July 4, 1776: the United States Declaration of Independence) like the New York statue, and "XIV JUILLET 1789" (July 14, 1789: the storming of the Bastille). This statue is shown in the movie National Treasure: Book of Secrets as one of the historic locations. Muse des Arts et Mtiers A third copy, also produced by Bartholdi is located in the Muse des Arts et Mtiers. Flame of Liberty
Statue of Liberty on the le des Cygnes, river A life-size copy of the torch, Flame of Liberty, can be seen above the Seine in Paris, France. Given to the city in 1889, entrance to the Pont de l'Alma tunnel near the Champs Elysees in Paris. it faces southwest, downriver along the Seine. It was given to the city as a return gift in honor of the Centennial Celebration of the statue's dedication. Since it is above the Pont de l'Alma car tunnel in which Princess Diana died, the torch became an unofficial memorial to the Princess.

175

Bordeaux
Another replica is the Bordeaux Statue of Liberty. This 2.5m (8ft) statue is in the city of Bordeaux in Southwest France. The first Bordeaux statue was seized and melted down by the Nazis in World War II. The statue was replaced in 2000 and a plaque was added to commemorate the victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks. On the night of March 25, 2003, unknown vandals poured red paint and gasoline on the replica and set it on fire. The vandals also cracked the pedestal of the plaque. The mayor of Bordeaux, former prime minister Alain Jupp, condemned the attack.

Barentin
There is a replica in the northwest of France, in the small town of Barentin near Rouen. It was made for a French movie, Le Cerveau ("the brain"), directed by Grard Oury and featuring actors Jean-Paul Belmondo and Bourvil.[2]

Colmar
A 12 m (39ft 4 in) replica of the Statue of Liberty in Colmar, the city of Bartholdi's birth, was dedicated on July 4, 2004 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his death. It stands at the north entrance of the city.[3] [4] The Bartholdi Museum in Colmar contains numerous models of various sizes made by Bartholdi during the process of designing the statue.[5]

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

176

Other French cities

Other "Liberty enlightening the world" are displayed in Poitiers and Lunel. The Muse des beaux-arts de Lyon owns a terracota version.

Other European countries

Austria
In Minimundus, a miniature park located at the Wrthersee in Carinthia, Austria is another replica of the Statue of Liberty.[6]

Germany
A 35m (115ft) copy is in the German Heidepark Soltau theme park, located on a lake with cruising Mississippi steamboats. It weighs 28 metric tons (31 short tons), is made of plastic foam on a steel frame with polyester cladding, and was designed by the Dutch artist Gerla Spee.[7]

Kosovo
A replica stands atop the Hotel Victory in Pristina, Kosovo.[8]

Norway
A smaller replica is in the Norwegian village of Visnes, where the copper used in the original statue was mined.[9]

Spain
In 1897 a 123cm (4ft 0 in) replica in iron and bronze was erected in Cenicero, Spain, to honor local fighters during the First Carlist War. In 1936 it was removed during the dictatorship of Francisco Franco. It was restored in 1976 and moved indoor in 1997 because of deterioration, and a new bronze statue replaced it in the original plaza.[10]

Replica of the Statue displayed at Karmy, Norway.

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

177

Ukraine
There is one unique "sitting" Statue of Liberty in Ukrainian city of Lviv. It is a sculpture on a dome of the house (15, Freedom Avenue) built by architect Yuriy Zakharevych and decorated by sculptor Leandro Marconi in 18741891.

Statue of Liberty in Lviv

United Kingdom
A 17-foot, 3.4 ton replica stood atop the Liberty Shoe factory in Leicester, England until 2003 when the building was demolished, the statue was put into storage while the building was replaced. The statue, which dates back to the 1920s, was initially going to be put back on the replacement building, but was too heavy, so in December 2008 following restoration it been placed upon a pedestal near Liberty Park Halls of Residence on a traffic island close to where it originally stood.[11] [12] A 10-foot-high (3.0 m) replica is situated on the stairwell of a bowling alley building in Warrington, England. It used to be above the entrance of a restaurant nearby. There is also a small replica located at RAF Lakenheath, England, at the base flag plaza, made from leftover copper from original.[13]

North America

Replica of the Statue of Liberty in Leicester, England

Mexico
In Campeche, Mexico there is a small replica in a small town named Palizada.

United States
From 1902 to 2002, visitors to Midtown Manhattan were occasionally disoriented by what seemed to be an impossibly nearby view of the statue. They were seeing a 30-foot (9.1 m) high replica located at 43 West 64th Street atop the Liberty Warehouse.[14] [15] In February 2002 the statue was removed by the building's owners to allow the building to be expanded.[16] It was donated to the Brooklyn Museum of Art which installed it in its sculpture garden on October 2005, and plans to restore it on site in spring of 2006.[17] [18]

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

178

A bronze sculpture of the Statue of Liberty is on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.[19] Duluth, Minnesota, has a small copy on the west side of the Duluth Entertainment Convention Center, in the center of a clearing surrounded by pine trees where it may be passed unnoticed. It was presented to the city by some of Bartholdi's descendants residing in Duluth.[20] [21] and also one in bozeman, Montana The Boy Scouts of America celebrated their fortieth anniversary in 1950 with the theme of "Strengthen the Arm of Liberty".[22] Between 1949 and 1952, approximately two hundred 100-inch (2.5 m) replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper, were purchased by Boy Scout troops and donated in 39 states in the U.S. and several of its possessions and territories. The project was the brainchild of Kansas City businessman, J.P. Whitaker, who was then Scout Commissioner Replica of the Statue of Liberty, Las Vegas of the Kansas City Area Council. The copper statues were manufactured by Friedley-Voshardt Co. (Chicago, Illinois) and purchased through the Kansas City Boy Scout office by those wanting one. The statues are approximately 8 feet (2.6 m) tall without the base, constructed of sheet copper, weigh 290 pounds (130kg), and originally cost $350 plus freight. The mass-produced statues are not great art nor meticulously accurate (a conservator notes that "her face isn't as mature as the real Liberty. It's rounder and more like a little girl's"), but they are cherished, particularly since 9/11. Many have been lost or destroyed, but preservationists have been able to account for about a hundred of them, and BSA Troop 101 of Cheyenne, Wyoming has collected photographs of over 100 of them.[23] [24] There is a half-size replica at the New York-New York Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada.[25] [26] [27] [28] Another smaller replica stands in Las Vegas, on West Sahara Avenue. The pedestal once housed a local business, Statue of Liberty Pizza. Today it advertises Liberty Tax Service, a tax preparation firm. The city of Sioux Falls, South Dakota erected a replacement bronze reproduction standing 9ft (2.7 m) tall in McKennan Park atop the original pedestal for a long-missing wooden replica.[29]

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

179

A 36-foot (11 m) tall bronze replica, accurately based on Bartholdi's "Liberty Enlightening the World", stands in Vestavia Hills, a suburb of Birmingham, Alabama. It was cast in 1956 at the Socit Antoine Durenne foundry in Somerville Haut Marne, France for placement in 1958 atop the Liberty National Life Insurance Company Building in downtown Birmingham.[14] It was relocated and placed on a 60-foot (18 m) tall granite pedestal adjacent to Interstate 459 in 1989.[30]
[31] [32]

Two 30-foot (9.1 m) copper replicas stand atop the Liberty National Bank Building[14] in Buffalo, New York, nearly 108 m (354ft) above street level.[33] [34] A 25ft (7.6 m) tall replica sits on the ruins of the late Marysville Bridge (erected on a platform (pier)) in the Dauphin Narrows of Susquehanna River north of Harrisburg. The replica was built by a local activist Gene Stilp on July 2, 1986; it was made of venetian blinds and stood 18 feet (5.5 m) tall. Six years later, after it was destroyed in a windstorm, it was rebuilt by Stilp and other local citizens, of wood, metal, glass and fiberglass, to a height of 25 feet (7.6 m).[35] [36] [37]

"Liberty Enlightening the World" replica in Birmingham, Alabama.

A Lego replica of the Statue of Liberty consisting of 2882 bricks and standing 0.9m (3ft) is a popular sculpture among Lego enthusiasts. The statue went out of production, but due to popular demand was returned to sale.[38] A much larger replica built entirely in Lego can be seen in Legoland Billund. A smaller version of the Billund model is on display at the Legoland California amusement park. An 11-foot (3.4 m) miniature Statue of Liberty (holding a Bible instead of a tablet) currently stands atop a 15-foot (4.6 m) pedestal outside the Liberty Recycling plant in San Marcos, California. The company was named after the statue, which has been moved throughout northern San Diego County for over 80 years, originating at Liberty Hotel in Leucadia in the 1920s.[39] A 25-foot (7.6 m) replica of the Statue, lofting a Christian cross, holding the Ten Commandments, and named the "Statue of Liberation through Christ", was erected by a predominantly African-American church in Memphis, Tennessee on July 4, 2006.[40] A small replica stands on the grounds of the Cherokee Capitol Building in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, a gift from the local Boy Scouts in 1950.[41] There is a 6-foot-tall (1.8 m) replica in Lebanon, Tennessee, near the southwest corner of the intersection of East Main Street and South College Street. Fargo, North Dakota also has a replica of the statue of liberty on the corner of Main Ave. & 2nd Street at the entrance of the Main avenue bridge.[42] The Kansas State Capitol in Topeka, Kansas has a replica of the Statue of Liberty. There is a replica on the shoreline of Lake Chaubunagungamaug in Webster, Massachusetts.[43] In order to promote the 2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Yankee Stadium, the city of New York has 42 different 8'6" Statue of Liberty replicas, each in different locations in the city (34 outdoors, 8 indoors). Each is uniquely designed with different team colors and logos, along with several ones with the All-Star Game logo or different New York landmarks. This is similar to what was done with the cows in Chicago, the fish in Baltimore, the angels in Los Angeles, and the Mr. Potato Head's in the state of Rhode Island. 9" replicas can be bought of the

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty larger replicas. There is one also on Alki Beach, in Seattle, Washington. There is one in front of the old Sioux City, Iowa auditorium. A replica stands in a roadway park on Orange Avenue in Orlando, Florida. A small replica stands atop a pedestal in Dalton, Georgia on Walnut Avenue. There is a small replica across from city hall in Medford, Oregon. A small replica welcomes all east-bound travelers on US-80 entering Forney, Texas. A small replica welcomes residents, visitors and business people alike, in downtown Neenah, Wisconsin.

180

South America
Argentina
In Buenos Aires, Argentina there is a small replica in Barrancas De Belgrano Square, acquired by Argentina to France.

Brazil
A replica stands in front of New York City Center, a shopping centee in the Barra da Tijuca neighborhood, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. A second model, also on a small scale, was further brought to Macei, a city in the northeast of Brazil. This model is in front of Macei's first city hall, built in 1869, which is now a museum. There is another replica of the statue in the Havan Department Store parking, in Curitiba.

Ecuador
In Guayaquil, Ecuador a little replica gives the name of "New York" to a neighborhood in the Valle Alto Area.

Peru
In Lima, Peru the New York casino in the Jesus Maria District has a small replica in the main entrance. The whole casino is a tribute to the state of New York and the USA.

Asia
China
Guangzhou Set on top of the memorial tomb of "72 Martyrs of Huanghuagang" (see Huanghuagang Uprising). Current one was re-built in 1981. Beijing During the Tiananmen Square protest of 1989, Chinese student demonstrators in Beijing built a 10m (33ft) image called the Goddess of Democracy, which sculptor Tsao Tsing-yuan said was intentionally dissimilar to the Statue of Liberty to avoid being "too openly pro-American." (See article for a list of replicas of that statue.)

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

181

Israel
A 15 feet high replica of the statue of liberty is seen in the western entrance to the village of Arraba in Israel, near a local restaurant. At a highway intersection in Jerusalem called "New York Square," there is an abstract skeletal replica of the Statue.

Statue of Liberty replica in the village of Arraba, Israel

Japan
The French Statue of Liberty came to Odaiba, the beach area of Tokyo since April 1998 until May 1999 in commemoration of "The French year in Japan". Because of its popularity, in 2000, a replica of the French Statue of Liberty was erected at the same place (Photo). Also in Japan, a small Statue of Liberty is in the Amerika-mura (American Village) shopping district in Osaka, Japan. Another replica is located near the town of Shimoda south of Misawa, Japan where the United States has a U.S. Air Force base with 8,000 military members. This replica is located on the same latitude as the original statue in New York.[44]

Statue of Liberty Park near Shimoda, Aomori.

Philippines
Camp John Hay, a former US base in the Baguio City (Philippines), also has a small replica of the statue near the amphitheater.

Statue of Liberty replica at Odaiba, overlooking the Rainbow Bridge in Tokyo Bay

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

182

Taiwan
There are at least two Statue of Liberty replicas (greater than 30 feet) in Taiwan. These two statues are in the cities of Keelung and Taipei. Here are two photos [45] for reference. A replica of the torch was created for the last scene of the 1968 film Planet of the Apes, and this torch was later used in the last episode of the TV series Lost in Space, titled "Junkyard of Space".

Vietnam
From 1887 to 1945, Hanoi was home to another copy of the statue. Measuring 2.85 m (9ft 4 in) tall, it was erected by the French colonial government after being sent from France for an exhibition. It was known to locals unaware of its The replica of the Statue of Liberty in Camp John Hay in Baguio history as Tng B m xe (Statue of the madame saux). When the French lost control of French Indochina during World War II, the statue was toppled on August 1, 1945 after being deemed a vestige of the colonial government along with other statues erected by the French.[46]

Australia
A 30-foot replica can also be seen at the Westfield Marion shopping complex in Adelaide, South Australia.

External links
Replica Statue of Liberty Search [47]

References
[1] As explained by the sign at the statue's foot. [2] "Les Statues dans le monde" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060210152719/ http:/ / www. statueofliberty. info/ pages/ statue/ mondeba. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. statueofliberty. info/ pages/ statue/ mondeba. htm) on 2006-02-10. . Retrieved 2006-05-28.: image and description of the Barentin replica from the personal website of a Statue of Liberty enthusiast [3] Statue of Freedom (http:/ / www. endex. com/ gf/ buildings/ liberty/ worldstatues/ liberties/ Colmar/ LibertyColmar. htm), Colmar, Alsace, France, Birthplace of Auguste Bartholdi. Gary Feuerstein, personal website [4] Another Statue of Liberty, Colmar, France (http:/ / www. internationalliving. com/ france/ free/ 04-12-05. html). Internationalliving.com website. [5] Construction of the Statue (http:/ / www. cr. nps. gov/ history/ online_books/ hh/ 11/ hh11e. htm), National Park Service Historical Handbook [6] Minimundus replica (http:/ / www. minimundus. at/ img/ bildarchiv/ ba_10_gross. jpg) [7] Map of Heidepark Soltau park, showing lake and statue (http:/ / www. heidepark. de/ swf/ assets/ parkplan. jpg). For a more detailed view: at (http:/ / www. heidepark. de), click on "Heide Park;" in the popup window entitled "Willkommen im Heide-Park" click on the British flag at top left, "Map" at bottom left, and the statue itself shown in a pond near the center of the map. The flattering description speaks of America. Land of unlimited opportunity. Where everything is just that little bit bigger than anywhere else. And higher and wider and faster. [8] Smith, Morgan (July 25, 2003). "Investors should take a closer look at Kosovo" (http:/ / www. bizjournals. com/ denver/ stories/ 2003/ 07/ 28/ editorial4. html). Denver Business Journal. . "It was quite a change to arrive in Pristina, where the main street is named after Bill Clinton and my hotel, the Hotel Victory, has a replica of the Statue of Liberty built on its rooftop." [9] Vigsnes Mining Field (http:/ / www. olavsrosa. no/ en/ objektinfo. aspx?id=27787) [10] ` Estatua de la Libertad (http:/ / www. cenicero. net/ libertad. htm). [11] (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ england/ leicestershire/ 7478419. stm). Landmark could return to skyline [12] (http:/ / www. leicester. gov. uk/ newssite/ index01. asp?pgid=8903). Work begins on replacing statue [13] page 4 (http:/ / www. lakenheath. af. mil/ shared/ media/ document/ AFD-070730-006. pdf) [14] "Exhibitions: Replica of the Statue of Liberty: Other Statue of Liberty Replicas" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080124100241/ http:/ / www. brooklynmuseum. org/ exhibitions/ statue_of_liberty/ ). "Brooklyn Museum website". Archived from the original (http:/ / www. brooklynmuseum. org/ exhibitions/ statue_of_liberty/ ) on 2008-01-24. . Retrieved 2008-02-17. [15] Little Liberty (http:/ / www. forgotten-ny. com/ STREET SCENES/ STATUE/ liberty. html) photographs and descriptions

Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

[16] Statue of LibertyLiberty Warehouse (http:/ / www. endex. com/ gf/ buildings/ liberty/ worldstatues/ . \liberties\sol64. htm) description, news item on statue's relocation [17] Brooklyn Museum to Install Monumental Statue of Liberty Replica (http:/ / www. brooklynmuseum. org/ press/ pr/ 2005_08_statue_of_liberty. pdf), August, 2005 Brooklyn Museum press release [18] Brooklyn Museum Nov-Dec 2005 "What's Happening" (http:/ / www. brooklynmuseum. org/ press/ pr/ 2005_NovDec_Whats_Happ) "recently installed" and "in the Spring of 2006 will undergo restoration on site in its new location." [19] Insecula.com. "Statue de la Libert: Elment 1 sur 11" (http:/ / www. insecula. com/ oeuvre/ O0016026. html/ ). . Retrieved 2006-06-01. [20] Listing in guide to public art (http:/ / www. ci. duluth. mn. us/ city/ artscommission/ otherpublicart. htm) (Duluth replica) [21] Photograph in an online forum (http:/ / www. geocaching. com/ seek/ log. aspx?IID=109677de-7cf1-444a-a51b-d53f970cb5d2& LID=9353315) (Duluth replica) [22] Attoun, Marti (October 2007). "Little Sisters of Liberty" (http:/ / www. scoutingmagazine. org/ issues/ 0710/ d-wwas. html). Scouting. . Retrieved 2007-10-09. [23] Attoun, Marti (September 29, 2007). "Restoring the Little Sisters of Lady Liberty" (http:/ / www. americanprofile. com/ article/ 3455. html). American Profile. . Retrieved 2007-09-30. [24] BSA Troop 101, Cheyenne, Wyoming (http:/ / www. cheyennetroop101. org/ liberty/ ) Photos and locations of more than ninety of the replicas [25] New York, New York Hotel and Casino, Las Vegas (http:/ / www. nynyhotelcasino. com/ pages/ hotel. asp) (visible in small image of their miniature New York facade) [26] Levine, Arthur: "Don't Make Mine Manhattan--Manhattan Express Roller Coaster, New York, New York Hotel & Casino, Las Vegas" (http:/ / themeparks. about. com/ cs/ lasvegas/ fr/ manhattanexpres. htm) (Unfavorable review of roller-coaster ends "To be fair, the sight of the coaster careening around Lady Liberty, particularly at night, is striking. My advice: skip the ride, and watch it from the Strip for free." [27] "New York, New York" ("Virtual Tourist's" visitor review) (http:/ / www. virtualtourist. com/ travel/ North_America/ United_States_of_America/ Nevada/ Las_Vegas-836630/ Things_To_Do-Las_Vegas-New_York_New_York-BR-1. html) (Small image of statue) [28] "Vegasworld.com" (http:/ / users. tinyworld. co. uk/ mrt/ html/ ht_nyny. htm) (Larger images) [29] Statue of Liberty unveiling (http:/ / www. siouxfalls. org/ Parks/ News/ 2002/ July/ StatueofLibertyUnveiling. aspx), Sioux Falls Parks and Recreation news [30] Birmingham Online.com Birmingham's Statue of Liberty (http:/ / www. bhamonline. com/ liberty/ ) With photos. [31] "Liberty Statue" (http:/ / www. gastudio. com/ oddlots/ 10_missliberty/ index. html). "GA Architecture Studio". . Retrieved 2008-02-17. [32] Roadside America website: Birmingham, Alabama - Statue of Liberty Replica (http:/ / www. roadsideamerica. com/ tips/ getAttraction. php3?tip_AttractionNo==13) [33] Liberty Building, Emporis architectural website (http:/ / www. emporis. com/ en/ wm/ bu/ ?id=126216), has image [34] Buffalo - Liberty Building, PlanetWare travel website (http:/ / www. planetware. com/ buffalo/ liberty-building-us-ny-lib. htm) [35] Scolforo, Mark (2004). "Master of props lends visual effects to memorable publicity campaigns" (http:/ / www. phillyburbs. com/ pb-dyn/ news/ 103-02142004-246490. html). Associated Press. . [36] U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Susquehanna River Trail (http:/ / www. fish. state. pa. us/ watertrails/ susqmid/ trailguide. htm), "Dauphin Narrows/Statue of Liberty" [37] R. Craig Kochel, personal website, image of the Stilp statue (http:/ / www. facstaff. bucknell. edu/ kochel/ classes/ susqriver/ august31. htm) [38] Lego Set Reference (http:/ / www. peeron. com/ inv/ sets/ 3450-1) Lego replica [39] North County Times: Lady Liberty lowered in San Marcos (http:/ / www. nctimes. com/ news/ local/ article_4dd6b10d-d720-546e-85f9-69ac5553c1b0. html) [40] Untitled Document (http:/ / www. thestatueofliberationthroughchrist. org/ ) [41] "Statue of Liberty Replica" (http:/ / www. lasr. net/ leisure/ oklahoma/ cherokee/ tahlequah/ att3f. html). Leisure and Sport Review. 2006. . Retrieved 2006-10-07. [42] Photo Gallery (http:/ / www. fargomoorhead. org/ photogallery/ index. php#) [43] Belluck, Pam (November 20, 2004). "What's the Name of That Lake? It's Hard to Say" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2004/ 11/ 20/ national/ 20lake. html). The New York Times. . [44] "Statue of Liberty Park" (http:/ / www. misawalife. com/ 2008/ 06/ statue-of-liberty-park. html). Misawa Life. . Retrieved 2009-06-04. [45] http:/ / sandyintaiwan. blogspot. com/ 2007/ 08/ statues-of-liberty. html#links [46] Vietnam Net article (http:/ / vietnamnet. vn/ thuhanoi/ 2005/ 08/ 474419/ ) (Hanoi replica: in Vietnamese, with pictures) [47] http:/ / www. cheyennetroop101. org/ liberty/

183

Robotech Defenders

184

Robotech Defenders
Robotech Defenders

If this infobox is not supposed to have an image, please add "|noimage=yes". Publication information Publisher Schedule Format Genre Publication date Number of issues Main character(s) DC Comics Limited Limited series Science fiction DC Comics: January 1985 - April 1985 2 see the comic series enclosed with the model kits Creative team Writer(s) Penciller(s) Inker(s) Letterer(s) Andrew Helfer Judith A. Hunt Murphy Anderson Ben Oda

The Robotech Defenders are a line of scale model kits released by Revell during the 1980s. Other than their name might suggest, the Robotech Defenders are not related to the Japanese Robotech series of Animes and Mangas, though they share a certain background idea. The line was meant to be tied to an ongoing comic book series of the same name. It shares a common feat of other Sci-Fi series of that time: invading aliens, called Grelons, conquer earth for colonization, using titanic humanoid war machines, and the Earth people's only defense are the ancient Robotech Defenders, a small unit of diverse similar alien war machines, each of which have a unique range of possibilities and environmental specialities (eg., Aqualo was capable of diving and sea-based activities, Ziyon's Element was cold and snow, Thoren's heat and magma, Gartan's urban combat). DC Comics agreed to publish a three-part mini-series in 1984 to test the waters, but the comic was of such poor quality, it was cancelled after only two issues.

The Model Kits

Revell went to Japan, the home of the grand-masters in over-sized technological monstrosities, to look for suitable mecha models before 1984. They eventually licensed a few of the BattleMechs from FASA's BattleTech tabletop strategy game universe and released them as upscaled 1:72 plastic model kits. The range consisted of thirteen model kits (given with Revell product code): 1148-1/72 Aqualo (model origin unknown), 1149-1/72 Ziyon (BTech: Battlemaster), 1150-1/48 Thoren (BTech: Griffin), 1151-1/48 Zoltek (BTech: Shadow Hawk), 1153-1/48 Talos (BTech Wolverine), 1154-1/48 Gartan (BTech: Thunderbolt), 1191-1/72 Armored Combat Team ("reverse-engineered" Thoren and infantry in jeeps), 1192-1/72 Strike Force ("reverse-engineered" Gartan and PAH-2 assault helicopter), 1193-1/72 Assault Squad (light wheeled assault tank and four-legged Mech), 1194-1/72 Robot Recovery Unit (flatbed transporter), and the

Robotech Defenders three Grelon units, the 1152-1/48 Condar (model origin not clear), the 1197-1/72 Airborne Attackers, a Condar with transport helicopter, and the 1199-1/48 Commando (quadriped Mech and dug-in infantry). All of them were manufactured by Takara corp., Ltd, Tokyo/Japan, for Revell. The humanoid Mech models had an average size of 30cm, the in-scale humans were about 2cm. One of the features of these plastic models (except for the tiny human and grelon miniatures) was that they weren't just static when assembled, but had fully movable joints and removable equipment; kind of like modern toys (seen from today's point of view) that the children had to assemble, glue together, and paint before playing. Because of the complexity and the many details and parts of the high-quality model kits they can be seen as quasi-adult level, though they were sold with the notion "ages 12 and up" on their packages. But even for experienced modellers the details of assembly and painting were partially quite a challenge, especially with the humans and grelons. All in all, the model kits are both play-toys and potential centerpieces of a model showcase, assuming that a skilled painter applies his full range of techniques on all the details. The models were repackaged for a North American and European release. The 'Mechs were given new names and functions, most of which were unrelated to the original names, factions and functions of the BattleTech series. In Europe, they didn't sell too well, because the Megamech and manga scene was very small at that time, and the practically non-existent background story and the relatively high prices for the models did not exactly encourage the customers. In addition, many players of BattleTech saw Revell's model kits as a pitiful attempt to participate in the BTech market without keeping to the BTech universe. Given the completely different yet somewhat similar background universes, the similarity in the names of the Robotech Defenders and the Japanese Robotech anime/manga series caused a problem for media company Harmony Gold, who licensed the North American video rights to the Japanese Macross anime series. Since Revell was already distributing the models, Harmony Gold could not support the show with merchandising. In the end, both companies decided to enter into a co-licensing agreement and the name Robotech was eventually adopted for the syndicated television show that the home video line had transformed into.

185

The Comics
The comic, a two-issue mini-series, was published by DC Comics in 1984. It was originally intended to be a trilogy, but was reduced to the first normal-sized issue and a 32-page second issue with no advertisement. The story followed the battles of a team of pilots who fight a savage race of aliens who have been given superior technology. The pilots are losing badly when their leader accidentally activates one of the Robotech Defenders. She then learns of the existence of the other machines, which are scattered on the other pilots' home planets. By the end of the first issue, the team have managed to recover all the robots and engage the enemy in battle, but are still defeated and get captured. They escape by pushing a big red button which releases the Defenders' minds, unleashing the latters' full combat capabilities. The pilots then track down the controller of the savage aliens. They defeat him by causing the evil alien energy siphon to suck the energy from the sun, causing their space ship to explode.

Robotech Defenders

186

References
Robotech Defenders (1985) [1] at the Grand Comics Database Robotech Defenders (1985) [2] at the Comic Book DB (TABLE REMOVED --- Sorry, but that table had definitely NOTHING to do with Robotech Defenders.)

References
[1] http:/ / www. comics. org/ series/ 2991 [2] http:/ / comicbookdb. com/ title. php?ID=5410

Room box
A room box is a display box used for three-dimensional miniature scale environments, or scale models. Although the name would suggest room boxes generally only represent typical rooms such as those found in houses or other buildings (bedrooms, kitchens, offices, etc.), room boxes are used for all sorts of environments exterior views as well as interior ones, realistic ones as well as fantastical ones. While some miniaturists concentrate their efforts specifically on room boxes, many use them to take a break from larger projects, such as dollhouses or miniature villages, to create a smaller environment on a different theme. A room box can be tailored to ones interests or mirror an important step in life - for example, a bakery or restaurant scene might be created by or for a baker or cook, and a wedding dress storefront might be created for a bride to be or as a reminiscence of one's wedding. Making a room box is often a first step to learning new techniques in miniature making; such projects are popular at miniaturists' events where attendees have only 12 days to make and finish a project. Once techniques are perfected in these smaller settings, craftspersons and hobbyists often reapply them to larger projects. Room boxes are a cost- and time-effective way to make miniature settings without attempting larger setups such as a dollhouse or train set. Commercially bought room boxes tend to be made of wood, pressed wood products or plywood, with the top and front window made of removable clear acrylic that lets in light and enables access and viewing from two perspectives. Dimensions usually meet standard dollhouse proportions ("1:12 scale" in dollhouse speak means that 1" in the dollhouse world represents 1' in the real world), but anyone can make a room box from a leftover shoebox, orange crate, etc. and adapt an idea to suit the box's scale. Since any material can be used, whether leftover or new, people of all economic classes express themselves through this craft. As evidenced in the recent increase in craft book and magazine publishing on different types of miniatures, interest in making room-boxes for miniature settings has steadily grown since the 1990s. Room boxes have even found a place during prime-time television: the winter 2007 season of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation included a clever storyline recurring throughout the season, where a murderess named The Miniature Killer leaves clues for investigators in the form of intricately made 3-D room boxes showing scenes of the crimes she committed, reproduced in scale miniature.

See also
Dollhouse

Roxxter

187

Roxxter
Roxxter is a German electric radio controlled helicopter produced by LF-Technik. The Roxxter comes in various models, i.a. "55 Heli", "33 Heli", "22 Heli" and "11 Heli". The more powerful versions has a motor system with a performance in the 3kW range making it able to compete with or even surpass the high end fuel powered machines.

External links
Helitown on the LF-Technik Roxxter [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. helitown. com/ Roxxter. htm

Pierre Scerri
Pierre Scerri is a French telecommunications engineer and model builder, who gained fame in 1998 after having his highly accurate 1:3 scale model of a Ferrari 312 PB featured on the BBC programme Jeremy Clarkson's Extreme Machines. He began his project for the model in 1978, out of desire for having a Ferrari that could function in his dining room [1]. Pierre Bardinon, owner of the Mas du Clos race track, allowed Scerri to take detailed photographs of the actual car on display at the adjacent Ferrari museum. Based on those photographs, he drafted the schematics and made the molds for all parts of the model, a process which took 15 years. In 1989, he finally completed assembly of the engine, a perfect scaled replica of the Flat-12 cylinder engine found on the 312PB. He reportedly took extra time tuning the engine so that it would sound like the full-scale model [2]. The project was finally completed in December of 1992. Scerri is now working on 3 new models, a Ferrari 330 P4, another Ferrari 312PB and an engine for a Ferrari 250 GTO, all 1:3 scale.

External links
Pierre Scerri's website [3] Fine Art Models (through web.archive.org) [2] YouTube Video of Pierre Scerri's appearance on Jeremy Clarkson's Extreme Machines [4]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / mps-sportproto. com/ en/ modeles. php?num=1#historique http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030201084008/ http:/ / www. fineartmodels. com/ scerri. htm http:/ / mps-sportproto. com http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=9f6YxAvcxhU

Scratch building

188

Scratch building
Scratch building is the process of building a scale model "from scratch", ie. from raw materials, rather than building it from a commercial kit, kitbashing or buying it pre-assembled. Scratch building is easiest if original plans of the subject exist; however, many models have been built from photographs by measuring a known object in the photograph and extrapolating the rest of the dimensions. The necessary parts are then fashioned out of a suitable material, such as wood, plastic, plaster, clay, metal, polymer clay, or even paper, and then assembled. Some purists consider a model not to be truly scratchbuilt unless all of the parts were made from raw materials. However most modellers would consider a model including commercial detail parts as scratchbuilt.

Motives
The reasons hobbyists scratchbuild may vary. Often a desired model is unavailable in kit form in the desired scale, or entirely non-existent. Sometimes the hobbyist may be dissatisfied with the accuracy or detail of kits that are available. Other times a hobbyist will opt to scratchbuild simply for the challenge. Less frequently a hobbyist will scratchbuild out of economy, as sometimes the raw materials cost less than a packaged commercial kit.

Techniques
Most hobbyists develop their skills by building kits, then progress to kitbashing, where various kits are combined to create a unique model before attempting to scratchbuild. Sometimes scratchbuilders utilize discarded parts of other models or toys, with or without modification, either in order to speed up the building process or to allow the process to continue in spite of certain parts being difficult to make. Some companies sell parts that are of little use to anyone but scratchbuilders.

Building Stock
Building stock, in whichever material, can be plain sheets, strips, bars, tubes, rods, or even structural shapes such as L or T girders. Stock can also be embossed or textured to replicate a certain prototype material (such as plastic sheet embossed with grooves to mimic a scale brick wall). For example, to scratch-build a small board fence, the modeler could use plastic rod stock to form the vertical posts, then use plastic bar stock to form horizontal rails affixed to the posts, lay plastic strip stock vertically on the horizontal rails (perhaps 'distressed' with a wire brush to mimic wood grain, or by using thin strips of actual wood), trimming the top and bottoms of the strips to be even, adding details like nail holes (using a small pin), and then finishing and weathering (making a model look like it has been used via dust, dirt, stains, and wear).

Method
There are as many ways of scratch-building models as there are modelers, but generally the modeler obtains plans of a prototype, or designs his own, transfers these plans to paper or other material as patterns (much easier since the arrival of household computer printers and copiers), and uses these patterns to cut, trim and affix the stock together to form the model. Finishing work (such as sanding and polishing, painting, weathering, distressing by forming dents and rust, dust, etc.) is done to complete the model and (hopefully) bring it to a life-like state.

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189

References
A J Madison. "Scratchbuilding FAQ" [1]. Retrieved 2006-11-25 (now defunct).

References
[1] http:/ / culttvman. com/ a_j_madison_s_scratchbuilding_. html

Slop (remote control)

Slop is the freedom of play in the levers and control systems of a model helicopter which results in it being difficult or unpredictable to fly. Slop can come from loose ball links, worn servo gear trains or loose output shafts, damaged bearings, or looseness or lack of rigidity of any supporting part of the airframe.

References
As of this edit [1], this article uses content from "Slop" [2], which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, but not under the GFDL. All relevant terms must be followed.

References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Slop_%28remote_control%29 [2] http:/ / www. rcheliwiki. com/ Slop

Solar system model

190

Solar system model

Solar System models, especially mechanical models, called orreries, that illustrate the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons in the Solar System have been built for centuries. While they often showed relative sizes, these models were usually not built to scale. The enormous ratio of interplanetary distances to planetary diameters makes constructing a scale model of the solar system a challenging task. As one example of the difficulty, the distance between the Earth and the Sun is almost 12,000 times the diameter of the Earth. If the smaller planets are to be easily visible to the naked eye, large outdoor spaces are generally necessary, as is some means for highlighting objects that might otherwise not be noticed from a distance. The objects in such models do not move. Traditional orreries often did move and some used clockworks to make the relative speeds of objects accurate. These can be thought of as being correctly scaled in time instead of distance.
Jupiter at South Station, part of Museum of One scale model, designed to be easily replicated, is called The [1] Science, Boston scale model. This was also used Thousand-Yard Model and spans about a kilometre. In it, the Earth is in FETCH! with Ruff Ruffman represented by a peppercorn. A school class building this model might tape the peppercorn to an index card to make it more visible. Another scale model is the 1:10 000 000 000 model, in which 100,000km is represented by 1 cm. In this model, the Sun is 600m from the Kuiper belt and dwarf planet Pluto. The largest scale model in the world is the Sweden Solar System.

In July 2005 the Austrian art group monochrom placed the planets true to scale (sun, 4 meters in diameter at Machine Gallery, Alvarado Street, near Echo Park) throughout the Los Angeles cityscape. Then they conducted an 'illegal space car race' [2] through the solar system. In regional Australia, in the area surrounding Coonabarabran (Australia's Astronomy Capital) there is a model solar system that reaches from the Observatory (The Sun) to surrounding towns and localities. In the US, a precedent-setting model solar system project the Voyage National Program [3] began with installation of Voyage on the National Mall in Washington, DC, in front of the Smithsonian museums. It is a 1:10 000 000 000 scale model approved by the US Commission of Fine Arts and National Capital Planning Commission. It was designed for replication and permanent installation in communities across the nation. It was also designed as a center-piece for sustained community-wide science education, embracing a "Learning Community Model" of programming for students, teachers, families, and the public. Grade K-12 lessons [4] available for download enhance the exhibition experience. Voyage is now permanently installed in Kansas City, Houston, and Corpus Christi. It is approved for installation in Des Moines, Orlando, and Baltimore, and a dozen other sites are exploring it as a site feature in their community. For the International Year of Astronomy 2009, Voyage has now become available worldwide as "the Voyage International Program" with storyboard translation into any language. The Voyage National Program also has a Facebook [5] page with photoalbums for all the Voyage communities. In 2009, to celebrate International Year of Astronomy [6], the Scottish Solar System project [7] created an approximate scale model of the Solar System, with correctly scaled objects representing the major planets sited temporarily, for Autumn Moonwatch week (Oct 24th - Nov 1st 2009) at the locations of a number of Scottish amateur astronomy groups and societies. In this model the Sun was represented by the main building of Glasgow Science Centre [8]. The Scottish Solar System project was coordinated by Dr Martin Hendry, astronomer at the

Solar system model University of Glasgow, and Glasgow Science Centre. Although the model did not include Pluto (which on the same scale would be located roughly in the Faroe Islands), its scale of 1:8,200,000 was smaller than any other model listed in the table below. On the same scale the nearest star beyond the Solar System, Proxima Centauri, would still lie nearly 5 million km from Glasgow Science Centre!

191

Scale models in various locations

Several towns and institutions have built outdoor scale models of the Solar System. Here is a table comparing these models.

Scale Models of the Solar System

Location Scale Sun dia. 1.392 Gm 170m Earth dia. Sun-Earth Sun-Pluto

Actual statistics

1:1

12.76 Mm

149.6 Gm

5.914 Tm

Scottish Solar System Project Sweden Solar System

[9]

1:8,200,000

1.56m

18.3km

551km (Neptune) 300km 205 km 138km

1:20,000,000 [10] 1:38,000,000 1:46,500,000

71m 37 m 25.6 m

65cm 34 cm 305 mm (1 ft) 137 mm 100 mm 32 mm ? mm

7.6km 4.1 km 3.5km

Solar System Drive, 2007, Coonabarabran, NSW, Australia Upstate New York from Syracuse, New York

University of Maine at Presque Isle Peoria, Illinois Boston Museum of Science Somerset Space Walk, Bridgwater and Taunton Canal, UK one Sun, two sets of planets York Nine Views, Zagreb Sorghvliet, The Hague

1:93,000,000 1:125,000,000 1:400,000,000 1:530,000,000

15 m 11 m 3.5 m 2.5 m

1.6km 1.2km 376 m ?m

64km 47km 14.9km 11km

1:575,872,239 1:680,000,000 1:696,000,000

2.417 m 2m 2m

22.1 mm 1.9 cm 1.8 cm

259.73 m 225 m 215 m

10.2679km 8.7km -Neptune: 6466m 7.07km 6.102km 5.9 km 5.9km 5.9km 5.9km 5.9km 5.9km 5.9km 4.57km 3 km (Neptune)

McCarthy Observatory, New Milford, CT, USA Model of the Solar System, Helsinki, Finland

[11]

1:761,155,000 1:1,000,000,000 1:1,000,000,000 1:1,000,000,000

1.8 m 1.40 m 1.39 m 1.39 m 1.39 m 1.39 m 1.39 m 1.39 m 1.39 m 1.08 m 92.7 cm

16.8 mm 12.8 mm 1.27 cm 13 mm 13 mm 13 mm 12.8 mm 12.8 mm 12 mm 9.9 mm 0.85 mm

195 m 149.6 m 150 m 150 m 150 m 150 m 150 m 150 m 150 m 116 m 100 m

[12] [13]

Planetenmedell Hagen, 1959, Hagen, Denmark Zurich, Uetliberg Planetenweg [14] [15]

Hagener Planetenmodell, Germany Planetenwanderweg, Germany [16]

1:1,000,000,000 1:1,000,000,000 1:1,000,000,000 1:1,000,000,000 1:1,000,000,000

Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic St. Kilda, Melbourne, Australia Eugene, Oregon [19]

[17]

[18]

Planet Walk, Munich, Germany Strolling at the speed of light

[20] La Malbaie, Qubec, Canada

1: 1,290,000,000 1:1,500,000,000

[21]

Solar system model

[22] [23]

192
1:2,000,000,000 1:2,200,000,000 1: 4,000,000,000 1: 4,590,000,000 [26] 1:5,000,000,000 70 cm 63 cm 33.8 cm 30 cm 27.8 cm 6 mm 6 mm 3.2 mm 2.7 mm 2.5 mm 2.5 mm? 2.4 mm 2 mm 1.2 mm 1.2 mm 3.19 mm 1.2 mm 75 m 68 m 37.4 m 32 m 30 m 30 m? 28.4 m 25 m 15 m 15 m 37 m 15 m 2.9 km 2.7 km 1.479km 983 m 1.18km 1km? 1121 m 983 m 590 m 590 m 1478 m 590 m

Solar System Walking Tour, Gainesville, GA, USA Montshire Museum of Science, Norwich, VT, USA Gainesville (FL) Solar Walk Otford Solar System Model [24]

[25]

The Sagan Planet Walk, Ithaca, NY Jodrell Bank

1:5,000,000,000? 30 cm? [27] 1:5,280,000,000 1:6,336,000,000 26.4 cm 20.3 cm

The Solar Walk, Cleveland, Ohio, USA The Thousand-Yard Model [28]

Saint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha!, Quebec (ca. 1985) Voyage, National Mall, 2001, Washington, DC, USA The Madison Planet Stroll, 2002, Madison, WI, USA [3] [29]

1:10,000,000,000 13.9 cm 1:10,000,000,000 13.9 cm 1:4,000,000,000 35 cm

Voyage, Power&Light District to Union Station, 2008, Kansas City, [3] Missouri, USA Voyage, Space Center Houston, 2008, Houston, Texas, USA [3]

1:10,000,000,000 13.9 cm

1:10,000,000,000 13.9 cm 1:10,000,000,000 13.9 cm

1.2 mm 1.2 mm

15 m 15 m

590 m 590 m

Voyage, Corpus Christi historic waterfront, 2009, Corpus Christi, [3] Texas, USA Voyage, State Capitol Grounds, projected for 2009, Des Moines, Iowa, [3] USA Voyage, Inner Harbor, projected for 2010, Baltimore, Maryland, USA [3]

1:10,000,000,000 13.9 cm

1.2 mm

15 m

590 m

1:10,000,000,000 13.9 cm

1.2 mm

15 m

590 m

Voyage, U. Central Florida, projected for 2010, Orlando, Florida, USA 1:10,000,000,000 13.9 cm [3]

1.2 mm

15 m

590 m

A model based on a classroom globe

Relating the size of the Solar system to familiar objects can make it easier for students to grasp the relative distances. Most classroom globes are 41 cm (16 inches) in diameter. If the Earth were reduced to this size, the Moon would be a 10 cm (4 in) baseball floating 12 metres (40 feet) away. The Sun would be a beach ball 14 stories tall (somewhat smaller than the Spaceship Earth ride at Epcot) floating 5 kilometres (3 miles) away. While a complete model to this scale has never been built, a solar system built centered in Washington DC, London, or Sydney, to that scale (approximately 1:31,000,000) would look like this:

A classroom globe

Solar system model

193

Body

Diameter

object comparison

Semi-major axis

scale model location (U.S.)

scale model location (U.K.)

scale model location (Australia) Sydney Opera House

Sun

44.6 m (146 14 story tall sphere, ft) Spaceship Earth (Epcot) 15 cm (6 in) large grapefruit

zero

White House, Washington Buckingham Palace DC

Mercury

1.9km (1.2 mi)

National Air and Space Museum

Covent Garden

Elizabeth Bay, New South Wales Sydney Football Stadium

Venus

38 cm (15 in)

beach ball

3.5km (2.2 mi)

John F. Kennedy Eternal Regent's Park Flame, Arlington National Cemetery Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport Tower of London

Earth

41 cm (16 in)

classroom globe

4.8km (3.0 mi)

Rozelle Hospital

Moon

10 cm (4 in) baseball

12 m (40 ft) from Earth 7.2km (4.5 mi) Rock Creek Park Golf Course King's College London Bondi Beach, New South Wales

Mars

23 cm (9 in) dodgeball

Ceres Jupiter

3 cm (1 in) 4.55 m (15 ft)

golf ball sphere as wide as 5 minivans

13.3km (8.3 mi) 24.9km (15.5 mi) George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia Marine Corps Base Quantico, Triangle, Virginia Aberdeen Proving Ground, Aberdeen, Maryland Newark, Delaware London Heathrow Airport Scotland Island, New South Wales

Saturn

3.81 m (12 ft 6 in)

sphere a little taller than a basketball hoop average 8th grade boy

45.5km (28.3 mi)

Luton, Bedfordshire

Copacabana, New South Wales

Uranus

1.63 m (5 ft 4 in)

92.2km (57.3 mi)

Waterlooville, Hampshire

Bombo, New South Wales

Neptune

1.55 m (5 ft 1 in) 7 cm (3 in)

average 6th grade boy baseball

144.4km (89.7 mi) 190km (118 mi)

Calais, France

Nelson Bay, New South Wales Bulahdelah, New South Wales Port Macquarie, New South Wales over 3 times the distance to the moon

Pluto

Wildwood, New Jersey

Saint-Valery-sur-Somme, France Rotterdam, Netherlands

Eris

8 cm (3 in)

billiard ball

325km (202 mi)

Brooklyn, New York

Centauri A

49.5 m (162 sphere as wide as 4 ft) school buses

1,323,500km (822,400 mi)

over 3 times the distance to the moon

over 3 times the distance to the moon

If the scale of the above model is increased to 1:310,000,000, i.e. all distances and sizes reduced by a factor of 10, then the Earth and Venus can be modeled by ping pong balls, the Moon and smaller planets by various size marbles or lumps of modeling clay, the gas giants by balloons or larger playing balls, and a circle the diameter of the Sun can be drawn on the floor of most classrooms. The scale distance to Centauri would be 1/3 of the way to the Moon.

Solar system model

194

A model based on a sports field

Relating the size of the Solar System to familiar objects can make it easier for students to grasp the relative distances. Most American schools have a football field associated with the high school (100 yards or 92 meters long). Other schools may have a soccer field nearby (90 to 120 m long). If the Sun was reduced to slightly less than one inch (21 mm), Pluto would be a 0.002 inch (0.05 mm) speck floating 100 yards (91.4 meters) away. Jupiter would be less than three-thirty-secondths of an inch (2.38 mm) in diameter and would sit on the 13 yd (11.88 m) line. Uranus would be less than one-thirty-secondth of an inch (0.79 mm) sitting nearly on the 50 yd (45.72 m) line. At that scale, the speed of light would be about 1 inch every 5 seconds (5 mm per second). Light takes about 5.5 hours to go from the Sun to Pluto. Here is what the Solar System built to that scale would look like. This complete model would be simple to make with scale planets taped to wood stakes or metal rods. The scale is approximately 1:64,700,000,000.
Body Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Eris Diameter 0.85 in (21.5 mm) Semi-major axis zero

0.003 in (0.08 mm) 1.0 yd (0.9 m) 0.007 in (0.19 mm) 1.9 yd (1.7 m) 0.008 in (0.20 mm) 2.5 yd (2.3 m) 0.004 in (0.10 mm) 3.8 yd (3.5 m) 0.001 in (0.02 mm) 7.0 yd (6.4 m) 0.085 in (2.16 mm) 13.1 yd (12.0 m) 0.071 in (1.8 mm) 24.2 yd (22.1 m)

0.029 in (0.73 mm) 48.6 yd (44.4 m) 0.028 in (0.7 mm) 76.1 yd (69.6 m)

0.002 in (0.05 mm) 100.0 yd (91.4 m) 0.002 in (0.05 mm) 171.4 yd (156.7 m) 396 mi (637km)

Centauri A 0.94 in (23.9 mm)

A model for primary school children

Relating the size of objects to the planets can be difficult for children, particularly if the objects are so small that they cannot be seen. The Scale below is 10 x (times) the scale above, which is a convenient size, virtually all of the objects can be seen. At this scale the distance from the sun to Pluto is just under 1 km (metric units only). At this scale, the speed of light would be about 50 mm per second. Light takes about 5.5 hours to go from the Sun to Pluto. The scale is approximately 1:6,470,000,000. At this scale the Sun could be represented by a children's soccer ball, and Centauri A is about the size of an adult soccer ball. The smaller planets are about the size of "ice cream sprinkles" (which vary in size from less than 1mm to close to 2mm). Even at this scale Centauri A is on another continent or at the centre of the earth, a distance of about 6,300km.

Solar system model

195

Body Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Eris

Diameter (215 mm) (0.8 mm) (1.9 mm) (2 mm) (1 mm) (0.2 mm) (21.6 mm) (18 mm) (7.3 mm) (7 mm) (0.5 mm) (0.5 mm)

Semi-major axis zero (9 m) (17 m) (23 m) (35 m) (64 m) (120 m) (221 m) (444 m) (696 m) (914 m) (1,567 m) (6,370km)

Centauri A (239 mm)

Children can have some fun with this model, for example Mercury could be a small red sprinkle while Earth might be a larger blue sprinkle. Venus might be smaller. Children can look for two small red spirnkles for Mercury and Mars. To maintain relativities Mercury should be slightly smaller than Mars etc. The objects can be assembled in the classroom and then taken outside to a large park.

Misleading models
The models sketched here are an eye opener to many people interested in, but not knowing much about astronomy. They are far cry from the drawings of the solar system one usually sees in books or on the internet, such as the one to the right. Even if it is stated in the text that the Major features of the solar system, distances of centers of the planets to a modified logarithmic scale. Terrestrial planets are 10 times enlarged. layout is not to scale, it is often difficult for the reader to fully comprehend how discrepant the scale of the distances in the image is compared to the sizes of the objects depicted.

Solar system model

196

See also
Numerical model of solar system Orrery

References
[1] Ottewell, Guy. "How Big is the Solar System?" (http:/ / www. noao. edu/ education/ peppercorn/ pcmain. html). Noao.edu. . Retrieved 2008-11-02. [2] http:/ / www. monochrom. at/ experiences/ race. htm [3] http:/ / www. voyagesolarsystem. org [4] http:/ / journeythroughtheuniverse. org/ program_overview/ po_co_voyage. html [5] http:/ / www. voyagesolarsystem. org/ facebook [6] http:/ / www. astronomy2009. org/ [7] http:/ / www. scottishsolarsystem. org. uk [8] http:/ / www. glasgowsciencecentre. org/ [9] http:/ / www. scottishsolarsystem. org. uk/ [10] http:/ / www. solarsystemdrive. com/ about-the-project. html [11] http:/ / www. mccarthyobservatory. org/ [12] http:/ / www. ursa. fi/ ursa/ aurinkokuntamalli/ eng/ [13] http:/ / www. planetenmodell-hagen. de/ html/ about. html [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] http:/ / www. zuerich. com/ en. cfm/ zurich/ family/ offer-ZurichZH-Experience_nature-114447. html http:/ / www. planetenmodell. de http:/ / www. sternwarte-drebach. de/ wanderweg. html http:/ / www. astrohk. cz/ planetarni_stezka/ indexen. html http:/ / www. melbournesolarsystem. com. au/ "The Eugene, Oregon Scale Model Solar System" (http:/ / www. efn. org/ ~jack_v/ ). Efn.org. . Retrieved 2008-11-02. http:/ / www. deutsches-museum. de/ en/ exhibitions/ naturwissenschaft/ astronomy/ inter-planetary-walk/ http:/ / www. astronomiecharlevoix. org/ http:/ / northgeorgiaastronomers. org/ scalemodel/ index. html http:/ / www. montshire. net/ exhibits. html, http:/ / www. floridastars. org/ solarwalk/ solarwalk. html http:/ / www. otford. org/ solarsystem/ http:/ / www. sciencenter. org/ SaganPW/ http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ glenn/ events/ solrwalk. html http:/ / www. noao. edu/ education/ peppercorn/ pcmain. html http:/ / www. pbdot3. com/

External links
A list of websites related to solar system models (http://www.vendian.org/mncharity/dir3/solarsystem/) An online scale model (http://www.troybrophy.com/projects/solarsystem/) (does not work in some browsers) An article about a temporary exhibit in Melbourne, Australia (http://www.theage.com.au/news/arts/ the-planets-line-up-its-st-kilda-in-summer/2005/12/02/1133422111080.html) A map with solar system models in Germany (http://kletzenbauerzeitlichtung.homepage.t-online.de/Texte/ Planetenwanderwege/planetenwanderwege.html)

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197

Somerset Space Walk

The Somerset Space Walk is a sculpture trail model of the solar system, located in Somerset, England. The model uses the towpath of the 22-kilometre (14-mile) Bridgwater and Taunton Canal to display a model of the Sun and its planets in their proportionally correct sizes and distances apart. Unusually for a solar system model, there are two sets of planets. Aware of the inadequacies of printed pictures of the Solar System, the Space Walk was designed by inventor Pip Youngman as a way of challenging our perceptions of space and experiencing the vastness of The walk begins here: the Sun model at Higher our own Solar System.[1] The model is built to a scale of Maunsel Lock 1:530,000,000,[2] meaning that one millimetre on the model equates to 530 kilometres. The Sun is sited at Higher Maunsel Lock, and one set of planets is installed in each direction along the canal towards Taunton and Bridgwater; the distance between the Sun and each model of Pluto being 11kilometres (6.8 mi).[1] Fortunately for less hardy walkers, the inner planets are within 67metres (220 ft) of the Sun, and near to the Maunsel Canal Centre (and tea shop) at Lower Maunsel Lock, where a more detailed leaflet about the model is available.[3] The Space Walk was opened on 9August 1997 by British astronomer Heather Couper.[3] In 2007, a project team from Somerset County Council refurbished some of the models, with funding from the former Wyvern Environmental Trust.[4]

Background
The Walk is a joint venture between the Taunton Solar Model Group and British Waterways, with support from Somerset County Council, Taunton Deane Borough Council and the Somerset Waterways Development Trust.[3] The Taunton Solar Model Group comprised Pip Youngman, Trevor Hill a local physics teacher who had been awarded the title of "Institute of Physics (IOP) Physics Teacher of the Year"[5] and David Applegate who, during his time as Mayor of Taunton, had expressed a wish to see some kind of science initiative in the area. Pip came up with the idea for the Space Walk, and Trevor assisted by calculating the respective positions and sizes of the planets.

Maunsel Lock, showing the model of the Sun at the centre of the two sets of planets

Funding for the project came from the Committee on the Public Understanding of Science (COPUS), the initial advertising leaflet was paid for by the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (PPARC) and there was also a small grant from Sustrans, who fund art installations along cyclepaths, to deal with maintenance requirements in the years before Somerset County Council took on that responsibility. In order to apply for the COPUS funding Youngman needed two 'sponsors', so he wrote to Arthur C. Clarke (a local boy himself, then living in Sri Lanka) and Patrick Moore, who both wrote warm letters in support. Arthur C Clarke's brother Fred read out his letter at the opening ceremony.[5] ReadyMix Concrete supplied the concrete for the plinths, and Avimo (now part of Thales Group), a local defence contractor, supplied the steel for the models.

Somerset Space Walk

198

Individual models
The model of the Sun is a 2.5metres (8.2 ft)-wide 14-ton concrete sphere,[5] with a vertical segment removed to give two vertical faces upon which explanatory plates are mounted. The solid sphere was cast by Pip Youngman and Trevor Hill in the grounds of what was the SWEB storage yard adjacent to the Obridge Viaduct in Taunton. Originally 'natural' in colour (matching the other models) it was painted yellow as part of the refurbishment, making it much more visible. Each of the smallest planet models is contained within a round-topped concrete plinth about 1metre (3.3 ft) high. The stainless steel model is held inside a circular hole through the side of the plinth; hence the model of the planet may be viewed by looking through the hole. The plinths were created by Youngman using fibreglass moulds which he had also made. The models of the largest gas giants, Saturn and Jupiter, are moulded as part of the top face of the concrete pillars. Originally concrete-coloured, they have been painted as part of the refurbishment. Each pillar doubles-up as a milepost: the distance to Bridgwater and Taunton is cast in the concrete at ground level below a depiction of the British Waterways 'bridge' logo although the sculptures are sited according to the spacings needed for the model, and not at kilometre increments for the convenience of boaters. On each pillar is a plaque containing a short inscription describing the planet, written by Pip Youngman and edited by Trevor Hill.[4] The Earth inscription reads:[6]

The model of Uranus

The model of Jupiter

"Earth orbits far enough from the heat of the Sun for water to be liquid, near enough not to freeze, for air to be a gas and earth a solid. With gravity strong enough to hold our atmosphere, gentle enough to allow delicate life forms. Rotating to give our day and night, tilted to give the [7] four seasons. Enormous to us, tiny on the cosmic scale. Our home, unique, beautiful, fragile." Pip Youngman

Nearest star
The installation does not include a model of the nearest star for comparison, as this would be impractical. On the same scale as the other models, the nearest star (Proxima Centauri, which is about one-seventh the size of the Sun) would need to be a red ball 37.5centimetres (14.8 in) in diameter[8] sited 76,000km (47,000miles)[9] away (roughly twice the circumference of Earth).

Pip Youngman
The Space Walk's designer, Philip Robert Vassar Youngman (born: 26 August 1924, Hunstanton, Norfolk died: 23 May 2007, Taunton, Somerset), known as 'Pip', was a designer and inventor of mechanical apparatus. Around 1969, Youngman was approached by the Open University to adapt a mechanical calculator he had designed, originally protoyped in Lego, into a product suitable for school use. The result was the "Ball Operated Binary Calculator And Tutor" (BOBCAT),[10] a mechanical model for teaching binary arithmetic and the inner workings of the computer,

Somerset Space Walk using ball bearings for binary data bits and plastic levers for the calculating logic.

199

Location
The trail can be walked either from Taunton's Brewhouse Theatre to Maunsel Lock (Pluto to the Sun) or from Bridgwater's Morrison's Supermarket to Maunsel Lock (also Pluto to the Sun) or of course, vice versa. The locations of the end and middle point (with postcodes and coordinates) are: Pluto in Taunton TA1 1JL 510106N 30609W Maunsel Canal Centre TA7 0DH 510345N 25920W Pluto in Bridgwater TA6 3RF 510731N 30029W

Model gallery
The models of the Solar System, in order:

The Sun

Somerset Space Walk

200

Mercury

Venus

Somerset Space Walk

201

Earth (and Moon)

Mars

Somerset Space Walk

202

Jupiter

Saturn

Somerset Space Walk

203

Uranus

Neptune

Pluto

Somerset Space Walk

204

See also
Solar system model Sweden Solar System

References
[1] "Services Directory Canal Walks" (http:/ / www. somerset. gov. uk/ irj/ public/ services/ directory/ service?rid=/ wpccontent/ Sites/ SCC/ Web Pages/ Services/ Services/ Environment/ Canal walks). Somerset County Council. . Retrieved 20 September 2010. [2] From the inscription on the Pluto model ( photo of Pluto sculpture at Taunton end (http:/ / photos1. blogger. com/ x/ blogger2/ 2334/ 4420/ 1600/ 320221/ BL_Space. jpg)) [3] Youngman, Pip. "Somerset Space Walk leaflet" (http:/ / www. hiddensomerset. com/ docs/ somerset_spacewalk_leaflet. pdf) (PDF). Taunton Solar Model Group. . Retrieved 20 September 2010. [4] "Walk the Walkthe Somerset Space Walk" (http:/ / www. riverparrett-trail. org. uk/ EasysiteWeb/ getresource. axd?AssetID=296& type=full& servicetype=attachment) (PDF). (Parrett People Issue 15). The River Parrett Trail. Spring/Summer 2007. . Retrieved 2008-10-23.(~6.3MB) [5] "Space Walk launched". Somerset County Gazette. 15 August 1997. [6] "Somerset Space Walk" (http:/ / www. somerset. gov. uk/ somerset/ ete/ countryside/ canal/ index. cfm?override=subtopic& infoid=4373). (Countryside Services Canal Projects). Somerset County Council. . Retrieved 2008-10-24. [7] Caption may be read on photograph of model. [8] [Calculated as one-seventh the size of the Sun: 2.63 7 = 0.375] [9] [Calculated as 270,000 x distance from Earth to Sun (270,000 x 1.496x10^8 km) 530,000,000 = 76,000km (where 1:530,000,000 is the scale of the model)] [10] "BOBCAT" (http:/ / www. computermuseumgroningen. nl/ bobcat/ bobcat. html). Allard's Computer Museum, Groningen. . Retrieved 2009-03-06.

External links
Somerset Space Walk leaflet (http://www.somerset.gov.uk/irj/go/km/docs/CouncilDocuments/SCC/ Documents/Environment/Countryside and Coast/Somerset Space walk.pdf)PDF(797KB) with map of canal showing approximate locations of models Maunsel Lock Canal Centre (http://www.maunsellock.co.uk/) Somerset Space Walk at HiddenSomerset.com (http://www.hiddensomerset.com/rw/DirViewDetailsMap. php?&dx=1&sid=fcaa09bea53d470d3c68111ff483488d&ob=3&q=space+walk&rpn=search&itemid=1263) includes travel directions + pictures of Sun and Earth models Photos of first seven models + the Sun (http://www.wheeler.org.uk/spacewalk/) before refurbishing

Spaghetti bridge

205

Spaghetti bridge
A spaghetti bridge is a small scale model bridge (architectural model) made of spaghetti or other hard, dry, straight noodles. Bridges are constructed for both educational experiments and competitions. The aim is usually to construct a bridge with a specific quantity of materials over a specific span, that can sustain a load. In competitions, the bridge that can hold the greatest load for a short period of time wins the contest.[1] There are many contests around the world, usually held by schools and colleges.

A spaghetti bridge

Heavyweight Contest
This annual competition, held at Okanagan College in British Columbia, started in 1983. The winner of the 2009 competition Norbert Pozsonyi and Aliz Totivan of the Szechenyi Istvan University of Gyor in Hungary. They won $1,500 with a bridge that weighed 982 grams and held 443.58 kg. Second place went to Brendon Syryda and Tyler Pearson of Okanagan College with a bridge that weighed 982 grams and held 98.71 kg.[2] The competition is open to contestants around the world, however the rules state that contestants must be full-time secondary or post-secondary students.

Spaghetti bridge

206

Contests
Spaghetti bridge building contests around the world include: Abbotsford School District [3] Budapest Tech [4] Camosun College [5] Coonabarabran High School [6] Ferris State University [7] George Brown College [8] Institute of Machine Design and Security Technology [9] Italy High School [10] James Cook University [11] Johns Hopkins University [12] McGill University [13] Nathan Hale High School [14] Okanagan College [15] Rowan University [16] University of British Columbia [17] University of South Australia [18] University of Southern California [19] University of Technology Sydney [20] University of Andes [21] Winston Science [22] Woodside Elementary School [23]

See also
Balsa wood bridge Bridge Trusses Statics Physics Civil Engineering Problem Based Learning Architectural structure

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207

References
[1] Karweit, Michael (2009). "Spaghetti Bridge" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080517124842/ http:/ / www. jhu. edu/ virtlab/ spaghetti-bridge/ ). What is Engineering? (course syllabus). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Whiting School of Engineering. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. jhu. edu/ virtlab/ spaghetti-bridge/ ) on May 17, 2008. . [2] "Spaghetti Bridge Contest History: Heavyweight" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5ly1134Qa). Spaghetti Bridge Contest. Kelowna, British Columbia: Okanagan College. 2009. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. okanagan. bc. ca/ departments/ engineeringtechnologies/ spaghettibridge/ history/ heavyweight. html) on December 12, 2009. . [3] http:/ / www. sd34. bc. ca/ cms/ One. aspx?portalId=944111& pageId=3647818 [4] http:/ / reccs. hu/ en [5] http:/ / camosun. ca/ learn/ programs/ civil/ index. html [6] http:/ / www. coonabarab-h. schools. nsw. edu. au/ news/ spaghettibridge. htm [7] http:/ / www. ferris. edu/ sbridges/ [8] http:/ / www. georgebrown. ca/ techcity/ techcity2006/ spaghetti_bridge. asp [9] http:/ / reccs. hu/ en/ node/ 82 [10] http:/ / www. italyhighschool. org/ spaghetti%20bridge. htm [11] http:/ / www. ece. jcu. edu. au/ Community%20Resources/ SpaghettiBridgeCompetition2007. pdf [12] http:/ / www. jhu. edu/ news/ audio-video/ spaghetti. html [13] http:/ / www. scybolt. com/ spaghetti_bridge. html [14] http:/ / www. seattleschools. org/ schools/ hale/ bridge/ spaghetti_bridge_rules. html [15] http:/ / www. okanagan. bc. ca/ departments/ engineeringtechnologies/ spaghettibridge. html [16] http:/ / users. rowan. edu/ ~everett/ courses/ frcli/ spagBrdge. htm [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] http:/ / www. physics. ubc. ca/ outreach/ web/ JPEC/ jpec_2005. php http:/ / www. unisa. edu. au/ unisanews/ 2007/ May/ spaghetti. asp http:/ / ae-www. usc. edu/ news/ spaghettiBridge/ http:/ / www. eng. uts. edu. au/ NewsandEvents/ News/ BridgeBuilding. htm http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 8333978. stm http:/ / www. winstonscience. org/ wsci/ events/ 2009/ spaghettibridge. shtml http:/ / www2. hamiltondist. k12. wi. us/ currentnews/ news-print. php?id=377

External links
Resources (http://www.cheney268.com/MSMath/Gillett/Bridges/resources.htm) Information and further links (http://abcdpittsburgh.org/kids/kids.htm)

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty

208

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty

The Boy Scouts of America celebrated their fortieth anniversary in 1950 with the theme of Strengthen the Arm of Liberty.[1] The campaign was inaugurated in February with a dramatic ceremony held at the base of the Statue of Liberty. Hundreds of smaller replicas of the Statue of Liberty have been created worldwide. The classical appearance (Roman stola, sandals, facial expression) derives from Libertas, ancient Rome's goddess of freedom from slavery, oppression, and tyranny. Her raised right foot is on the move. This symbol of Liberty and Freedom is not standing still or at attention in the harbor, it is moving forward, as her left foot tramples broken shackles at her feet, in symbolism of the United States' wish to be free from oppression and tyranny.[2] Between 1949 and 1952, approximately two hundred 100-inch (2.5 m) replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper, were purchased by Boy Scout troops and donated in 39 states in the U.S. and several of its possessions and territories. The project was the brainchild of Kansas City businessman, J.P. Whitaker, who was then Scout Commissioner of the Kansas City Area Council.

One of the 200 Lady Liberty statues donated by the Boy Scouts of America is located on Michigans Mackinac Island in historic Haldimand Bay

The copper statues were manufactured by Friedley-Voshardt Co. (Chicago, Illinois) and purchased through the Kansas City Boy Scout office by those wanting one. The statues are approximately 8 1/2 feet tall without the base, constructed of sheet copper, weigh 290 pounds, and originally cost $350 plus freight. The mass-produced statues are not great art nor meticulously accurate (a conservator notes that "her face isn't as mature as the real Liberty. It's rounder and more like a little girl's"), but they are cherished. Many have been lost or destroyed, but preservationists have been able to account for about a hundred of them, and BSA Troop 101 of Cheyenne, Wyoming has collected photographs of over 100 of them.[3] [4] Examples of the statues can be found at Fayetteville, Arkansas, Pine Bluff, Arkansas, and at Chimborazo Park in Richmond, Virginia. A Strengthen the Arm of Liberty brass pin was also available for uniform and civilian wear. The pin is in the shape of the Statue of Liberty superimposed on a fleur de lis. The Robbins Company, which made BSA's Eagle medals for many years, made these pins and the winged "R" hallmark is prominently displayed on the reverse. In addition, a commemorative neckerchief slide was made for Boy Scouts and for the Cub Scouts.

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty

209

See also
Scouting museums Scouting memorials

External links
Replica Statue of Liberty Search [5]

References
[1] Attoun, Marti (October 2007). "Little Sisters of Liberty" (http:/ / www. scoutingmagazine. org/ issues/ 0710/ d-wwas. html). Scouting. . Retrieved 2007-10-09. [2] Fun Facts (http:/ / www. statueofliberty. org/ Fun_Facts. html) [3] Attoun, Marti (September 29, 2007). "Restoring the Little Sisters of Lady Liberty" (http:/ / www. americanprofile. com/ article/ 3455. html). American Profile. . Retrieved 2007-09-30. [4] BSA Troop 101, Cheyenne, Wyoming (http:/ / troop101. thescouts. com/ liberty/ ) Photos and locations of more than ninety of the replicas [5] http:/ / troop101. thescouts. com/ liberty/

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument (Fayetteville, Arkansas)

210

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument (Fayetteville, Arkansas)

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument - Fayetteville
U.S. National Register of Historic Places

Location: Coordinates: Built/Founded: Added to NRHP:

North Street, NE of junction with Park Avenue, Fayetteville, Jefferson County, Arkansas, USA 3646.97N 941017.01W c. 1950 2000

NRHPReference#: 00001264

The Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument in Fayetteville, Arkansas, is a replica of the Statue of Liberty. It was placed by the Boy Scouts of America as part of its 1950's era campaign, "Strengthen the Arm of Liberty." It is located by the Washington Regional Medical Center in front of Wound Care Clinic on North Street.

See also
Scouting museums Scouting memorials

External links
Replica Statue of Liberty Search [5] nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. nationalregisterofhistoricplaces. com/ AR/ Washington/ state2. html

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument (Pine Bluff, Arkansas)

211

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument (Pine Bluff, Arkansas)

Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument - Pine Bluff
U.S. National Register of Historic Places

Location: Coordinates: Built/Founded: Added to NRHP:

10th Avenue between Georgia and State Streets, Pine Bluff, Jefferson County, Arkansas, USA 34122N 92022W c. 1950 2000

NRHPReference#: 00001265

The Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, is a replica of the Statue of Liberty. It was placed by the Boy Scouts of America as part of its 1950's era campaign, "Strengthen the Arm of Liberty." It is in the Pine Bluff Memorial Gardens.

See also
Replicas of the Statue of Liberty Scouting museums Scouting memorials

External links
Replica Statue of Liberty Search [5] nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. nationalregisterofhistoricplaces. com/ AR/ Jefferson/ state2. html

Sweden Solar System

212

Sweden Solar System

Swift-Tuttle

Halley

Earth,Eros,Saltis,Mars, Sun,Mercury,Venus

Saturn,5025PL Jupiter

Uranus

Neptune

PlutoandCharon

Sweden Solar System

Ixion

213

Eris

Sedna

Terminal Shock

The Sweden Solar System

The Sweden Solar System is the world's largest scale model of the solar system. The sun is represented by the Ericsson Globe in Stockholm, the largest hemispherical building in the world. The inner planets can also be found in Stockholm but the outer planets are situated northward in other cities along the Baltic Sea. It was started by Nils Brenning and Gsta Gahm.[1] It is in the scale of 1:20 million.[1]

The system
The bodies represented in this model includes the Sun, the planets (and some of their satellites), dwarf planets and many types of small bodies (comets, asteroids, transneptunians, etc.), as well as some abstract concepts (like the Termination Shock zone). Thus, because of the existence of many small bodies in the real Solar System, the model can always be further increased. The Sun is represented by the Ericsson Globe (Globen), Stockholm, which is the largest hemispherical building in the world, 110m in diameter. To respect the scale, the globe represents the Sun including corona. Inner planets Mercury (25cm in diameter) is placed at Stockholm City Museum, 2900m from the Globe. The small metallic sphere was built by the artist Peter Varhelyi. Venus (62cm in diameter) is placed at KTH (Royal Institute of Technology), 5500m from the Globe. The model, made by the US artist Daniel Oberti, was inaugurated June 8, 2004, during a Venus transit. There is also another model of Venus located at the Observatory Museum. The Earth (65cm in diameter) is located at the Swedish Museum of Natural History (Cosmonova), 7600m from the Globe. Beside the Globe, there is also being exhibited some satellite images of our planet. In addition, there is also an elaborate model of the Moon (18cm in diameter) in another part of the museum. Mars (35cm in diameter) is located at Mrby Centrum, a shopping centre at Danderyd, a city just northeast of the Stockholm. It is 11.6km from the Globe. The model, made in copper by the Finnish artist Heikki Haapanen is connected by a "umbilical cord" to a steel plate on the floor having an Earth image [2] . The planet globe have also some typical martian chemical elements marked on it. Outer Planets Jupiter (7.3m in diameter) is placed at the roundabout near Sky City, in Stockholm's large airport Arlanda (located actually at the city of Mrsta), 40km from the Globe. Made as a flower decoration, with different flowers representing different zones of the giant gas planet; however, there are plans to build a 3D model. Saturn (6.1m in diameter) is placed outside the old observatory of Anders Celsius, in the so-called Celsius Square, at centre of Uppsala, 73km from the Globe. Inaugurated during the International Year of Astronomy[3] , the model is a mat with a picture of Saturn, but will eventually grow to crown a school planetarium at the city. In addition, several schools in Uppsala are to provide moons of Saturn: the first completed was Enceladus (diameter 2.5cm) at Kvarngrdesskolan.[4] Uranus (2.6m in diameter) is planned to some place in Gvle, 143km from the Globe.

Sweden Solar System Neptune (2.5m in diameter) is located by the river Sderhamnsn in Sderhamn, a coast town with tradition in fishing and sailing (which relates to Neptune as the deity of the seas). Placed 229km from the Globe, the model is made of acrylic and, at night, shines with a blue light. Dwarf Planets Pluto (12cm in diameter) and its moon Charon are placed near the southern of the Dellen lakes, in Delsbo, 300km from the Globe. The lakes are thought to be formed by a meteorite impact 90million years ago. The two bodies' sculptures are supported by two gravelike pillars (as Pluto being the deity for death), made up with dellenite, a rare mineral formed at that place by the meteorite impact. Eris (13cm in diameter) is located at Fretagspark, Ume, 510km from the Globe. Made by Theresa Berg, the golden model tells the mythical story about how the goddess started a quarrel between other Greek deities, starting with an apple where it's written ("to the most beautiful one"). Sedna (10cm in diameter), the dwarf planet candidate, is located at Teknikens Hus, a science center in Lule, 912km from the Globe. Ixion (6.5cm in diameter), another dwarf planet candidate, is located at Technichus, a science center in Hrnsand. 360km from the Globe. The sculpture is an orb holded by a hand with the arm. This plutino was discovered by a team which included scientists from Uppsala. Other Bodies the Near Earth Object Eros is located at Mrbyskolan, a school in Danderyd (the same city where Mars is located), 11km from the Globe. It was created as a Valentine's Day project in gold, modeled after Eros, the god of love. The dimensions are 20.70.7mm (0.98mm). the asteroid Saltis is located at Saltsjbaden's Kunskapsskola, a school near the Stockholm Observatory. The asteroid was discovered by A. Brandeker in 2000, using a telescope at that observatory; in fact, the body was name after the observatory's location, Saltsjbaden. the asteroid Palomar-Leiden (0.2mm in diameter) is located in a park in Alsike, Knivsta Municipality, 60km from the Globe. It's not a sculpture but a dot on a map of the System, placed in front of Erik Sthl's monumental cosmic sculptures. Halley's comet is located at Balthazar Science Center, in Skvde. Inaugurated at December 16, 2009, there are actually four models of the comet: three placed outdoor, based on school children's drawings, plus one indoor, consisting of laser trespassing a block of glass. Comet Swift-Tuttle is placed at Kreativum, a science center in Karlshamn. This comet's orbit is special, closest to the Globe in the inner Stockholm and farthest in Karlshamn, 390km from the Globe. The Terminal Shock is the edge of heliosphere, the farthest place where the solar wind goes in supersonic velocity. No sculpture currently represents the terminal shock, but a foundation for a future sculpture exists at the Institute of Space Physics, 950km from the Globe, in Kiruna, above the Arctic Circle.

214

List of objects

Sweden Solar System

215

Object Sun

Distance 0km

[1]

Diameter

[1]

Location

[1]

Coordinates 591736.80N 180459.65E

Inauguration date -

71 m (the disk) 110 m (incl. the corona) 25cm

The Ericsson Globe in Stockholm

Mercury

2.9km

Stockholm City Museum in Stockholm Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm and Observatoriemuseet in Stockholm Cosmonova Riksmuseet in Stockholm Mrbyskolan, a school in Danderyd Kunskapsskolan, a school in Saltsjbaden Mrby Centrum in Danderyd

591911N 180414E

1998

Venus

5.5km

62cm

592051N 180421.4E

June 8, 2004

Earth and Moon

7.6km

65cm and 18cm

592208.48N 180312.34E 592338N 180241E

before 2000

[5]

(433) Eros

11km

2.0mm x 0.7mm x 0.7mm < 1mm

(36614) Saltis

11km

591621N 181817E

January 14, 2010 [6] before 2000 [5]

Mars

11.6km

35cm

592352.58N 180211.58E 593858.52N 175550.38E 594525N 174557E

Jupiter

40km

7.3 m

Arlanda airport in Mrsta

before 2000

[5]

(5025) Palomar-Leiden Saturn Uranus 1P/Halley comet

60km

0.2mm

in Alsike

73km 146km 204km

6,1 m 2.6 m

Celsius square in Uppsala Furuviks Park in Gvle Balthazar Science Center in Skvde

595134N 173814E

June 13, 2009

[3]

582314N 135111E

December 16, 2009 [7] October 29, [8] 1998 before 2000 [5] [9]

Neptune

229km

2.5 m

by the river Sderhamnsn in Sderhamn

611807N 170319E

Pluto and Charon (28978) Ixion

300km 360km

12cm and 6cm 6.5cm

by the lake Dellen South, in Delsbo 614752N 163258E Technichus, a science center in Hrnsand Kreativum, a science center in Karlshamn 623749N 175612E

April 18, 2002

109P/Swift-Tuttle comet (136199) Eris

390km

561139N 145109E

510km

13cm

Fretagspark in Ume

635005N 201537E

December 6, 2007 [10] December 8, 2005 [11]

(90377) Sedna

810km

10cm

Teknikens Hus, a science center in Lule Institute of Space Physics in Kiruna

653659.50N 220806.00E 675027N 202434.5E

Termination shock

950km

A plate

Sweden Solar System

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Gallery

The Ericsson Globe represents the sun. The rest of the solar system is scattered in, and north of, Stockholm.

Mercury in Stockholm

Venus in Stockholm

Earth in Stockholm

Sedna in Lule

The foundation for the sculpture of the Terminal Shock in front of the Swedish Institute of Space Physics in Kiruna.

See also
Somerset Space Walk

References
[1] "Sweden Solar System: Bakgrund" (http:/ / ttt. astro. su. se/ swesolsyst/ bakgrund. html) (in Swedish). Sweden Solar System. . Retrieved 2009-09-15. [2] Danderyds Kommun: Mars (http:/ / www. danderyd. se/ DanderydTemplates/ Page____5486. aspx) [3] Press release (http:/ / space. irfu. se/ Pressmeddelande_Mattan. pdf), linked 2009-06-08. [4] List (http:/ / www. popast. nu/ 2009/ 01/ egna-manar-till-uppsalaskolor-hela-listan. html) of moons of Saturn assigned to schools in Uppsala (in Swedish). [5] (http:/ / www. psych. illinois. edu/ ~wbrewer/ solarmodel. html) [6] Ny Teknik: Saltis invigs i Saltis (http:/ / www. nyteknik. se/ nyheter/ it_telekom/ allmant/ article705537. ece) [7] (http:/ / ttt. astro. su. se/ swesolsyst/ halley_sss. html) [8] Neptunus i Sderhamn (http:/ / www. hjalm. org/ Neptunus/ index. htm) [9] "Technichus' Exibitions" (http:/ / www. technichus. se/ system/ visa. asp?HID=803& FID=782& HSID=13958). Technichus home Page. . Retrieved 2010-05-10. [10] Ume kommun: Ume fr en egen himlakropp (http:/ / www. umea. se/ 4. 2aeb902411d30c9e46080003810. html) [11] "Lule r Sedna. I alla fall om vr sol motsvaras av Globen i Stockholm." (http:/ / www. kuriren. nu/ arkiv/ 2005/ 11/ 17/ Lokalt/ 1510647/ Lule-r-Sedna. aspx). Norrbotten Kuriren (in swedish). . Retrieved 2010-05-10.

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External links
Sweden Solar System Official Homepage (http://www.astro.su.se/swesolsyst/)

The Howard Bros. Circus

The Howard Bros. Circus is a -inch-to-the-foot scale replica of Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus located on the Ringling Estate in Sarasota, Florida. It includes a complete reproduction of the entire circus (circa the 1920s).

History
The name for the Circus comes from the name of the creator, Howard C. Tibbals. Tibbals asked Ringling management if he could use their name for his circus when he started building it, but they refused. So he called it The Howard Bros. Circus instead.[1] There never was a full-scale Howard Bros. Circus. Tibbals began toying with circuses in 1943, at the age of 7. At 12 he was given a lathe and jigsaw, which advanced his model building. Tibbals started working on the model in earnest in 1956. Much of the circus was completed by 1974, but it did not premiere until the 1982 World Fair in Knoxville, TN. In 2004, Tibbals set up the Circus at its current location in the Ringling Estate's Tibbals Learning Center, which includes a full-scale replica of Tibbals's workshop. It took Tibbals over one year to set up the circus in its current location. Some interesting facts about the circus:[2] It contains 42,143 items, not including small pieces such as thousands of railroad stakes. It consists of eight large tents, 152 circus wagons, 1,500 workers and performers, 7,000 folding chairs and more than 500 hand-carved animals. Everything can be packed up into the 55 train cars, also individually hand-crafted. The display includes seven miniature video stations positioned in various tents with documentary footage of circus life from the 1920s and 1930s.

References
[1] The John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art-Sarasota-Bradenton-Tampa-Florida (http:/ / www. ringling. org/ circus_museum_model. asp?id=636) [2] http:/ / sptimes. com/ 2006/ 01/ 05/ news_pf/ Weekend/ Ringmaster_of_his_own. shtml

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Tin soldier
Tin soldiers are miniature figures of toy soldiers that are extremely popular in the world of collecting. They can be bought finished or in a raw state to be hand-painted. They are generally made of pewter, tin, lead, other metals or plastic. Often very elaborate scale models of battle scenes, known as dioramas, are created for their display. Tin soldiers were originally almost two-dimensional figures, often called "little Eilerts" or "flats". They were the first toy soldiers to be mass produced.[1] Though largely superseded in popularity from the late 19th century by fully rounded 3 dimensional lead figures, these flat tin soldiers continue to be produced.

A rare, complete set of Nazi S.A. tin soldiers, from the 1940s

Casting
"Real" tin soldiers, i.e. ones cast from an alloy of tin and lead, can also be home-made. Molds are available for sale in some hobby shops. Earlier, the molds were made of metal; nowadays they are often made of hard rubber which can stand the temperature of the molten metal, around 250 C.

Tin soldier

219

Tin soldiers being cast in German molds from the early 20th century. The two mold halves are clamped together, and the metal (an alloy of tin and lead, heated to approx. 300 C) is poured into the mold. When the metal has solidified, the mold is cracked open. Sprues (pouring channels) and extraneous flash (metal that has penetrated cracks and air channels in the mold) are seen in the third image, and have been removed from the castings in the last image.

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220

Literature
The best-known tin soldier in literature is the unnamed title character in Hans Christian Andersen's 1838 fairy tale The Steadfast Tin Soldier. It concerns a tin soldier who had only one leg because "he had been left to the last, and then there was not enough of the melted tin to finish him." He falls in love with a dancer made of paper and after much adventuring, including being swallowed by a fish, the two are consumed together by fire, leaving nothing but tin melted "in the shape of a little tin heart." Tin soldiers also play a role in "Knight's Castle" by Edward Eager.

Illustration by Vilhelm Pedersen for The Steadfast Tin Soldier (Den Standhaftige Tinsoldat).

See also
Militaria Model figure Toy soldier

References
[1] Opie, James Toy Soldiers Phillips Collector Guide Dunestyle Publishing Ltd 1989

Toy soldier
A toy soldier is a miniature figurine that represents a soldier. The term applies to depictions of uniformed military personnel from all eras, and includes knights, cowboys, pirates, and other subjects that involve combat-related themes. Toy soldiers vary from simple playthings to highly realistic and detailed models. The latter are of more recent development and are sometimes called model figures to distinguish them from traditional toy soldiers. Larger scale toys such as dolls and action figures may come in military uniforms, but they are not generally considered toy soldiers.
54mm Toy Soldiers by Imperial Productions of New Zealand Toy soldiers are made from all types of material, but the most common mass produced varieties are metal and plastic. There are many different kinds of toy soldiers, including tin soldiers or flats, hollow cast metal figures, composition figures, and plastic army men. Metal Toy soldiers were traditionally sold in sets, plastic figures were sold in toy shops individually in Britain and Europe and in large boxed sets in the U.S. Modern, collectable figures are often sold individually.

Scale
Scale for toy soldiers is expressed as the soldier's approximate height from head to foot in millimeters. Because many figures do not stand up straight, height is usually an approximation. Standard toy soldier scale, originally adopted by W. Britain, is 54mm (2.25inches) or 1:32 scale. Among different manufacturers, standard scale may range from 50mm or 1:35 scale, to 60mm or 1:28 scale. For gamers and miniatures enthusiasts, 25mm and even smaller scales are available. On the larger end of the scale are American Dimestore figures, and many of the toy soldiers produced in Germany, which are approximately 75mm (3inches) or 1:24 scale.

Toy soldier

221

History
Military figures have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs, and have appeared in many cultures and eras. Tin soldiers were produced in Germany as early as the 1730s, by molding the metal between two pieces of slate. Toy soldiers became widespread during the 18th century, inspired by the military exploits of Frederick the Great. Miniature soldiers were also used in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries by military strategists to plan battle tactics by using the figures to show the locations of real soldiers. In 1893, William Britain revolutionized the production of toy soldiers by devising the method of hollow casting, making soldiers that were cheaper and lighter than their German counterparts.[1] In addition to Britains, there have been many other manufacturers of toy soldiers over the years. For example, John Hill & Company produced hollow cast lead figures in the same style and scale. Companies such as Elastolin and Lineol were well known for their composite figures made of glue and sawdust that included both military and civilian subjects. After 1950, rising production costs and the developent of plastic meant that many shop keepers liked the lighter, cheaper, and far less prone to break in transit polythene figure. This led to greater numbers of plastic toy soldiers.[2] The first Vintage plastic Trojan War figure by Herald American plastic soldiers were made by Beton as early as 1937. The first plastic toy soldiers produced in Great Britain were made in 1946 by Airfix before they became known for their famous model kits range. One large historical producer in plastic was Louis Marx and Company, which produced both realistic soldiers of great detail and also historical collections of plastic men and women, including the "Presidents of the United States" collection, "Warriors of the World", "Generals of World War II", "Jesus and the Apostles", and figures from the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Marx also produced boxed playsets that featured many famous battles with armies of two sides, character figures, and terrain features. Britains produced plastic figures under the brand names of Herald and Deetail. Also in England, the scale model company, Airfix produced a variety of high quality plastic sets, which were frequently painted by hobbyists. Many Airfix figures were imitated by other companies and reproduced as inexpensive, bagged plastic army men. Timpo Toys, Britains main competitor in terms of sales and quality in the 1960s and 70s developed the 'Over - Moulding' system. Different coloured plastics were injected into the mould at various stages, creating a fully coloured figure without the need of paint. During the 1990s, the production of metal toy-grade painted figures and connoisseur-grade painted toy soldiers increased to serve the demands of the collectors' market. The style of many of these figures shifted from the traditional gloss-coat enamel paint to the matte-finished acrylic paint, which allows for greater detail and historical accuracy. The change was largely inspired by the introduction of very high quality painted figures from St. Petersburg, Russia.

Collecting
There is a substantial hobby devoted to collecting both old and new toy soldiers, with an abundance of small manufacturers, dealers, and toy soldier shows. There are even specialty magazines devoted to the hobby, such as 'Plastic Warrior' and 'Toy Soldier and Model Figure. Collectors often specialize in a particular type of soldier or historical period, though some people enjoy collecting many different kinds of figures. The most popular historical periods for collecting are Napoleonic, Victorian, American Civil War, World War I, and World War II. Many collectors modify and paint plastic figures, and some even cast and paint their own metal figures. Actor Douglas Fairbanks Jr had a collection of 3000 toy soldiers when he sold it in 1977. Fantasy novelist George R. R. Martin has a substantial collection of toy knights and castles.[3] The most extensive collection of toy soldiers was

Toy soldier probably that of Malcolm Forbes, who began collecting toy soldiers in the late 1960s and amassed a collection of over 90,000 figures by the time of his death in 1990. Anne Seddon Kinsolving Brown of Providence, Rhode Island, USA, began collecting miniature toy soldiers on her honeymoon to Europe in 1930, eventually amassing a collection of over 6,000 figures; these are on display at the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection at Brown University Library in Providence. Some of the more noteworthy, annual toy soldier and historical figure shows include the Plastic Warrior Show, which is the oldest established show in the U.K. Beginning in 1985 and still being held annually in Richmond, South London. Another well known show is the London Toy Soldier Show held in central London, the Miniature Figure Collectors of America (MFCA) show in Valley Forge, the Chicago Toy Soldier Show (OTSN) in Illinois, the East Coast Toy Soldier Show in New Jersey, the West Coaster Toy Soldier Show in California, the Sammlerbrse (Collector's Market) in Friedberg, Germany and the biennial Zinnfigurenbrse (Tin Figure Market) in Kulmbach, Germany. In recent years, collectors of vintage toy soldiers made of polythene PE and polypropylene PP thermoplastics as well as PC/ABS plastic blends have reported brittling and disintegration of collectible miniatures or components thereof.[4]

222

American Civil War soldiers by A Call to Arms, Accurate, and Italieri

Varieties
Different types and styles of toy soldiers have been produced over the years, depending on the cost and availability of materials, as well as manufacturing technologies. Here is a list of some of the most commonly collected varieties of toy soldiers.[5]

Painted and unpainted plastic figures by Accurate

Aluminum - slush cast aluminium, made chiefly in France during the early and middle 20th Century Army men - unpainted, soft plastic toy soldiers sold inexpensively in bags or with terrain pieces and vehicles in boxed playsets Composition - made from a mixture of sawdust and glue, manufactured in Austria and Germany Connoisseur - high quality, collectible figures featuring highly detailed paint jobs Dimestore - hollow or slush cast iron, sold through five and dime stores from the 1920s to 1960 in the United States Flat - thin, two dimensional tin soldiers cast in slate molds Hollow cast - cast in metal, usually a lead alloy, which cools and sets as it touches the mold; the excess molten metal is poured out leaving a hollow figure Paper - printed on sheets of paper or cardboard, frequently mounted on blocks of wood Plastic - hard and soft plastic, generally painted figures Solid - cast in solid metal, usually lead, common in Germany during the 19th and early 20th Century Prominent vintage toy soldier makers include Airfix, Barclay, Britains, Herald, Elastolin, Johillco, Lineol, Marx, Manoil, and Timpo.

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Gaming
The playing of games with toy figures was popularized by H.G. Wells in his 1913 book, Little Wars. Wells, a pacifist, was the first to publish detailed rules for playing war games with toy soldiers. He suggested that this could provide a cathartic experience, possibly preventing future real wars. Although this was not to be, Little Wars was a predecessor to the modern hobby of miniatures wargaming.
H. G. Wells playing a wargame with toy soldiers

A similar book titled Shambattle: How to Play with Toy Soldiers was published by Harry Dowdall and Joseph Gleason in 1929.

Although people continue to play wargames with miniature figures, most contemporary wargamers use a smaller scale than that favored by collectors, typically under 25mm.

See also
Army men Miniature wargaming Model figure Tin soldier W. Britain

References
[1] Hampshire Museums Service (http:/ / www. hants. gov. uk/ museum/ toys/ history/ toy_soldiers. html) Retrieved on August 25th, 2008. [2] The story about concerns about lead poisoning are untrue and was mainly put forward by some metal manufacturers as the reason for ceasing hollow cast production. The real reason is that shopkeepers and the buying public preferred plastic model figures. Metal figures could have continued to be produced as playthings, cast in the same alloy as toy cars with safe paint but market forces were against this. (http:/ / www. plasticwarrior. com) Army Men Home Page (http:/ / www. thortrains. net/ armymen/ armymen3. htm) Retrieved on August 25th, 2008. [3] G. R. R. Martin's Home Page (http:/ / www. georgerrmartin. com/ knights/ index. html) Retrieved on August 25th, 2008. [4] Plastic Corrosion of Collectible Miniatures (http:/ / www. miniatures. de/ plastic-corrosion. html) Retrieved on August 25th, 2008. [5] Collecting Toy Soldiers (http:/ / home. freeuk. net/ toysoldier/ ) Retrieved on August 25th, 2008.

External links
Antiques View (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage. html?res=9B0CE1D71439F936A15754C0A964948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1) - New York Times article Cigar Aficionado (http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Features/CA_Feature_Basic_Template/ 0,2344,525,00.html) - article on collecting Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library (http://dl.lib.brown.edu/libweb/collections/ askb/) - collection of over 6,000 miniature toy soldiers Collecting Toy Soldiers (http://www.toysoldier.freeuk.com/) - private collectors personal website Chicago Toy Soldier Show (http://www.toysoldiershow.com/) - largest annual show in the United States Toy Soldier Forum (http://www.treefrogtreasures.com/forum) - toy soldier and military miniatures collectors' forum Shambattle (http://www.nirya.be/snv/shambattle/) - simple wargaming rules for toy soldiers Toy Soldier Gallery (http://www.toy-soldier-gallery.com/) - collector's website Canada Toy Soldiers Club (http://www.canadatoysoldiersclub.com/) - online club for toy soldier collectors

Toy soldier My Toy Soldier Collection (http://www.mytoysoldiercollection.com/) - online database of toy soldiers Plastic flats (http://home.att.net/~1.elliott/comicbooktoysoldiersintro.html) and their ads in American comic books Wm Hocker Toy Soldier Resources (http://wmhocker.com/index.php?s=resource) - list of toy soldier resources The Toy Soldier Wiki (http://www.toy-soldiers.org) - closed wiki for toy soldiers that are no longer produced. (http://www.plasticwarrior.com) Home page for Plastic Warrior Magazine

224

Wayne Wesolowski
Wayne Wesolowski is builder of miniature models. Wesolowski's models have been exhibited at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry, the Springfield, Illinois Lincoln Home Site, the West Chicago City Museum, RailAmerican, and the National Railroad Museum.[1] One of his more noted works is a model of Abraham Lincoln's funeral train. This model took 4 years to build and is 15 feet (4 meters) long. Wesolowski appeared on an episode of Tracks Ahead featuring this train and his model of Lincoln's home.

Wayne Wesolowski with one of his models

Wesolowski has written scores of articles and four books on model building. He has been featured in videos shown on PBS television. Good Morning America selected and showed part of one tape as an example of video education.[1]

He's always leading those of us who like scratchbuilding down new roads. He's a very inventive modeler. - Bob Hundman, Mainline Modeler [1] magazine

Wesolowski holds a Ph.D in Chemistry from the University of Arizona and teaches chemistry there.

Publications
Wesolowski, Wayne (1995). The Lincoln train is coming. Lincoln Group of Illinois. Wesolowski, Wayne; Mary Cay Wesolowski (1985). ABCs of Building Model Railroad Cars. Tab Books. ISBN0830616357. Wesolowski, Wayne (1981). Model Railroad Scratchbuilding. Tab Books. ISBN0830696571.

Notes
[1] Wayne Wesolowski's Model Projects Information Page (http:/ / www. ben. edu/ resources/ librarytour/ train/ models/ model_projects. html)

External links
Description of Lincoln funeral train project (http://www.ben.edu/resources/librarytour/train/) Gallery of Wesolowski models (http://www.ben.edu/resources/librarytour/train/models/model_projects. html) Introductory statement at University of Arizona (http://www.chem.arizona.edu/faculty/profile/ profile-adjunct.php?fid_call=weso)

Wiking

225

Wiking
For the Waffen-SS division, see 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking Wiking is a German manufacturer of scale models in H0 scale and N scale for model trains. They specialize in models of cars and trucks dating from the 50s to the present day.
Wiking H0 scale model vehicles. Wiking began producing ship models in the 1930s. These metal ships were made in 1:1250 scale. Before and during World War II they were used by the German military for training purposes. The military also used new plane models beginning in 1934/35, and the so called Wehrmachtsmodelle (from 1937/38), models of military vehicles and artillery, both in 1:200 scale. Beginning in 1938 the planes and some of the ships were made from plastic. Based on the Wehrmachtsmodelle, Wiking also made some civilian traffic models whose production was stopped at the beginning of World War II. During the war Wiking mostly produced models for the military as it was considered to be important for the war effort. During the war Wiking employed forced labour, e.g. from Russia.

After World War II there were some experiments with a variety of model topics such as Noah's ark, some clay models, plastic combs and buttons before Wiking started to build model cars. Additionally, there was a small series with models of the Berlin Airlift (1948/49) consisting of five planes and two car models in the scale of 1:400. In 1947 Wiking started to produce simple car models that mostly consisted of one part, having no windows and no chassis. They were made of plastic and roughly in the scale of 1:100. The axles were made of wire with flat pinched ends, that were squeezed into the still warm vehicle body plastic and not able to rotate. Only the wheels rolled on the axles. Later models included a chassis and rolling axles. The scale was changed to 1:90. Since the early 1960s the models received transparent windows, and in the 1970s interiors were added. For some models today even the original paint from the car manufacturers is used. The scale has been changed to 1:87 (H0). Since 1969 Wiking has produced car models in 1:160(N) scale which are mostly for N-Scale model train sets. Between 1949/50 and 1974/75 Wiking again produced ship models. They also tried to sell plane models again in the 1960s but this effort was cancelled as well. The founder of Wiking died in 1981 at the age of 78 (February 5, 1903 - November 20, 1981). Some collectors consider this to be the end of an era, leaving behind the age of stylized models. In 1953 the workshops in Buer were closed, followed by the Kiel workshops in 1982. In 1984 Wiking was sold to the Sieper Group (Siku). The current models of Wiking represent a different philosophy and try to be a perfect miniature just like the competition (Herpa or Brekina). By now old Wiking models are often rare collectors items which can be very expensive. The most expensive Wiking model ever sold is a Mercedes tank truck from 1962 which was produced as an advertising article for the Thyssen company. In June 2006 one of these tank truck models was sold for 10,100 Euro at an auction in Cologne.

Wiking

226

External links
Wiking's official website [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. wiking. de

Gerald Wingrove
Gerald A. Wingrove MBE is a model engineer and author from the United Kingdom.

Biography
Wingrove has produced extremely detailed miniature models of ships and cars for nearly four decades. Working with his wife Phyllis, he creates about four automobile models, always by request and usually on a 1:15 scale, every year, and buyers pay anywhere from 10,000 to 25,000 for a completed model. His work was featured on Top Gear in 1998. In July 2000, he was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire for craftsmanship.

Bibliography
Art of the Automobile in Miniature ISBN 1-86126-632-4 The Complete Car Modeler 1 ISBN 1-86126-644-8 The Complete Car Modeler 2 ISBN 1-86126-750-9 The Techniques of Ship Modeling ISBN 0-85242-366-7

External links
Official site [1] Article on Gerald Wingrove [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. wworkshop. net [2] http:/ / www. craftsmanshipmuseum. com/ Wingrove. htm

Article Sources and Contributors

227

Article Sources and Contributors

Scale model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389506865 Contributors: A. B., Ackatsis, Adrianmc, Advanced, Agamemnon2, Ammodel, AmosWolfe, Ancheta Wis, Andrewmakar, Andy Dingley, Ant, AntonioMartin, ArnoldReinhold, Artreve, Balagen, Barek, Beetstra, Biggie MBC, Biopresto, Black Kite, Bob Castle, Bobblewik, Brooksindy, Brutaldeluxe, Calvincent39, Camembert, CanisRufus, Chris Roy, Ciphers, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, Conti, Cyrillic, DJ Clayworth, Daniel, Danielhorner@mail.com, Darklilac, Dassiebtekreuz, Dave T Hobbit, Davidforster, Davidjcarney, Deanmo19, Densships, Deon Steyn, DerHexer, Diecastscale, Discospinster, Dollhousecollectables, Doug church, E Wing, Efcmagnew, Elipongo, Emhoo, Epolk, Erik Baas, ErinHowarth, Euganeo, Evanjacobs, Fayenatic london, Fourdee, FrozenPurpleCube, Fubaz, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Giraffedata, Glenn, GorillaWarfare, GraemeLeggett, Greg lawrence, Grimhelm, Grjmodels, Gwernol, Gzuckier, Gkhan, Harveyqs, Hmains, Ian Pitchford, IanManka, Infrogmation, InterlinkKnight, Isnow, JHunterJ, JLaTondre, Janke, Jason7825, Jcbutler, Jeff1200, Jimfbleak, Journalist, Jpbowen, Julius Seizure, Justemily, Kellergraham, Leslie Mateus, Letdorf, Lev Brodsky, Levani91, Levineps, Lexw, Lifelonglego, Lightmouse, Mac, Machete97, Mcginnly, Mech Aaron, Mel Etitis, Melvinakoinc, Mentifisto, Mercy, Michael Hardy, Microminimadgal, Miniatures2008, Miq, Mlessard, Mully-cron, MvComedy, Mysterd429, Nassaubahamas, NatureBoyMD, Neddyseagoon, Netoholic, Nihiltres, Nposs, Nukeless, Ohnoitsjamie, One, One35th, Onofre Bouvila, Orderspoke2008, Ospalh, P9884088, Peter Horn, Petiatil, Philip Trueman, Phlebas, Phyllis1753, Piano non troppo, Pibwl, Piotrus, Piratetm, Qazwsx13, RJASE1, Railmodel, Rcplaneguide, Recury, Reinraum, Reveller, Rich Farmbrough, Richardoam, Ridge Runner, Riumplus, Rjwilmsi, Rmosler2100, Saberwyn, Saigon punkid, Salamurai, Sam Hocevar, Sceptre, Scott Mingus, Scwlong, Seaphoto, Sextiliana, ShakingSpirit, Shame On You, Shoaler, Siawase, Sietse Snel, Signalhead, Sings-With-Spirits, SiobhanHansa, Slaterd4479, Sobolewski, Sonett72, Spacecrusader, Speedmonkey5000, SpigotMap, Stan Shebs, Staxringold, Steven J. Anderson, SunCreator, Super6Eight, Suviljan, TAndRDInS, TKD, Tfine80, Thebuisnessman, Themfromspace, Tide rolls, Toniosky, Toywonders, Tregoweth, Trwa1337, Uthanc, Vikiizer, Violetriga, Vorrinko, Wahiba, Wavelength, Welsh, Werideatdusk33, Wikisanchez, William Grimes, Winchelsea, Wizard191, Wongm, Wunhur, X201, Yugyug, Zabdiel, 265 anonymous edits 1:144 scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=373100524 Contributors: Conscious, EvilOverlordX, Fourdee, George Leung, Ham Pastrami, Jeff Poindexter, Paul Foxworthy, Peter Horn, Puremicros, Radical Mallard, Reedy, Robinh, Saxifrage, Siawase, Svennex, 19 anonymous edits John Adam (hoax) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=373343658 Contributors: Acjelen, Al tally, Auric, Bobblewik, Emcee2k, Frencheigh, Good Olfactory, Gtrmp, Guthrie, Hmwith, Jay Pegg, 1 anonymous edits Aluminum Model Toys Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393552021 Contributors: Adidascoke, Alvis, ArcAngel, Betacommand, Ceebeaton, CommonsDelinker, Cstevencampbell, ErinHowarth, Geniac, GoingBatty, GraemeLeggett, Jevansen, LilHelpa, Muttonking, NyrathWiz, Reinyday, Salamurai, SanSebasti, Sd-100, Sgt. Bond, Siawase, Vegaswikian, Wrssrir, Zchris87v, 17 anonymous edits Architectural model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386015888 Contributors: Alanbly, Amatulic, Aucahuasi, Ayyah tubby, Bardsandwarriors, Brideshead, Chris Howard, Clubmarx, Courcelles, Discospinster, Dollshouse, Dosmit, ErinHowarth, Faridsaavedra, Fineday, Fourdee, GorillaWarfare, Gunkarta, Highest-city, IanManka, Ingolfson, Iridescent, Jhofmann, Joopercoopers, Lev Brodsky, Luminique, MaryPuch1, Mattisse, Mbamods, Mcginnly, Mdd, Mully-cron, Nickmalik, Nposs, Papercutbiology, PericlesofAthens, Physicsjake, Reeleegirlee, Samw, Scwlong, Seaphoto, TastyPoutine, Themfromspace, Wghost, Wongm, 28 anonymous edits Autofest City Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376409690 Contributors: Ben Ben, CommonsDelinker, Cubs197, Fabrictramp, Good Olfactory, Ka Faraq Gatri, Keegan, Malcolma, MiloKral, Neiltopaz, Roland zh, Tabletop, 14 anonymous edits Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392852290 Contributors: Elie like boys, Kku, Magioladitis, Notafly, Philip Trueman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Ucucha, Warofdreams, Wetman, 5 anonymous edits Martin Bower Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=349884558 Contributors: Malcolma, Martarius, Samsonfest, 1 anonymous edits Brass model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384787226 Contributors: Bayernfan, Dkslao, ErinHowarth, Everyking, Fourdee, Quatro Valvole, Rich Farmbrough, Vivepat, Zabdiel, 5 anonymous edits Brickplayer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387927785 Contributors: Aclayartist, Andy Dingley, Bandac, Difu Wu, Kbthompson, MacGyverMagic, R'n'B, Siawase, 2 anonymous edits Britains Deetail Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392356071 Contributors: Akldawgs, Anqrew2346, Badshans, D6, EmanWilm, Foofbun, I do not exist, Nightkey, Salona, Siawase, Welsh, 1 anonymous edits Building model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342196122 Contributors: Bddmagic, Efcmagnew, ErinHowarth, Fourdee, RotaryAce, Wahiba, Wiki Raja, 3 anonymous edits Cardboard modeling Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384744625 Contributors: Aiko, Andy Dingley, Andycjp, Bwpach, D6, Dekimasu, Dicklyon, Geniac, Grantmidnight, J04n, Marasmusine, Oscarthecat, Rlsheehan, Siawase, Swpb, T@nn, Thumperward, Wahiba, Welsh, 4 anonymous edits Carnegie collection Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=391378290 Contributors: Al B. Free, Appraiser, ClassicToysNYC, Darklilac, Deanmo19, Dendodge, Dinoguy2, ErinHowarth, Firsfron, Hiplobonoxa, J. Spencer, Jpbowen, LilHelpa, MvComedy, Penfacehead, Shnierland, Spawn Man, Tomdobb, 90 anonymous edits Cotswold Heritage Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376995780 Contributors: Jezhotwells, Philberforce, Rbn201, Tabletop, 4 anonymous edits Cox model engine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392985143 Contributors: Art LaPella, Aspire3623WXCi, Brett Buck, Celique, Chaosdruid, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, Egil, Howcheng, Iamplanecrazy2, Ideeman1994, Leonard G., Malcolma, Michael Hardy, Rpiester, Salix alba, Skipweasel, Somno, Tabletop, Warrenlead, Ww2censor, Xenalook, 49 anonymous edits Decal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387262473 Contributors: Angr, Anirvan, BanRay, Bewildebeast, Bsadowski1, Chairman S., ChrisCork, CraigBox, DougsTech, Echuck215, Edward, Elysdir, Exploding Boy, F.bendik, Geniac, Gerbrant, Gilliam, Glenfarclas, Goldenrowley, GraphicImagination, Griffinofwales, Gzuckier, Halifaxhurst, HawkFromHell, Hmains, Hu12, Intj52, J. Finkelstein, J.delanoy, Jamie219, Jeffbowman, Jemiller226, Jeremjay24, Jrockley, Kkmurray, Knowledge4less, Kukanani2, Kwamikagami, L Kensington, MBisanz, Malcolma, Marcinj, MartinHarper, Mattgirling, Michaelas10, NawlinWiki, Neil916, Newone, Phoenixfire0215, Piano non troppo, PierreAbbat, Pince Nez, Pinethicket, Playhacker, Pmsyyz, R. S. Shaw, Remag Kee, SiobhanHansa, Sweetdecals, Theriac, Traveler100, Veinor, Versageek, Zalgo, 116 anonymous edits Die-cast toy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390656430 Contributors: Andy Dingley, AntonioMartin, Arriva436, Aussieveight, Aynabend, Barek, Betacommand, Biggie MBC, Biker Biker, Bmramon, Bobby131313, Brett Brute, Brett hunter, Brommahobby, CALR, CL, Canadiana, Car-craver, Caseykelly, Cbrown1023, Chrysophylax Dives, ClassicToysNYC, Copcarcollector, Coyets, DavidsDepot, Dbdef, De Bont, Diecast heroes, DiecastCarsAU, Diecastcar, Diecastcollector, Diecaster, Diecastfast, Diecastscale, Diecasttoy, Diecasttoys1, Dominic Edward Aragon, Dr.frog, Dubuquer, Edwardtrunk, Fabiodipa, Fishhead, Fourdee, GTHO, Gaius Cornelius, GraemeLeggett, Huhsunqu, Icairns, JYolkowski, Jadatoys305, Jamie smith, John, Jtnet, KPWM Spotter, Kevellis, Kostia83, Love Krittaya, MER-C, Maggidiecast, Magicmikeb, Makeorbrake, Marine 69-71, Martpol, Meisterkoch, Metron4, MillerLiteo2, Mywolv32010, NES Wii, NIRVANA2764, Oblisk49, Ohnoitsjamie, Onoitsawrx, P9884088, Pearle, Raccoon Fox, Rcawsey, Recury, Rhe br, Rowlfbeagle, Rreagles, Rubyforbes, Saberwyn, Sanfranman59, SarekOfVulcan, Siawase, Sietse Snel, SiobhanHansa, Sole Soul, SpikeJones, Stepho-wrs, Stormie823, Svennex, TastyPoutine, TenPoundHammer, That Guy, From That Show!, Tnxman307, Toecutter169, Vik-Thor, Vvvracer, WWGB, Wiley32, Winchelsea, Wizard191, 122 anonymous edits Digital character Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384738277 Contributors: Ashritakapoor, Crater Creator, ErinHowarth, Gogo Dodo, Jpbowen, Leszek Jaczuk, Maximus Rex, 7 anonymous edits Diorama Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390962851 Contributors: Abby, Ahoerstemeier, AmosWolfe, AndreasPraefcke, ArglebargleIV, Aridd, Arthena, BillFlis, Bluxxie, Breschard, Burntsauce, CatherineMunro, Chuq, Cmapm, Cmdrjameson, Cuteseeker, DMorpheus, Damaavand, David Shankbone, EdTrist, Enti342, Equazcion, Fehrenstr, Fourdee, FriedMilk, G.dallorto, Gamsbart, GeneralPatton, Geni, Geschichte, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Graham87, Grouse, HJMG, Jim.henderson, Jkleebone, John254, Jpbowen, Justinc, Kappa, Lazylaces, Leonard G., Micahsergey, Monrovin, Omnipaedista, Pankkake, Paul Barlow, Pennywriter, Pharring, Phil Boswell, Pleasantville, Postrach, RL0919, Rajah, Realkyhick, Retaggio, Rich Farmbrough, Robertgreer, Sceptre, Semperf, Sextiliana, Stangoldsmith, Stephen2nd, Super-Magician, Svick, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Tomdo08, USS Noob Hunter, Ugajin, Vogensen, Whiskers, WoodLooker, Wuz, Yupik, 82 anonymous edits Diorama (Efteling) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=372785306 Contributors: ErinHowarth, Eugene van der Pijll, HeartofaDog, HenkvD, Kruiwagen2000, Magafuzula, Themepark

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Dollhouse Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389858055 Contributors: *Ulla*, Advance, Ahoerstemeier, AlainV, Alcinoe, Anurita, Anwestov, Applejaxs, Apwoolrich, Basmus, Be-technical, Beach drifter, Belanidia, Cadsuane Melaidhrin, Cecropia, ChrisCork, Cjolicoeur51, Coelacan, Computer97, Cosmic Latte, Crispy park, Cyberix, Damian Yerrick, David Robert Davis, Deirdre, Discospinster, Dollhousecollectables, Dollhousefan, Dollshouse, Dollshouserestoration, DrSculerati, DragonflySixtyseven, Edusilva, Elf, Elipongo, ErinHowarth, Everyguy, Femto, Fernkes, Finlay McWalter, Freiwilliger, Fumitol, Gdr, Grubbiv, Guest9999, Guusbosman, Haham hanuka, Harthacnut, Herr Satz, Hmains, Irishguy, JForget, Jackiespeel, Jengirl1988, Jeversol, Jff189, Jjanhone, Jllm06, Jpbowen, Katherine Tredwell, Knowledge Seeker, Kukini, Lemondixon, Lexw, LisaCarr, Little-quiqueg, Littlekidstuff, Lucyb111, Lupo, MER-C, MJBurrage, Mabalu, Malo, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miniatures2008, Movedgood, Mystar, Nightscream, Ninakvinna, Niteowlneils, Nssanes, Ohnoitsjamie, Olivier, Perfecto, Peter Walt A., Polymath69, Qworty, Renvarian, Rjwilmsi, Rorro, Rose of Darkness, Rsrikanth05, Rvollmert, Sakowski, Saxifrage, ScaleReplicas, Serviendo, Sextiliana, Sharkford, Shoujun, Siawase, SimonP, Sinar, Sirrontail, SparrowsWing, Speciate, Spikebrennan, Stdout, Susie Mulvany, TEJ2006, TheShoppingSherpa, Themfromspace, Tktktk, Vrindabaxi, Walden, Wesley, Wiesengrund, Wmahan, Xchbla423, Yuefairchild, Zeus, ZimZalaBim, Zzuuzz, 146 anonymous edits Freelance model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378596224 Contributors: Akerans, Ashleygeorgia, Azero III, Erik Baas, ErinHowarth, Susfele, ZoftWhere, 12 anonymous edits Garage kit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390793534 Contributors: Ashley76, Caiyu, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Docu, Dorkbert, Edymnion, Funvill, GargoyleMT, George Stephenson, Iceberg3k, Kjkolb, Kmweber, Masterblaster69, Mboverload, Onionmon, Ootsuka02, Pearle, RJFJR, Siawase, Sn0wflake, TBrauns, Tani unit, Wikitodd64, Wizard191, YoungFreud, 20 anonymous edits Grenadier Models Inc. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386679465 Contributors: Ajatthebank, BOZ, Bassington, BenAveling, Billinghurst, BonsaiViking, Bwpach, Cmdrjameson, Daikiki, Doctor Skull, Drilnoth, Ebyabe, Frecklefoot, Jor, Kintaro, Melesse, Pearle, Percy Snoodle, Runcorn, ShelfSkewed, SteinbDJ, Stoph, Swpmre, Tesscass, Warhead66, Washi, Waza, Winterwater, 25 anonymous edits Gundam FIX Figuration Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376919092 Contributors: Chininazu12, E Wing, Eliyak, Gaius Cornelius, Good Olfactory, Jay Pegg, MechaWyvern, Mgmalheiros, NJGW, Rjwilmsi, Tabletop, TheFarix, Wiki Raja, 60 anonymous edits Gundam model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393084080 Contributors: 265ly, ACSE, Alanwong43, Areaseven, BjKa, Blackgaia02, Brinlong, C933103, CABAL, CatherineMunro, Cattus, CommonsDelinker, Crystallina, Cube2, DarkWarrior, DeadEyeArrow, Deon Steyn, Divine Wind, Dooly00000, Dorkbert, E Wing, Eliyak, Fox816, Freyr, GNdynames, Gaius Cornelius, George Leung, Good Olfactory, GraemeLeggett, Griffin700, HellCat86, Iridescent, Iron2000, Ixfd64, Jacob Poon, JakCrow, Jay Pegg, Keeenji, Kjkolb, Knj ucsc, MER-C, Mboverload, Mgmalheiros, Ncmvocalist, Palfrey, Persib-1, Ptleung, Puffin, Punk 911, RTG, Rdsmith4, Rjwilmsi, Ryulong, Rv, Shikai shaw, Shogun221, Signalhead, Sofa jazz man, Staka, TheFarix, Totoro-chan, Zankantou 01, Zxcvbnm, 161 anonymous edits International Plastic Modellers' Society Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384010303 Contributors: Abydanes, Deon Steyn, Diego bf109, GraemeLeggett, Rcawsey, SimonP, TancredCassar, Vinonanagas, 32 anonymous edits Kitbashing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392493171 Contributors: Abacus11, AlistairMcMillan, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard, Angrycrustacean, Ashley Pomeroy, Blcouch, Dave Farquhar, Dimitrii, Dominic, Evanjacobs, Evillawngnome, Finn-Zoltan, FrenchIsAwesome, Gooberliberation, Groyolo, Ingolfson, Kitbashdotcodotuk, Leithp, Martarius, McGeddon, Nightscream, Peter.thelander, Pi.1415926535, Radagast83, Rogerd, Saga City, Siawase, Stan Shebs, Tedickey, The Wookieepedian, Updatehelper, Wl219, Wongm, Zabdiel, 16 anonymous edits Matchstick model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=377368767 Contributors: AmosWolfe, Dave Farquhar, ErinHowarth, Gimme danger, LilHelpa, Phlebas, Rlsheehan, Zabdiel, 7 anonymous edits Micro armour Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376841157 Contributors: ChefMongoose, Eastshire, Ham Pastrami, JamesBWatson, Marasmusine, Radical Mallard, 11 anonymous edits Micromodel Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=383757553 Contributors: Capricorn42, Dialectric, Dr.nield, ErinHowarth, LilHelpa, Msparkswiki, Pantoine, Stan Shebs, Wahiba, 8 anonymous edits Military miniaturism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=332416060 Contributors: Ant, Craw-daddy, Flyguy649, Kross, Lmertz, PigFlu Oink, Sextiliana, Stan Shebs, Steinsky, Tttisme, Whiskers, 5 anonymous edits Miniature figure (gaming) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=388164834 Contributors: A. B., Adrianmc, Aesire, Agamemnon2, Akuvodapainting, Alhutch, Amorrow, Andy35725, Ant, Antjl2020, Apeloverage, Artw, BWGPEN08, Bepp, Biker Biker, Bobblewik, Cajur, CatherineMunro, Closedmouth, CommonsDelinker, Craigy144, Craw-daddy, D.Helber, Dar-Ape, Dave Farquhar, Dave6, DavidNYC, Dcoetzee, DeathQuaker, Deddog, Dfazzinijr, DocWatson42, Doctor Skull, DreamGuy, Drilnoth, Eastcote, Edward3h, Eep, El C, Elia Cid, Erisie, Euganeo, Eugene-elgato, Fishbed-j, Frecklefoot, Freebiegrabber, Freederick, GDallimore, GRuban, Gabriel landowski, Gaius Cornelius, Gogo Dodo, Gracefool, GraemeLeggett, Grekwood, Grimhelm, Gtrmp, Hole in the wall, Holme053, Huon, IanManka, Ianlowe08, Iceberg3k, J04n, Jcbutler, Localzuk, Lowellian, Luigizanasi, MamaGeek, MammothStrider, Marasmusine, Mathmo, Meggiesmum, Michael Bauser, Mike Selinker, Minimaker, Mrcaffeinated, Mrg3105, MurderMunkey, Nave.notnilc, Neddyseagoon, Nehwyn, NeilHynes, Netoholic, Nihiltres, Obewanz, PAINTER99, Pak21, Paul J Williams, Percy Snoodle, Peter v brown, Phileas, Protonk, Pushlatency, RJHall, Radical Mallard, RainbowOfLight, Rawling, Rich becks, Rjo, Runtime, Sacred13, Salix alba, Saxifrage, Schultheis, Scott Moore, Shalom Yechiel, Siawase, Skaraoke, Sortior, Stewart.mccullough, Taskmaster101, That Guy, From That Show!, Thumperward, Tomdidiot, Torasan, Verdatum, Voyaging, Wellesbry, Wikisaurus, Wuffanie, 199 anonymous edits Miniature effect Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379945857 Contributors: A. B., Apeloverage, B. Wolterding, Big Bob the Finder, Bigpinkthing, Brian0918, Chris 42, CommonsDelinker, DITWIN GRIM, David Chiam, Ehusman, EncycloPetey, Erikgoddard, Euganeo, Evanjacobs, Firsfron, Fratrep, Girolamo Savonarola, Hydrargyrum, Johndburger, Keith london, Martarius, Mchale36, Michaelschmatz, Minieffects, Mushroom, Naaman Brown, Neurolysis, Nixeagle, Paul A, Pcyrus, Pengyanan, Pfistermeister, Seaview2, Stw, The Anome, Tintinlover123, 22 anonymous edits Miniature pioneering Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=374492518 Contributors: Calvincent39, Jaerik, Jergen, JustAGal, Kintetsubuffalo, Peterleroux, Zaian, 1 anonymous edits Physical model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=361735943 Contributors: Advanced, Arpingstone, Bart133, Bryan Derksen, CSTAR, Crystallina, Dasani, Dougalc, ErinHowarth, Fir0002, Gaius Cornelius, Gregbard, Grim23, JaGa, Jeff3000, Jpbowen, Kku, LuchoX, Mdd, MichaelMaggs, OllieFury, Patrick, RainbowOfLight, Revotfel, Rfl, Ryoutou, Taelus, Tfine80, Winhunter, ZX81, Zoicon5, 37 anonymous edits Model building Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=366757342 Contributors: Azero III, Banes, ErinHowarth, Fourdee, Goldenrowley, Haza-w, Ixfd64, Janke, Jpbowen, Julian Mendez, LouisBB, Magioladitis, Mahjongg, Maliz, Marasmusine, Mark, Martpol, Mdd, Mully-cron, NavalPower, Pibwl, Rama, Rios, Saga City, Soyweiser, Stan Shebs, Thumperward, Wahiba, 11 anonymous edits Model commercial vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=364005027 Contributors: A. B., Adrianmc, AlainV, Ant, Biscuittin, Cstevencampbell, Dave Farquhar, EdGl, ErinHowarth, Fourdee, Jpbowen, Kevellis, Lectonar, Maurreen, Meamemg, Phlebas, RexNL, Siawase, SiobhanHansa, Sir Lewk, Taidawang, That Guy, From That Show!, WWGB, Wrssrir, 10 anonymous edits Model engine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=374364934 Contributors: Andy Dingley, Arnero, Bad ideas, Biscuittin, David R. Ingham, Discovery4, EMM1984, Ectropy, ErinHowarth, Ettrig, Firsfron, Gogo Dodo, Guikipedia, Icarus4586, John, Jpbowen, M-le-mot-dit, Maniadis, Mlpearc, Painterdog, Pyrospirit, Rich257, Saintrain, Tanelorn, The PIPE, Triddle, Warrenlead, WikiuserNI, 23 anonymous edits Model Products Corporation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=374545969 Contributors: Andyross, ArcAngel, Bassetman4, CommonsDelinker, Cstevencampbell, Martijn Hoekstra Model robot Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=372950871 Contributors: Agamemnon2, AxelBoldt, Cattus, Chaosdruid, Dual Freq, ErinHowarth, Formerly Wu, Gaius Cornelius, George Leung, HellCat86, Ian Pitchford, Jacob Poon, John Vandenberg, Jpbowen, Knyght27, Kross, Minghong, Mythsearcher, OwenX, Riumplus, Rv, Thetrueseto, 17 anonymous edits Model airport Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392308551 Contributors: AntonioMartin, Bozoid, ErinHowarth, Eurosong, Jpbowen, Pinkpedaller, QuantumEleven, Richfife, Sango123, Siawase, Sphilbrick, Vegaswikian, Wik, Yonatanmey, 11 anonymous edits Model engineering Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=368583988 Contributors: Alanb, Andy Dingley, Andyg8tjq, Brixhamengineer, EdJogg, ErinHowarth, Gilliam, Graibeard, Janke, Jpbowen, Keytree, Malcolma, Runcorn, Sladen, Stringybark, Urbanwt, Wackyvorlon, Wizard191, 26 anonymous edits

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Model figure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=388142616 Contributors: A. B., A930913, Agamemnon2, Ant, Ashley76, Black Kite, Bobblewik, Camerong, CatherineMunro, DMorpheus, Drilnoth, El C, ErinHowarth, Euganeo, Fsecret, GargoyleMT, Jcbutler, Jpbowen, Mandarax, Maurreen, Mmrruugg, NatureBoyMD, Percy Snoodle, Phlebas, Piotrus, Radical Mallard, Saxifrage, Seaphoto, Siawase, Sobolewski, Spacecrusader, Super6Eight, Tttisme, Wendell, Whiskers, Wunhur, X201, 19 anonymous edits Model maker Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=357544621 Contributors: Dave61072, ErinHowarth, Fourdee, Gogo Dodo, Ingolfson, Lev Brodsky, Mcginnly, Mully-cron, Seaphoto, Turk88, 7 anonymous edits Model military vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390413695 Contributors: 11thArmoured, Agamemnon2, Agm45shrike, Ant, Anthony Appleyard, Asiananimal, Cmdrjameson, DMorpheus, DPdH, Diecastcollector, Dieschwalbe, E Wing, ElinorD, ErinHowarth, Everyking, Fourdee, Ground Zero, JE1977, Jim Brett, Jpbowen, Kafziel, Lectonar, Maurreen, Nibios, Nmnogueira, Phlebas, R'n'B, Reveller, Rindis, Rjray, Rjwilmsi, Saxifrage, Schultheis, Seaphoto, Tom, Treynaga, Tttisme, WJBscribe, WideArc, Wood.sarah.m, Wunhur, X201, Yst1972, 39 anonymous edits Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=364833794 Contributors: Bookwench, GB fan, Johnpacklambert, Oddharmonic, Sandstein, Sloggerbum, The Ink Daddy!, 1 anonymous edits OOO scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=375013646 Contributors: Bender235, Capricorn42, Kitmaster, MatthewVanitas, Slambo Orrery Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386902969 Contributors: A2Kafir, AHMartin, AlainV, Angr, Anthony Appleyard, ArnoldReinhold, Art LaPella, AugPi, Avriette, BD2412, Bigturtle, Bryan Derksen, CJLL Wright, Canthusus, Chetvorno, Cleduc, Cuchullain, Curps, Danceswithzerglings, Ekashp, Emperorbma, Enochlau, Esk, Fastfission, Flcelloguy, Glenn, Goldfritha, John Vandenberg, Johnbod, Johnred32, Julesd, Karl gregory jones, Klaus Hnig, LanceBarber, Light current, Linuxlad, Looxix, Lotse, Mark Renier, Maury Markowitz, McGeddon, Michael Hardy, Mintguy, Miruna, Mkenigson, Myrabella, Noisy, Novangelis, PasabaPorAqui, Peanutcactus, Pmax, Qrc2006, RJHall, RK, Redrose64, Referenceguy, Rpeh, Ryanmcdaniel, Seth Ilys, SidP, Slash, StephenFerg, Stepho-wrs, Syncategoremata, Tham153, The Thing That Should Not Be, Titoxd, Tkbwik, Totaltech, Valentinian, WLU, Waldir, Wavelength, Who, Wikimol, Wyatt Riot, Xaedra, Xolin, 55 anonymous edits Paper model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392317571 Contributors: -Midorihana-, A bit iffy, Agamemnon2, Aiko, Aitias, Alexfusco5, AnotherBrian, Anthony Appleyard, Badbri, Bgwwlm, Blue Laser, Brom, Burgerking216, Cgutzmer, Cienlung, Contrived, CountZer0, Cygielski, DBatesx, DMacks, DXRAW, Dave Farquhar, David Shay, Devilweep, Devvyn, Dialectric, Dosmit, ErinHowarth, Fajrigraf, Frankenpaper, Gilliam, Glenn, GraemeL, Grantmidnight, Gwernol, Hu12, Indrek, Irishguy, JHunterJ, Jianlunk, Jmundo, Joz3d, Julescrafter, Juliusperdana, Kostmo, LexWilson, Liesel, Loggie, Lumotek, Mavigogun, Mbell, Melvinakoinc, Msparkswiki, Nemesis7485, NewEnglandYankee, Newone, Norbi et Orbi, Oscarthecat, Ost316, Ouedbirdwatcher, Pantoine, Paper warrior, Paper33d, Paul Richter, Paulocguerrero, Pepik, Petertdavis, Piano non troppo, Portableteejay, Rigby paper models, RyanCross, Sambostock, Sandstig, Scannerjoe, ScottDavis, Scottanon, Sergey Chernyshev, Shenom, Siawase, Skysmith, Stephenb, Sweaterii, SyntaxError55, Takahashitakumi, Tedder, Ter308, The Anome, Thumperward, UkPaolo, Ultima069, Wadeswiki, Wahiba, Wikibahamut, Yop83, Zabdiel, ZeroA4, 233 anonymous edits Pinning (modelling) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386098746 Contributors: Craw-daddy, Cumulus Clouds, JediLofty, Mild Bill Hiccup, VirtualSteve Plan-relief Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=377517407 Contributors: Myrabella, Neddyseagoon, Rama Plastic model Source: 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Brammen, Coccyx Bloccyx, Ioannes Pragensis, Mild Bill Hiccup, Vegaswikian, 3 anonymous edits Radio-controlled model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393641106 Contributors: 12 Noon, Alureiter, Andytc, AntonioMartin, Anwarpp, BaikinMan, Bert Racoon, BinaryOperator, Bkag, Bluenose1234, Boncrek, Busche, Chris the speller, ChrisCork, Clovis Sangrail, Coffee, Craigclavin, DJ Clayworth, David R. Ingham, Dino246, EMM1984, Eurosong, Everyking, Following specific instructions whispered by a mysterious cat, G4led, Gabrill, Gaius Cornelius, Glenn, Gogo Dodo, Gracefool, Greggwon, Gurch, Gwernol, Heron, Hooperbloob, Hpventus, Ian01, Interiot, JLaTondre, Jafanzzi, Jezmck, Jfitch, Jimmyet, John, John of Reading, Kbfseattle, Kozuch, Lbrain444, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, LowKey, MPerel, MakeChooChooGoNow, Mark.murphy, Mark7-2, MatthewDBA, Mboverload, Michael Hardy, Miikeymike, Mike Selinker, Mikeblas, Mild Bill Hiccup, MilitaryRC, Mrholybrain, Netoholic, Netpsycho, Nigelj, Nihiltres, Nihonjoe, Nimbus227, Nposs, Ohnoitsjamie, Ourobos, Phatmonkey, Piano non troppo, PigFlu Oink, Quaeler, RC Junkie, Rcplaneguide, Richman18, Rjwilmsi, Ryulong, Scienceman123, Scottnelsonsmith, Shadem, ShaunCurrier, Siawase, SkyWalker, Solipsist, Sonett72, Soupisgoodfood, Stan Shebs, StevesGroup, Tabletop, Tch28, Tevildo, TexasAndroid, TigerHype, Travelingman99, Tregoweth, TrygveFlathen, Tzartzam, Utcursch, Verne Equinox, Vox Rationis, Whobbies, Woohookitty, Wtshymanski, , 133 anonymous edits Ral Partha Enterprises Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=391710906 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Auntof6, BOZ, Billinghurst, Doctor Skull, Drilnoth, Fabrictramp, Gu1dry, Hailey C. Shannon, Nutiketaiel, RJHall, Rjwilmsi, SarekOfVulcan, SharkD, Topbanana, Welsh, Woohookitty, 31 anonymous edits Replicas of the Statue of Liberty Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390609048 Contributors: (aeropagitica), 2D, AMCKen, Altairisfar, Amgmichael, Ammasson, Andy Marchbanks, Anetode, BLV217, Benson85, BhamAla, Black Condor, Blanchardb, Bovineone, Bunnyhop11, Canadian, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Chzz, Cmichael, CommonsDelinker, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DLiebisch, Dan4142, Dandelion1, Dawkeye, Dcmacnut, Deb2222, Delirium, Discospinster, Dpbsmith, Either way, Ekell1245, Eliashedberg, Ember of Light, Epbr123, ErinHowarth, Ev, Evrik, Faithlessthewonderboy, Felipe929, Gadget850, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Greenmnm69, Gro-Tsen, Guthrie, Hide1228, Iepeulas, Iridescent, Iroc24, J.delanoy, JamesMLane, JeLuF, Jfingers88, JimmyMac82, Jks313, Jpbowen, Kaiwhakahaere, Katalaveno, Kedadi, Kintetsubuffalo, Knulclunk, LECS project, Lynntoniolondon, Miquonranger03, Mmoneypenny, Mordicai, Myrabella, NameIsRon, Newone, Nyttend, Oosoom, Ozzieboy, Parisagain, Parkrrrr, Pelegisrael, Philly jawn, Psemmusa, Quest for Truth, Rhythmnation2004, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rmarquet, Ryulong, ShelfSkewed, SidP, Sionus, Sogospelman, Staka, TCY, Tennjam, Theo F, Tide rolls, Tommyt, Tpal3, Ungvichian, Viriditas, WikiSvein, Woohookitty, Wprlh, Xjym2002, Zephyrad, 155 anonymous edits Robotech Defenders Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392172299 Contributors: Cmdrjameson, Corsair Armada, CyberSkull, Dwanyewest, Egan Loo, Plumpurple, Ulric1313, 15 anonymous edits Room box Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=375377644 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Avalon, Dmarchand, Jjanhone, Katherine Tredwell, Miniatures2008, NMDickinson, Rich Farmbrough, Sextiliana, Siawase, 7 anonymous edits Roxxter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=321676361 Contributors: Fabrictramp, Hmains, JaGa, Katharineamy, Posix memalign, Siawase Pierre Scerri Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=350132172 Contributors: Antiuser, Gene Nygaard, Jaraalbe, Jay Pegg, Waacstats, 8 anonymous edits Scratch building Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=366927801 Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, Avalon, Black Kite, E Wing, EdJogg, ErinHowarth, Goldom, Malcolma, Micropsia, Riffraffselbow, Rogerborg, Sir Ray, Spacecrusader, Wizard191, Zabdiel, , 5 anonymous edits Slop (remote control) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389721579 Contributors: MLauba, PamD, TechMeh, Theleftorium, Whpq, 1 anonymous edits Solar system model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386112072 Contributors: Ahecht, Altenmann, ArnoldReinhold, Astrosci, Beacharn, Bertrus, BlackShift, Bobbozzo, Bunchofgrapes, Ckatz, Cookiecaper, Dangerpedia, Derumi, Dispenser, Djob, Doodle77, DrDaveHPP, Dreg743, Eaglizard, EamonnPKeane, EdJogg, Ev-Man, Fusionmix, Gaius Cornelius, George100, Grunthus, Headbomb, Icairns, Inwind, J.delanoy, Janke, Jeffq, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jsmccartney, Jyril, Lasunncty, Leyo, Loeb, LordAmeth, LunarLander, Majormax, Martin.hendry, Naturenet, Nothingofwater, Novangelis, Ntse, Oknazevad, Peter Shearan, Phoenix2, RadioFan, Rillian, Robyvecchio, Sardanaphalus, Shouriki, Sietse Snel, Something14, Stuart Strahl, Syracuseny, Tauolunga, Tcatron565, Tetracube, The Tom, Thedoorhinge, Tieum512, Toanyroc, Tothebarricades.tk, Urhixidur, Wavelength, Who, Wknight94, Yaco, Zotel, 89 anonymous edits Somerset Space Walk Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393200403 Contributors: C628, EdJogg, Geof Sheppard, Ratinox, Rodw, Smartse, 1 anonymous edits Spaghetti bridge Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382263745 Contributors: Andy Dingley, Anna Frodesiak, PennySpender1983, Snek01, 1 anonymous edits

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Image:Autofest City Overview - Covered Workshop Area.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Autofest_City_Overview_-_Covered_Workshop_Area.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Neiltopaz Image:Autofest City 1953 Chevy Tow Truck.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Autofest_City_1953_Chevy_Tow_Truck.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Neiltopaz Image:Autofest City 1957 Mercedes-Benz 300SLS.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Autofest_City_1957_Mercedes-Benz_300SLS.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Neiltopaz Image:Autofest City 1928 Lincoln Model L Towncar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Autofest_City_1928_Lincoln_Model_L_Towncar.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Neiltopaz Image:Autofest City 1934 Rolls-Royce Phantom II Towncar (Scale 24).JPG Source: 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