Ram Frame Analysis

DAA036860-1/0012
The RAM Structural System V8i

SELECTseries 4
TM

RAM Frame
TM

Release 14.04
June 2011

Bentley Systems, Inc.
2744 Loker Avenue West, Suite 103
Carlsbad, CA 92010
Telephone: (760) 431-3610
Toll Free: (800) 726-7789
Fax: (760) 431-5214

TRADEMARK NOTICE
Bentley and the "B" Bentley logo are registered or non-registered trademarks of Bentley Systems,
Incorporated.

RAM SBeam, RAM Structural System, RAM Manager, RAM Modeler, RAM Steel, RAM Frame, RAM
Foundation and RAM Concrete are registered or non-registered trademarks of Bentley Systems,
Incorporated.

All other marks are the property of their respective owners.

COPYRIGHT NOTICE
Copyright (c) 2011 Bentley Systems, Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.
Including software, file formats, and audiovisual displays; may only be used pursuant to applicable software
license agreement; contains confidential and proprietary information of Bentley Systems, Incorporated
and/or third parties which is protected by copyright and trade secret law and may not be provided or
otherwise made available without proper authorization.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Objective Grid C++ Library Copyright Rogue Wave Software, Inc.
Virtual Print Engine (VPE) Copyright IDEAL Software
CM2 MeshTools Computing Objects SARL
Math Kernel Library (MKL) Intel Corporation
The Boost Graph Library (BGL) Siek, J.G., Lee, L., and Lumsdaine, A.
Ultimate Toolbox Dundas Software Ltd.
TurboDXF Ideal Engineering
Portions Copyright Microsoft Corporation
Includes Adobe(R) PDF Library technology. Portions Copyright (c) Adobe Systems, Inc.
Clipper library Angus Johnson
zlib software Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler.

RESTRICTED RIGHTS LEGENDS
If this software is acquired for or on behalf of the United States of America, its agencies and/or
instrumentalities ("U.S. Government"), it is provided with restricted rights. This software and accompanying
documentation are "commercial computer software" and "commercial computer software documentation,"
respectively, pursuant to 48 C.F.R. 12.212 and 227.7202, and "restricted computer software" pursuant to 48
C.F.R. 52.227-19(a), as applicable. Use, modification, reproduction, release, performance, display or
disclosure of this software and accompanying documentation by the U.S. Government are subject to
restrictions as set forth in this Agreement and pursuant to 48 C.F.R. 12.212, 52.227-19, 227.7202, and
1852.227-86, as applicable. Contractor/Manufacturer is Bentley Systems, Incorporated, 685 Stockton Drive,
Exton, PA 19341-0678.

Unpublished - rights reserved under the Copyright Laws of the United States and International treaties.

DISCLAIMER

The software and related documentation, including this documentation, are protected by both United States
copyright law and international treaty provisions. Any unauthorized copying or reproduction is strictly
prohibited and subject to civil and criminal penalties. Please refer to the License Agreement for
authorization to make a backup copy of the software. You may not sell this software or documentation or
give copies of them away to anyone else.

Except as expressly warranted in the License Agreement, Bentley Systems, Inc. disclaims all warranties,
expressed or implied, including but not limited to implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a
particular purpose, with respect to the software, the accompanying written materials, and any accompanying
hardware. All results should be verified to the users satisfaction. The contents of these written materials
may include technical inaccuracies or typographical errors and may be revised without prior notice.

v
RAM Frame
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
2 RAM Frame Basics ......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Frame Model ............................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Important Modeling Considerations ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Invoking RAM Frame ................................................................................................................................................. 5
2.4 Building the Framing Tables ...................................................................................................................................... 5
2.5 Modes .......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.6 Analysis Status ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
2.7 Saving the Model ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
2.8 Toolbars ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.9 The View Commands................................................................................................................................................ 13
2.9.1 View 3D ............................................................................................................................................... 13
2.9.2 View 3D (Advanced viewer) ............................................................................................................... 13
2.9.3 View Plan ............................................................................................................................................ 13
2.9.4 View Elevation .................................................................................................................................... 13
2.9.5 The Zoom Commands ............................................................................................................................ 13
2.9.6 View - Rotate .......................................................................................................................................... 13
2.9.7 View - Members ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.9.8 View - Extents ........................................................................................................................................ 15
2.9.9 View - Frames ........................................................................................................................................ 16
2.9.10 View Nodal Loads ............................................................................................................................... 16
2.9.11 Show/Hide View Commands ................................................................................................................. 17
2.9.12 View - Options - Pen Colors................................................................................................................... 18
2.9.13 View - Options - Scale Text ................................................................................................................... 18
2.9.14 View - Options - Save Settings ............................................................................................................... 18
2.9.15 Reset Model ............................................................................................................................................ 18
2.9.16 Rebuild Analytical Model ...................................................................................................................... 19
2.10 Exiting and Changing Modes ................................................................................................................................... 19
3 Analysis - Load Cases Mode ........................................................................................................................ 21
3.1 Analysis Mode Criteria ............................................................................................................................................. 21
3.1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 21
3.1.2 Diaphragm .............................................................................................................................................. 24
3.1.3 Ground Level .......................................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.4 Redundancy ............................................................................................................................................ 28
3.2 Assign ........................................................................................................................................................................ 30
3.2.1 Assign Size ............................................................................................................................................. 30
3.2.2 Assign Fixity .......................................................................................................................................... 30
3.2.3 Assign Tension-Only .............................................................................................................................. 31
3.2.4 Assign Buckling Restrained Brace ......................................................................................................... 31
3.2.5 Assign Node Connectivity ...................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.6 Assign Wall-Groups ............................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.7 Assign Frame Numbers .......................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.8 Springs .................................................................................................................................................... 33
3.3 Frame Loads .............................................................................................................................................................. 37
3.3.1 Gravity Loads for Notional Loads and P-Delta Effects .......................................................................... 37
3.3.2 Masses .................................................................................................................................................... 39
vi
3.3.3 Exposure..................................................................................................................................................41
3.3.4 Defining Load Cases ...............................................................................................................................42
3.3.5 Load Case Type Labels ...........................................................................................................................43
3.3.6 Load Case Labels ....................................................................................................................................43
3.3.7 Merged Load Cases .................................................................................................................................44
3.3.8 Additional Load Cases Generated for Analysis with Tension-Only Members .......................................44
3.3.9 Analysis with Orthogonal Load Cases ....................................................................................................44
3.4 Process - Analyze ...................................................................................................................................................... 45
3.5 Process - View/Update .............................................................................................................................................. 46
3.6 Process - Results ....................................................................................................................................................... 46
3.6.1 Applied Story Forces ..............................................................................................................................46
3.6.2 Building Story Shears .............................................................................................................................47
3.6.3 Frame Story Shears .................................................................................................................................48
3.6.4 Analysis Results Diagrams .....................................................................................................................49
3.6.5 Member Forces .......................................................................................................................................52
3.6.6 Wall Group Forces ..................................................................................................................................52
3.6.7 Shear Wall Forces ...................................................................................................................................52
3.6.8 Member Forces Envelope .......................................................................................................................52
3.6.9 Reactions .................................................................................................................................................53
3.6.10 Deflected Shape ......................................................................................................................................53
3.6.11 Mode Shapes ...........................................................................................................................................54
3.6.12 Drift .........................................................................................................................................................55
3.6.13 BS5950 Lambda Critical .........................................................................................................................56
3.6.14 Redundancy Factors ................................................................................................................................57
3.6.15 Center of Mass ........................................................................................................................................57
3.6.16 Center of Rigidity ....................................................................................................................................57
3.7 Shear Wall Forces Module ....................................................................................................................................... 58
3.7.1 Invoking the RAM Shear Wall Forces Module ......................................................................................58
3.7.2 Adding Section Cuts ...............................................................................................................................58
3.7.3 Deleting Section Cut ...............................................................................................................................60
3.7.4 Changing Section Cuts ............................................................................................................................60
3.7.5 List Section Cuts .....................................................................................................................................61
3.7.6 Wall Section Forces Results ...................................................................................................................61
3.7.7 Results Display .......................................................................................................................................62
3.7.8 Displaying Section Cut Labels ................................................................................................................63
3.7.9 Reports ....................................................................................................................................................63
3.8 Reports ....................................................................................................................................................................... 64
3.9 DXF Export Frame Elevation ................................................................................................................................... 64
3.10 View DXF File .......................................................................................................................................................... 64
4 Analysis Load Combinations Mode .......................................................................................................... 65
4.1 Load Combinations ................................................................................................................................................... 65
4.2 Process - View/Update .............................................................................................................................................. 66
4.3 Process - Results ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
4.3.1 BS5950 Lambda Critical .........................................................................................................................66
4.4 Reports ....................................................................................................................................................................... 66
5 Building Codes .............................................................................................................................................. 67
5.1 AISC 360 Direct Analysis Method ........................................................................................................................... 67
5.1.1 Direct Analysis Method ..........................................................................................................................67
5.1.2 Load Combinations .................................................................................................................................69
5.1.3 Implementation Details in RAM Frame Analysis Mode .....................................................................69
5.2 Story Forces: Wind ................................................................................................................................................... 71
5.2.1 IBC 2006/2009 ........................................................................................................................................73
vii
5.2.2 IBC 2003 ................................................................................................................................................ 73
5.2.3 IBC 2000 ................................................................................................................................................ 75
5.2.4 NBC of Canada 2005 .............................................................................................................................. 77
5.2.5 NBC of Canada 1995 .............................................................................................................................. 83
5.2.6 BS 6399: Part 2:1997 .............................................................................................................................. 85
5.2.7 Eurocode ................................................................................................................................................. 90
5.2.8 China GB5001-2001 ............................................................................................................................... 91
5.2.9 AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 ............................................................................................................................. 93
5.3 Story Forces: Seismic/Dynamic................................................................................................................................ 98
5.3.1 IBC 2006/2009 ....................................................................................................................................... 99
5.3.2 IBC 2003 .............................................................................................................................................. 102
5.3.3 IBC 2000 .............................................................................................................................................. 105
5.3.4 NBC of Canada 2005 ............................................................................................................................ 107
5.3.5 NBC of Canada 1995 ............................................................................................................................ 113
5.3.6 China GB5001-2001 ............................................................................................................................. 113
5.3.7 AS 1170.4-2007 .................................................................................................................................... 118
5.4 Live Load Reduction ............................................................................................................................................... 123
5.4.1 IBC 2000, 2003, 2006 and 2009 ........................................................................................................... 125
5.4.2 BOCA ................................................................................................................................................... 127
5.4.3 SBC....................................................................................................................................................... 128
5.4.4 UBC ...................................................................................................................................................... 128
5.4.5 NBC of Canada ..................................................................................................................................... 129
5.4.6 BS 6399 ................................................................................................................................................ 129
5.4.7 Eurocode ............................................................................................................................................... 130
5.4.8 Australian / New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 1170.1:2002 .................................................................. 130
5.4.9 China GB 50009-2001 .......................................................................................................................... 131
5.4.10 Hong Kong Building Regulation .......................................................................................................... 131
5.4.11 Live Load Reduction in RAM Frame ................................................................................................... 131
5.5 Material Properties .................................................................................................................................................. 132
5.5.1 Steel ...................................................................................................................................................... 132
5.5.2 Concrete ................................................................................................................................................ 133
5.6 Section Properties .................................................................................................................................................... 133
5.6.1 ACI 318 - 99 ......................................................................................................................................... 134
5.6.2 Eurocode 1992-1-1 ............................................................................................................................... 134
5.6.3 CSA A23.3-94 ...................................................................................................................................... 134
5.6.4 BS8110 Part 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 134
5.7 Redundancy Factors ................................................................................................................................................ 134
5.8 Notional Load .......................................................................................................................................................... 135
6 Technical Notes ........................................................................................................................................... 137
6.1 Finite Element Analysis Library ............................................................................................................................. 137
6.2 Coordinate Systems ................................................................................................................................................. 137
6.2.1 Global Coordinate System .................................................................................................................... 137
6.2.2 Local Coordinate System...................................................................................................................... 139
6.2.3 Sloping Framing ................................................................................................................................... 139
6.3 Sign Convention ...................................................................................................................................................... 139
6.3.1 Applied Loads ...................................................................................................................................... 139
6.3.2 Member Forces ..................................................................................................................................... 140
6.3.3 Wall forces considering sloping framing .............................................................................................. 140
6.3.4 Wall Group Forces ............................................................................................................................... 142
6.3.5 Reactions .............................................................................................................................................. 143
6.3.6 Displacements ....................................................................................................................................... 143
6.4 Modeling Shear Walls ............................................................................................................................................. 143
viii
6.4.1 Meshing Walls ......................................................................................................................................143
6.4.2 Walls at Foundation Level ....................................................................................................................145
6.4.3 Loads Located in Wall Openings ..........................................................................................................145
6.4.4 Reaction Calculations at Wall Foundation Nodes.................................................................................146
6.4.5 Remarks on Meshing Walls ..................................................................................................................147
6.5 Member Gravity Loads ........................................................................................................................................... 149
6.5.1 Load Properties .....................................................................................................................................149
6.5.2 Self-Weight Calculations ......................................................................................................................150
6.5.3 Self-Mass Calculations .........................................................................................................................151
6.5.4 Effects of Sloping Framing ...................................................................................................................151
6.5.5 Loads on Slab Edges (One-way Slab Systems) ....................................................................................152
6.5.6 Openings and Penetrations ....................................................................................................................154
6.5.7 Positive Loads, Negative Loads, and Skip Loading..............................................................................154
6.5.8 Gravity Loads on Walls ........................................................................................................................154
6.5.9 Penthouse / Mechanical Levels .............................................................................................................154
6.5.10 Loads on Stub Cantilevers ....................................................................................................................155
6.5.11 Partition Loads ......................................................................................................................................155
6.6 Element Stiffness Formulations .............................................................................................................................. 155
6.6.1 Beam Element Formulation ..................................................................................................................155
6.6.2 Column Element Formulation ...............................................................................................................156
6.6.3 Brace Element Formulation ..................................................................................................................156
6.6.4 Wall Element Formulation ....................................................................................................................157
6.7 Assembly of Stiffness and Mass Coefficients ........................................................................................................ 158
6.7.1 Stiffness Matrix .....................................................................................................................................158
6.7.2 Mass Matrix ..........................................................................................................................................158
6.8 Solution Techniques ................................................................................................................................................ 158
6.8.1 Static Analysis.......................................................................................................................................158
6.8.2 Dynamic Analysis .................................................................................................................................159
6.8.3 Eigenvalue Problem ..............................................................................................................................159
6.8.4 Response Spectra Analysis ...................................................................................................................160
6.8.5 Accidental Torsion in Dynamic Analysis .............................................................................................161
6.9 Boundary Conditions .............................................................................................................................................. 161
6.10 Internal Releases ..................................................................................................................................................... 161
6.11 Joint Face Distance and Rigid End Zones .............................................................................................................. 162
6.11.1 Joint Face Distance for Beams ..............................................................................................................163
6.11.2 Joint Face Distance for Columns ..........................................................................................................163
6.11.3 Effective Lengths and Reduction Factors .............................................................................................164
6.11.4 Loads within Rigid End Zone Lengths .................................................................................................165
6.11.5 Beams Spanning in Rigid End Zones....................................................................................................166
6.12 Analysis of Models with Diaphragms .................................................................................................................... 167
6.12.1 Rigid Floor Diaphragms ........................................................................................................................168
6.12.2 Pseudo-Flexible Floor Diaphragms.......................................................................................................172
6.12.3 Semirigid Floor Diaphragms .................................................................................................................173
6.13 Analysis with Two-way Slabs: Out-of-Plane Stiffness (Bending) ........................................................................ 185
6.13.1 Diaphragm Out-of-Plane Stiffness ........................................................................................................187
6.14 Diaphragm Meshing and Loads on Meshed Diaphragms ...................................................................................... 189
6.14.1 Diaphragm Boundary ............................................................................................................................189
6.14.2 Hard Node Density Factor ....................................................................................................................190
6.14.3 Loads on Diaphragms (Physical and Mass Loads) ...............................................................................190
6.14.4 Mesh Control Parameters ......................................................................................................................195
6.14.5 Closing Remarks on Diaphragm Meshing ............................................................................................196
6.15 Eigenvalue Analysis with Meshed Diaphragms: Distributed Mass Idealization .................................................. 197
ix
6.16 P-Delta Effects ........................................................................................................................................................ 200
6.16.1 Non-iterative P-Delta Method .............................................................................................................. 201
6.16.2 Preliminary P-Delta Analysis Method .................................................................................................. 201
6.16.3 P-Delta Loads ....................................................................................................................................... 202
6.16.4 Closing Remarks for P-Delta Analysis ................................................................................................. 204
6.17 Analysis with Tension-Only Members ................................................................................................................... 205
6.17.1 Tension-Only Design ............................................................................................................................ 207
6.18 Analysis with Buckling Restrained Braces ............................................................................................................ 207
6.18.1 Axial Stiffness Modifier ....................................................................................................................... 207
6.18.2 Design of Buckling Restrained Braces ................................................................................................. 208
6.18.3 Generic Buckling Restrained Braces .................................................................................................... 208
6.18.4 Star Seismic Buckling Restrained Braces............................................................................................. 209
6.19 Beams with End Connections ................................................................................................................................. 211
6.19.1 Standard Connection............................................................................................................................. 213
6.19.2 Springs Connection .............................................................................................................................. 213
6.19.3 Custom Connection .............................................................................................................................. 215
6.19.4 Reduced Beam Section (RBS) Connection .......................................................................................... 216
6.19.5 SidePlate Connection ............................................................................................................................ 219
6.19.6 Beam Connections with Rigid End Zones ............................................................................................ 223
6.20 Limitations of RAM Frame .................................................................................................................................... 224
6.21 RAM Frame Error Messages .................................................................................................................................. 224
6.21.1 Geometry and Modeling Errors and Warnings ..................................................................................... 224
6.21.2 Load Generation Warning .................................................................................................................... 225
6.21.3 Static Analysis Errors ........................................................................................................................... 226
6.21.4 Dynamic Analysis Errors...................................................................................................................... 226
6.21.5 Pseudo-Flexible Diaphragm Warning .................................................................................................. 227
6.21.6 Semirigid Diaphragm Warning ............................................................................................................ 227
6.22 References ............................................................................................................................................................... 229
7 Reports Load Cases Mode ....................................................................................................................... 231
7.1 Report Destination................................................................................................................................................... 231
7.2 Select Cases ............................................................................................................................................................. 231
7.3 Model Data .............................................................................................................................................................. 231
7.4 Analysis Log ............................................................................................................................................................ 235
7.5 Criteria, Mass and Exposure ................................................................................................................................... 235
7.6 Pseudo-Flexible Diaphragm Properties .................................................................................................................. 236
7.7 Exposure Boundaries .............................................................................................................................................. 237
7.8 Loads and Applied Forces ...................................................................................................................................... 237
7.9 Nodal Loads ............................................................................................................................................................ 238
7.10 Merged Loads .......................................................................................................................................................... 238
7.11 Gravity Loads .......................................................................................................................................................... 238
7.12 Gravity Loads (Two-Way Deck) ........................................................................................................................... 240
7.13 Member Forces ........................................................................................................................................................ 240
7.14 Wall Group Forces .................................................................................................................................................. 242
7.15 Member Force Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 242
7.16 Member Force Envelope ......................................................................................................................................... 243
7.17 Reactions ................................................................................................................................................................. 243
7.18 Reactions Envelope ................................................................................................................................................. 244
7.19 Spring Forces ........................................................................................................................................................... 244
7.20 Building Story Shear ............................................................................................................................................... 244
7.21 Frame Story Shear ................................................................................................................................................... 244
7.22 Story Displacements ................................................................................................................................................ 244
7.23 Nodal Displacements .............................................................................................................................................. 245
x
7.24 Periods and Modes .................................................................................................................................................. 246
7.25 Centers of Rigidity .................................................................................................................................................. 247
7.26 Redundancy Factors ................................................................................................................................................ 247
7.27 Redundancy Factor Summary ................................................................................................................................ 247
7.28 ASCE 7 Stability Coefficients ................................................................................................................................ 247
7.29 Takeoff .................................................................................................................................................................... 248
7.30 Print Screen, Preview and Setup ............................................................................................................................. 248
8 Reports Load Combinations Mode .......................................................................................................... 249
8.1 Load Combinations ................................................................................................................................................. 249
8.2 Member Forces ....................................................................................................................................................... 249
8.3 Wall Group Forces .................................................................................................................................................. 250
8.4 Member Force Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 250
8.5 Member Force Envelope ......................................................................................................................................... 250
9 Reports Shear Wall Forces Module ......................................................................................................... 251
9.1 Wall Section Forces ................................................................................................................................................ 251
9.2 Wall Section Force Summary ................................................................................................................................. 252
9.3 Wall Section Force Envelope ................................................................................................................................. 252

Introduction
RAM Frame Release 14.04 1
1 Introduction

RAM Frame performs a full three-dimensional finite element analysis on the lateral frame system of a
structural model. In conjunction with the RAM Modeler, a comprehensive database of the entire structure
can quickly be created, including the structure geometry, gravity loads, nodal loads and lateral story forces.
Columns, beams, braces and walls with any material, including steel and concrete, can be analyzed. Static
and Dynamic analyses can be performed.

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the program and its commands, and gives a brief description of the
output reports available. It explains basic principles of the RAM Frame database and important modeling
considerations.

Chapter 3 describes the Analysis - Load Cases Mode, its use and its capabilities. The finite element analysis
of the frames is performed in this mode.

Chapter 4 describes the Analysis - Load Combinations Mode, which is used to create load combinations and
investigate their results.

Chapter 5 includes building design codes implemented in the program.

Chapter 6, Technical Notes, provides an explanation of the technical issues, assumptions, and code
interpretations implemented in RAM Frame. It is critical that the engineer studies and understands this
chapter very well to gain insight how these assumptions affect the analysis.

Chapter 7 provides a description of the information in the Reports in the Analysis - Load Cases Mode.

Chapter 8 provides a description of the information in the Reports in the Analysis Load Combinations
Mode.

Chapter 9 provides a description of the information in the Reports in the RAM Shear Wall Forces module.

Introduction
2 RAM Frame Release 14.04

RAM Frame Basics
2 RAM Frame Basics

This chapter explains the basics of the RAM Frame program, including modeling considerations, invoking
the program, specifying criteria, and using the various View options.
2.1 Frame Model
RAM Frame analyzes the model created in the RAM Modeler. Typically the model can contain both gravity
and frame members and gravity loads distribution can be carried out according to one-way or two-way load
distribution. The program provides data for all of the gravity and lateral members plus deck information,
slab edges and surface loads. Referring to systems with one-way slabs, tributary floor load, reactions from
gravity beams and live load reduction factors are determined and applied to the lateral members. Diaphragm
mass properties are calculated for each diaphragm at stories. Also for systems with two-way slabs, gravity
loads can be directly applied to slabs, which allow engineers to include two-way load distribution for
gravity loads. These model types take advantage of the integrated capabilities of the RAM Structural System
The engineer could also choose to create a model that consists only of lateral (frame) members, without
modeling the gravity beams and columns, slabs, slab edges, etc., in which case only point and line loads
applied directly to the frame members are considered in the analysis.
2.2 Important Modeling Considerations
Only members specified as Lateral members in RAM Modeler are included in the frame analysis. The
only exception is that gravity members (columns and walls) that support a two-way deck can be also
included analysis. These gravity members are only used for gravity load cases and they are removed for
lateral load cases (seismic and wind). This optional feature is provided in Story Diaphragm dialog.

The interaction between gravity and frame members is not accounted for EXCEPT the loads from gravity
members supported by frame members are considered, gravity beams provide lateral bracing to the Frame
members, and loads on transverse gravity columns and walls are applied to lateral members for models with
semirigid diaphragms.

Frame members must support frame members. For example, a gravity column cannot support a frame beam,
and a gravity beam cannot support a frame column or wall. The Modeler DataCheck will indicate an error
for this condition.

Some levels, such as a roof penthouse or mechanical platform, have minor lateral systems that are not part
of the main structural lateral system. It is permissible to model these levels without specifying any of the
members as frame members. By modeling them as gravity members only, their contribution to the gravity
loads and masses of the building is accounted for without unnecessarily complicating the frame analysis. If
the lateral system of these levels is included in the model, then all of their frame members must be
supported by other frame members.

Sizes must be assigned to the frame members. RAM Frame does not automatically select optimum sizes.
Sizes may be assigned to frame members either in the RAM Modeler, RAM Concrete or RAM Frame.
Alternatively, the RAM Steel Beam and Column Design programs can automatically select preliminary
RAM Frame Basics
sizes for the steel beams and columns. In these modules, the lateral members will be designed for the gravity
loads they carry, assuming pinned end conditions.

Once a size is assigned to a Lateral member, either by the user or by the design modules, it becomes a User
Size, i.e. it must be cleared using the Clear Size command in order for the gravity design programs to
automatically redesign the section. When no size is assigned to a frame member, the Modeler DataCheck
will indicate an error and the analysis will not run.

RAM Frame automatically meshes walls, considering any openings inside walls. Since openings are
automatically accounted for during meshing process, it is no longer necessary to model dummy levels at
the top and bottom of openings. It is also not necessary to break wall panels into small panels where shorter
walls above sits on a longer wall below, nor when a frame column or beam frames into a wall. Such
conditions are automatically handled by the program. The user can control the mesh quality (see Section
6.4). In some situations the program may not produce as regular of a mesh as desired; in that case the mesh
can be further controlled by modeling long walls as a series of shorter panels. This is rarely necessary. It
should be noted that the wall mesh density (either coarse or fine mesh) may have an influence on the
analysis results.

When two lateral walls come together to form a T - shape, the wall that forms the flange of the T must
be modeled as two separate walls. It is necessary to have a node line in the wall where the stem of the T
frames in. The program does not automatically deal with this condition. The Modeler DataCheck will
indicate an error when the condition is modeled incorrectly.

Lateral hanging columns are included in the analytical model. They are similar to standard columns except
that gravity load distribution is carried out in such a way that a hanging column transfers gravity loads up to
the member or diaphragm it is hanging from.

Other than calculating the floor loads that load a wall at a particular level and simply transferring the loads
vertically down to supporting beams or walls, no analysis is performed on gravity walls by any of the RAM
Structural System modules. Consider including all walls as part of the lateral system and performing a frame
analysis to get the distributed force results for multi-level wall systems.

Multiple diaphragms per story can be defined in the Modeler. RAM Frame recognizes such configurations
and calculates mass properties of each diaphragm and uses this information during analysis.

Diaphragms can be identified as Rigid, Semirigid, Pseudo-Flexible and Flexible\None. Diaphragm type is
defined in Story Diaphragm dialog invoked by Criteria-Diaphragm command. Section 3.1.2 provides more
information for diaphragm types. Also in Section 6.12.3 more information about analysis with Semirigid
diaphragms is provided.

Models with one-way slabs or two-way slabs or both can be defined and analyzed in the program.
Regarding one-way slabs, the program calculates effects of gravity loads based on tributary area method and
apply these loads on lateral members located inside one-way slab areas. On the other hand, models with
two-way slabs (for instance, concrete flat slabs or flat plate floors) are handled in such a way that gravity
loads on these slabs are directly applied to diaphragms and thus, they are transferred to other members
through diaphragm bending action (i.e., two-way load distribution). Also for semirigid diaphragms, lateral
loads are transferred to lateral load resisting members through diaphragm in-plane stiffness. It should be
RAM Frame Basics
noted that a diaphragm is meshed directly if any two-way slabs is found inside the diaphragm. Also, any
diaphragm designated as semirigid (either containing one-way or two-way deck) is also meshed.

In models where a diaphragm is to be specified as Rigid, the extent of the rigid diaphragm is defined by the
slab edge, opening edges, and penetrations. All columns, beams and walls inside the slab boundary are
analyzed by RAM Frame as connected to the diaphragm; those outside of the slab boundary are analyzed
as disconnected from the diaphragm. Members enclosed by an opening or penetration are "disconnected"
from the diaphragm, by default. The user can connect or disconnect a member from the diaphragm by
using the Assign Nodes Diaphragm Connection command.

Frame numbers can be assigned to each frame member. This is not necessary for analysis purposes, but is
provided as a convenience. Report outputs are organized by frame number, and certain View and Print
commands can be specified by frame numbers. Frame numbers can be assigned in any way desired;
members within a contiguous frame do not need to be assigned the same frame number. For example,
columns could be given a different frame number than the beams, or beams could be grouped by assigning
different frame numbers to different groups.
2.3 Invoking RAM Frame

RAM Frame is invoked by issuing the Design - RAM Frame command from the RAM
Manager menu.

The first time RAM Frame is invoked, and subsequent to the Save command in the RAM Modeler, the
program performs the process referred to as Building the Frame Data. This is the process of transferring
the frame data in the RAM Modeler to RAM Frame. The first step is referred to as Building the Framing
Tables (as described in the following section). The second step is Building the Frame Data. Note that if
the RAM Steel Beam Design module or the RAM Steel Column Design module was invoked previously,
the Building the Framing Tables process will have already been performed and will not be repeated.
2.4 Building the Framing Tables
Upon invoking RAM Frame, the database status is checked to determine whether or not the program needs
to perform the initial gravity analysis. This is necessary to process gravity loads on one-way slab areas. This
analysis is referred to as Building the Framing Tables, or Framing. Framing is the process of
analyzing a model and creating the database files that contain the information on member interaction, Live
Load Reduction, and individual member loading.

If the Framing Tables were previously built by the program and no changes have subsequently been made to
the database, the program will not repeat that process when RAM Frame is invoked, and RAM Frame will
be brought up directly. If certain criteria have been changed or if the model has been modified, the Framing
Tables must be rebuilt. Framing will be performed, after which the RAM Frame commands will be
available. This entire process is handled automatically by the program.
RAM Frame Basics
2.5 Modes
The RAM Frame program functions in three major modes: Analysis Mode, Steel Mode and Drift Control
Mode. The Analysis Mode is further sub-divided into Load Cases and Load Combinations Sub-Mode. The
current mode is always indicated in the right hand corner of the status bar.

Each mode has its own set of associated Criteria, Assign, Process and Reports commands.

Upon entering RAM Frame, the program is in Analysis - Load Cases Mode. In this mode, frame analysis
criteria, lateral loads and load cases are defined. The frame analysis of the structure is performed, including
the calculation of member forces, deflection, drift and mode shapes in the Analysis Load Cases Mode.
Results of the analysis corresponding to load cases may be displayed in the same mode. See Chapter 3 for
more information on Analysis Mode.

The Analysis - Load Combinations Mode is entered by either going to the Mode menu and selecting first
Analysis and then Load Combinations or by simply selecting the Load Combinations item from the Mode
box on the dialog bar. This mode allows the user to view results in terms of load combinations rather than
load cases. In Load Combinations Mode, Custom load combinations are defined before results will be
available. To define custom load combinations select Combinations-Custom on the tool bar. In the
Analysis - Load Combinations Mode no analysis is available, but results, report and printing are available
for all selected load combinations.

Once an analysis is completed, the engineer is able to switch to any of the other available modes through the
Mode menu, or by selecting the desired mode in the Mode box on the toolbar.

Code-checking and design of steel members and joints is performed in the Steel Standard Provisions
Mode and the Steel Seismic Provisions Mode. They are invoked by either going to the Mode menu and
selecting first Steel and then either Standard Provisions or Seismic Provisions or by simply selecting the
item from the Mode box on the dialog bar. These modules require a separate license. Refer to their
respective Manuals for more information.

The Drift Control module is invoked by either going to the Mode menu and selecting Drift Control or by
simply selecting the Drift Control item from the Mode box on the dialog bar. This module requires a
separate license. Refer to its Manual for more information.

Design of Concrete members can be performed in the RAM Concrete Module, which is separate from RAM
Frame. However, all lateral forces on concrete members are taken from the analysis performed in RAM
Frame.
2.6 Analysis Status
The analysis status of the database is indicated by a model status indicator light on the status bar at the
bottom of the screen. This indicates whether or not the analysis is performed and current. A File Model
Status command is also available for more detailed information. If it is indicated that the model cannot be
run in the selected module, the dialog will also list what information is still needed. Refer to the Model
Status Section of the RAM Manager manual for more information.

RAM Frame Basics
Frame analysis is performed when the Analyze command is invoked. A red, yellow or green light at the
right end of the status bar indicates the current status of the database. A red light indicates that the database
has not yet been analyzed, or that a change to the model or criteria requires the database to be re-analyzed.
Results cannot be viewed nor outputs obtained if the red light is showing. The Analysis mode cannot be
changed while the status is red.

A green light indicates that the database has been analyzed and the results are valid for all members. Results
can be viewed and outputs obtained.

A yellow light indicates that one or more member sizes or attributes in the database have been modified
using one of the Assign commands or the Update Database command of the View/Update capability. This
renders the analysis results technically invalid since changing a member size changes the frame stiffness and
affects the distribution of forces. However, at the users discretion, the changes may be deemed sufficiently
minor and the results deemed sufficiently accurate to continue using the previous analysis results. Results
can be viewed and outputs obtained, but the yellow light serves as a warning that the analysis results are
inaccurate and are based on different member attributes than are in the current model. At some point the
user should re-invoke Analyze to get updated results.
2.7 Saving the Model
Any operations performed in RAM Frame are only saved to the Database when the File Save command is
invoked in any module. This includes changes to Criteria, Combinations and even Update Database in
View/Update. The changes are only saved in a temporary database until the Save command is invoked. This
allows the user to try various scenarios, and then discard the results. Refer to the Saving the Model Section
of the RAM Manager manual for more information.
2.8 Toolbars
Several toolbars exist in RAM Frame. These toolbars are initially located at the top of the window just
below the menu but can be docked anywhere in the window. The toolbar provides a convenient and
graphical means of executing the commands.

2.8.1.1 The primary toolbar:

Save saves the data to the database.

Model Notes allows notes to be added.

Launch 3D Viewer

View 3D displays the current model in 3D view (default view).

View Plan displays a dialog to select a floor to view in plan mode.

View Elevation turns the cursor into a target cursor. Click on a beam or wall in the frame to
view in elevation.
RAM Frame Basics

View Zoom Full restores the screen to its original scale after a Zoom - Fence is performed.

View Zoom Fence is used for zooming in on a specified area. The desired zoom area is
enclosed by a rectangle drawn on the screen using the arrow cursor.

View Zoom In incrementally zooms in on the area currently displayed on screen.

View Zoom Out incrementally zooms out on the area currently displayed on screen.

View Zoom Previous returns to the most recent (previous) zoom location.

View Rotate displays a dialog to control the rotation and tilt of the model.

View Members displays the Member Options dialog to allow control over the display of
members on the screen.

View Extents displays the Select Extents dialog to allow control over what extent of the
model will be displayed on the screen.

View Frame Members hides/shows the gravity members.

View Frame Numbers hides/shows the frame numbers.

View Frames displays frames depending on their frame numbers. One or more frames can be
displayed to the screen at a time.

View Foundations turns on and off the display of spread and continuous footings.

View Foundation Springs turns on and off the display of foundation springs.

View Foundation Nodes turns on and off the display of foundation nodes.

View Disconnected Nodes is used to highlight nodes which are disconnected from the
diaphragm.

View Node Numbers turns on and off the display of node numbers

View Node All Numbers turns on and off the display of all node numbers.

View Nodal Loads turns on and off the display of nodal loads.

View Brace Points turns on and off the display of user defined brace points.

Show Mesh displays or hides generated mesh for walls
RAM Frame Basics

Show Mesh displays or hides generated mesh for diaphragms

Diaphragm Slab Edges turns on and off the display of diaphragm slab edges.

Pen Colors provides the user with means to change the color of the member types as they
appear on the screen using the Pen Colors dialog box.

Find Member is used to find a beam, wall, brace, column, or node.

Scale Text displays a dialog to adjust the size of the text displayed on screen

Increase Text Size increases the size of the text on the screen by a given increment.

Decrease Text Size decreases the size of the text on the screen by a given increment.

Print Screen prints the current screen display to the printer.

Help About displays the Help About dialog, which has the current copyright information.

Reset Model redraws the view that was on the screen prior to invoking the Results command.

Rebuild Analytical Model It re-generates analytical model including meshing walls and
diaphragms

2.8.1.2 The DXF toolbar:

Export DXF is used to create a DXF file of Frame elevations.

View DXF brings up a DXF viewer.

2.8.1.3 The Mode toolbar:

Mode selection list to select between modes and Sub-Mode selection list to select sub-mode within the
current mode. In Analysis mode the sub-mode may be either Load Cases or Load Combinations. Not all
toolbar buttons are available in Load Combinations mode.

2.8.1.4 The Analysis toolbar:

Analyze (Load Cases Mode only) to perform the analysis
RAM Frame Basics

Member View/Update changes cursor to target and allows engineer to obtain detailed
results for selected member.

Assign Node Connectivity allows user to connect or disconnect individual nodes from
the diaphragm.

Assign Wall Group Numbers to assign wall group numbers to individual walls.

Assign Frame Numbers to assign frame numbers to individual elements.

Gravity for Notional (Load Cases Mode only) allows user to view and change the total
gravity loads used in the generation of Notional Loads.

Load Masses (Load Cases Mode only) allows user to view and change the massed used
for lateral seismic load calculations.

Exposure (Load Cases Mode only) allows user to view and change the building extents
used to generate lateral wind loads.

Pseudo-Flexible Diaphragm Properties (Load Cases Mode only) allows user to define
effective participation ratios for pseudo- flexible diaphragms

Load Cases (Load Cases Mode only) allows user to generate or change load cases.

Merge Load Cases (Load Cases Mode only) to merge nodal loads with generated load
cases.

Custom Load Combinations to generate custom load combinations. Note that the
results of the custom combinations can only be viewed in Load-Combination sub mode.

2.8.1.5 The Results toolbar:

Applied Story Forces displays a dialog in order to show applied story forces on
structure for chosen load case

Building Story Shears displays a dialog in order to show building diaphragm shear
forces.

Frame Story Shears displays a dialog in order to show frame diaphragm shear forces.

Results Member Forces to show the selected member force on the screen.

Results Member Forces Envelope to show the envelope of all load case member
forces on the screen.
RAM Frame Basics

Analysis Results Diagram displays a diagram to see member forces for chosen
members and load cases

Show Reactions displays reaction dialog, which is used to show reactions of screen for
chosen load case.

Results Deflected Shape to show the deflected shape for the selected load case on the
screen.

Results Mode Shapes to show the selected mode shape on the screen.

Results Drift at a Point to show the calculated drift at a point for all load cases.

Results Drift at Control Points to show the calculated drift at several defined points
for all load cases.

Results BS 5950 Lambda Critical at a Point to show the calculated lambda critical at
a point for all load cases.

Results BS 5950 Lambda Critical at Control Points to show the calculated lambda
critical at several defined points for all load cases.

Results Redundancy Factors to show the calculated redundancy factors for all
members on the screen.

Center of Mass to show or hide center of mass.

Center of Rigidity to show or hide center of rigidity.

Results Wall Group Forces to show the selected wall group forces on the screen.

Shear Wall Module launches shear wall module to calculate forces and moments at user
defined section cuts.

2.8.1.6 The Steel Mode toolbar:

Mode selection box to
change modes in RAM
Frame.
Sub-Mode selection list to
change the sub-mode.

Member Code Check to perform a member code check on all steel members.

RAM Frame Basics

Member View/Update to perform a view update on steel members and view results.
Click the target cursor on the member.

Joint Code Check to perform a joint code check on all steel joints.

Joint View/Update to perform a view update on steel joints and view results. Click the
target cursor on the joint.


Assign Sidesway to assign sidesway to individual members.

Assign Sway Sensitivity (BS 5950: 2000 only) to assign sway sensitivity to individual
members.

Assign Frame Types (Steel-Seismic Provisions Mode Only) to assign frame types to
individual steel members.

Automatic Load Combo Generation to have RAM Frame automatically generates load
combinations based on a selected building code.

Custom Load Combo Generation to generate custom load combinations.

2.8.1.7 The Drift Control Mode toolbar:

Mode selection box
to change modes.
Virtual Work
Load Pair
selection list
Results Display
selection to select
which results to
display on screen.

Analyze to analyze all the members and joints of the structure.

Member View/Update to perform a view update on members and view results. Click
the target cursor on the member.


Load Pairs to create load pairs for the analysis.
RAM Frame Basics
2.9 The View Commands
RAM Frame provides two methods of accessing the View commands: a tool bar and a command menu. The
order of the commands in the View menu does not necessarily correspond to the order of the commands on
the toolbar. The commands are listed in this section in the order they appear in the menu. Those commands
not described below should be self-evident and are described briefly in the toolbar description in Section
2.8. The view commands are used to manipulate the model (orientation, colors) and also to determine what
information is displayed on the screen.
2.9.1 View 3D
The View 3D command will show the structure in a three dimensional perspective allowing the
user to view all the members of the model on the screen at the same time.

2.9.2 View 3D (Advanced viewer)
This command will launch a separate 3D viewer window, which provides a more dynamic
interaction.
2.9.3 View Plan
The View Plan command will allow the engineer to select any story to display in plan. Once a
story is selected from the available list the screen will draw the selected story in plan view. In this
view the engineer can easily view and interact with all the beams and horizontal braces in an individual
story.
2.9.4 View Elevation
Selecting the View Elevation command will cause the target cursor to appear. By clicking on any
lateral beam the elevation of the frame containing the clicked-on beam will be displayed. In this view
the engineer can easily view and interact with all the beams, braces and columns in an individual planar
frame.
2.9.5 The Zoom Commands
To Zoom in on portions of the model, use the View - Zoom - Fence command. The
zoom area is selected by clicking the mouse on one corner of the region to be zoomed in
upon and, while holding down the left mouse button, dragging the cursor to the opposite corner of the
desired zoom area. The mouse button is then released and the screen is redrawn with the zoom area filling
the entire screen.

Selecting View - Zoom - Full redraws the full layout on the screen. Three additional zoom commands are
provided, View - Zoom In, View - Zoom Out, and View - Previous Zoom.
2.9.6 View - Rotate
The View - Rotate command provides control over the rotation and tilt of the model using the

RAM Frame Basics
Rotate Angles dialog box (see Figure 2-1). The dialog box uses a combination of edit boxes and dials to
allow flexibility. A preview window allows the user to see the new view before having it redrawn on the
screen.

The Rotate and the Tilt command each have a spin control associated with them. A number representing
the degree of rotation or tilt can be entered or the arrows can be used to scroll to the number of degrees.

The Rotate command has a full dial control and the Tilt command has a quarter dial control as a graphical
means of indicating rotation and tilt angle. These dial controls can be used in four different ways:
Clicking the cursor on one of the marks on the outside of the circle will snap the degree of rotation
or tilt to the nearest 45 degrees.
Clicking the cursor anywhere on the exterior of the circle will cause the degree of rotation or tilt to
snap to the nearest 5 degrees.
Clicking the cursor anywhere on the interior of the circle will cause the degree of rotation or tilt to
snap to the nearest degree.
Clicking on the X-axis of the rotation dial or the Z axis of the tilt dial and holding down the left
mouse button allows the axes to be dragged to a desired location.

Figure 2-1 Rotate Angles Dialog
Once choices have been made, the screen display can be previewed before leaving the dialog box, by
clicking the Preview button. The preview will be displayed in miniature in the preview box.

The Apply button directs RAM Frame to redraw the screen with the new view without closing the dialog
box.

2.9.7 View - Members
The View - Members command provides means for controlling the display of members on the
screen using the Member Options dialog box (see Figure 2-2).

RAM Frame Basics
There is one tabbed folder per member type. Clicking the tab of the folder will cause it to move to the top of
the stack. On the tabbed folders are check boxes indicating display options. Putting a check in a box
indicates that the attribute is to be displayed. Clearing the check from the box indicates that that attribute
should be hidden.

Figure 2-2 Member Options Dialog

Once options have been selected, the screen display can be previewed before leaving the dialog box, by
clicking the Preview button. The preview will be displayed in miniature in the preview box.

The Apply button directs RAM Frame to redraw the screen with the new view without closing the dialog
box.

To save the display options as the default view to be displayed upon entry into the program and all
subsequent repaints of the screen, use the View -Options - Save Settings command.
2.9.8 View - Extents
The View - Extents command provides control over what extent of the model will be displayed
on the screen using the Select Extents dialog box (Figure 2-3).

RAM Frame Basics

Figure 2-3 Select Extents Dialog

The extent can be indicated as a story range or as a set of specific coordinates. In either case, the status
indicator to the right of the extent controls graphically depicts the amount of the model that will be
displayed.

The Apply button is used to redraw the screen with the indicated extents. The Set to Max button is used to
return to the full view of the model.
2.9.9 View - Frames
The View - Frames command is used to display frames by frame number. One or more frames can
be displayed to the screen at a time.

If frame numbers are not assigned (either in the RAM Modeler or in RAM Frame), a default number of 0
is provided. When the View - Frames command is issued, 0 will be the only selection available for
viewing. Selecting 0 will have no effect on the screen display since all frame members are displayed by
default.
2.9.10 View Nodal Loads
The View Nodal Loads command is used to display the nodal load cases that were modeled in the RAM
Modeler using the Nodal Loads Options dialog (see Figure 2-4).

To show a nodal load case, select the display check box, select one or more load cases from the Nodal Load
Cases list box and click Apply. Arrows representing the selected load cases will be displayed on the screen.
Note that the single-headed arrow indicates a force and the double-headed arrow represents a moment
rotating around global axis. Using the right-hand rule, the thumb points in the direction of the double-
headed arrow and the fingers are in the direction of moment.

To include either the load case label or the magnitude of the load, select the Labels check box, select which
label to display and click Apply.

Exiting the dialog by clicking OK will leave the nodal load cases displayed on the screen until the command
de-selected. Exiting the dialog by clicking the Cancel button will remove the nodal load case display from
the screen.

RAM Frame Basics

Figure 2-4 Nodal Load Options Dialog
2.9.11 Show/Hide View Commands
The following commands toggle the information displayed on the screen. When the toolbar button is
depressed (or the menu command is selected), the display is turned on and will remain on until the toolbar
button is released (or menu command is de-selected).

Show\Hide Frame Numbers
turns on and off the display of frame numbers.

Show\Hide Gravity Members
turns on and off the display of gravity members.

View - Foundations
turns on and off the display of isolated and continuous footings.

View - Foundation Springs
turns on and off the display of foundation springs. This command is only available after foundation
springs have been assigned.

View - Foundation Nodes
turns on and off the display of foundation nodes.

View - Disconnected Nodes
highlights nodes which are disconnected from the diaphragm.

View - Node Numbers
turns on and off the display of node numbers.

View - Node All Numbers
turns on and off the display of all node numbers.

View - Brace Points
turns on and off the display of user defined brace points.

RAM Frame Basics
View Meshed Walls
turns on and off the display of the mesh generated for the walls.

View Meshed Semirigid Diaphragms
turns on and off the display of the mesh generated for the Semirigid diaphragms.

View Diaphragm Slab Edges
turns on and off the display of the slab edges for each diaphragm and the diaphragm number

2.9.12 View - Options - Pen Colors
The View - Options - Pen Colors command provides the user with means to change the color of the
member types as they appear on the screen using the Pen Colors dialog box. The on- View line help
provides specific instructions as to how this is done.

Color changes can be saved as the display default using the View - Options - Save Settings command.
2.9.13 View - Options - Scale Text
The View - Options - Scale Text command is used to modify the text size so it is more easily read on
the screen.

The text scale can also be increased or decreased by clicking on the Scale-Up or Scale-Down icons
on the tool bar.

When showing results on the screen, the default text scale factor of 1 is assigned. In some instances, this
scale factor may not be ideal for the given model. Increasing the scale factor will increase the text size.

The text scale can be saved as the display default using the View - Options -Save Settings command.
2.9.14 View - Options - Save Settings
The View - Options - Save Settings command provides the user with means to save the current display
settings of the active window. Display options set using the View - Members, View -Options - Scale Text
and the View - Options - Pen Colors commands are saved and become the default display upon subsequent
entry into the RAM Frame program.

Settings are saved on a per model basis allowing the user to set different display defaults for different
models. The defaults remain in effect until new settings are saved using the View - Options - Save Settings
command.
2.9.15 Reset Model
When the Results - Member Forces, Results - Displacements or the Results - Mode Shapes
commands are issued, the screen is redrawn to show the desired results on the current view. Even
when the associated dialog boxes are closed, the display showing the results remains on the screen.

RAM Frame Basics
Note: When the assign command is issued RAM Frame will automatically display on the screen the member
property that is currently being assigned. For example, if the Assign-Column-Size command is issued, all
column sizes will automatically be displayed. When the engineer has completed the command selecting the
Reset Model command will remove the display of the member property (size in the example case).

The Reset Model button is used to redraw the view that was on the screen prior to the Results command
being issued.

2.9.16 Rebuild Analytical Model
When the Rebuild Analytical Model command is issued, the program regenerates a new analytical
model while creating finite elements for beams, columns and braces as well as meshing walls and
diaphragms. During this process, all nodes (joints) are remapped and ordered.

2.10 Exiting and Changing Modes
2.10.1.1 To switch to Steel Mode:
Select the Mode-Steel-Standard Provisions command. Alternatively select Steel from the Mode dropdown
control available on the dialog bar below the toolbar. Note that an analysis must be performed before
switching modes.

2.10.1.2 To switch to Drift Control Mode:
Select the Mode-Drift Control command. Alternatively select Drift Control from the Mode dropdown
control available on the dialog bar below the toolbar. Note that an analysis must be performed before
switching modes.

2.10.1.3 To exit RAM Frame:
Double click the Control Bar in the upper left corner of the RAM Frame Window or alternatively
click the Control Bar and selecting the Close command from the drop down menu.
Select the File - Exit command.

RAM Frame Basics

Analysis - Load Cases Mode
3 Analysis - Load Cases Mode

In Analysis - Load Cases Mode, analysis criteria and load cases are defined, the load cases analyzed and the
results of the analysis investigated.
3.1 Analysis Mode Criteria
Below is a brief description of the criteria that pertain to the analysis of load cases. For a technical
explanation of how each is used in analysis, see Chapter 6 Technical Notes.
3.1.1 General

Figure 3-1 General Criteria Dialog

3.1.1.1 Rigid End Zone
Using the Criteria - General command, the user can declare whether the effects of the rigid end zones will
be considered or ignored. If the effects are to be included in the analysis, a percent reduction can be entered.
A value of 0.0 indicates that the rigid end zones are not to be reduced, and their full effect is to be
considered, (i.e., the full panel zone is rigid). See Section 6.11 in Technical Notes, for a discussion of the
rigid end zone.

Making changes to the Rigid End Zone criteria after a model has been analyzed necessitates a re-analysis of
the structure.

3.1.1.2 P-Delta
Using the Criteria - General command, the user can declare whether the P-Delta effect should be
considered or ignored. To consider P-Delta, the Yes option button is selected. This instructs the program to
include secondary moment calculations as prescribed by code.
Two options are provided for P-Delta effects to be considered in analysis: Use Mass Loads (this option uses
building mass to calculate P-Delta effects. it is briefly mass associated with diaphragms. note that this is the
default method used in the program); Use Gravity Loads (instead of using building mass, this option uses
applied dead and live loads to calculate P-Delta effects. Note that different scale factors can be defined for
dead and live load components). In either case, the program applies the same method to calculate P-Delta
effects. The only difference is that the former uses building mass converted to building weights to be used in
P-Delta calculations and the latter uses dead and live loads instead for P-Delta effects.
It should be also noted that P-Delta effects are considered for both rigid and semirigid diaphragms.
Making changes to the P-Delta Effects criteria after a model has been analyzed necessitates a re-analysis of
the structure.

3.1.1.3 Member Force Output
Using the Criteria - General command, the user can indicate the location along the member at which the
member force output is to be displayed. If the Rigid End Zone criterion has been set to Include Effects,
the member force output must be displayed at the face of the joints. If the Rigid End Zone criterion has been
set to Ignore Effects, the user has the choice of displaying the output for either the face of the joints or for
the centerline of the joints.

Changes can be made to these criteria without requiring the model to be re-analyzed.

3.1.1.4 Analytical Model
Using the Criteria - General command, the user can set parameters to control the meshing of walls and
slabs in the model. The program provides several control parameters to control quality and quantity of mesh
generated for walls and slabs.
Max. Distance between Nodes on Mesh Line allows the user define the maximum distance between nodes
on wall edges and nodes on semirigid diaphragm edges. Note that the program may generate additional
nodes closer than user entered value, but it is never allowed to be larger than that. The Geometry Tolerance
is mostly used in geometry calculation as a threshold tolerance. This should not be confused with a merge
(close) node tolerance (which is explained below). Examples are as follows: it is used as a tolerance to
check a node is on a line or to check a point is inside a polygon, etc...
The user can generate coarse or fine mesh by usually setting Max. Distance between Nodes on Mesh Line.
Usually, a coarse mesh gives conservative results since the walls and diaphragms are stiffer. A finer mesh
leads to more flexible walls and diaphragms, which leads better results but it may significantly increase
analysis time. A good balance should be provided before starting analysis.
Note that Max. Distance between Nodes on Mesh Line does not only affect meshes for walls, but also it
affects generated meshes for diaphragms.
Once meshing walls and semirigid diaphragms are done, the program generates a finite element model for
analysis, which is basically composed of nodes and elements (columns, beams, braces and shells in walls
and semirigid diaphragms). During this process, it is possible that several nodes are very close. To have a
good (and valid) analytical model, these nodes are merged to a single node and elements connected to this
node are adjusted accordingly. The Merge Node Tolerance is used for this purpose so that if distance
between any 2 (or more) nodes are found to be smaller than the Merge Node Tolerance, then they are
treated as a single node (i.e., these close nodes are merged together). Note that the node tolerance is not only
used for nodes generated after meshing process, but for all nodes in a model (whether there is wall or
semirigid diaphragm).
Briefly, Max. Distance between Nodes on Mesh Line, Merge Node Tolerance, and Geometry Tolerance
are three main controlling parameters to generate a good mesh for analysis. Usually, Merge Node
Tolerance is suggested to be larger than Geometry Tolerance.

3.1.1.5 Wall Element
The program includes an option of including out-of-plane stiffness (bending) for walls. If this option is
checked, analysis for created load cases is carried out by considering out-of-plane stiffness of walls. It
should be noted that it is applied to all wall elements in the model if out-of-plane stiffness is included.

Another option is provided to release rotational fixity at wall foundation nodes. If it is checked, the program
releases rotational fixity at wall foundation nodes, and then very week rotational springs are added at these
nodes to prevent any instability. Analysis Log report provides further information about these foundation
nodes. Note that this is only applied for foundation nodes under walls. If this option is not checked, wall
foundation nodes are assumed to be fixed.

Also included is an option to store wall stresses for analyzed load cases. If this option is checked, wall
stresses are stored and they are available in Concrete Shear Wall module.

3.1.1.6 Dynamic Analysis Forces:
Analysis results related to a dynamic load case (i.e., response spectra analysis) are obtained after modal
contributions from each dynamic mode are combined according to CQC or SRSS. Thus, all results
(displacements, reactions or member forces etc...) have always the positive sign.

In some cases, the sign of analysis results is required (examples are for design of foundations, load
combinations with dynamic load cases, etc...). Therefore, an option is provided in General Criteria dialog, so
that analysis results for a dynamic load case are adjusted with a sign. The following equation is used so that
the sign from the most predominant modes for each dynamic analysis results is used as the sign of the
response. In the following equation, the computation is carried out for N mode shapes, and
is the i
th

mode shape value of any dynamic quantities (member force, displacement, etc)

=
=1

Note that once this option is checked, it is applied to all dynamic analysis load cases.

3.1.1.7 Solver Type
Several types of solvers are offered in the program. Basically they are categorized in two flavors: in-core
and out-of-core solvers. With in-core solvers, the global building stiffness matrix is assembled, stored and
solved in the physical memory (RAM) of the computer. As long as there is enough memory available for
the solution of the models, this choice always gives the best performance\solution time. However, for very
large models, the in-core solver might run into insufficient memory issues. If this is the case, it is suggested
to switch to out-of-core solver. With the out-of-core solver, the program assembles stores and solves
building stiffness matrix using files that are stored on hard-drive of the computer. Thus, it involves repeated
access to hard drive, which may substantially increase analysis time. It is always recommended that models
should be first run with the in-core solvers and if an out-of-memory error is detected, then the out-of-core
should be used.

In addition, two types of in-core solvers are provided: in-core Solver and In-core Sparse Solver. The first is
suitable for moderate size problems where as the latter is for all types of models. Note that the sparse solver
is substantially a faster solver thus it is highly recommended for large models. Similarly, two types of out-
core solvers are available. Again, the sparse out-of-core solver is substantially faster that the direct out-of-
core solver.

Note that no matter what solver type is used, they all lead to the same analysis results.

3.1.1.8 AISC 360
This section provides the user control of parameters to be used during analysis according to the Direct
Analysis Method of AISC 360-05 and AISC 360-10. Note that if AISC 360 (ASD or LRFD) is chosen in
Steel - Standard Provisions module, the parameters in this section should be set accordingly. If the user
does not select the "Use Reduced Stiffness" option, the choices set in this section are not applied.
Otherwise, they are considered in the analysis. Thus, it is responsibility of the user to select the Use
Reduced Stiffness option according to their choice of design code in the Steel Standard Provisions
module.

If Use Reduced Stiffness is selected, the user is given the option to either set
b
to 1 or to some specific
value (see Chapter C of AISC 360-10 or Appendix 7 of AISC 360-05 for further information on
b
). The
flexural stiffness of frame members (whose flexural stiffness is considered to contribute to the lateral
stability of the structure) is then modified according to Sect. C2.3 of AISC 360-10 or Eq (A-7-2) of AISC
360-05. Note that if a lateral member is pinned at either end, this modification is not applied. The axial
stiffness is also modified according to Sect. C2.3 of AISC 360-10 or Eq. (A-7-3) of AISC 360-05 Appendix
7. Also note that the modification is only applied to steel members.

After the design has been performed the user should run the AISC 360 Direct Analysis Validation report to
verify the validity of all selections.
3.1.2 Diaphragm
3.1.2.1 Diaphragm Setting (In-plane and Out-of-plane Stiffness)
Using the Criteria - Diaphragm command, the user has control over diaphragm in-plane and out-of-plane
(bending) behavior. Regarding in-plane actions, a diaphragm can be designated as a Rigid, Semirigid,
Pseudo-Flexible or Flexible\None. For out-of-plane behavior, it is dominated by slab\deck type in the
program. If a two-way slab\deck exits inside a diaphragm, the out of plane stiffness of the diaphragm is
always included. For one-way slab\decks, it is optional (i.e., the user either includes or ignores out-of-plane
stiffness for one-way decks\slabs)

Figure 3-2 Story Diaphragm Dialog

The Rigid option provides a means of specifying that the diaphragm is sufficiently stiff in its in-plane to act
as a unit; the lateral members at each level are rigidly linked together in the plane of the diaphragm. It
also provides the mechanism for distributing lateral story forces to the various frame members based on
their relative stiffnesses.

A Pseudo-Flexible diaphragm is not able to transfer story torsional moments to frame members as the rigid
diaphragm does. Also, story shears are not distributed to the frames members based on members relative
stiffness, but rather based on tributary areas of frames. A more detail discussion is provided at Section 6.12
in Technical Notes.

A Semirigid diaphragm is able to transfer loads to frame members through its in-plane stiffness. Therefore,
a Semirigid diaphragm is not assumed to be infinitely rigid, but it has finite stiffness, so that the diaphragm
deformation is considered while transferring applied loads. Further information is provided at Section
6.12.3.

The Flexible/None option provides a means of specifying that there is no diaphragm or that the diaphragm
has insufficient stiffness to act structurally as a unit.

The diaphragm in-plane stiffness selection has a significant impact on the way RAM Frame functions. If a
diaphragm is defined as Rigid, Pseudo-Flexible or Semirigid, then the analysis can be based both on the
diaphragm forces specified for that diaphragm by the load cases created in Loads - Load Cases in RAM
Frame and Nodal loads specified by the load cases created in PropTable - Nodal Load Cases in RAM
Modeler. If Flexible\None is selected for a diaphragm, the analysis can only be based on the nodal loads
specified for that diaphragm by the load cases created in PropTable - Nodal Load Cases in RAM Modeler.
If there is no diaphragm at a level, then the story forces specified by the load cases created in Loads - Load
Cases in RAM Frame are not applied to this level. Regardless of the Diaphragm setting, the Dead, Live and
Roof load cases are generated based on the gravity loads specified in the RAM Modeler, and are available
for analysis.

The program allows some levels to be declared to have a rigid or pseudo-flexible or Semirigid diaphragm
and others to have no diaphragm. Levels that have no diaphragms can be loaded by nodal and gravity loads
only. Dynamic analyses can be performed only if some or all levels in the building have a rigid, semirigid or
pseudo-flexible diaphragm associated with some mass.

Refer to Section 6.12 in Technical Notes, for more information regarding analysis with rigid and semirigid
diaphragms.

It should be also noticed that semirigid diaphragms are always meshed for analysis. In addition, if there
exists any two-way slab\deck inside a diaphragm (whether it is rigid or semirigid), then it is also meshed.
This is necessary to carry out a two-way load distribution for loads on two-way slab\decks.

Regarding out-of-plane diaphragm action for one-way deck system, an option is provided so that one can
include out-of-plane stiffness for one-way deck. At the locations of gravity columns and walls under a one-
way deck system, the program inserts springs for Eigenvalue analysis to provide stability in the direction of
perpendicular to the deck.

In addition, a special section is added to the dialog for two-way decks: it is possible to consider gravity
columns and walls to be included in the analysis as springs for those columns and walls under a two-way
deck. It should be noted that these springs are included in analysis for only gravity load cases, and they are
excluded for lateral load cases (wind and seismic load cases) expect that they are used as well for an
Eigenvalue analysis (i.e., dynamic load case). Also provided is the ability of including gravity members
(columns and walls) directly in the analysis. This is only applicable for those gravity members under a two-
way deck. Again, these members are included for gravity load cases and they are excluded for lateral load
cases except Eigenvalue analysis (i.e., dynamic load case). See Section 6.13.1 for more information.

Making changes to the Diaphragm criteria after a model has been analyzed necessitates a re-analysis of the
structure.

3.1.2.2 Disconnected Nodes
The Criteria - Diaphragm - Disconnect command can be used to override the disconnection of nodes from
a diaphragm. One option is available in this command, i.e., overriding disconnection of internal nodes of
beams (such as in transfer girders and beams supporting braces and columns). The use of this feature will
typically increase the speed of execution of analysis dramatically. However, the user needs to realize that
specifying all nodes to be part of the diaphragm might not always reflect the true behavior of the structure.
The engineer can also specify that any individual node can be connected or disconnected from the
diaphragm. This assignment is described in Section 3.2.

3.1.2.3 Diaphragm Mesh
Several mesh control parameters are defined to control quality of the mesh generated for diaphragms. They
are briefly explained below. Further information can be found in Section 6.12.3. Section 6.12.
Diaphragm Boundary: It determines the extension of meshed area of the diaphragm. If Use Slab
Edges for Exterior Boundary is chosen, the program uses slab edges as an exterior boundary of
the meshed diaphragm. Note that the area between the most exterior beams and slab edges are also
meshed. If Use Beams for Exterior Boundary is chosen, the program uses the most exterior
beams as exterior boundary of the meshed diaphragm. It should be known that that there should be a
closed beam loop constructed with exterior beams. Otherwise, the program fails to mesh in the
absence of a closed boundary if this option is chosen, and then it automatically switches to the other
option.
Diaphragm Mass: It determines how diaphragm mass should be processed in analysis. If "Use
Calculated" is chosen, the program applies all surface, line, and points mass loads (as well as deck
mass) directly to meshed diaphragms (member masses for beams, columns and walls are directly
applied to these members). In contrast to rigid diaphragm analogy where diaphragm mass is lumped
at diaphragm mass center, this procedure considers a spatial
Mesh Controls: These are the same mesh control parameters given in Criteria General dialog.
mass distribution over diaphragms. If
"Uniformly Distribute Total Mass Over Diaphragm" is chosen, the total mass calculated for the
diaphragm is distributed to diaphragm shell elements based on shells effective areas. This method
can be used if a truly uniform mass distribution over the diaphragm exists.
Max. Distance between Nodes on Mesh Line: it allows the user define the maximum
distance between nodes on wall edges and nodes on semirigid diaphragm edges. Note that the
program may generate additional nodes closer than user entered value, but it is never allowed
to be larger than that value. The user can generate coarse or fine mesh by setting Max.
Distance between Nodes on Mesh Line. Usually, a coarse mesh gives conservative results
since the walls and diaphragms are stiffer. A finer mesh leads to more flexible walls and
diaphragms, which leads better results but it may significantly increase analysis time. A good
balance should be provided before starting analysis.
Hard Node Density Factor: This factor is used to determine mesh density around hard
nodes which are always located inside semirigid diaphragms. A hard node is defined as a
node where a column or a wall is attached. For most cases, a value of 1.0 is a good estimation
to obtain relatively good mesh density around hard nodes.
Merge Node Tolerance: Once meshing process for walls and semirigid diaphragms is
completed, the program generates a finite element model for analysis, which is basically
composed of nodes and elements (columns, beams, braces and shells in walls and meshed
diaphragms). During this process, it is possible that several nodes are very close. To have a
good (and valid) analytical model, these nodes are merged to a single node and elements
connected to this node are adjusted accordingly. The Merge Node Tolerance is used in such
a way that if distance between any 2 (or more) nodes are found to be smaller than the Merge
Node Tolerance, then they are treated as a single node (i.e., these close nodes are merged
together).
the Geometry Tolerance is mostly used in geometry calculation as a threshold tolerance
value. This should not be confused with a merge (close) node tolerance. Examples are as
follows: it is used as a tolerance to check a node is on a line or to check a point is inside a
polygon, etc...
3.1.3 Ground Level
The Criteria - Ground Level command provides means to explicitly state the story at which the ground
level meets the structure. The default is the base of the structure but can be set to any story except the upper-
most level.

When a story is specified as Ground Level, diaphragms at the story and any below it are restrained against
translation in the X-Y plane and rotation about the vertical axis. Note that if a member attached to one of
these diaphragms but manually disconnected from the diaphragm by the user or a member is already
disconnected from the diaphragm (for instance, it stays outside of the diaphragm), the restrain conditions do
not apply to such members.

Making changes to the Ground Level Settings criteria after a model has been analyzed necessitates a re-
analysis of the structure.

Figure 3-3 Ground Level Dialog
3.1.4 Redundancy
Redundancy can be calculated according to either the UBC 1997 or the IBC 2000/2003. In RAM Frame the
Criteria Redundancy Factors command is used to select the UBC 1997 or IBC 2000/2003 option and
specify the associated criteria items. Refer to Section 5.7 for further information.

The redundancy factor for IBC 2006/IBC 2009/ASCE7-05 is different from previous provisions of IBC. It is
given either as 1.0 or 1.3. The program does not do any determination of the Redundancy factor, and it is
input by the user as part of the Load Combination generators.


Figure 3-4 Redundancy Factor Dialog

3.1.4.1 UBC 1997
The Criteria Redundancy Factors command is used to specify the various quantities needed to calculate
the redundancy factors, rho, corresponding to seismic load cases.

There is a special allowance for structural systems that are considered Dual Systems. If a structural system
is a Dual System it should be so specified. Considering the building as a dual system in X or Y direction
will enable using a 0.8 reduction factor on the redundancy factors.

A
B
is the ground floor area, defined either by specifying the diaphragm from the pull-down menu whose
area will be taken as that corresponding to A
B
or explicitly by entering the floor area in the appropriate
units.

A column that is an interior column of a multi-bay frame is treated differently than the end columns. The
program automatically accounts for that. When frames are skewed between one bay and the adjacent bay, it
is necessary for the user to indicate the angle between bays at which the common column can still be
considered an interior column.

3.1.4.2 IBC 2000 / IBC 2003
The Redundancy Factor provisions of the IBC are based on the 1997 NEHRP provisions and are very
similar to those of UBC 1997. It is a measure of structural redundancy. The requirements are given in IBC
Section 1617.2, Redundancy.

There is a special allowance for structural systems that are considered Dual Systems. If a structural system
is a Dual System it should be so specified. Considering the building as a dual system in X or Y direction
will enable using a 0.8 reduction factor on the redundancy factors.

The program automatically calculates and uses the area of each level as required by the program. If desired
this can be over-ridden and a user-specified area used at every level.

A column that is an interior column of a multi-bay frame is treated differently than the end columns. The
program automatically accounts for that. When frames are skewed between one bay and the adjacent bay, it
is necessary for the user to indicate the angle between bays at which the common column can still be
considered an interior column.
3.2 Assign
Several property assignment operations are available in RAM Frame. These options allow the engineer to
rapidly make extensive changes to the properties of the structural members. A change to any member
property following an analysis will invalidate the analysis and will be indicated by a yellow dot in the status
bar.
3.2.1 Assign Size
The engineer can assign sizes to beams, columns, horizontal braces or vertical braces by selecting the
Assign - Beam -Size, Assign - Column Size, Assign Horizontal Brace - Size or Assign - Brace - Size
commands respectively. Selecting theses commands displays an Assign Member Size dialog. Select the
appropriate material from the material box at the top of the dialog. Select the appropriate size from the size
box. For concrete and other materials the sizes displayed are those sizes created by the user in the RAM
Modeler. For steel sections the sizes shown are based on the member type (e.g., column) and the currently
selected master steel table (refer to the RAM Manager). Note that only members of the material selected in
the dialog can be assigned the size selected.

After a size is selected the engineer can assign the size to a single member (click on Single), to multiple
members (click on Fence) or to all members (click on All). If Single is selected the dialog will close and a
target cursor will be made available. Click on each member to assign the size. If Fence is selected the dialog
will close and a fence cursor will be made available. Click and drag a rectangle around all the members to
assign the sizes. Note that sizes are only assigned to members comprised of the same material selected in the
assign dialog.

To clear member sizes automatically displayed for the assign operation select the Reset Model toolbar
button. To view member sizes at any time select the appropriate option from the View-Members Dialog.
3.2.2 Assign Fixity
The engineer can assign fixity to beams, columns, horizontal braces or vertical braces by selecting the
Assign - Beam - Fixity, Assign - Column Fixity, Assign Horizontal Brace - Fixity or Assign - Brace
- Fixity commands respectively. From the dialog that appears the engineer should select the appropriate
fixity conditions.

After the appropriate fixity is selected the engineer can assign this fixity condition to a single member (click
on Single), to multiple members (click on Fence) or to all members (click on All). If Single is selected the
dialog will close and a target cursor will be made available. Click on each member to assign fixity. If Fence
is selected the dialog will close and a fence cursor will be made available. Click and drag a rectangle around
all the members to assign fixities. Note that fixity is only assigned to members comprised of the same type
(beam, column or brace) as the menu command issued.

To clear member fixity automatically displayed for the assign operation select the Reset Model toolbar
button. To display member fixity select the appropriate option from the View-Members Dialog.
3.2.3 Assign Tension-Only
The engineer can assign horizontal braces and vertical braces to behave as tension-only members by
selecting the Assign Horizontal Brace Tension-Only or Assign - Brace - Tension-Only commands
respectively. When braces are assigned as tension-only, the analysis is performed iteratively to ensure that
those braces do not carry any compressive forces.

Tension-only members can be indicated on screen through the View-Members Command by selecting the
Label Tension Only option in the Brace or Horizontal Brace tab.

See Section 3.3.8 for information on creating Tension-only Load Cases and Section 6.17 for technical
information on tension-only analysis.
3.2.4 Assign Buckling Restrained Brace
The engineer can assign vertical braces to be considered as buckling restrained braces by selecting the
Assign Braces Buckling Restrained Generic command. When braces are assigned as buckling
restrained an additional axial stiffness multiplier is assigned to the member. This factor is multiplied by the
brace axial stiffness for consideration in the analysis. The factor allows the engineer to adjust the stiffness
for material other than steel being used in the core, and for the fact that the steel core brace that is modeled,
does not extend for the entire length of the brace (Ref. 1).

Buckling restrained braces and the assigned stiffness multiplier can be shown on screen through the View-
Members Command by selecting the Label Buckling Restrained option in the Brace tab.

See the technical Section 6.18 and program Help for more guidance on calculating the buckling restrained
brace stiffness multiplier.
3.2.5 Assign Node Connectivity
The engineer can assign any node to be connected or disconnected from the diaphragm by selecting the
Assign - Nodes - Diaphragm Connection command. From the dialog that appears the engineer should
select whether the node is to use the global criteria (see Criteria-Diaphragm command), or whether the
node should be connected or disconnected from the diaphragm.


Figure 3-5 Setting Node Assignment for Diaphragms

When Connect Node to Diaphragm is chosen, the pull-down menu is activated and it shows all stories
with respect to their associated diaphragm numbers. Once the story with diaphragm number is chosen from
the menu, the user can connect any node to this diaphragm by Single, Fence or All command. Diaphragm
connectivity information for all nodes can be checked in Frame Model Data report.

After the appropriate node connectivity is selected the engineer can assign this condition to a single node
(click on Single), to multiple nodes (click on Fence) or to all nodes (click on All). If Single is selected the
dialog will close and a target cursor will be made available. Click on each node to assign connectivity
condition. If Fence is selected the dialog will close and a fence cursor will be made available. Click and
drag a rectangle around all the nodes to assign connectivity conditions.

To hide the display of disconnected nodes automatically displayed for the assign operation un-select the
View Disconnected Nodes menu item.

It should be noted that there might be internal nodes along the boundaries of walls created during meshing
walls. The following rules apply for the internal nodes:
if one of two top corner nodes of a wall is disconnected by the user, all the internal nodes along the
top edge of the wall are disconnected by the program except the other corner node.
if one of two top corner nodes is connected by the user, all the internal nodes along the top edge of
the wall are connected by the program except the other corner node.
If two top corner nodes are disconnected or connected by the user, all the internal nodes along the
top edge are also disconnected or connected by the program.

Note that if diaphragm is a Semirigid diaphragm, this node connectivity assignment is not enforced (i.e.,
node connectivity\disconnectivity only works for rigid diaphragms).
3.2.6 Assign Wall-Groups
Selecting the Assign-Wall-Groups menu-item causes the Assign Wall Group dialog box to be displayed.
From this dialog the engineer can assign single wall group numbers to Lateral Walls and wall boundary
columns. The primary purpose of the wall grouping is to automatically have RAM Frame accumulate all the
result forces in each wall panel (and column) in the group and report them as a single set of forces (moment,
shears etc). This is particularly useful when multiple wall panels (finite elements) comprise a single physical
wall. Refer to 3.6.6 Wall Group Forces for additional discussion on wall group forces.

Enter a number in the Wall Group Number edit box to assign. After the appropriate wall number is specified
the engineer can assign the number to a single wall or column (click on Single), or to multiple walls or
columns (click on Fence). If Single is selected the dialog will close and a target cursor will be made
available. Click on each member to apply the group numbers. Each column in the group will be colored
green, and each wall in the wall group will be colored in orange as they are selected. When another wall is
selected to be included in the group, it will appear in orange and the previous wall in yellow. Orange
represents the fact that this wall is the most recent wall selected in the group and its orientation (axis) will be
used for presenting the results of the group. Yellow represents the fact that the wall is part of the wall group
currently being assigned. If Fence is selected the dialog will close and a fence cursor will be made available.
Click and drag a rectangle around all the members to assign frame numbers.

To clear wall group numbers automatically displayed for the assign operation select the Reset Model
toolbar button. To view wall group numbers select the appropriate option from the View-Members Dialog.
3.2.7 Assign Frame Numbers
Selecting the Assign-Frame Numbers menu-item causes the Assign Lateral Frame Numbers dialog box to
be displayed. From this dialog the engineer can assign frame numbers to Lateral Frame members. The
primary purpose of the frame numbers is to group frame members for output purposes, but they may have
design implications as in the case of seismic special provisions (refer to Seismic Provisions Manual).

Enter a number in the Frame Number edit box to assign. Select the member types to assign this frame
number to by clicking the appropriate option box under the Assign To area. Note that different member
types, within the same frame, can be assigned different numbers.

After the appropriate frame numbers and member types values are specified, the engineer can assign the
criteria to a single member (click on Single), to multiple members (click on Fence) or to all members (click
on All). If Single is selected the dialog will close and a target cursor will be made available. Click on each
section to assign the criteria. If Fence is selected the dialog will close and a fence cursor will be made
available. Click and drag a rectangle around all the members to assign frame numbers.

To hide frame numbers automatically displayed for the assign operation select the Reset Model Toolbar
button. To view member frame numbers select the appropriate option from the View-Members Dialog. In
addition, a button (show\hide frame numbers) in the toolbar is provided to display or hide all frame numbers
for all members.
3.2.8 Springs
Two types of springs can be used in an analytical model: springs at foundation nodes and springs (vertical)
for gravity columns and walls. The latter spring type is simply about placing vertical springs at locations of
gravity columns and walls and this is on optional feature. Further information is given in Section 6.12.3.
Foundation springs are given in detail in the following section.

3.2.8.1 Foundation Springs
Foundation springs can be defined at column, brace or wall bases (i.e. at foundation nodes of these
members). At a typical foundation node, six components of a spring can be defined: three translational
(linear) springs and three rotational springs. Translational springs resist axial forces whereas the rotational
springs resist bending and torsional actions. By default, the springs are defined according to global axes.
Users have options to define them in the local system as explained in the following subsections.

Foundation springs can be set by invoking the Assign Foundation Springs command. Assigned springs
are also visible on screen by calling View Foundation Springs. Two different commands are available to
assign or delete foundation springs: one for column or brace bases, and one for wall bases. Figure 3-6 and
Figure 3-7 shows the commands used for springs at columns, brace and wall bases, respectively.

Calculated stiffness values and other related information about foundation springs are tabulated in the
Model Data report.

Deflected shapes on screen also indicate the effects of springs at foundation nodes.

3.2.8.2 Assigning Foundation Springs at Column Base
To assign springs at column bases, select Column Base in Assign/Clear At. Two options are provided to
set the orientation of springs at column base:
Angle from Global X-axis (in degrees): By default, a spring is defined in the global system: three
components of linear and rotational springs are defined along the global X-, Y-, and Z-axes. This
orientation can be modified in such a way that it can be rotated around the global Z-axis by a
specified angle measured counter-clockwise from the Global X-axis. The orientation of the rotated
springs is graphically indicated on screen.
Same as Column: This option is valid only for column bases. The springs are rotated such that their
orientation aligns with the column orientation angle.


Figure 3-6: Assign\Clear Foundation Springs Command for Column and Brace Bases

The stiffness values for linear and rotational springs at column bases are determined according to the
following rules:

By default, all of the spring stiffness values are infinitely large (i.e., these degrees of freedom are
fixed).
To specify a stiffness value associated with any degree of freedom, first select the option box for that
degree of freedom and then enter the spring stiffness value.
For rotational or torsional stiffness values, there are two options: either enter stiffness value directly,
or use % of Column Minor Stiffness, % of Column Major Stiffness or % of Column
Torsional Stiffness. If the latter option is chosen, a value between 0 and 100 is expected. This
value is used to calculate rotational or torsional spring stiffness values as follows:
=

100

4
=

100

4
=

100

where
: major moment of inertia

: minor moment of inertia

: section torsional constant
: modulus of elasticity
: shear modulus
: column length

Note that the coefficient a is the percentage value input by user.

It should be noted that if a column is pinned at its base and rotational springs are also defined at the same
base, these springs have no effect in the analysis results. In this case, the column does not transmit any
moment because it is free to rotate at its base. To activate the rotational springs, the column should be
defined as fixed at its base.

3.2.8.3 Assigning Foundation Springs at Brace Base
If Brace Base is chosen in Assign/Clear At, all settings specifically used for columns are grayed out.
Therefore, the options Same as Column, % of Column Minor Stiffness, % of Column Major
Stiffness and % of Column Torsional Stiffness are not available for braces. Other rules applied to
columns as explained above are also valid for springs at brace bases.

3.2.8.4 Assigning Foundation Springs at Wall Base
Figure 3-7 shows the command used for assigning or deleting foundation springs at wall bases. This
command works in a similar way as the one used for columns and braces.

The linear spring assignments made to the wall bases are effective only in the global z-direction.
Furthermore, the value entered for the walls major axis stiffness is defined as stiffness per unit length

. The
program assumes that the wall sits on continuum spring media (like an elastic foundation) and it
concentrates the spring stiffness value to nodes at wall bases.

Figure 3-7: Assign\Clear Foundation Springs Dialog for Wall Bases

3.2.8.5 Clearing Foundation Springs
Foundation Spring assignments can be cleared using the Assign Foundation Springs commands for
Columns/Braces and for Walls, accordingly.

To delete springs at column or brace bases, select the member type (Column Base or Brace Base) from
Assign/Clear At and select the Clear Foundation Spring option. Then select the Single, Fence or All
button.
3.3 Frame Loads

There are three classes of static loads that can be analyzed by RAM Frame:
Gravity loads
Nodal loads
Story forces

In addition, a dynamic analysis can also be performed.

Gravity loads, including Live Load Reduction factors where applicable, are calculated and applied based on
the gravity loads specified in RAM Modeler. Based on the types of loads that occur on frame members, the
gravity load cases are automatically created. These include DeadLoad, PosLiveLoad, NegLiveLoad,
PosRoofLiveLoad and NegRoofLiveLoad. Pos- and Neg- have reference to the direction of the applied load.
Pos- indicates downward acting (positive) loads. Neg- refers to upward acting (negative) loads. Neg- loads
only occur when the backspan reaction of a cantilevered beam induces an upward acting force on the
supporting frame beam or column, or when the user explicitly specifies a load with a negative value.

Nodal load cases and the associated nodal loads are defined and assigned by the user in RAM Modeler.
They can be point loads and moments applied at a node.

Lateral story forces and the associated load cases can be generated or explicitly defined by the user using the
Loads - Load Cases command. Story force loads can only be applied to a story if the floor diaphragm at
that level is specified as Rigid or Semirigid in Criteria - General.

Dynamic analyses, including response spectra and Eigenvalue analysis, can be specified using the Loads -
Load Cases command. Dynamic load cases can only be analyzed if all or some of the floor diaphragms are
specified as rigid, semirigid or pseudo-flexible in Criteria - General.

See Section 3.1.2, Diaphragm, for more information on rigid and no diaphragms.
3.3.1 Gravity Loads for Notional Loads and P-Delta Effects
The gravity load data is shown in the Gravity Loads dialog, which is invoked with the Loads Gravity for
Notional command. These values are based on the applied gravity loads (defined in the Modeler), including
self-weight of members and slabs\decks if those options (for member dead loads) have been specified. For
each diaphragm, RAM Frame automatically calculates the total Dead Load, Live Load (Imposed Load) and
either Roof Load or Snow Load as applicable, and the location of the centroid of those loads.

Calculated or user defined gravity loads are used in the calculation of Notional Loads. In addition, they are
used for P-Delta analysis of Rigid diaphragm if Use Gravity Loads option is chosen in General
Criteria dialog.

Note that while the gravity load data was derived from the loads applied to the members, modifying the
values listed in this command has no impact on the gravity loads applied to the members, it only has an
impact on the magnitude of the generated Notional Loads.

Figure 3-8 Diaphragm Gravity Loads Dialog

Where Live Loads are reducible, the program determines and applies the appropriate Live Load Reduction
factor. Generally, because of the large area involved, the reduction factor is usually the maximum allowed
by the specified Code (as specified by the user in the Criteria Member Loads command in RAM
Manager). The user can override the reduction values used by specifying the desired values.

The Diaphragm Gravity Loads dialog tabulates story/diaphragm loads according to their diaphragm
numbers. It should be noted that any loads associated with diaphragms are shown with respect to the story
name and diaphragm number. If there is any load that is not associated with any diaphragm (such as a point
or line loads placed outside of any diaphragm), it is listed separately, with the Diaphragm Number specified
as None; it is part of no diaphragm.

The column Combine To is used to combine (lump) gravity loads from one diaphragm to another
diaphragm (for the purpose of calculating Notional Loads only this does not affect the gravity loads
applied to the members). The user can select a diaphragm number and a story (diaphragm story name)
from the drop-down list to indicate the diaphragm to which the load is to be combined. Similarly, the
None load component of a story (if applicable) can be combined to any diaphragm at either the same story
or another story. Note that a None load component of a story cannot be combined to a None load
component of another story.

Occasionally there are small partial levels that do not contribute significantly to the lateral force resisting
system or to which it is not desirable to have a generated Notional Load assigned. In such a situation the
loads of that level can be combined to another diaphragm by using the Combine To command. The same
command can also be used to lump loads from levels with no diaphragm to levels with a diaphragm.

Notional Loads will not be generated for any gravity loads not associated with a diaphragm.

When the self-weight options have been selected in Criteria Self-Weight in RAM Manager, all of the self-
weights of columns and walls are included with the gravity loads of the level above; there are no options to
have half of those self-weights included with the level above and half of those self-weights included with
the level below.

Snow drift loads are defined in the Modeler by specifying the magnitude of the snow load at three points.
When calculating member loads the program considers the variable load along the member, but when
calculating the gravity loads due to snow drift loads for the computation of the notional loads, the program
only considers a flat load based on the smallest of the three magnitudes (i.e., it is ignoring the drift effects).
This approach is taken due to the fact that it is unlikely that all of the drifts modeled at the roof would
actually occur simultaneously; to consider all of them simultaneously in the load used to generate the snow
notional load would be overly conservative. Generally only considering the flat snow load would likely be
sufficient, but if this is determined to be unconservative the user can specify greater values of snow load in
the Loads Gravity for Notional command.

RAM Frame checks whether Combine-To assignments are valid or not and gives a warning if an invalid
Combine-To assignment is detected. For example, if the loads in Diaphragm A are combined to Diaphragm
B, and if Diaphragm B is later deleted in the Modeler, RAM Frame gives a warning for Diaphragm A and
clears the Combine-To assignment. It is the users responsibility to re-assign the Combine-To for
Diaphragm A again, if desired.
3.3.2 Masses
Mass data is used in generating seismic load cases, in performing P-delta analysis, and for dynamic
analyses. RAM Frame automatically calculates Mass, Center of Mass and Mass Moment of Inertia for each
rigid diaphragm, using information obtained from the Modeler. A value indicating the eccentricity between
the center of mass and the point of application of the mass is calculated; the default value for eccentricity is
taken as 5% of the over-all building dimensions, slab edge to slab edge. This value is used only when the
user specifies that eccentricity is to be considered in the generated seismic load cases. The calculated mass
values can be overridden with user specified values using the Loads - Masses command.


Figure 3-9 Diaphragm Masses Dialog

Diaphragm Masses dialog tabulates story/diaphragm masses according to their diaphragm numbers. It
should be noted that any mass associated with diaphragms are shown with respect to the story name and
diaphragm number. If there is any mass that is not associated with any diaphragm (such as the mass
components of point or line loads placed outside of any diaphragm, or self-masses from members not
connected to any diaphragms, etc.), it is listed separately, with the Diaphragm Number specified as None;
it is part of no diaphragm.

The column Combine To is used to combine (lump) mass from one diaphragm to another diaphragm.
The user can select a diaphragm number and a story (diaphragm story name) from the drop-down list to
indicate the diaphragm to which the mass is to be combined. Similarly, the None mass component of a
story (if applicable) can be combined to any diaphragm at either the same story or another story. Note that a
None mass component of a story cannot be combined to a None mass component of another story.

For models for which no floor masses were modeled and assigned in the Modeler, the user must input the
mass data in order to have seismic story forces generated or dynamic analyses performed. This is done using
the Loads - Masses command.

Occasionally there are small partial levels that do not contribute significantly to the lateral force resisting
system or to which it is not desirable to have a generated seismic story force assigned. In such a situation the
mass of that level can be combined to another diaphragm by also using Combine To command. The same
command can also be used to lump masses from levels with no diaphragm to levels with a diaphragm.

The mass is calculated from the Mass Dead Load values specified for the Surface, Line and Point loads in
the RAM Modeler as well as the member self-masses. See Section 6.5.3 Self-Mass Calculations for more
information on the calculation of the self-mass.

As explained above, if any mass corresponding to any members or loads are not associated with any
diaphragm (either from loads outside the diaphragm, or members disconnected from diaphragm), it is still
accounted for by the program and labeled as story None mass component in the Diaphragm Masses
dialog. If they are not combined by the user to any rigid diaphragms, they are ignored during analysis.

Regarding diaphragm lumping (combining) assignments, RAM Frame checks whether lumping assignments
are valid or not and gives a warning if an invalid lumping assignment is detected. For example, if the mass
in Diaphragm A is lumped to Diaphragm B, and if Diaphragm B is later deleted in the Modeler, RAM
Frame gives a warning for Diaphragm A and clears the lumping assignment. It is the users responsibility to
re-assign the lumping for Diaphragm A again, if desired. Also note that, diaphragm lumping is only
applicable for Rigid diaphragms.
3.3.3 Exposure
Wind story forces can be automatically calculated based on the building diaphragm heights and widths,
including the effects of parapets. For models with slab edges modeled in the Modeler the extents of the
diaphragms are calculated by RAM Frame based on the over-all dimensions of the diaphragm layout, slab
edge to slab edge. For levels with multiple diaphragms, the extents of each diaphragm are listed. For models
without slab edges these values must be determined and input by the user using the Loads - Exposure
command if the automatic wind force generators are to be used.

Figure 3-10 Exposure Dialog

For the top level and for any level where the building steps, the parapet height must be input in order for the
area of the parapet to be considered in the story force calculation. Except at the uppermost level, parapets
are only considered when the building steps, that is, the extent of the level above perpendicular to the
direction of the applied wind force is less than the extent of a given level.

Occasionally there are small partial diaphragms that do not contribute significantly to the lateral force
resisting system or to which it is not desirable to have a generated wind force assigned. In such a situation
the exposure at that diaphragm can be set to None (rather than Full). The story forces of the two adjacent
diaphragms will then be calculated ignoring the presence of the intermediate level.

Extents, parapet heights and the exposure flags can be input and modified using the Loads - Exposure
command. The information is only required when wind diaphragm forces are going to be automatically
generated for a model with a diaphragm specified as rigid.

The Exposure Boundaries report (Reports Exposure Boundaries) shows the boundaries determined and
used by the program to calculate the wind story forces. If that report does not reflect the actual conditions of
wind loading, the extents should be modified, or user-specified story forces should be used rather than the
automatically generated story forces.

Refer to Section 5.2 for more information on the generated wind story forces.
3.3.4 Defining Load Cases
Lateral loads are defined and assigned as story\diaphragm forces. These forces, or the data used to generate
these forces, and their load cases are created using the Loads - Load Cases command.

There are five types of story\diaphragm force load cases: Wind, Seismic, Dynamic, Notional and Other.
Wind, Seismic and Notional story forces may be user-specified or they may be generated based on the
requirements of a variety of building codes. Other story forces are user-specified only. Dynamic load
cases are not story forces in the same sense as the other types; they include a response spectra analysis and
an Eigenvalue solution. Note that if there is more than one diaphragm at a story, generated seismic forces at
the story are distributed among the diaphragms based on their relative diaphragm masses and generated
Notional loads at the story are distributed among the diaphragms based on their relative gravity loads.
Similarly for wind load cases, diaphragm extents are considered in calculating wind loads at each
diaphragm.

The load cases are created by specifying a load case label and a load case type, then selecting the particular
load option (e.g., ASCE7-98/IBC 2000). In the case of the generated loads, certain selections result in
multiple related load cases. For example, selecting both X and Y Axis directions and plus and minus
eccentricity when inputting the load case data causes four load cases to be created. Each has the same load
case label but the type label will vary to identify each one individually.

User defined story forces (also virtual load case story forces) are defined per rigid diaphragms. Thus, the
user may enter forces for each diaphragm.

The mass data must be defined before the automatic seismic load generator can be invoked. The exposure
data must be defined before the automatic wind load generator can be invoked. The gravity loads for
Notional loads data must be defined before the automatic Notional load generator can be invoked.

There are two additional Load Case types: Virtual and Centers of Rigidity. Virtual Load cases are for use
with the Drift Control module. The Centers of Rigidity load case can be invoked if explicit calculation and
output on the center of rigidity of each floor is desired. Note that center of rigidities are calculated for each
diaphragm.
3.3.5 Load Case Type Labels
In addition to the user-defined load case labels, load cases are assigned load case type labels to further
identify the load cases. The following is a key to deciphering the type labels:

Table 3-1
RAMUSER This type label is assigned to the gravity load cases
generated from the gravity loads in RAM Modeler.
RAMUSERNODAL This type label is assigned to the nodal load cases created in
RAM Modeler.
Wind or W Wind load.
EQ or S Seismic load.
NL Notional Load
Dyn Dynamic load
O Other load
V Virtual load
User User-specified story forces
X X axis
Y Y axis
X X axis with the coordinate axes rotated.
Y Y axis with the coordinate axes rotated.
+E Plus eccentricity
-E Minus eccentricity
NoE No eccentricity
CW Clockwise
CCW Counter-Clockwise
F Special Provisions for Member Forces
Drft Special Provisions for Drift
Fdtn Special Provisions for Foundation Forces
CQC CQC Modal Combination
SRSS SRSS Modal Combination
3.3.6 Load Case Labels
When load cases are created, they are numbered, in addition to the user-specified label and the Load Case
Type label. This number consists of a letter and an integer (e.g., R1, S3, etc.). The letters indicate the
following:

Table 3-2
D Dead Load. This is an automatically generated gravity load case based on the
self-weight or the gravity loads assigned in RAM Modeler.
L Live Load. This is an automatically generated gravity load case based on the
gravity loads assigned in RAM Modeler. It will have a subscript p (positive
load) or n (negative load).
Rf Roof Live Load. This is an automatically generated gravity load case based on
the gravity loads assigned in RAM Modeler. It will have a subscript p (positive
S Snow Load. This is an automatically generated gravity load case based on the
gravity loads assigned in RAM Modeler. It will have a subscript p (positive
W This indicates a Wind load case. (Story Forces and Nodal Loads)
E This indicates a Seismic load case. (Story Forces and Nodal Loads)
ND This indicates a Notional Dead Load
NL This indicates a Notional Live Load
NR This indicates a Notional Roof Load
Dyn This indicates a Dynamic load case.
O This indicates Other load case. (Story Forces and Nodal Loads)
V This indicates a Virtual load case (Story Forces and Nodal Loads)

The integers are then assigned consecutively within each group type. RAM Frame and the outputs
frequently refer to the load cases by these load case numbers.
3.3.7 Merged Load Cases
In some situations, users may want to apply both diaphragm and nodal loads in a single load case. Nodal
loads are created in the RAM Modeler, diaphragm (Story Forces) loads are created in RAM Frame. A new
load case that is a combination of both the diaphragm loads and nodal loads can be created in RAM Frame
using the Loads Merge Load Cases command. This command enables users to merge nodal loads and
diaphragm loads that are of the same type (both are Wind or both are Seismic load cases) into a single, new
load case. This new load case is then treated as any other load case: it can be analyzed, results obtained,
included in load combinations, etc.

The merged load case feature allows for multiple merges using the same story and/or nodal load cases; a
load case may be used in multiple merged load cases.

Once two load cases have been merged to create a new load case, the original individual load cases are no
longer available to analyze, view results, etc.
3.3.8 Additional Load Cases Generated for Analysis with Tension-Only
Members
Braces may be specified as Tension-only; that is, they are only capable of resisting forces in tension and are
assumed to have no axial stiffness in compression. For such members the direction of applied lateral load is
significant (e.g., positive X-axis vs. negative X-axis). Therefore, RAM Frame provides an option whereby
additional load cases can be created. To invoke this, select the Generate Additional Load Cases for
Analysis with Tension-Only Members option in the Load Case generation dialog box when generating
lateral load cases (implemented for wind, seismic and notional load cases only).

See Section 3.2.3 for information on assigning braces to be tension-only and Section 6.17 for technical
information on tension-only analysis.
3.3.9 Analysis with Orthogonal Load Cases
Orthogonal load cases can be created based on the 100%/30% requirement of some building codes: loads
are applied 100% in one direction and 30% in the orthogonal direction at the same time. This is only
implemented for US seismic load cases. To invoke this feature, select the Consider Orthogonal Effects
(100/30) option when generating seismic load cases. Note that invoking this option substantially increases
the number of load cases created. For instance, a total of 36 different load cases (40 if Generate Additional
Load Cases for Analysis with Tension-Only Members is also checked) are created for IBC seismic load
case. Figure 3-11 shows an example of the generated load cases.

Figure 3-11: Generated load cases based on 100%/30% rule and additional cases for tension-only
members
3.4 Process - Analyze
The frame analysis of the structure is initiated by selecting the Process-Analyze command. A dialog box
provides the user with the ability to select the load cases that will be considered in the analysis. If the
previous analysis of any of the load cases is still valid, those load cases will already be selected. This
provides a way of determining whether or not an analysis needs to be performed. Each time Analyze is
invoked, the results of the previous analysis are over-written; only the results for the load cases included in
the most recent analysis will be available for viewing, outputting, or post-processing. Select or deselect the
cases as desired.
100
30
30 30 30 30
100 100 100
100 100 100 100
30 30 30
30 30 30
30
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100 100
100 100
30 30 30 30
30 30 30 30
30 30 30 30
30 30 30 30
30 30 30 30

Adjacent to each load case is a status light. It is either green or red. A green light indicates that the load case
can be selected and analyzed. A red light indicates that the load case cannot currently be selected and
analyzed. This may be due to the diaphragm setting in Criteria - Diaphragm or due to the lack of, or
incomplete, mass or exposure data.
The status indicator light in the bottom right hand corner of the status bar indicates the current status of the
database. It will generally be green immediately after an analysis. See Section 2.6 for more information.
3.5 Process - View/Update
The Process - View/Update command is a powerful feature, which allows the user to view on-screen the
analysis results of any individual frame member. If desired, member sizes and material properties can by
modified and saved back to the database. It is a convenient tool for inspecting and revising the model.

The View/Update command is only available after an analysis has been performed, and will appear grayed
out on the menu until then. Once the analysis has been completed, any lateral frame member can be
inspected and modified interactively using the View/Update command.

When the View/Update command is invoked, a target cursor will appear with which the user selects the
member to view. Selecting View Results causes the Member Forces output to appear on screen. In addition
to showing member properties and analysis criteria, this output shows the member forces for the selected
load cases. See Section 7.2 for more information on selecting load cases for output. The output screen is
exited by selecting the Close Preview button.

In the View/Update dialog box the current size of the lateral member is displayed in the top box of the drop
down list box, and other available shapes are listed below. Material properties are also listed. These items
can be modified, and the changes saved to the database using the Update Data Base button. When the
database is changed in this way, the status indicator light at the right end of the status bar turns yellow. See
Section 2.6 for more information.
3.6 Process - Results
After an analysis has been performed, the results for the entire frame model can be displayed graphically.
This includes member forces, deflected shapes, mode shapes and story shears. There is also a command that
allows the user to view inter-story drift results. These commands are available in the Process - Results
menu and on the tool bar.
3.6.1 Applied Story Forces
The Process-Results-Applied Story Forces command displays generated story forces for seismic, wind
and user-defined lateral load cases (it also displays gravity loads defined on semirigid diaphragms with two-
way slabs). The forces corresponding to a chosen load case are displayed with arrows at locations where
they are applied. If a level story consists of multiple diaphragms, the forces applied to each diaphragm are
displayed.

When the command is invoked, the analyzed load cases are listed and can be selected. Show Magnitude
and Show Coordinates options add text next to the arrows to display the magnitude of the forces and their
coordinates, respectively. Arrow size can also be scaled by setting arrow scale size. Note that no value less
than zero is allowed and the default value is 1.0. In addition, two options for scaling types for arrows are
provided: Log and Linear scaling. Select the Display option to display the forces and unselect it to clear the
arrows from the screen; note that merely closing this diagram or invoking Reset Model button does not
remove the arrows from the screen.

Figure 3-12 Applied Story Force Diagram

3.6.2 Building Story Shears
After analysis is completed, calculated building story shears are available to be shown on screen. Note that
the same information is also given in Building Story Shear report.

The Process-Results-Building Story Shears command displays a list of analyzed load cases. Dead, Live,
seismic, wind, user-defined lateral load cases and dynamic load case types are able to be shown in this
dialog. The story shears corresponding to a chosen load case are displayed with arrows at diaphragm mass
centers.

When the command is invoked, the analyzed load cases are listed and can be selected. Show Magnitude
option adds text next to the arrows to display the magnitude of the forces. Arrow size can also be scaled by
setting arrow scale size. Calculated diaphragms shears are in global X and Y directions and they are
included or excluded on screen as choosing appropriate options in Components section. Select the Display
option to display the forces and unselect it to clear the arrows from the screen; note that merely closing this
diagram or invoking Reset Model button does not remove the arrows from the screen.


Figure 3-13 Building Story Shears Dialog

3.6.3 Frame Story Shears
Frame story shears can be displayed after analysis is successfully completed. Note that the same information
is also given in the Frame Story Shear report.

The Process-Results-Frame Story Shears command displays a list of analyzed load cases. Dead, Live,
seismic, wind, user-defined lateral load cases and dynamic load case types can be shown in this dialog.
Story shears for a selected load case are displayed with arrows at corresponding frame geometric centers.

When the command is invoked, analyzed load cases of the above type are listed and can be selected. The
Show Magnitude option adds text next to the arrows to display the magnitude of the forces. Arrow size can
also be scaled using the Scale for Arrow field. Calculated frame shears are in global X and Y directions
and are included or excluded on screen as selected in the Components section. Select the Display option to
display the forces and unselect it to clear the arrows from the screen; note that merely closing this diagram
or invoking Reset Model button does not remove the arrows from the screen.


Figure 3-14 Frame Story Shear Dialog

3.6.4 Analysis Results Diagrams
Shear, Moment, Axial and Torsion diagrams can be viewed for any lateral member. Based on the Load Case
or Load Combination mode selected, the Analysis Results dialog provides the ability to select the load case
or combination and diagram type to display. Additionally it provides the ability to view the Maximum and
Minimum values for the selected force diagram and the value anywhere along the selected member.

3.6.4.1 Invoking the Dialog
In either the Analysis Load Case or Load Combination mode issue the Process Results
Diagrams command or press the Diagrams button on the results toolbar.

With the Target cursor, select any frame beam, column or brace to display the dialog.

There is no need to close the dialog before selecting another member. The target pointer remains available
even when the dialog is visible. Simply select another member to get its analysis results displayed in the
dialog.

3.6.4.2 Using the Dialog

Figure 3-15 Analysis Results Diagram

3.6.4.3 Member Information
At the top of the dialog, the Story Label, Member Label, Section Label, Full Length and Slope of the
member are displayed. This information is used to locate the member and identify its basic information.

3.6.4.4 Member Start and End Supports
The member start and end support information is used to locate the member in the structure. Depending on
the dialogs use the supports could be referenced in a number of ways including node numbers, member
numbers and grid coordinates.

3.6.4.5 Analysis Type Selection
The List box in the top right side of the dialog is used to select the analysis type to display. This could be
either load case or load combination depending on the current mode.

3.6.4.6 Diagram Type Selection
On the left side of the dialog there is a list box next to each diagram. The list box is used to select the
diagram type. This could be the Shear, Moment, Axial or Torsion diagrams for the member. The available
diagrams are dependent on the current mode. The diagrams are automatically updated when the Analysis
Type is changed.

3.6.4.7 Diagram Maximum and Minimum Values
Under the diagram type selection list box, the value and location for the Maximum and Minimum values
along the adjacent diagram are reported. These are the values along the full length of the diagram. The
values are automatically updated if the Analysis or Diagram types are changed.

3.6.4.8 Current Value at Slider Location
Under the Maximum and Minimum values for the diagram, the value of the diagram at the current slider
location is displayed. This value is automatically updated if the current slider location, Analysis or Diagram
type is changed.

3.6.4.9 Diagrams
Under the Analysis Type list box are located the analysis results diagrams. These diagrams are
automatically updated when the Analysis or Diagram types are changed.

The green triangles on the diagrams indicate the supports for the member.

The diagrams are automatically scaled, so that the Major and Minor Shear diagrams, for example, will have
the same scale so the user can easily see and compare the relative values.

On each diagram there is a slider that can be dragged across the diagram to see the value of the diagram at
any location. The slider can also be moved across the diagram by moving the slide bar at the bottom of the
dialog or by entering a relative or absolute value in the Distance text box.

3.6.4.10 Distance Slide Bar
Near the bottom of the dialog there is a slide bar, which can be used to move the slider across the diagram to
see the value at any location. The values will be reported to the left of each diagram.

3.6.4.11 Distance Locater
Distance locator can be used to accurately locate the value of the diagram at a given distance from the left
end.

When the option Absolute is selected, any value from zero to the total length of the member can be
entered in the units displayed to the right of the text box.

When the option Relative is selected, any value from zero to 100% can be entered. This option is useful
when the user is interested in 1/4, 1/3 or 1/2 way points which can be entered as 25, 33.3 and 50
respectively.

3.6.4.12 Save Settings
The Save Settings on Close option will save the last Analysis and Diagram Types selected so the next time
the dialog is selected the same settings as the previous session are available.

3.6.4.13 Close Button
Selecting the Close button will close the dialog box. It is also possible to select another member without
having to reselect the dialog box from the menu or toolbar.
3.6.5 Member Forces
The Process - Results - Member Forces command displays the calculated forces for all lateral members on
the screen. When the command is invoked, the user first selects the load case for which the member forces
are to be displayed. All currently analyzed load cases are available to be selected. The user then selects the
force type that is to be displayed. The types include major and minor shear, major and minor moment, axial
load and torsion. The Apply button causes the member force values to be displayed. Force values, diagrams,
or both may be displayed.

Close terminates the command. When the command is terminated the currently displayed force values
remain on the screen. They can be cleared by selecting the Reset Model button.
3.6.6 Wall Group Forces
The Process - Results - Wall Group Forces command displays the integrated forces for all the wall groups
defined in the model. The wall group forces are displayed at the center of gravity of the wall groups. The
direction of the wall groups is indicated by an arrow and is determined based on the order the walls were
assigned to the group (refer to Section 3.2.6 Assign Wall-Group).

When the command is invoked, the user first selects the load case for which the wall group forces are to be
displayed. All currently analyzed load cases are available to be selected. The user then selects the force type
that is to be displayed. The types include major and minor shear, major and minor moment, axial load and
torsion. The Apply button causes the wall group force values to be displayed.

Close terminates the command. When the command is terminated the currently displayed wall group force
values remain on the screen. They can be cleared by selecting the Reset Model button.
3.6.7 Shear Wall Forces
The Process Results Shear Wall Forces Module command launches the Shear Wall Forces Module.
This module is used to view wall forces of panels or sections of panels through any vertical or horizontal
plane. See Section 3.7 for more information.
3.6.8 Member Forces Envelope
The Process - Results - Member Forces Envelope command displays the maximum or minimum member
forces for all the frame members in the model.

When the command is invoked, the user first selects the "max" or "min" envelope option. The envelope is
evaluated among all currently analyzed load cases. The user then selects the force type that is to be
displayed. The types include major and minor shear, major and minor moment, axial load and torsion. The
Apply button causes the "max" or "min" member force values to be displayed.

Close terminates the command. When the command is terminated the currently displayed force envelope
values remain on the screen. They can be cleared by selecting the Reset Model button.
3.6.9 Reactions
After analysis is completed for the chosen load cases, calculated reaction forces at foundation nodes can be
displayed on screen using the Process Results Reactions command.

Currently, the feature is only available for load cases in Analysis Mode; it is unavailable for load
combinations or in the other modes.

Figure 3-16: Reactions Dialog

If the Display option is checked and the Apply button is pressed, the reactions for a chosen load case are
displayed with green arrows at foundation nodes. These arrows are proportionally scaled to signify their
magnitudes.

Users have the option to show either one of the six reaction components or any combination of them.

The Show Magnitude option adds text next to the arrows to display the magnitude of the reaction forces
with correct units.

The Show Reactions for All Nodes display reactions at every foundation node at the wall bases. If this box
is not checked, the program only shows interpolated reactions at walls corner nodes at foundation. This
option is only applicable to walls.

Note that closing this diagram or invoking Reset Model does not remove the arrows from the screen. To
remove the reaction arrow from the screen, uncheck Display option and then press Apply button.
3.6.10 Deflected Shape
The Results - Deflected Shape command displays the deflected shape for all lateral members on the screen.
When the command is invoked, the user first selects the load case for which the deflected shape is to be

Figure 3-17 Load Case Deflected Shape Dialog

displayed. All currently analyzed load cases are available. The user can then specify a scale factor which is
used to exaggerate the deflected shape. The values of the vertical deflections at the quarter points of beams
can also be displayed. Either Net deflections or Gross deflections can be specified. These values are in
inches or mm, depending on the currently specified units. This is most useful for the gravity load cases. The
Apply button causes the deflected shape to be displayed.

Animation of the deflected shape can also be viewed by clicking on the Start - Animation button. The
speed of animation can be controlled by the slider control.

Close terminates the command. When the command is terminated the currently displayed deflected shape
remains on the screen. It can be cleared by selecting the Reset Model button.

It should be noticed that the deflected shape also shows the meshed walls deflections.
3.6.11 Mode Shapes
The Results - Mode Shapes command displays the mode shape from the Eigen solution for all lateral
members on the screen. When the command is invoked, the user indicates the mode number for which the
mode shape is to be displayed. All modes included in the Eigen solution analysis are available. The user can
then specify a scale factor which is used to exaggerate the mode shape. The Apply button causes the mode
shape to be displayed.

Figure 3-18 Load Case Deflected Shape Dialog

The period corresponding to the selected mode is also displayed in the dialogue box. Animation of the mode
shapes is also available by clicking on the Start - Animation button. The speed of animation can be
controlled by the slider control.

Close terminates the command. When the command is terminated the currently displayed mode shape
remains on the screen. It can be cleared by selecting the Reset Model button.

Mode shapes can only be displayed for those models in which an Eigen solution has been analyzed.

It should be noticed that the deflected shape also shows the meshed walls mode shapes.
3.6.12 Drift
Based on the lateral displacements of the story diaphragms, the interstory drifts and drift/height ratios can be
calculated and displayed. RAM Frame offers two methods for specifying the locations at which drift are
calculated. Drift values can be viewed for any point on a floor plan within the slab edges. This is done by
selecting the Results - Drift - At a Point command. Drift values can also be viewed for specific pre-defined
points. This is done by selecting the Results - Drift - At Control Points command.

The Results - Drift - At A Point command allows the user to select the point for which drift values are
desired. This requires that the current view be a plan view. If the current view is not a plan view, the View -
Plan command will automatically be invoked. With the view in plan the user uses the target cursor to select
the point at which the drifts are to be calculated and displayed. The point selected does not necessarily have
to fall on a lateral member. The Drift output will be displayed showing the deflection, interstory drift, and
drift-to-floor height ratio at that point for the selected load cases for every level, not just the level currently
on the screen. The values at any number of points may be viewed in this manner.

A printed output can be obtained by selecting the Print command or the Print icon while in the Drift Output
view screen.

The Results - Drift - At Control Points command allows the user to predefine up to four points, called
control points, for which drift values are desired. The points defined do not necessarily have to fall on lateral
members. The user first enters the coordinates of the Control Points. Control Point coordinates may be
added, deleted, or changed at any time. The results can be displayed by selecting View Results. The Drift
output will be displayed showing the deflection, inter-story drift, and drift-to-floor height ratio at the control
points for the selected load cases for every level.

A printed output can be obtained by selecting the Print command or the Print icon while in the Drift Output
view screen.

See Section 7.2 for more information on selecting load cases for output.

The output view screen is exited by selecting the lower control bar in the upper left hand corner of the
screen.

If a level has no diaphragm or the selected point is outside a slab edge, the displacement of the point of
interest at that story will be assumed to be zero. Drift is calculated by looking at the deflection of the next
story below where the selected point is inside the slab edge.

For a rigid diaphragm, calculated drift related quantities (i.e., interstory drifts and drift/height ratios) are
computed based on the rigid diaphragm displacements and distance between point of interest and diaphragm
mass center (i.e., rotation of the diaphragm is taken into account for calculated drift values). For a pseudo-
flexible diaphragm, the drift related quantities are computed based on the average displacements of
diaphragm members (i.e., based on taking average of displacements of the member located inside the
diaphragm). For a Semirigid diaphragm, the drift related quantities are computed based on diaphragm
displacements at the drift point.

Drift reports are not available for models for which the Diaphragm criteria in Criteria - Diaphragm are set
to Flexible\None for all levels.
3.6.13 BS5950 Lambda Critical
Based on the lateral displacements of the story diaphragms, the interstory drifts and the elastic critical load
factor,
cr
, per BS 5950 can be calculated and displayed. RAM Frame offers two methods for specifying the
locations at which
cr
values are calculated:
cr
values can be viewed for any point on a floor plan within the
slab edges by selecting the Results Lambda Critical At a Point command or they can also be viewed
for specific pre-defined points by selecting the Results Lambda Critical At Control Points command.

The Results - Lambda Critical - At A Point command allows the user to select the point for which
cr

values are desired. This requires that the current view be a plan view. If the current view is not a plan view,
the View - Plan command will automatically be invoked. With the view in plan the user uses the target
cursor to select the point at which the
cr
values are to be calculated and displayed. The point selected does
not necessarily have to fall on a lateral member. The output will be displayed showing the deflection,
interstory drift, and
cr
values at that point for each of the appropriate load combinations for every level, not
just the level currently on the screen. The values at any number of points may be viewed in this manner.

A printed output can be obtained by selecting the Print command or the Print icon while in the Lambda
Critical Output view screen.

The Results - Lambda Critical - At Control Points command allows the user to predefine up to four
points, called control points, for which
cr
values are desired. The points defined do not necessarily have to
fall on lateral members. The user first enters the coordinates of the Control Points. Control Point coordinates
may be added, deleted, or changed at any time. The results can be displayed by selecting View Results. The
cr
output will be displayed showing the deflection, inter-story drift, and
cr
values at the control points for
each of the appropriate load combinations for every level.

A printed output can be obtained by selecting the Print command or the Print icon while in the Lambda
Critical Output view screen.
The lambda critical values are based on the notional loads. For the general case of a model with Dead, Live
and Roof loads, the lambda critical results will be listed for 16 load combinations. Eight of these
combinations correspond to the factors used for notional loads in the gravity load combinations. The other
eight of these combinations correspond to the factors used on gravity loads in the lateral load combinations.
In this way, the user can determine the lambda critical value associated with any load combination.

The output view screen is exited by selecting the lower control bar in the upper left hand corner of the
screen.

If a level has no diaphragm or the selected point is outside a slab edge, the displacement of the point of
interest at that story will be assumed to be zero.
cr
is calculated by looking at the deflection of the next
story below where the selected point is inside the slab edge.

Lambda Critical reports are not available for models for which the Diaphragm criteria in Criteria -
Diaphragm are set to Flexible for all levels. Also, if model does not have any notional load case or there
exists no notional load case analyzed, this report will not be available.
3.6.14 Redundancy Factors
The Redundancy values can be displayed by invoking the Process Results Redundancy Factors
command. A value is calculated for each member for each analyzed seismic load case, based on the lateral
shear taken by that member, even if that particular member did not produce the controlling r
maxi
used in
Equation 16-32 (IBC2000). The calculated value for each column, brace and wall above the Ground Level is
shown. The members are color-coded as well to graphically indicate the magnitude of the Redundancy
coefficient. By displaying the values for each member individually, it makes it easier to identify which areas
of the structure need to be modified by adding additional frames or where frames can be eliminated. The
text for the redundancy factors can be turned off by un-checking the "show values" button.

Note that the actual Redundancy Coefficient associated with a given seismic load case is the largest value
from any of the members, limited to a minimum of 1.0 and a maximum of 1.5.

For IBC 2006/IBC 2009/ASCE 7-05, the program does not do any determination of the Redundancy factors.
It is input as part of the Load Combination generators. Hence there is no option in this command to show
the IBC 2006/2009 redundancy factors.

Close terminates the command. When the command is terminated, the currently displayed values and color
coding remain on the screen. They can be cleared by selecting the Reset Model button.
3.6.15 Center of Mass
The location of the center of mass for each rigid diaphragm can be displayed using the Process Results
Center of Mass command. The coordinates are also shown. The values are based on the values specified in
Loads Masses, considering diaphragm lumping configurations. For Semirigid and pseudo-flexible
diaphragms, the program displays spatial distribution of mass over diaphragms.
3.6.16 Center of Rigidity
The location of the center of rigidity for each rigid diaphragm can be displayed using the Process Results
Center of Rigidity command. The coordinates are also shown. The values are calculated by the program,
and are only available if a Center of Rigidity load case has been created and analyzed, or else if a load case
that requires a center of rigidity calculation has been analyzed. The Center of Rigidity report has been
enhanced to list the story stiffnesses. This is useful when investigating soft\week story issues.
3.7 Shear Wall Forces Module
Wall forces at specified planes (panels, spandrels, piers, etc) can be obtained through RAM Frame to assist
in shear wall design. The planes (referred to as Section Cuts) can be created and labeled, and reports of
forces are available graphically or from the report menu in the Shear Wall Forces module. The module is
used to view integrated analysis results for shear walls. It provides the following base functionalities:
User defined vertical and horizontal section cuts across multiple wall panels or between wall edges
and wall openings.
Report integrated finite element analysis results for a section-cut:
o Axial (direction perpendicular to cut line)
o Major Shear
o Major Moment
o Torsion
o Minor Shear
o Minor Moment

Note that minor axis forces will be zero (0) since walls do not have out-of-plane stiffness, unless
columns/pilasters are included within the section cut.
3.7.1 Invoking the RAM Shear Wall Forces Module
Select Process Results Shear Wall Forces Module from the menu to launch the RAM Shear
Wall Forces module. If RAM Frame is currently in Load Case mode, load case analysis results will
be available in the Shear Wall Forces module. If RAM Frame is in Load Combination mode, the Shear
Wall Forces module will have Load Combination results available.

The primary toolbar in the Shear Wall Forces Module is a subset of the toolbar in RAM Frame Analysis
mode. See Section 2.8 for a description of those toolbar buttons.

3.7.1.1 The Section Cut toolbar:

Add Section Cuts provides a method for defining the locations of section cuts.

Delete Section Cuts is used to delete section cuts.

Change Section Cuts provides a method for changing the locations of section cuts.

List Section Cuts lists all section cuts in a tabular form, where they can be changed.

Wall Section Results - Single is used to list the results for all load cases or combinations for
a given section cut.

Wall Section Results Display - All is used to display the results for a selected single load
case or combination for all of the section cuts.

Display Section Cut Labels displays the labels for each section cut on the screen

3.7.2 Adding Section Cuts
Select Assign Section Cuts Add from the menu to define section cuts.

Section cuts may only be created from elevation views. All other commands work from any view. If the user
is not currently in an elevation view a message box will be displayed asking that an elevation view be
selected. After picking an elevation, the user will be returned to Add Section Cut mode.

Note that section cuts may only be assigned to lateral walls.

To add a section cut click and hold down the left mouse button when the cursor is outside a bounding edge
that the section cut is intended to cross. Drag the cursor while still holding the left mouse button down
across the wall and release when the cursor has crossed the other bounding edge. For example, to create a
horizontal section cut across a single wall click to the left of the wall, drag across until the right edge of the
wall is passed and then release the mouse.

Section cuts may be added either horizontally or vertically. Section cuts may be added between any two (2)
valid wall edges (including opening edges) as long as they do not cross empty space. The exception to this
rule is when the section cut crosses an opening in a wall: section cuts may cross openings in walls as long as
the section cut ends on a valid edge.

For a section cut that crosses openings and several walls at the same time, the program collects forces from
the walls crossed by the section cut. Note also that the calculated moment is always with respect to the mid-
length of the section cut line.

Section cuts may be drawn from wall edge to wall edge, wall edge to opening edge, opening edge to wall
edge or opening edge to opening edge. When making cuts at the edges of the opening, the cuts should be
shifted just slightly to the inside of the opening. Figure 3-19 shows examples of valid section cuts:

Figure 3-19: Valid Section Cuts

After a section cut line is drawn a dialog is displayed allowing the offset distance to be changed. There is
also a check box to specify whether to include or ignore boundary elements within the section cut in the
resulting forces such as columns located at the sides of the walls or beams located at the top or bottom of
walls.

The direction that a section cut is laid down is significant. The section cut is always referenced with respect
to the first end laid down. If the first end of a section cut that is laid down is inside an opening, the offset
distance will be measured with respect to the bottom (for a horizontal cut) or left edge (for a vertical cut) of
the opening; if the first end of a section cut that is laid down is at a wall edge, the offset distance will be
measured with respect to the bottom (for a horizontal cut) or left edge (for a vertical cut) of the wall panel.

The following shows an Add Section Cut dialog for a vertical section cut starting from an opening:

Figure 3-20: Add Section Cut Dialog

Labels are automatically generated, but can be modified as desired. In general, section cuts will be listed
alphabetically in the reports. This allows the user to organize, by carefully labeling the section cuts, the
order and grouping of the output.

Note that the Offset Distance is that determined from the section cut line laid down by the user, but can be
modified here to any value desired. The section cut is then relocated to the distance specified.
3.7.3 Deleting Section Cut
Select Assign Section Cuts Delete from the menu to delete section cuts. The familiar Single,
Fence or All dialog is then displayed. Note that All will delete all section cuts, not just those in
the current view.
3.7.4 Changing Section Cuts
Select Assign Section Cuts Change from the menu to change a section cut. Select the section cut
to be modified. After clicking on a section cut the following dialog will be displayed (see Figure 3-21).

Make any desired changes and click OK to save the changes.

Figure 3-21: Change Section Cut Dialog
3.7.5 List Section Cuts
Select Assign Section Cuts List from the menu to display a list of all section cuts. The following
dialog is displayed:

Figure 3-22: Section Cut List

From this dialog the following actions may be taken:
Delete section cuts
Change section cut label
Change section cut offset distance
Change boundary condition

The Wall field displays the wall number with which the section cut is associated. The Measured from
field indicates the reference edge from which the offset is measured. The A-End field indicates from
which edge the section cut starts.

Note that the section cuts are listed by wall and then alphabetically by Label.
3.7.6 Wall Section Forces Results
Select Process Results Wall Section Forces to see the forces at a section cut. Select a section cut
to bring up the Wall Section Forces dialog. It lists all the Load Cases or Load Combinations,
depending on the current mode, and the resulting forces for the selected section cut. The following shows an
example of the Wall Section Forces dialog:


Figure 3-23: Wall Section Forces Dialog

The results at section cuts use the sign convention shown in Figure 3-24.

Figure 3-24: Positive definition of calculated forces and moments along section cuts.

Note that calculated quantities at section cuts are equilibrium based forces and moments. In other words,
they are in balance with applied loads on walls. Hence, equilibrium equations are always satisfied.
3.7.7 Results Display
Select Process Results Display to graphically display the forces for all section cuts. The Load
Case Member Forces or Load Combo Member Forces dialog, depending on the current mode, will
A
M V
V
A
M
1
1
2 2
1
1
2 2
be displayed. Select the force component and the load case or combination to be displayed. The resulting
forces are displayed on the screen for all section cuts.

Figure 3-25: Load Case Member Forces

3.7.8 Displaying Section Cut Labels
Select View Section Cut Labels to show or hide section cut labels. Label display may also be
toggled on and off from the Member Forces Display dialog.
3.7.9 Reports
The following reports are available from the Reports menu:

Wall Section Forces
Summary
Envelope

The Wall Section Forces report can be generated for a single section cut, a group of section cuts within a
fenced area, or for all section cuts. It gives the forces for each section cut for each load case or load
combination, depending on the current mode. It lists the section cut information, elements that the section
cut crosses and governing criteria.

The Summary report lists the forces for each load case/load combination for all section cuts ordered by
Level.

The Envelope report can be generated for a single section cut, a group of section cuts within a fenced area,
or for all section cuts. It gives the maximum and minimum for each of the force components for each
section cut for each load case or load combination, depending on the current mode. It lists the section cut
information, elements that the section cut crosses and governing criteria.
3.8 Reports
Many reports are available in Load Cases Mode. These reports and the user options to display these reports
are described in detail in the Chapter 7.
3.9 DXF Export Frame Elevation
The Export DXF command is a powerful method of efficiently and accurately generating CAD drawings for
frame elevations. This command is invoked by selecting File - Export DXF command. The dialog box that
appears is used to establish the parameters that will be used to generate the DXF data. Any number of DXF
files can be created for each model, or alternatively, any number of frame elevations can be exported to a
single DXF file.

Layer Settings, Text Settings and Miscellaneous Settings (such as grid extensions, text and bubble sizes,
fixity symbols and column splice locations) can be accessed by clicking on the Color/Layer Options, Text
Options and Miscellaneous Options buttons.

Select Create File and enter the file name of the DXF file to be created, then select Save. Frame elevation
DXF data can then be added to this file for every frame elevation selected. With the target cursor, select a
frame from the screen by clicking on a lateral beam in the frame to be exported. The selected beam will be
highlighted and a frame elevation will be generated for all columns and beams in the same plane as, and
attached to, the selected member. At the prompt, enter a Frame Label, and then select Add. Each frame can
be given a different title by filling in the title text box in the dialog box that appears after a frame beam is
selected. If another framed is wanted to be added to the same DXF file, select a beam in the new frame and
repeat the preceding steps. In this way, the same process can be applied to add as many frames to that file as
desired. When finished, select Close. If each frame is wanted to be saved to different DXF files rather than
all to the same file, reinvoke the File - Export DXF command and specify a new file name for each frame
elevation.
3.10 View DXF File
The View DXF command is an easy way of quickly viewing DXF files from within the RAM Frame
program. This command is invoked by selecting File - View DXF command. The engineer will be presented
with an Open File dialog from which to select the DXF file to be viewed.

Analysis Load Combinations Mode
4 Analysis Load Combinations Mode

The Analysis - Load Combinations Mode allows users to combine the basic load cases into load
combinations to obtain the results for combined loads. Member forces, Deflected Shapes and Drift resulting
from the load combinations can be displayed, and printed outputs obtained. The View/Update, Results and
Reports commands function the same as those in Analysis mode, and the same outputs are available.
However, whereas the results shown in the Analysis - Load Cases Mode are based on the basic load cases,
the results shown in the Analysis - Load Combinations Mode are based on load combinations.

This mode does not perform any analysis or check members for Code-related requirements such as stresses
or capacities. The combinations that are used in the code check functions of the Steel Standard Provisions
mode do not need to be created in this mode.

The Analysis - Load Combinations Mode is accessed by clicking the Mode - Analysis - Load
Combinations command or by selecting the Load Combinations text in the mode list box.
4.1 Load Combinations
Load Combinations refer to combinations, factored or otherwise, of the basic load cases analyzed in
Analysis mode. In this mode, all load combinations must be defined by the user. Load Combinations can
consist of any of the previously defined load cases, but only those comprised entirely of analyzed load cases
are available for investigation. These are referred to as valid load combinations.

When entering the Load Combinations Mode, the RAM Frame program checks if load combinations have
been previously defined and selected. If not all the commands under the Process menu will be unavailable.

To define additional load combinations, modify existing load combinations or change the selection of load
combinations while within Load Combinations Mode select the Combination-Custom Combinations
command. In the dialog that appears load combinations can be created in the grid. When adding load cases
to create the load combination, they can be factored to increase or decrease their contribution to the load
combination. Separate combinations of plus and minus factors must be created where appropriate; the
program does not automatically reverse the signs of the factors on lateral load cases in user specified
combinations.

Click on the Validate button to have RAM Frame indicate which load combinations already defined are
valid (all load cases in the combination are analyzed). A green dot at the beginning of a load combination
row indicates the load combination is valid. Select the Use column of all load combinations for which
results are to be obtained. Selections must be made before the results of load combinations can be displayed.

The results of the selected load combinations can then be investigated using the Process - View/Update
function or the commands in the Results menu as explained previously.

See the Load Combination Generator manual for more information.
Analysis Load Combinations Mode
4.2 Process - View/Update
The Process - View/Update command allows the user to view on screen the analysis results of any
individual frame member, and if desired, modify member sizes and material properties. It functions in
exactly the same way as the View/Update command in Analysis mode, except that in Analysis mode the
Member Forces output that is displayed when View Results is selected is the load case results, while in
Load Combinations Mode the Member Forces output is the load combination results. See Section 3.5 on
View/Update for more information.
4.3 Process - Results
Member Forces, Diagrams, Wall Group Forces, Member Force Envelopes, Deflected Shape, Drift at a Point,
Drift at Control Points and BS5950 Lambda Critical can be displayed in the Load Combinations Mode in
the same way as they are displayed in the Analysis - Load Cases Mode. In the Analysis - Load
Combinations Mode, the results list the load combination results. See Section 3.6 for more information on
these commands.
4.3.1 BS5950 Lambda Critical
There is an important difference between this report in Load Case mode and in Load Combination Mode. As
mentioned in Section 3.6.13, the report for Load Case mode is based on 16 load combinations that are
generated internally by RAM Frame.

In Load Combination Mode, the Lambda Critical report is based on the user defined load combinations
created in this mode (see Section 4.1). Only the notional load terms in a load combination are considered to
calculate Lambda Critical values in this report.
4.4 Reports
Many reports are available in Load Combinations Mode. These reports and the user options to display these
reports are described in detail in the Chapter 7.

Building Codes

5 Building Codes

The provisions of several major US building codes and standards, as well as the Eurocode, Canadian, and
British, Chinese and Australian codes are incorporated in the RAM Structural System:

International Building Code (2009, 2006, 2003 and 2000), International Code Council
ASCE 7-05, ASCE 7-02, ASCE 7-98, ASCE7-95 and ASCE7-93, Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers.
The BOCA National Building Code (1993, 1996, 1999), Building Officials & Code Administrators
International, Inc.
Standard Building Code (1994, 1997, 1999), Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc.
Uniform Building Code (1994, 1997), International Conference of Building Officials.
Eurocode, EN 1991-1-1:2002, ENV 1991-1:1994, ENV 1991-2-1:1995, ENV 1991-2-4:1995, ENV
1993-1-1:1992, ENV 1994-1-1:1992, ENV 1998-1-1:1994, and ENV 1998-1-2:1996.
National Building Code of Canada 1995, 2005, Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes,
National Research Council Canada.
BS 6399: Part 1: 1996, Loading for Buildings, British Standards Institution.
UK National Annex to Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures, NA to BS EN 1991-1-1:2002.
Chinese Building Codes, GB50011-2001.
Hong Kong Building Regulation.
Australian Building Codes, AS/NZS 1170.2:2002, AS 11707.4:2007.

In the RAM Structural System and outputs and throughout the remainder of this manual these are referred to
as IBC2006/09, IBC2003, IBC2000, ASCE 7, BOCA, SBC, UBC, Eurocode, NBC of Canada, BS 6399,
UK National Annex, GB50011-2001, Hong Kong and AS/NZS 1170.2:2002, AS 1170.4-2007 respectively.
The sections of these codes applicable to the analysis performed by RAM Frame are those dealing with
wind, seismic, roof, and floor loads and the reduction of live loads. They are subject to certain assumptions
and limitations as outlined in the Technical Notes.
5.1 AISC 360 Direct Analysis Method
AISC 360 contains specific requirements regarding the analysis of the lateral frames. Three methods are
listed: The Effective Length Method, the First-Order Analysis Method, and the Direct Analysis Method.
Generally any of the three approaches is acceptable, but if the ratio of the 2nd -order drift to 1st -order drift
is greater than 1.5 (based on a model with nominal member properties), the Direct Analysis Method is
required. Direct Analysis Method (2nd-order by amplified 1st-order elastic analysis) is implemented. The
reader is referred to Chapter C and Appendix 7 in AISC 360 for further information.
5.1.1 Direct Analysis Method
The Direct Analysis Method requires:

Building Codes
1. 2
nd
order analysis (either an iterative 2
nd
order analysis of amplified 1
st
order analysis),
including both P- and P-
2. Notional loads
3. Reduced flexural and axial stiffness

2
nd
Order Analysis
The amplified 1
st
order analysis is implemented and it involves the calculation of B
1
and B
2
factors by which
the member forces are multiplied. The advantage to this method is that it does not require an iterative
analysis and it would allow the analysis of individual load case, with the results combined in the load
combinations (the principle of superposition).

Notional Loads
Notional loads are required to be applied. If the ratio of 2
nd
order drift to 1
st
order drift (i.e., B
2
) is greater
than 1.5, the notional loads must be applied in addition to the other lateral loads (wind and seismic); if the
ratio is less than 1.5, it is permissible to apply the notional loads to the gravity-only combinations (note that
the value 1.5 is based on a model with nominal member properties. otherwise, it is 1.7 for models with
reduced member stiffness properties).

The notional loads are defined as:
= 0.002

where
is the factored gravity load (for ASD, use a factor of 1.6 on both Dead and Live).

Reduced Stiffness
A reduced flexural stiffness is to be used for columns and beams:

= 0.8
Eq. (A-7-2)

where

b
=
>
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
5 . 0 if 1 4
5 . 0 if 0 . 1
y
r
y
r
y
r
y
r
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P

and
= 1.0 for LRFD and 1.6 for ASD,
r
P = total axial load in the member (combined using the appropriate LRFD or ASD Load
Combinations),
y
P =

Note that in the second case the analysis must be iterative since
r
P is a function of
, and vice versa. In lieu

of that, the Specification permits the application of an additional notional load equal to 0.001
.

Building Codes
A reduced axial stiffness is also to be used:
= 0.8 Eq. (A-7-3)

5.1.2 Load Combinations
Load Combinations for AISC 360 are defined in ASCE 7-05 for both ASD and LRFD. In some cases the
notional loads must be included in all combinations, in other cases they need only be combined with the
gravity load combinations as explained above in the Notional Loads section.
5.1.3 Implementation Details in RAM Frame Analysis Mode
Second-Order Analysis
The requirements to perform a second-order analysis is satisfied by performing a first-order analysis and
calculating and applying B
1
and B
2
factors to the design forces as outlined in Section C2.1b of the
Specification. Those factors need to be calculated for each load combination. The implementation details are
given in RAM Frame Steel Post-Processors manual. It should be also noted that the engineer is provided
two options to consider 2
nd
order (large P-delta) effects: either the engineer use the current P-delta analysis
implemented or the engineer chooses B
2
factors.

Notional Loads
Notional loads are specified in the Loads Load Cases command in RAM Frame. The magnitude of the
notional loads that should be specified is dependent upon the value of
b
used in calculating the reduced
stiffness (see Section 5.1). When the engineer defines notional load cases, two options for gravity loads
fractions are provided: 0.002 and 0.003.

Reduced Stiffness
An option to use the AISC 360 stiffness reduction is available (Criteria General dialog). The engineer
should select this option if it is intended to use the AISC 360 design code. The program does not iterate to
determine the correct value of
b
, so the engineer either specifies 1.0 or some other value. Although
technically
b
is distinct for each load combination for each member, the program uses the specified value
on all members. Also, the program does not provide an Assign command to assign different
b
values to
different members, nor does it use a different stiffness for each different load combination.

Note that the program uses the reduced stiffness for all load cases. Unfortunately, it is not clear from the
Specification whether the reduced stiffness is needed to be used for the drift analysis. Thus, it is up to the
engineer to decide whether or not to run the analysis twice, once for drift with the full stiffness, and once for
lateral analysis with reduced stiffness.

The reduced flexural stiffness for members are only applied to steel members whose flexural stiffness are
considered to contribute to the lateral stability of the structure. Thus, it is not applied to members that are
either pinned at both ends or not steel members.

Building Codes

Figure 5-1 General Criteria dialog with AISC 360 option

The reduced axial stiffness is applied to members whose axial stiffness is considered to contribute to the
lateral stability of the structure. All lateral beams, columns and braces are reduced for their axial stiffness.

Load Combinations
The Load Combination templates for AISC 360 as defined in ASCE 7-05 for both ASD and LRFD is
available. For Notional Loads the engineer is given four options:
Consider with Combinations containing only gravity loads
Consider with all Combinations in direction of lateral load
Consider with all Combinations in all directions
Do Not Include in any Combinations

It is generally agreed that the Specification does not require that the notional loads need to be considered in
all directions (i.e, perpendicular or opposite of the direction of the lateral load case), but only in the same
direction as the lateral load case; however it is provided as an option. In the majority of cases the Notional
Loads need only be considered with the gravity load cases.

Analysis Validation
It is the engineers responsibility to ensure that the selection of P-delta, B
1
, B
2
, fraction of gravity loads for
Notional Loads and
b
used in the stiffness reduction are all consistent and correct. To aid the engineer, a
new report is implemented in the Steel Standard Provisions module of RAM Frame that is available when
AISC 360 has been selected as the design code. The report examines the selection of P-delta, B
1
, B
2
,
Notional Loads, and
b
, along with analysis results, and report on the validity of each criteria selection. If
Building Codes
the analysis is deemed invalid, it is the responsibility of the engineer to make the necessary corrections to
those criteria selections, or in some cases to modify the structure so that limitations are satisfied.
5.2 Story Forces: Wind
When the Rigid, Semirigid or Pseudo-Flexible diaphragm option is selected, lateral forces are applied as
story\diaphragm forces. The user may specify the story\diaphragm force values and coordinates.
Story\diaphragm forces can also be generated using the automatic load generators. Story\diaphragm forces
are input using the Loads - Load Cases command.

Several options are available for generating Wind story forces. These are:
ASCE 7-05 / IBC 2006/2009
ASCE 7-02 / IBC 2003
ASCE 7-98 / IBC 2000
ASCE 7 88/93, 95
BOCA 93, 96/99
SBC 94, 97/99
UBC 94, 97
Eurocode ENV 1991-2-4:1995
National Building Code of Canada 2005
National Building Code of Canada 1995
BS 6399 Part 2: 1997, with Amendment No. 1
China GB50011-2001
AS/NZS 1170.2:2002
The applicable requirements of ASCE 7 - 88 and ASCE 7 - 93 are identical. The applicable requirements of
SBC 94 are identical to those of ASCE 7 - 88/93, so the same forces will be generated regardless of the
selection. The provisions for structures defined as flexible are not implemented. SBC alternate provisions
for buildings 60 ft high or less are not implemented.

Note that ONLY LATERAL loads are calculated; vertical pressures are not calculated nor applied to the
structure.

Horizontal forces on sloping roofs are not calculated nor applied. Such forces may be approximated by
specifying an appropriate equivalent parapet height.

The width of exposure is defined by the minimum and maximum dimensions of the slab edge polygon. This
can be over-ridden using the Loads - Exposure command.

It is assumed that wind pressures acting on the exterior are distributed between adjacent levels analogous to
simple span beam action.

It is assumed that the wind pressure varies LINEARLY (not stepped) between any two levels.

Building Codes
It is assumed that parapets only influence the distribution of wind pressures if/when there is a step in the
building profile perpendicular to the direction of the wind force. The pressure is only applied to the front of
the parapet once and the back of the parapet once.

If these assumptions are not reasonable for the structure being analyzed, the automatic generator should not
be used; the story\diaphragm forces should be input as user-specified story\diaphragm forces.

Where applicable the values entered as the Mean Roof Height or Structure Height is used to calculate the
Leeward Coefficient, it is not used to calculate the exposed area.

Based on the Pressures that have been thus calculated for each Story and parapet, the Story forces are
calculated. The pressure is applied to each Story, using the actual specified Story width (from Loads
Exposure) and floor-to-floor height (from the Modelers Story Data), and the resulting force is distributed
between the Story and the Story above or below.

The pressure is also applied to the exposed part of the parapet (if any parapet height has been specified in
Loads Exposure) at this Story if the Story above is inset or if this Story is the uppermost level. The
resulting parapet force is assigned to this Story (not shared between adjacent Stories).

If the extents of the Story being investigated are smaller than those of the Story above, this indicates that the
Story is a partial Story. When calculating the wind Story forces the program distributes the wind pressure
between the partial Story and the adjacent Stories for the extent of the partial Story, but it distributes the
wind pressure between the adjacent Stories beyond the extent of the partial Story, as illustrated in Figure
5-2.

Figure 5-2 Wind Pressures

Figure 5-2 shows how the wind pressures that are applied between Story 1 and Story 3 are distributed.
Within the extents of Story 2 the wind pressures are distributed between Story 1 and Story 2 for the
pressures below Story 2, and between Story 2 and Story 3 for the pressures above Story 2. Beyond the
extents of Story 2 the wind pressures are distributed between Story 1 and Story 3.

Building Codes
In the case of stories with multiple diaphragms, the program assumes that the wind acts on each diaphragm
without considering any effects of shielding. For the case of two penthouses or two towers coming off of a
common base structure, for example, this assumption is probably reasonable; for the case of two mezzanines
at an intermediate level, this assumption is probably conservative.

For Semirigid diaphragms, the program calculates windward and leeward pressure profiles on buildings
(see Section 6.12.3)
5.2.1 IBC 2006/2009
Section 1609.1.1 refers to Chapter 6 of ASCE 7-05 for Wind load requirements. It lists alternative methods
and wind speed values. Only the requirements for ASCE 7-05 are implemented. Also, three methods are
given in ASCE 7-05 and among them, only Method 2 - Analytical Procedure, is implemented into the
program.

The pertinent requirements for Wind loads are identical in ASCE 7-02 except for GC
pn
coefficient, which is
given by
=
+1.5
1.0

Refer to the following section (IBC 2003) for further information regarding the IBC 2006/2009 wind load
case.
5.2.2 IBC 2003
Section 1609 of IBC 2003 gives wind requirements specifically focused on a simplified procedure
acceptable for enclosed, low-rise, simple diaphragm buildings having a height of less than 60 feet. For other
types, it refers to Section 6 of ASCE 7-02 where three methods are given: Method 1- Simplified Procedure,
Method 2- Analytical Procedure, and Method 3- Wind Tunnel Procedure. Method 2 is further composed of
two different provisions: method for Low-Rise Buildings and for Buildings of Any Height.

Among these methods, only Method 2-Analytical Procedure for Buildings of Any Height is implemented
into the program. This method is similar to Method 2 Analytical Procedure of ASCE 7-98/IBC 2000 wind
provision. See Section 6 of ASCE 7-02.

In the Loads Load Cases command the IBC 2003 Wind option is referred to as ASCE 7-02 / IBC 2003.

Exposure A is not available in ASCE 7-02 / IBC 2003.

Rigid Buildings of All Height:
Calculation of design wind pressures for rigid buildings is given in Section 6.5.12.2.1 and it is calculated
from
=
(Equation 6-17)

However, it is assumed that internal pressures cancel each other for the main resisting system so that
Equation 6-17 is simplified to
=

where
Building Codes
= 0.00256

2
(Equation 6-15)

and

: Velocity pressure exposure coefficient from Table 6-3. Provided equations in the notes are used
: Topographic factor. It can be specified by the user or it is obtained from

= (1 +
1

2

3
)
2
(Equation 6-3)

where
1
,
2
,
and

for
3
are entered by the user.

Note that the following limits are checked for these variables: 0.15
1
0.775, 0.0
1
1.0

and
2.5 4.0. If only
is entered, this value is applied for all heights. Otherwise, its variation with
height is considered as given in Equation 6-3.
: Wind directionality factor from Table 6-4. It is taken as 0.85 if specified by user.
: Basic wind speed from Figure 6-1
: Importance factor from Table.6-1
: Gust factor calculated from Equation 6-4. It can be taken as 0.85 if specified by the user.
:
External pressure coefficient from Figure 6.6. A value of 0.8 is used for Windward wall and
an interpolated value is used for Leeward wall if needed.

Flexible Buildings:
Calculation of design wind pressures for flexible buildings is given in Section 6.5.12.2.3 and it is calculated
from
=
(Equation 6-19)

However, it is assumed that internal pressures cancel each other for the main resisting system so that
Equation 6-19 is simplified to
=

where
is the Gust factor for flexible buildings and it is obtained from Equation 6-8.

Pressures on parapets for rigid or flexible structures are calculated as follows:

(Equation 6-20)

where
is combined net pressure on parapet,
velocity pressure evaluated at top of parapet from

Equation 6-15, and
=
+1.8
1.1

Building Codes
Section 1609.1.2 of IBC 2003 limits the minimum design wind load to 10 psf for both rigid and flexible
buildings and this is also enforced in this implementation.

Building natural frequencies can be entered separately for each direction, or they can be calculated by the
program.

Load Cases:
Load cases for buildings with any heights are created according to design wind load cases given in Figure 6-
9 of ASCE 7-02. The figure contains four cases but they are expanded to 12 cases when both X-axis and Y-
axis are selected. If only X-axis or only Y-axis is selected, only the corresponding directions of Case 1 and
Case 2 are created. It should be noted that eccentricities for X and Y directions are defined respectively with
x
B 0.15 and
y
B 0.15 for rigid buildings, where B is the building dimension perpendicular to the wind
direction. If the building is flexible in that direction, eccentricities are calculated with respect to Equation 6-
21. The distance between center of rigidity and center of mass is used in calculation of
R
e . The program
automatically creates a load case for calculation of center of rigidity if it is a flexible building. The
eccentrically applied loads in both directions are shown in Figure 5-3. These load cases correspond to Case
4 in Fig. 6-9 of ASCE 7-02.

Figure 5-3. Generated wind load cases for Case 4
5.2.3 IBC 2000
IBC Section 1609.1.1 Determination of wind loads adopts by reference the wind requirements of Section 6
of ASCE 7-98. It also gives some exceptions, which permits the use of alternate methodologies. None of
these alternate methods have been be implemented.

X+Y_CW X+Y_CCW
X-Y_CW X-Y_CCW
Building Codes
ASCE 7-98 gives three methodologies: Section 6.4 Method 1 Simplified Procedure, Section 6.5 Method 2
Analytical Procedure, and Section 6.6 Method 3 Wind Tunnel Procedure. Only Method 2 has been
implemented. Method 2 includes provisions for Buildings and other structures (Section 6.5.6.2.1) and
provisions for Low-rise buildings (Section 6.5.6.2.2). The provisions for Low-rise buildings have not been
implemented. Refer to ASCE 7-98 for the Sections, Tables, Figures, and Equations cited below.

In the Loads Load Cases command in RAM Frame, the IBC wind option is referred to as ASCE 7-98 /
IBC 2000.

Buildings with a frequency greater than or equal to 1 Hz are classified as Rigid structures; those with a
frequency less than 1 Hz are classified as Flexible.

Rigid Structures
Design wind pressure for Rigid structures is specified in ASCE 7-98 Section 6.5.12.2.1, Rigid buildings of
all heights. It is given by:
=
(Equation 6-15)

However, since as implemented in the program the internal pressures are assumed to cancel for the main
force resisting system, it can be simplified to:

=
(Equation 6-15)

where
= 0.00256

2
(Equation 6-13)

is the Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient and is given in Table 6-5; the equations given in the
Notes to that table are used.

is the Topographic Factor input by the user.

is the Wind Directionality Factor. It is given in Table 6-6 as 0.85. It is only applied if specified by
the user. See the footnote to that table for applicability. There is a corresponding option in the Load
Combination generation command; the selection there should correspond to the selection here.
is the Basic Wind Speed. It is taken from Fig. 6-1 and is input by the user.
is the Importance Factor. It is taken from Table 6-1 and is input by the user.
is given by Equation 6-2. See Section 6.5.8.1. G = 0.85 can also be specified.

is given by Fig. 6-3. Values for Windward Wall and Leeward Wall are given. The values are
determined by the program.

Section 6.1.4.1, Main Wind Force Resisting System, requires that a minimum design wind load of 10 psf be
applied over the entire projected area. This force is used if it controls over that calculated using Eq. 6-15.

Flexible Structures
Design wind pressure for Flexible structures is specified in ASCE 7-98 Section 6.5.12.2.3, Flexible
buildings. It is given by:
=
(Equation 6-17)

Building Codes

However, since the internal pressures are assumed to cancel for the main force resisting system in the types
of structures in the program, it can be simplified to:
=
(Equation 6-17)

where
is given by Equation 6-6. See Section 6.5.8.2.

The other variables are the same as for Rigid structures.

Section 6.1.4.1, Main Wind Force Resisting System, requires that a minimum design wind load of 10 psf be
applied over the entire projected area. This force is used if it controls over that calculated using Eq. 6-17.

Load Cases
Section 6.5.12.3, Full and Partial Loading, requires that for buildings with mean roof height greater than
60ft, full and partial load cases must be created. These are given in Fig. 6-9. Four Cases are shown, but these
expand to 10 cases when both the X-axis and Y-axis are specified by the user. If only the X-axis or only the
Y-axis is selected, only the corresponding directions of Cases 1 and 2 are created; Cases 3 and 4 are not.
5.2.4 NBC of Canada 2005
The load case dialog for NBC of Canada 2005 wind is given as follows:

Figure 5-4. NBC of Canada 2005 Wind Load Case Dialog
Building Codes

Equivalent Static Force Procedure is implemented according to Section 4.1.7, Division B of NBC 2005. The
specified external pressure or suction (i.e., windward and leeward pressures) is calculated according to the
following equation:

=

where external wind pressure, calculated in kN/m
2
(kPa).

Importance Factor for Wind Load (I
w
) : It is given in table 4.1.7.1 and this parameter is expected to be
provided by the user.

Reference Velocity Pressure ( q ): The reference velocity pressure is referenced in Sentence (4) of Section
4.1.7 and this parameter is expected to be provided by the user. Acceptable units are kN/m
2
(kPa) psf or
kg/m
2

Exposure Factor ( C
e
):
Exposure Factor can be determined based on one of the following three options (in calculations below, is
height above ground level, and it is defined in meters):

Use provided value
Static procedure: It is given in Sentence 4.1.7.1.(5)
o Open Terrain:
10
0.9
> 0.9
o Rough Terrain:
= 0.7
12
0.3
> 0.7
o Intermediate value between these two options (see Commentary I, pg. I-7, Paragraph 11).
This is not implemented. Instead, the user is allowed to enter C
e

Dynamic procedure: If dynamic approach to the action of wind gust is used, the exposure factor is
refereed to Commentary I, pg. I-24, Paragraph 41 and it is calculated as follows:

o Exposure A :
10
0.28
1.0
2.5
o Exposure B :
= 0.5

12.7
0.50
0.5
2.5
o Exposure C :
= 0.4
30
0.72
0.4
2.5

Gust Effect Factor ( C
g
):
Gust effect factor can be determined based on one of the following two options (in calculations below, is
mean roof height in meters):
Static procedure: C
g
= 2.0
Dynamic procedure: see Commentary I, pg. I-25, Paragraph 46-47
= 1 +

where
Building Codes
= statistical peak factor for the loading effect
= 2
+
0.577
2

in which = 3600 and is average fluctuation rate:
=

+

= factor related to surface roughness, =
0.08
0.10
0.14

= exposure factor at the top of the top of building (mean roof level). It is calculated according to
dynamic procedure (Commentary I, pg. I-24, Paragraph 41)

= background turbulence factor obtained from Figure I-18 as a function of w/H (Commentary I,
pg. I-27), in which w is building width at a given height and H is mean roof height. Both are in
meters.
=
4
3

1
1 +

457

1
1 +

122

(1 +
2
)
4/3
914
0

= size reduction factor obtained from Figure I-19 as a function of w/H (Commentary I, pg. I-28)
and reduced frequency
:
=
1
1 +
8

1
1 +
10

: natural frequency of vibration for given direction (in Hz). It is either given by the user or
computed by the program.

: mean wind speed (m/s) at the top of the structure and it is calculated as follows:

and

= 39.2
where : reference velocity pressure (kPa = kN/m
2
), which is provided by the user.

= gust energy ratio at the natural frequency of the structure obtained from Figure I-20 as a function
of
:
Building Codes
=

0
2
(1 +
0
2
)
4
3

0
= 1220

= critical damping ratio in the along-wind direction

External Pressure Coefficient ( C
p
) :
External pressure coefficients are calculated based on I-7 to I-14 and I-15. In the current implementation,
the following is applied: for each direction, the user is given two options:
Either Windward and Leeward C
p
values are entered by the user
Or it is calculated from Figure I-15 as follows (below is the mean roof height and is the depth of
the building in the direction of the wind):
o For Windward case:
0.6
< 0.25
0.27
+2 0.25 <

< 1
0.8

o For Leeward case:
0.3
< 0.25
0.27
+0.88 0.25 <

< 1
0.5

Loading Directions:
Loading directions Cases A-D as given in Figure I-16 are implemented. Regarding Case B, it is assumed
that only half of the building surface is loaded with indicated wind pressures (see the following figure and
note that h is the height of the surface.).

Figure 5-5. Generated partial wind load cases NBC of Canada 2005

P
W
P
L
w/2
w/2
Total Force = (P
W
+P
L
)* (w/2) * h
e
x
= w/4
Building Codes

Similarly, it is assumed that partial loads are applied to half surface for Case D:

Figure 5-6. Generated wind load Case D of NBC of Canada 2005

Based on Figure I-16, the following load cases are generated by the program (the load cases indicated with
orange color are only generated if Additional Load Cases for Analysis with Tension Only Members option
is checked).

Figure 5-7. Wind Load Case A (NBC of Canada 2005)

0.75P
W
w/2
w/2
0.38P
W
0.75P
L
0.38P
L
0.75P
W
0.75P
L
0.38P
W
0.38P
L
d/2 d/2
( )
( ) h d P P F
h w P P F
L W Y
L W X
+ =
+ =
565 . 0
565 . 0
d e
w e
Y
X
082 . 0
082 . 0
=
=
Building Codes

Figure 5-8. Wind Load Case B (NBC of Canada 2005)

Figure 5-9. Wind Load Case C (NBC of Canada 2005)
Building Codes

Figure 5-10. Wind Load Case D (NBC of Canada 2005)

RAM Frame has an option for generating wind loads based on National Building Code of Canada 1995
(NRC-CNRC-95). Note that the special provision for low-rise buildings are not implemented. For such low-
rise buildings, users may enter the wind loads as nodal loads or diaphragm loads or as a combination of
both.

The design wind pressure is calculated from the formula:
=

where

is the external pressure component

is the internal pressure component

= the reference velocity pressure
= external pressure coefficient averaged over the area of the surface considered
= internal pressure coefficient (Figure B-15 of Commentary, P.29)
= exposure factor
= gust effect factor determined using simple procedure or detailed procedure.

Building Codes
For
, the simple procedure is explained on Page 13 of the Commentary of NBCC 95 (
= 2.0 for
structural systems). The detailed procedure is also given on Page 13 of Commentary.

RAM Frame generates the code-specified wind loads in the following directions and magnitude:

Case A: Full wind load acting along each of the 2 principal horizontal axes considered separately. This
expands to 2 load cases, Wind__NBCC95_1_X and Wind__NBCC95_1_Y:

Figure 5-11 Case A (NBCC 1995 Wind)

Case B: Wind loads as described in (a) but with 25% of load removed from any portion of the area. This
expands to 4 load cases, Wind__NBCC95_2_X+E, Wind__NBCC95_2_X-E, Wind__NBCC95_2_Y+E and
Wind__NBCC95_2_Y-E:

Figure 5-12 Case A (NBCC 1995 Wind)

Case C: Wind loads as described in (a) but considered simultaneously at 75% of their full value. This
expands to 2 load cases, Wind__NBCC95_3_X+Y and Wind__NBCC95_3_X-Y:

Figure 5-13 Case C (NBCC 1995 Wind)

Building Codes
Case D: Wind loads as described in (c) but with 25% of these loads removed from any portion of the area.
This expands to 2 load cases, Wind__NBCC95_4_CW and Wind__NBCC95_4_CCW, where CW refers to
clock-wise and CCW denotes counter-clock-wise:

Figure 5-14 Case D (NBCC 1995 Wind)

5.2.6 BS 6399: Part 2:1997
The requirements of Amendment No. 1 have been implemented.

Of the two alternative methods specified by the standard, it is the Standard Method that is implemented in
RAM Frame.

Figure 5-15 Wind Load (BS 6399) Dialog

Building Codes
The program first calculates the wind pressure at each story and on each parapet, if any. It then calculates
the wind force at each story by applying the wind pressures to the story and the parapet.

Figure 5-16 Wind Profile (BS 6399)

The Wind Load dialog box provides the input necessary values for generating the Wind forces per BS 6399.

Terrain and Building Factor, Sb
Site Category (Town or Country)
Closest Distance to Sea
Upwind Distance from Edge of Town
Sh (for building height greater than 100m)

These values are used in the calculation of the Terrain and Building Factor, S
b
per Clause 2.2.3.3 and Table
4. If H
e
is greater than 100m, S
b
is calculated per Section 3 as specified by Note 4 of Table 4.

Direction
X Axis
Y Axis

Effective Height, He
Building Height, H
Displacement Height, Hd

Building Codes
The user has the option of specifying H to be the Top Story Height plus the Parapet, the Top Story Height,
or a specified height.

These values are used in the calculation of the Effective Height, H
e
, per Clause 1.7.3.3, which is used in the
calculation of the Terrain and Building Factor, S
b
, per Clause 2.2.3.3 and Table 4.

Building Dimensions, B
X
Y

For buildings in which the size of each floor is the same, these dimensions would be those of the typical
floor, but for buildings in which the floor size varies (i.e., inset Stories), it is necessary for the user to
specify the dimensions to be used in the calculation of H
r
, H
e
and S
b
. They are not used as the actual
exposure width in the determination of the exposed area. H and B are used in the determination of the
division of buildings by parts as specified in Clause 2.2.3.2 and Figure 11, which gives H
r
for each part.

Wind Speed, Vs
Basic Wind Speed, Vb
Altitude Factor, Sa
Direction Factor, Sd
Seasonal Factor, Ss
Probability Factor, Sp

These values are used in the calculation of the Site Wind Speed, which is given by Eq 8:

Miscellaneous items
Dynamic Augmentation Factor, Cr
Size Effect Factor, Ca
Frictional Drag Coefficient, Cf
Pressure Coefficients, Cpe

The user can either specify to use the values automatically calculated by the program, or to use a value
specified by the user. Note that only the external pressure is of interest, it is assumed that the internal
pressures cancel out.

The wind pressures are then calculated. The overall loads on the structure are given by Equation 7 in Clause
2.1.3.6:

= 0.85
(1 +
)

Building Codes
Note 3 says that the
term may be replaced by
where
is given in
Table 5a. The values using Table 5a are not implemented at this time. The Windward and Leeward values of
given in Table 5 are used instead. The program first calculates pressures so that those values can be
reported, then it calculates forces. So for the total pressure at any given level, Equation 7 becomes:

= 0.85
( 1 +
)

where
= Dynamic Augmentation Factor defined in Clause 1.6.1 and Figure 3, and is input by the user.
= Size Effect Factor defined in Clause 2.1.3.4, and is input by the user.
and
= Windward and Leeward Net Pressure Coefficients given in Table 5. In

that table
is a function of D and H. When the structure is not of uniform size at every level (such
as inset Stories), D
Story
is used for D. Figure 12 indicates that H is H
r
. So in Table 5, D and H
correspond to D
Story
and H
r
, respectively. Since these values may vary from level to level, the value
of C
p
used may vary. Alternatively, the user may specify the value of
to be used at all levels.
= Dynamic Pressure defined in Clause 2.1.2. It is given by Equation 1:
= 0.613
2

where
= Effective Wind Speed defined in Clause 2.2.3 and is given by Equation 12:

where
= Site Wind Speed defined in Clause 2.2.2 and is given by Equation 8:

where
and
are input by the user as explained above.
= Terrain and Building Factor defined in Clause 2.2.3.3 and is given in Table 4 for
less than
100m. In Table 4,
is as defined in Clause 1.7.3.3, and is the greater of:
= 0.4

where
= Displacement Height and is input by the user.
= Reference Height as defined in Clause 2.2.3.2 and given in Figure 11. For some building
configurations (when the height is greater than the width) this value may vary with each level,
hence
may vary with each level.

The wind pressures at each Story and at the top of each parapet, if any, are calculated.

The friction pressures on the sides of the structure are then calculated. Friction forces on the side faces of
the structure are given in Clause 2.1.3.8 by Equation 7a:

Since the program works with pressure, this equation becomes:
Building Codes

=

where
= Frictional Drag Coefficient and is given in Table 6 of Clause 2.4.5, and is input by the user.
and
= defined previously.

Per Clause 2.4.5, this pressure should be applied only when D > b, and then only to Zone C. In Clause
2.4.1.3, b is defined as the smaller of B and 2H. Figure 12 indicates that H is
. When the structure is not

of uniform size at every level (such as inset Stories), B
Story
is used for B. Likewise, D
Story
is used for D. The
length of Zone C is then given by D - b.

The friction pressures at each Story and at the top of each parapet, if any, are calculated.

The friction pressure is applied to both side faces along the length C and Story height and the resulting force
is split between the Story and the Story below. The contribution of the frictional forces Pf is taken to act in
the direction of the wind and is added to the contribution of the normal pressure forces using vectorial
summation, as per the requirements of the standard.

Clause 2.1.3.7 requires that an allowance for asymmetry of loading be made. Note 1 says that those effects
may be accounted for by reducing the design wind load by 40% on those parts of the structure where the
effect of the load is beneficial. Note 2 says that torsional effects on buildings may be accounted for by
displacing the loads on each face horizontally by 10% of the face width from the center of the face. It can
be shown that for a regular shaped building such as what the Wind load generation feature is intended for,
the wind forces given by the methodology defined by Note 2 is more onerous than those by that of Note 1.
(In the Note 1 method, 100% of the design pressure would be applied to half of the structure, and 60% to the
other. This means that, overall, 80% of the design pressure is applied. The centroid of this arrangement of
pressures is offset at 6.25% of the face width from the center of the face. In contrast, the methodology of
Note 2 requires that 100% of the design pressure be applied, with an offset of 10% of the face width from
the center of the face.) The RAM Structural System uses the method given in Note 2.

For each Direction (X Axis and Y Axis) specified by the user in the Wind Load dialog box, the program
creates three load cases, for a total of six. It creates three X-direction cases: one with the load applied to the
centroid of the pressure area, one with the load applied with 10% eccentricity (i.e., offset by 10% of the Y-
dimension of the Story) in the positive Y-direction and one with the load applied with 10% eccentricity in
the negative Y-direction. Likewise for the three Y-direction load cases.

RAM Frame generates the code-specified wind loads in the directions and magnitude given below. The
possible load directions in a typical run consist of:

Building Codes

Figure 5-17 Code Specified Wind Load Directions (BS 6399)

5.2.7 Eurocode
For Eurocode, the Cpe Building Dimensions refers to the dimensions that are to be used to calculate the
Cpe coefficient. This Cpe value is considered constant throughout the height of the structure. The engineer
can directly enter building dimensions or select a particular level whose dimensions will be used to
determine Cpe.

Building Codes
5.2.8 China GB5001-2001
The load case dialog for China GB5001-2001 is given below. In the followings, GB5001-2001 wind
building code is referred.

Figure 5-18 Chinese Wind Load (GB50011-2001) Dialog

Wind pressures at a given height z are calculated according to the following equation:

where

: wind dynamic effect factor at location of height z
: building shape factor
: wind load variant factor at location of height z
: basic wind pressure

and
is the modified wind pressure calculated at height z.

Building Codes
Basic Wind Pressure (
): This value is provided by the engineer in the dialog.

Wind Load Variant Factor (
): This value depends on Exposure type that is provided by the engineer in

the dialog. The
value is read from Table 7.2.1, based on given Exposure type and height. Note that
is
multiplied with Adjustment coefficient that is also provided by the engineer.

Building Shape Factor (
): Each surface of a building has a unique shape factor. The Chinese code
tabulates different shape factors depending of building shape. Instead of automatically determining building
shape factor, a unique entry is provided in the load case dialog (i.e., Shape Factors). Based on this method,
the engineer is able to define windward a leeward shape factors for X- and Y-directions.

Wind Dynamic Effect Factor (
): The dynamic effect factor is calculated at a given height z, and currently

3 options are provided to the engineer:
Dont Consider : in this case,
= 1 assumed
Use
: user entered value is used

Use Calculated
: Based on the type of the building (steel structure, steel building with wall, or
concrete and brick structure), the following equation is used:

= 1 +

where
: magnification factor for wind fluctuation
: wind fluctuation factor
: mode shape factor (mode shape value at height z)
: wind load variant factor at location of height z

The term is obtained from Table 7.4.3 based on
and T (building period for a given direction).

The Code proposes an approximate method to calculate T. Those equations are not implemented. Instead, if
Use Calculated n is chosen, the program internally runs an Eigen analysis and then for each direction
building periods are computed based on the Eigen mode (i.e., mode shape) with highest building mass
participation.
Wind Fluctuation Factor (): The fluctuation factor is read in from the following tables based on the
engineers choice: 7.4.4-1 or 7.4.4-3 . If Table 7.4.4-1 is chosen, an option to enforce Table 7.4.4-2 is also
provided. Note that the program also calculates adjustment coefficients
and
and apply them whenever

they are applicable.

Mode Shape Factor (
) : This factor refers to the Eigen mode shape with building period calculated (i.e.,
it is the mode shape with highest mass participation). It is normalized so that the maximum entry in the
mode shape vector is 1.

Building Codes
5.2.9 AS/NZS 1170.2:2002
This standard covers building heights with less than 200 m (666.67 ft). Wind actions are defined in two
categories:
Wu : ultimate limit states
Ws: serviceability limit states
In the following sections, AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 Structural design actions Wind actions manual is referred.
The corresponding load case dialog is given in the following figure.

Figure 5-19. AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 Wind load case dialog

Site Wind Speed (
,
)
It is defined for the 8 cardinal directions () at the reference height (z) above ground. The current
implementation does not calculate site wind speeds.

Design Wind Speed (
,
)
The building orthogonal design wind speeds shall be taken as the maximum cardinal direction site wind
speed
,
linearly interpolated between cardinal points within a sector 45 degrees to the orthogonal
direction being considered. For the ultimate limit state design,
,
shall not be less than 30 m/s. For
Building Codes
leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, wind speed shall be taken as the value at z=h, (h: the reference height
and it shall be taken as the average height of roof). For Windward wall, V might vary with height > 25 m
(~83.3 ft.)

Note that windward design wind speed is not explicitly calculated by the program. Instead, the user is
provided two choices: either a constant wind speed is entered (so the wind over the height of the building is
assumed to be the same) or it is exclusively defined and read in from a user defined file (so that one can
consider variation of windward wind speed over the height of the building). Further information is provided
in coming sections.

A constant Leeward wind speed is assumed in the current implementation.
Design Wind Pressure
The design wind pressure, in pascals, is calculated according to the following equation:

= 0.5
(
,
)
2

2.4(1)

: density of air (1.2 kg/m

3
)

,
: building orthogonal design wind speed (usually at =0. 90, 180, 270 degrees)

: aerodynamic shape factor (depending on which part and geometry of structure

: dynamic response factor ( =1 for non wind sensitive structures)

If f > 1 Hz (T< 1.0 s),
= 1.0
If f<0.2 Hz (T>5 s), AZ/NZS 1170.2:2002 does not cover this type of structure
If 0.2 < f < 1, (1 < T < 5), refer to Sections 6.2 & 6.3.
Note that
is calculated at a given height z.

External Pressure
External Pressure for enclosed buildings
=
,

5.2(1)
is calculated according to the following equation:

,
: external pressure coefficient (Section, 5.4.1 in the building code). It depends on which part
of structure considered (leeward, windward, upwind slope of roof, or downwind sloped of
roof, etc)
: area reduction factor (Section 5.4.2 in the building code)
: combination factor (Section 5.4.3). For all structures,
cannot be less than 0.8/

(i.e.,
0.8)
: local pressure factor (Section 5.4.4). There is also another correction applied to
, which is
reduction factor in the lee of the parapet. (
is 1.0 in all cases except when determining the

wind forces applied to cladding, their fixings)
: reduction factor for porous cladding (Section 5.4.5)

Internal Pressure
Internal Pressure for enclosed buildings

=
,

5.2(2)

Building Codes

,
: internal pressure coefficient (Section, 5.3). Applies to inside of all structure, depending on
openings and permeability of walls. The height at which the wind speed is determined shall
be the average roof height (h).
: combination factor (Section 5.4.3)

Friction Pressure
Friction Pressure for enclosed buildings

5.2(3)

: friction drag force coefficient. (it is only applied where the ration d/H or d/b is greater
than 4)
: combination factor (Section 5.4.3)

Forces Derived from Wind Pressures
= (
)

: wind forces (in Newtons)
: design wind pressure in pascals (normal to surface) at height z, calculated

according to 2.4(1) in the building code.
: reference area, in square meters, at height z

For enclosed buildings, internal pressures shall be taken to act simultaneously with external pressures. The
most severe combinations of internal and external shall be selected for design.

Forces Derived from Frictional Drag
= (
: design frictional distributed forces parallel to the surface, calculated according to Section
2.4.2 (the equation given in Section 2.4.2 is similar to Eq. 2.4(1) except different values of

and
must be used for frictional drag forces)

Forces and Moment on Complete Structures
For rectangular enclosed buildings where the ratio d/h or d/b is greater than 4, the total resultant force on a
complete structure shall include the frictional drag calculated in accordance with Section 5.5 in the building
code.

Building Codes
Implementation Details
The following assumptions are enforced for the current implementation:
It is assumed that building is effectively sealed and having non-opening windows. Hence, it
is further assumed that internal pressures cancel each other.

It is assumed that sidewalls external pressures cancel each other (note that internal pressure
also cancels out each other). See Figure 5-20
Frictional drag forces are ignored (assumed that d/h or d/b is less than 4)

K
l
(local pressure factor for cladding) is taken as 1

K
p
(reduction factor for porosity) is taken as 1

K
a
(area reduction factor for sidewalls) is taken as 1 (since external sidewalls pressures are
ignored (assumed to cancel each other

K
c
(combination factor) is taken as 1 (since only external pressures are applied in the current
implementation. This factor is used if external pressures are applied with other types of
pressures such as internal, side wall or upwind roof, etc)
For buildings with height less than 25 meters, the design wind speed (
,
) can be assumed
as constant over the height of the building. Otherwise, it varies with height. Thus, the
following options are provided:

o For leeward side wind speed, it is always constant and measured at reference height
o For windward side wind speed, two options are provided: Either
It is assumed as constant over the height of the building
Or, it varies with height. If this is the case, then the engineer needs to provide
a filename (with an extension of .WND). An example is given below (note
that the program use interpolation for intermediate values. Also, the user has
to provide values in consistent units (example : SI (speed: m/s, height: m);
Metric (speed: Km/s, height: m); and English (speed: mph height: m);

,
must be defined for each orthogonal directions.

// wind profile (height versus wind speed, height(m) vs Speed (m/s))
0.0 35.0
10 45.0
20 60.0
30. 70.0
40. 80.0

Building Codes
windward (+)
leeward (+)
sidewalls
External Pressures:
Internal Pressures:
Frictional Drag Forces:

Figure 5-21 . Different pressure types on buildings

Wind Action Directions
Four orthogonal directions are considered for the load case. It is assumed that building wind characteristics
are the same for +X and X directions so that the same wind speed profile, windward\leeward exposure
constants and dynamic response factors (
) are used for +X and X. This is also true for +Y and Y.

Figure 5-22. Orthogonal load cases
+X -X
Load Case 1 Load Case 2
+Y -Y
Load Case 3 Load Case 4
Building Codes
5.3 Story Forces: Seismic/Dynamic
When the Rigid, Semirigid or Pseudo-Flexible diaphragm option is selected, lateral forces are applied as
story/diaphragm forces. The user may specify the story/diaphragm force values and coordinates.
Story/diaphragm forces can also be generated using the automatic load generators. Story/diaphragm forces
are input using the Loads - Load Cases command.

Several options are available for generating Seismic story/diaphragm forces. These are:
IBC 2006/2009 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
IBC 2003 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
IBC 2000 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
IBC 2006/2009 Response Spectra Analysis
IBC 2003 Response Spectra Analysis
IBC 2000 Response Spectra Analysis
ASCE 7-05, ASCE 7-02, ASCE 7-93 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
BOCA 93, 96/99 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
SBC 94, 97/99 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
UBC 94, 97 - Static Force Procedure
UBC 97 Response Spectra Analysis
Eurocode Env 1998-1-1:1994 Simplified Modal Response Spectrum Analysis
NBC of Canada 2005 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
NBC of Canada 2005 Response Spectra Analysis
NBC of Canada 1995 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
China GB5001-2001 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
China GB5001-2001 Response Spectra Analysis
AS 1170.4-2007 - Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
AS 1170.4-2007 Response Spectra Analysis
The seismic provisions of the IBC 2000 are based on the 1997 NEHRP provisions. There are two main
requirements that have been implemented: the response spectra curve for dynamic analysis and the story
forces based on the equivalent lateral force procedure

The applicable requirements of BOCA 93 and SBC 94 are identical to those of ASCE 7 - 93, so the same
forces will be generated regardless of the selection.

For ASCE 7, BOCA, and SBC, the story\diaphragm forces can be generated using the provisions for
Member forces or for Drift. For Drift, the actual building period is used rather than the limited value T
CaTa. The resulting reported drifts are not factored by Cd.

For UBC, the story\diaphragm forces can be generated using the provisions for Member forces, Drift, or
Foundation forces. For Drift, the actual building period is used rather than the limited value of T
B
. For
Foundation forces F
t
= 0.0.

Building Codes
The forces will be applied at the eccentricity if/as specified by the user. The default value of eccentricity is
5% of the building dimension as defined by the minimum and maximum dimensions of the slab edge
polygon. This dimension can be over-ridden using the Loads - Masses command.

No story\diaphragm force will be applied to a level whose mass has been Combined to another level or
whose mass is zero.

Note: When the period is calculated by RAM Frame it is calculated for the center of mass (not with the mass
at the 5% eccentricity). This may give different results than if the period is calculated with the mass offset at
the 5% eccentricity. The period is then used to calculate the base shear and the story forces. The
story\diaphragm forces are then applied at the specified eccentricity.

Note that for a structure consisting of two towers coming up off of a common base structure, the
fundamental period used to calculate story forces will be the fundamental period of the structure overall
(which will usually be the period of one of the towers or the other); the program does not calculate and use
the periods of each tower independently. The program will use the same fundamental period for both towers
when calculating seismic story forces. Thus if the period of one tower is substantially different than the
other, the generated seismic story forces for one of the towers may be incorrect, in which case it will be
necessary to create a user-specified story force load case rather than using the generated story forces.

Models with Semirigid diaphragms, calculated lateral seismic forces for the diaphragms are distributed over
diaphragm nodes in such a way that these distributed point loads are in proportion with diaphragm mass
distribution. In other words, calculated diaphragm forces are converted into nodal loads and applied at
diaphragm nodes based on mass distribution over the diaphragms.

5.3.1 IBC 2006/2009

Response Spectra Analysis
On the Loads Load Cases command in RAM Frame, the IBC 2006/2009 modal Response Spectra
Analysis can be obtained using the ASCE 7-05 Response Spectra option.

General Procedure Response Spectrum given in Section 11.4 of ASCE 7-05 defines response spectra curve
for the dynamic analysis.

To define the design response spectra curve as shown in Figure 11.4-1, the following information is
specified by the user:

Site Class Classes A, B, C, D and E are considered. Class F is not available for selection

Maximum considered Earthquake acceleration at short period from Figures
1613.5(1) through 1613.5914) of IBC 2006 (or from Figures 22-1 to 22-14 in
ASCE 7-05)
1

Maximum considered Earthquake acceleration at 1 second period from Figures
1613.5(1) through 1613.5914) of IBC 2006 (or from Figures 22-1 to 22-14 in
ASCE 7-05)

Long-period transition period (s) given in Figures from 22-15 to 22-20 in ASCE
7-05.
Building Codes

The structure period

is not approximated with
and it is not limited by
. Also note from

Figure 11.4-1 that a new branch is added to Response Spectra curve, designated with
. This new part is

constant-displacement part of the curve and it governs the seismic response of the structures with periods
beyond
.

Equivalent Static Lateral Force
IBC 2006 and 2009 refers to Section 11 and 12 of ASCE 7-05 for the seismic provision. Section 12.8 refers
to Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure, which is implemented.

In the Loads Load Cases command the IBC 2006/2009 Seismic option is referred to as ASCE 7-05 /
IBC 06/09 Equivalent Lateral Force.

The following data is entered by the user:

Site Class
Classes A, B, C, D and E are available. Class F is not available for selection
and it is not accounted for this implementation.

Maximum considered Earthquake acceleration at short period from Figures
1613.5(1) through 1613.5(14) of IBC 2006 (or from Figures 22-1 to 22-14 in
ASCE 7-05)
1

Maximum considered Earthquake acceleration at 1 second period from Figures
1613.5(1) through 1613.5(14) of IBC 2006 (or from Figures 22-1 to 22-14 in
ASCE 7-05)

Long-period transition period (s) given in Figures from 22-15 to 22-20 in
ASCE 7-05.
Response Modification Factor from Table 12.2-1 in ASCE 7-05.
Seismic Importance Factor from Table 11.5-1 in ASCE 7-05

In order to comply with the requirements of IBC 2009 the option to Apply Requirements of Supplement
No.2 must be selected.

Values for
and
1
in the Figures are given for site class B with 5% damping. For other sites, they are
modified as follows:
(Eq. 11.4-1)

1
=

1
(Eq. 11.4-2)

where
and
are determined based on Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2. Design spectral response acceleration
parameters are calculated from:

=
2
3

(Eq. 11.4-3)

1
=
2
3

1
(Eq. 11.4-4)

Building Codes
The Seismic Design Category is defined in Section 11.6 of ASCE 7-05 and it is specified in Tables 11.6-1
and 11.6-2. It is based on Occupancy Category (Table 1-1),

and
1
and it can be determined directly
from the user input. The user can either designate that the program determines The Seismic Design
Category or else enter it directly; this is only necessary if the user wants to over-ride what the program
would otherwise select.

Note also that if a structure is assigned to Seismic Design Category A, Section 11.7 in ASCE 7-05 precedes
and forces at each level are calculated according to

= 0.01
(Eq. 11.7-1)

where
and
are the design lateral forces applied at story x , and the portion of the total dead load of the
structure, D, located or assigned to level x , respectively. The program uses Eq. 11.7-1 if the structure is
assigned to Seismic Design Category A.

The fundamental period (i.e., ) of the structure can be entered by user or it can be calculated by the
program. In the latter case, the program runs an Eigenvalue analysis without any eccentricity to find . In an
third option, approximate period
can be used for . The approximate period can be directly defined by

the user, or it is calculated from

(Eq. 12.8-7)

where
and are defined in Table 12.8-2. Only
is required from the user and corresponding value of

is determined by the program. The value of
is the height above the base to the highest level of the

structure. An alternative equation for
is also available to the user:

= 0.1 (Eq. 12.8-8)

in which is the number of stories. Certain limitations apply for Equation 12.8-8 but these limitations are
not checked by the program. Note also that a special equation is given to calculate
for masonry and

concrete structures as shown in Equation 12.8-9 but this is also not implemented.

An upper limit is defined by the provision such that
and this is enforced. The term
is read
from Table 12.8-1 by the program. However, this upper limit is not applied if story forces are generated for
Drift.

Calculation of seismic base shear is given in Section 12.8.1 and it is calculated from

=
(Eq. 12.8-1)

where is the effective seismic weight of building and it is calculated by the program based on the Mass
Dead Load specified in the Modeler. The coefficient
is the seismic response coefficient:

(Eq. 12.8-2)

and the following limitations apply:
Building Codes
for
(Eq. 12.8-3)

for >
(Eq. 12.8-4)

Also
shall not be less than
= 0.01 (Eq. 12.8-5)

If the option to apply the requirements of Supplement No. 2 is selected, Eq. 12.8-5 is modified to be:

= 0.044
0.01 (Eq. 12.8-5)

In addition, for structures located where
1
is equal to or greater than 0.6g,
shall not be less than

=
0.5
1
( Eq. 12.8-6)
The vertical distribution is given by
(Eq. 12.8-11)

where
is vertical distribution factor:

=1
(Eq. 12.8-12)

and
and
are the portion of total gravity load of at level i or x , respectively;
and
are the
height from the base to level i or x , respectively; and is 1 for 0.5 seconds, 2 for 2.5

seconds and
it is linearly interpolated between 1 and 2 if 0.5 < < 2.5.

The generated story/diaphragm forces will be applied at 5% eccentricity of the building dimension if it is
specified by the user. In this case, the program runs a separate Eigen analysis and calculates a different
fundamental structural period for each eccentric load cases. Lateral story seismic forces are calculated
based on separate values of .
5.3.2 IBC 2003
On the Loads Load Cases command in RAM Frame, the IBC 2003 modal Response Spectra Analysis is
referred to as IBC 2003 Response Spectra.

General Procedure Response Spectrum given in Section 9.4.1.2.6 of ASCE 7-02 defines response spectra
curve for the dynamic analysis.

To define the design response spectra curve as shown in Figure 9.4.1.2.6, the following information is
specified by the user:

Site Class
Classes A, B, C, D and E are considered. Class F is not available for
selection
Building Codes

Maximum considered Earthquake acceleration at short period from Figure
9.4.1.1(a) (j)
1

Maximum considered Earthquake acceleration at 1 second period from
Figure 9.4.1.1 (a) (j)

The structure period is not approximated with
and it is not limited by

Seismic provision of IBC 2003 permits use of one of the methods given in Section 9.5.2.5.1 of ASCE 7-02
or the Simplified Procedure given in Section 1617.5 of IBC 2003.

The implemented procedure is the Equivalent Lateral Force Analysis method given in Section 9.5.5 of
ASCE 7-02. Other procedures explained in the reference are not implemented.

In the Loads Load Cases command the IBC 2003 Seismic option is referred to as ASCE 7-02 / IBC 03
Equivalent Lateral Force.

The following data is entered by the user:

Site
Class:
Classes A, B, C, D and E are available. Class F is not available for selection
and it is not accounted for this implementation.

Maximum considered Earthquake acceleration at short period from Figure
9.4.1.1(a) (j)
1

Maximum considered Earthquake acceleration at 1 second period from Figure
9.4.1.1 (a) (j)
Response Modification Factor from Table 9.5.2.2
Seismic Importance Factor form Table 9.1.4.

Values for
and
1
in Figure 9.4.1.1(a) (j) are given for site class B with 5% damping. For other sites,
they should be modified as follows:
(Eq. 9.4.1.2.4-1)

1
=

1
(Eq. 9.4.1.2.4-2)

where
and
are calculated by the help of Tables 9.4.1.2.4a and 9.4.1.2.4b. The same tables are given in
1615.1.2(1) and 1615.1.2(2) of IBC 2003. Design spectral response acceleration parameters are calculated
from:

=
2
3

(Eq. 9.4.1.2.5-1)

1
=
2
3

1
(Eq. 9.4.1.2.5-2)

The Seismic Design Category is specified in Tables 9.4.2.1a and 9.4.2.1b. It is based on Seismic Use Group,

and
1
and can be determined directly from the user input. The user can either designate that the
program determine The Seismic Design Category or else enter it directly; this is only necessary if the user
wants to over-ride what the program would otherwise select.
Building Codes

The fundamental period (i.e., ) of structure can be entered by user or it can be calculated by the program.
In the latter case, the program runs an Eigen analysis without any eccentricity to find . In an third option,
approximate period
can be used for . The approximate period can be directly defined by the user, or it is
calculated from

(Eq. 9.5.5.3.2-1)

where
and are defined in Table 9.5.5.3.2. Only
is required from the user and corresponding value of

is determined by the program. The value of
is the height above the base to the highest level of the

structure. An alternative equation for
is also available to the user:

= 0.1 (Eq. 9.5.5.3.2-1a)

in which is the number of stories. Certain limitations apply for Equation 9.5.5.3.2-1a but these limitations
are not checked by the program. Note also that a special equation is given to calculate
for masonry and

concrete structures as shown in Equation 9.5.5.3.2-2 but this is also not implemented.

An upper limit is defined by the provision such that
and this is enforced.
is read from Table

9.5.5.3.1 by the program. However, this upper limit is not applied if story forces are generated for Drift.

Calculation of seismic base shear is given in Section 9.5.2.2 and it is calculated from

=
(Eq. 9.5.5.2-1)

where is the effective seismic weight of building and it is calculated by the program based on the Mass
Dead Load specified in the Modeler. The coefficient
is the seismic response coefficient:

(Eq. 9.5.5.2.1-1)
and the following limitations apply:

0.044

For buildings in Seismic Design Categories E and F:

0.5
1

The vertical distribution is given by

(Eq. 9.5.5.4-1)

where
is vertical distribution factor:

Building Codes

=1
(Eq. 9.5.5.4-2)

and
and
are the portion of total gravity load of at level i or x , respectively;
and
are the
height from the base to level i or x , respectively; and is 1 for 0.5 seconds, 2 for 2.5

seconds and
it is linearly interpolated between 1 and 2 if 0.5 < < 2.5.

The generated story\diaphragm forces will be applied at 5% eccentricity of the building dimension if it is
specified by the user. In this case, the program runs a separate Eigen analysis and calculates a different
fundamental structural period for each eccentric load cases. Lateral story seismic forces are calculated
based on separate values of .
5.3.3 IBC 2000
The IBC response spectra load case can be selected using the Loads Load Cases command in RAM
Frame. It is the IBC 2000 Response Spectra item in the list of Dynamic load types. IBC Section 1615.1.4,
General procedure response spectrum, defines the response spectra curve to be used for the dynamic
analysis.

The curve is given in Figure 1615.1.4. In order to calculate those values the following values are specified
by the user:
Site Class: from Table 1615.1.1

from Figures 1615(1) through 1615 (10) and

1
from Figures 1615(1) through 1615 (10)

As identified in Table 115.1.2(1) and its footnote, in some cases a site-specific response spectra curve may
be required for Site Classes E and F.

The structure period, , used is that calculated for the structure. It is not the approximate
nor limited by
.

The IBC 2000 seismic force load case can be selected using the Loads Load Cases command in RAM
Frame. The equivalent lateral force procedure is defined in IBC Section 1617.4, Equivalent lateral force
procedure for seismic design of buildings.

The following input values are required:
Response modification factor, : from Table 1617.6
Seismic Importance factor,
: from Table 1604.5

Site Class: from Table 1615.1.1

: from Figures 1615(1) through 1615 (10)

1
: from Figures 1615(1) through 1615 (10)

An error message is given if Site Class E and values of
greater than 1 or
1
greater than 0.4 are specified,
since tabular values of

and

are not given for those values. Also, Site Class F is not available for
selection. In those cases a site-specific response spectra analysis is required.
Building Codes

The Seismic Design Category is specified in Table 1616.3(1) and Table 1616.3(2). It is based on the
Seismic Use Group,

, and
1
and can be determined directly from the user input described above. The
user can either designate that the program determine the Seismic Design Category or else enter it directly;
this is only necessary if the user wants to over-ride what the program would otherwise select.

The user can either enter the fundamental period or else designate that the program calculate it.

Story\diaphragm forces can be generated as required for Drift, where the upper limit on of Section
1617.4.2 (

) does not apply (Section 1617.4.6.1), or those required for determining member design
forces. This is specified with the Provisions for: option.

From the input values, the following are calculated:

is determined from Table 1615.1.2(1), based on Site Class and
. For values of
between the values

shown, straight-line interpolation is used to determine
is determined from Table 1615.1.2(2), based on Site Class and

1
. For values of
1
between the values
shown, straight-line interpolation is used to determine
(Equation 16-16)

1
=

1
(Equation 16-17)

=
2
3

(Equation 16-18)

1
=
2
3

1
(Equation 16-19)

The seismic base shear is given by:
=
(Equation 16-34)

where:
(Equation 16-35)

need not exceed:

(Equation 16-36)

but shall not be taken less than:
0.044
(Equation 16-37)

If Seismic Design Category E or F, or if
1
0.6 ,
shall not be taken less than:

Building Codes
0.5
1

(Equation 16-38)

is the seismic weight, as currently calculated by the program, based on the Mass Dead Load specified in
the Modeler.

The vertical distribution of the shear is given by:

(Equation 16-41)

Where

=1
(Equation 16-42)
And
= 1 for 0.5 .
= 2 for 2.5 .
is linearly interpolated between 1 and 2 for 0.5 < < 2.5.

Limitations
For Seismic Design Category A, an alternate Minimum Lateral Force procedure is permitted, whereby the
story force is given as 0.01
(Section 1616.4). This has not been implemented. It can easily be done by the
user as a user-defined story load case.

In some cases a Simplified analysis procedure is allowed (Section 1617.5) whereby the story force is given
as 1.2
. This has not been implemented. It can easily be done by the user as a user-defined story load
case.

For regular structures in Seismic Design Categories D, E and F, limits are allowed on
and
1
(Section
1616.6.3). The conditions that allow these limits are not investigated by the program and hence these limits
will not be incorporated by the program; the user can directly input the limited
and
1
values when
appropriate.
Equivalent Static Force Procedure
The load case dialog for NBC of Canada 2005 Seismic load case is shown in Figure 5-23. Equivalent
Static Force Procedure is implemented according to Section 4.1.8.11, Division B of NBC 2005. The user is
refereed to Sections 4.1.8.1 - 4.1.8.13 as well Commentary J of Users Guide NBC 2005 -Structural
Commentaries.

Seismic Base Shear:
The minimum lateral earthquake force (seismic base shear) is calculated according to the following equation
(see 4.1.8.11.2):
=
(

The above equation is subjected to the following limits:
Building Codes
>
(2.0)
(Note that
must be calculated with T 2.0)

And if
1.5, then <

2
3
(2.0)

Figure 5-23 . NBC of Canada 2005 Seismic Load Case Dialog

The Fundamental Period (Ta)
The fundamental period (Ta) is based on one of the following choices:

Clause (a): Use 4.1.8.11.3a :
=
0.085 (
)
3/4

0.075 (
)
3/4

0.1

Clause (b): Use 4.1.8.11.3b :
= 0.025

Clause (c): Use 4.1.8.11.3c :
= 0.050 (
)
3/4

Note that
is height of the building (in meters). In above equations, all options are implemented in the
program except 0.1. Instead, the user is always allowed to defined their own value for
.

In addition, if required, the program calculates fundamental period from an Eigen analysis, and the user is
also provided a method to use this as well. The above equation is subjected to the following limits:

For moment resisting frames:
1.5 ()
Building Codes
For braced frames:
2.0 ()
For Shear Wall Structures:
2.0 ()
Note that these upper limits specified above may not be checked for deflection\drift calculations.

Spectral Response Acceleration (Sa)
It is the acceleration read from Design Spectral Acceleration Curve for the value of Ta.

Higher Mode Factor (Mv)
This factor is read from Table 4.1.8.11, based on type of lateral resisting systems, Sa(0.2), Sa(2.0) and
calculated value of Ta. User is required to choose lateral resisting system for each direction.

Importance Factor (Ie)
It is given in Table 4.1.8.5

Seismic Weight of the Building (W)
It is calculated by the program.

Force Modification Factors (Rd and Ro)
Ductility related force modification factor (Rd) reflecting the capability of a structure to dissipate energy
through inelastic behavior is required from the user for each direction. This factor is provided in Table
4.1.8.9.

Overstrength related force modification factor (Ro) accounting for the dependable portion of reserve
strength in a structure is required from the user for each direction. This factor is provided in Table 4.1.8.9.

Design Spectral Acceleration Curve
Based on Site Class and values of SA(0.2) and Sa(1.0), the design spectral acceleration curve is generated as
follows:
() =
(0.2) 0.2
(0.5) (0.2) = 0.5
(1.0) = 1.0
(2.0) = 2.0
(2.0)
2
4.0

where and are determined according to Tables 4.1.8.4.B and 4.1.8.4.C, respectively. For intermediate
values, linear interpolation is used.

Distribution of Lateral Earthquake Force
Calculated base shear (V) is distributed over the height of the building based on the following equation:

= (
=1

Where
is concentrated force applied at the top of the building and it accounts for effects of higher order
modes. It is calculated according to the following equation:
Building Codes

=
0 ;
0.7
0.07
; 0.7 <
< 3.6
0.25 ; 3.6

Overturning Moments
Overturning moment calculation as given in 4.1.8.11 and it is not implemented in the program.

Torsional Sensitivity (B)
Determination of torsional sensitivity requires static analysis using 3D elastic model with static lateral loads
at each floor level applied at distances D
nx
(see 4.1.8.11.9). It is only applicable for rigid diaphragms. This
is not implemented in the program.

Torsional Effects
Torsional effects are accounted for according to the following equation (it applies for both X- and Y-
directions):
0.10
)
where
: natural eccentricity due to center of rigidity and mass being at different positions

0.10
: The portion 0.05
of 0.10
represents accidental torsion, and the remainder

takes into account natural torsion, including dynamic amplification.

: plan dimension of the building at a level x perpendicular to the direction of seismic loading
being considered

Note that in a 3D model, the effects of
is already included in 3D analysis (if mass center and rigidity

center are at different locations, this is already reflected in analysis results). So, there is no need to include it
explicitly. Hence, the only eccentricity considered is 0.10
. Conveniently, this is exactly the same set

of load applications required for the determination of the torsional sensitivity parameter, B. The eccentricity
of 0.10
is implemented in the program.

Stability Factor (
x
)
Stability factor as given in Commentary J, pg. J-26 is not implemented.

Orthogonal Loading (4.1.8.8)
100%/30% orthogonal loading is implemented in the software as referenced in 4.1.8.8.

Direction of Loading
Four load cases are generated and they are shown in Figure 5-24.

Building Codes

Figure 5-24 . Generated Load Cases for NBC of Canada 2005 Seismic

The load case dialog for NBC of Canada 2005 Response Spectra Load case is as follows:

Figure 5-25. Response Spectra Load Case (NBC of Canada 2005)

Modal Response Spectrum Analysis according to 4.1.8.12 of Division B of NBC of Canada 2005 is
implemented. Other methods (Numerical Integration Linear Time History Method and Nonlinear Dynamic
Analysis) are not covered.

Design Spectral Acceleration
Based on Site properties, the design spectral acceleration curve is generated as follows:

X+E X-E
Y+E Y-E
Building Codes
() =
(0.2) 0.2
(0.5) (0.2) = 0.5
(1.0) = 1.0
(2.0) = 2.0
(2.0)
2
4.0

where and are determined according to Tables 4.1.8.4.B and 4.1.8.4.C, respectively. For intermediate
values, linear interpolation is used.

Accidental Torsional Eccentricity
Section 4.1.8.12.4 provides two alternative approaches for accidental torsional eccentricity:
In this approach, which can be used for any value of B (torsional sensitivity) but is intended primarily for
torsionally sensitive structures, the effects of static torsional moments, ( 0.10 D
nx
) F
x
, at each level x
are calculated and then combined with the effects determined from a dynamic analysis that includes the
actual eccentricities (i.e., eccentricities due to mass center and center of rigidity of floors. In a 3D analysis,
this is already covered).
The second approach is only for permissible for structures that are not torsionally sensitive (B<1.7). This
approach allows the effects of accidental eccentricity to be included by shifting the center of mass by 0.05
D
nx
.

The second approach is implemented in this version. Thus, a maximum of 4 load cases is generated due to
these eccentricities.

Dynamic Base Shear
The elastic base shear,
, obtained from Linear Dynamic Analysis (i.e., Modal Response Spectrum

Analysis or also called as Response Spectra Analysis) is multiplied by the Importance factor,

, and
divided by
to obtained dynamic base shear

The above equation is not implemented. Thus, reported base shear is the base shear obtained from Response
Spectra Analysis (i.e.,
), and it is the engineers responsibility to make this adjustment.

In addition,
is subjected to further modifications:

= 0.8 if
< 0.80 , where is the lateral earthquake design base shear that can be
obtained from Equivalent Static Force Procedure.

> , theb
can be used as the design base shear.

= max(
, ) for irregular structures. In other words, reducing
is not permitted for irregular

structures.
Again, this set of adjustment is not enforced in the program. It is the engineers responsibility to include this
adjustment.

Building Codes
Story Shears, Member Forces and Deflections
Section 4.1.8.12.8 states that story shears, story forces, member forces and deflections obtained from Linear
Dynamic Analysis shall be multiplied by
. This can be carried out in the program by setting X Scale

Factor and Y Scale Factor in the load case dialog (see below). Thus, the engineer is required to run the
Response Spectra Analysis twice, once with 1.0 for these scale factors to obtain
and then once again with

setting the scale factors to
(the engineer needs to calculate
). Finally at the end of this process, analysis

results (displacements, story shears and member forces) reflect this adjustment.
The design base shear is calculated using the formula:

=

where
= minimum lateral seismic force at the base of the structure, to be used with a load factor of e = 1.0
= equivalent lateral force at the base of the structure representing elastic response.
= Factor for Representing level of protection based on experience - always 0.6
= Force Modification Factor - Given in table 4.1.9.1.B

The building period is calculated using either Method A or Method B. The formula = 0.085 (
)
3/4
for
SMRF, or = 0.075 (
)
3/4
for concrete moment frames is referred to as Method A by RAM Frame.
Method B, on the other hand, involves carrying out Eigen value analysis to determine the building
fundamental periods.

For torsional moment provisions, the two most critical separate load cases are generated in both X and Y
directions from the code-specified loads shown below:

(1.5
+ 0.1
(1.5
0.1
(0.5
+ 0.1
(0.5
0.1
)

For dynamics procedures, users must run both static force procedure and dynamic load cases (response
spectra, for instance) and add the code-specified additional loads in the Analysis - Load Combinations
Mode.

RAM Frame has also implemented the code requirement for increasing the Base Shear by 50% in velocity-
related seismic zones of 4 and higher for buildings of more than 60 meter height with a structural system
having = 2.0 or = 1.5.
5.3.6 China GB5001-2001
Response spectra load case dialog is shown in Figure 5-26. Design acceleration response spectrum (i.e.,
seismic influence coefficient curve) is given Figure 5-27, where the following parameters are used:

Building Codes
1
= 0.02 +
0.05
8
0
2
= 1 +
0.05
0.06 +1.7
0.55
= 0.9 +
0.05
0.5 +5

and is damping coefficient (user defined value in the dialog). It is can be also summarized as follows:

=
0.45 +
2
0.45
0.1

0.1
0.1 <
< 5
2
0.2

1
( 5
< 6

where
is maximum acceleration, and it is determined from the following Table 5.1.4-1 in the building
code:

Figure 5-26. Response Spectra Load Case (China GB5001-2001)

Building Codes

max 2

max
45 . 0
0.1
T
g
5 T
g
T (s) 6
max 2

|
|
.
|
\
|
T
T
g
( ) ( )
max 1 2
5 2 . 0
g
T T

Figure 5-27. Design Acceleration Response Spectrum (China GB5001-2001)

Maximum value of horizontal seismic influence coefficient (
)

Intensity
6
Intensity 7 Intensity 8 Intensity 9
Frequently
EQ
0.04 0.08
(0.12)
0.16
(0.24)
0.32
Rarely EQ - 0.50
(0.72)
0.90
(1.20)
1.40

Note that the values in the brackets are used for the regions which design basis earthquake acceleration
values are 0.15g or 0.30g.

The parameter Tg (characteristic period) is determined according to Table 5.1.4-2 in the building code:

EQ Group
Soil Site Class
I II III IV
1 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.65
2 0.30 0.40 0.55 0.75
3 0.35 0.45 0.65 0.90

Note that according to Section 5.1.4, the values given in the above table for Tg shall be increased by 0.05
seconds for rarely earthquake of Intensity 8 and 9,whichis enforced in the current implementation.

Seismic load case dialog is shown in the following figure. In the following discussion, GB5001-2001
seismic is referred for base shear calculations and other related topics.

Seismic base shear according to the Chinese code is calculated as follows:

Building Codes
=
1

where

1
: seismic influence coefficient
: Equaivalent gravity load (seismic weight) of building

In calculation of
, the followings are considered:

When the structure is modeled as a single-mass system, the representative value of the total gravity
load shall be used
When the structure is modeled as a multi-mass system, the 85% of the representative value of the
total gravity load may be used.

Figure 5-28 China Seismic Load Case Dialog

The calculated base shear is distributed among stories based on the following equation:

=1

(1
) = 1,2, . ,

in which
F
i
: applied story load at ith story
G
i
,H
i
: seismic weight and height of the oth story, respectively
i
: additional seismic action factor at the top story of building

A graphical interpretation of these quantities is shown in the figure below:

Building Codes
F
n
+ F
n
F
i
i
H
i
F
EK
n

Figure 5-29 China Seismic Load Case Vertical Load Distribution

Note that the additional load F
n
applied at the top story is computed based on
F
n
=
n
F
EK

As indicated in the load case dialog, three options are provided to calculate n:
it is not considered (i.e., F
n
=0)
n is provided by the engineer
it is directly read from the Table 5.2.1 of GB5001-2001.
In the Table 5.2.1, T is the building fundamental period for a given loading direction and T
g
is characteristic
period determined from soil site class category and EQ group (both parameters should be defined in the
dialog). The term T
g
is read from Table 5.1.4-2 and it is increased by 0.05 seconds for rarely earthquake of
Intensity 8 and 9.

The term
1
is referred to as seismic influence coefficient, and it is a function of building period ( T ) and
design acceleration response spectrum (or also known as seismic influence coefficient curve). The design
acceleration response curve is defined as follows

=
0.45 +

2
0.45
0.1

0.1
0.1 <
< 5
2
0.2

1
( 5
< 6

where
1
= 0.02 +
0.05
8
0
2
= 1 +
0.05
0.06 +1.7
0.55
= 0.9 +
0.05
0.5 +5

Building Codes
and is damping coefficient. The above information can be also expressed on a single curve:

max 2

max
45 . 0
0.1
T
g
5 T
g
T (s) 6
max 2

|
|
.
|
\
|
T
T
g
( ) ( )
max 1 2
5 2 . 0
g
T T

Figure 5-30. Design Acceleration Response Spectrum (GB50011-2001)

Note that
is maximum value of horizontal seismic influence coefficient and it is determined from

Table 5.1.4-1.

Once the seismic loads are computed for each diaphragm, the following check is also enforced in this
implementation:

>
=1
=
>
n
j
j EKi
G V
1

where is the minimum seismic shear factor , obtained from Table 5.2.5 and G
j
is seismic weight at jth
floor.
5.3.7 AS 1170.4-2007
In this section, response spectra analysis referring to Section 7 of AS 1170.4-2007 is explained.

Horizontal design spectrum (
) values for a known period T is calculated as follows:

() =
() 7.2(1)

in which the following variables are defined:

: probability factor (Section 3, Table 3.1 of the building code)

: hazard factor (Section 3, Table 3.2 of the building code)

: spectral performance factor (Section 6.5 of the building code)

: structural ductility factor (Section 6.5 of the building code)
Building Codes

() : spectral shape factor value (Section 6, Table 6.4 of the building code)
The equation for response spectra curves based on different type of soil are

Soil Ae Soil Be Soil Ce Soil De Soil De
0 < T 0.1 0.8 + 15.5 T 1.0 + 19.4 T 1.3 + 23.8T 1.1 + 25.8 T 1.1 + 25.8
0.1 < T 1.5 0.704/T but 2.35 0.88/T but 2.94 1.25/T but 3.68 1.98/T but 3.68 3.08/T but 3.68
T > 1.5 1.056/T
2
1.32/T
2
1.874/T
2
2.97/T
2
4.62/T
2

The above equations are portrayed graphically as shown below. Note that the spectral shape factor,
(),
is simply ordinate value in this function.

Figure 5-31. Normalized Response Spectra (AS 1170.4-2007)

The parameters
and
(spectral performance factor and structural ductility factor, respectively) is

defined in Table 6.5(A) and 6.5 (B), based on lateral resisting framing type.

It should be noted that accidental torsional effects are included in this implementation based on 0.1b,
where b is the width of building perpendicular to application of loads.

AS1170.4-2007 Response Spectra load case dialog is given in the following picture.

Equivalent Static Analysis Procedure, given in Section 6 of AS 1170.4-2007 is implemented ant the
followings refer to aforementioned building code. The corresponding load case dialog is as follows:

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
0 1 2 3 4 5
S
p
e
c
t
r
a
l

O
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
s

(
C
h
(
T
)
)
Period in Seconds (T)
Normalized Response Spectra
Soil Ae
Soil Be
Soil Ce
Soil De
Soil Ee
Building Codes

Figure 5-32. AS 1170.4-2007 Response Spectra Analysis Dialog

Earthquake Base Shear
Building base shear is given in Eq. 6.2(3):

=
(
1
)
6.2(3)

in which the following variables are defined:

: building base shear

: probability factor (Section 3, Table 3.1 of the building code)

: hazard factor (Section 3, Table 3.2 of the building code)

(
1
) : spectral shape factor value (Section 6, Table 6.4 of the building code)

: spectral performance factor (Section 6.5 of the building code)

: structural ductility factor (Section 6.5 of the building code)

: seismic weight of the building

Vertical Distribution of Horizontal Forces
Horizontal equivalent static design force F
i
at each level is calculated according to the following equation

Building Codes

=
6.3(2)

where n is the number of levels, h is the height of level i, W is the seismic weight of structure at level i
and the coefficient k is defined as follows:

=
1.0
1
0.5
2.0
1
2.5
1.0 2.0 0.5 < < 2.5

Figure 5-33. Seismic load case dialog (AS 1170.4-2007)

Natural Period of Structure (
1
)
Three options are provided to user for natural period of structure in X- and Y-directions:
Either it is directly calculated by the program
Or it is directly provided by user
Or it is calculated according to Eq. 6.2(7):
1
= 1.25
0.75
6.2(7)
Building Codes
where k
t
is defined as follows:

k
t

Moment-resisting steel frames
0.11
Moment-resisting concrete frames
0.075
Eccentrically braced steel frames
0.06
All other structures
0.05

The base shear obtained using either calculated by the program or user entered shall not be less than 80% of
the value obtained with
1
according to above equation. Thus, the user needs to enter
for each direction

for fulfilling this requirement. This check is enforced in the program.
Normalized Response Spectra Curve Equations
The equation for response spectra curves based on different type of soil are given in the following table.

Soil Ae Soil Be Soil Ce Soil De Soil De
0 < T 0.1 0.8 + 15.5 T 1.0 + 19.4 T 1.3 + 23.8T 1.1 + 25.8 T 1.1 + 25.8
0.1 < T 1.5 0.704/T but
2.35
0.88/T but
2.94
1.25/T but
3.68
1.98/T but
3.68
3.08/T but
3.68
T > 1.5 1.056/T
2
1.32/T
2
1.874/T
2
2.97/T
2
4.62/T
2

The above equations are portrayed graphically as shown below. Note that the spectral shape factor,
(
1
),
is simply ordinate value in this function.

Figure 5-34. Normalized Response Spectra (AS 1170.4-2007)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
0 1 2 3 4 5
S
p
e
c
t
r
a
l

O
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
s

(
C
h
(
T
)
)
Period in Seconds (T)
Normalized Response Spectra
Soil Ae
Soil Be
Soil Ce
Soil De
Soil Ee
Building Codes

Structural Performance Factor (S
p
)
This factor is defined in Table 6.5(A) and 6.5 (B), based on lateral resisting framing type.

Structural Ductility Factor ()
This factor is defined in Table 6.5(A) and 6.5 (B), based on lateral resisting framing type.

Torsional Effects
Calculated story level forces can be applied to diaphragm with eccentricities. Some of the generated load
cases include eccentric loads. A value of 0.1b, where b is the width of building perpendicular to
application of loads, is used in the implementation. Also, user can generate load cases based on 100% and
30% orthogonal effects.

Storey Drift Computation
The program is able to compute storey drift values at any location of diaphragms. Note that the Equation
6.7(1) is not

implemented.
P-Delta Effect s
P-delta effects can be considered directly in the analysis. Note that stability coefficient factor (Eq. 6.7(2)) is
not implemented. Also, calculated base shears, story forces or deflections are not

modified according to
Section 6.7.3.2.
5.4 Live Load Reduction
Each of the Building Codes has provisions for reducing the live loads under certain conditions. When
appropriate, the program automatically calculates these reduction factors and reduces the loads accordingly.
On the output, these reduction factors are listed as a percent of allowable reduction. For example, if the
output lists a reduction of 60%, the unreduced load is multiplied by 0.40 to obtain the reduced load. The
program recognizes four types of live loads: Reducible, Storage, Unreducible, and Roof. The Roof load may
be treated as either Reducible or Snow, as specified by the user in the RAM Manager criteria.

It should be noted that live load reduction covered in this section is only applicable for loads on one-way
slabs. Regarding two-way slabs, the engineer is provided to use user-specified live load reductions for each
member.

Live load reduction factors are a function of the area associated with the loads acting on a member. In
calculating the reduction for a given load, the program only uses the area on the member associated with
that live load type. For example, if part of the load on a member is Reducible and part is Storage, only the
area associated with the Reducible loads will be included in the calculation of the reduction factor on the
Reducible loads, and only the area associated with the Storage loads will be included in the calculation of
the reduction factor, if permitted, on the Storage loads.

Roof Live Loads specified in the International Building Code (IBC), Uniform building Code (UBC),
Standard Building Code (SBC), and the BOCA National Building Code (BOCA) are reducible in some
cases based on the tributary area and the slope of the roof. The RAM Structural System automatically
Building Codes
considers both parameters when calculating the Roof Live Load Reduction. When the Roof loads are
specified by the user, the magnitude of the load should be that given as the basic Roof Live Load value, not
the reduced value to account for slope or area. For example, in the UBC, SBC and BOCA the Roof Live
Load charts list 20 psf as the basic roof load for tributary areas less than 200 square feet and slopes less than
1:3. This is the value that should be specified by the user even if the roof is sloped. The program will
calculate the slope and the tributary area and use the corresponding table value. If a value other than 20 psf
is specified by the user, the program will use the same Live Load Reduction percentage as calculated for a
20 psf load, but will apply it to the specified value. Columns and girders may be supporting members that
support various areas of differing roof slope. In that case the program uses a weighted average slope in the
calculation of the Roof Live Load Reduction factor.

In some Building Codes, the Live Load Reduction is a function of the number of stories carried by a
member or is dependent on whether the load is coming from a single level or from more than one level. The
user can specify which load types are to be considered in this determination, for the purpose of calculating
Live Load Reduction. For example the user can specify that a level carrying Roof Live Load not be included
when determining the number of levels that a member supports (this does not mean that the Roof loads are
not applied). These options appear in the Determining Number of Stories group box in the Criteria Live
Load Reduction command in the RAM Manager.

Roof Live Loads specified in the International Building Code (IBC), Uniform building Code (UBC),
Standard Building Code (SBC), and the BOCA National Building Code (BOCA) are reducible in some
cases based on the tributary area and the slope of the roof. The RAM Structural System automatically
considers both parameters when calculating the Roof Live Load Reduction. When the Roof loads are
specified by the user, the magnitude of the load should be that given as the basic Roof Live Load value, not
the reduced value to account for slope or area. For example, in the UBC, SBC and BOCA the Roof Live
Load charts list 20 psf as the basic roof load for tributary areas less than 200 square feet and slopes less than
1:3. This is the value that should be specified by the user even if the roof is sloped. The program will
calculate the slope and the tributary area and use the corresponding table value. If a value other than 20 psf
is specified by the user, the program will use the same Live Load Reduction percentage as calculated for a
20 psf load, but will apply it to the specified value. Columns and girders may be supporting members that
support various areas of differing roof slope. In that case the program uses a weighted average slope in the
calculation of the Roof Live Load Reduction factor.

The user may limit the live load reduction on beams by specifying a Maximum Live Load Reduction
Percent with the Layout-Beams-LL Reduction command in the RAM Modeler. The limit is assigned on a
beam-by-beam basis. For example, the user can specify that for purlins the live loads not be reduced, but for
girders the live loads get the full allowable reduction. If a limitation is assigned using this command, the
program will use the more stringent of the code-required value and the user-specified value. With this same
command the user may also assign an explicit value to use, which will override the calculated value. These
assignments have no impact on the design of the beams.

The user may limit the live load reduction on columns by specifying a Maximum Live Load Reduction
Percent with the Layout-Columns-LL Reduction command in the RAM Modeler. The limit is assigned on
a column-by-column basis. If a limitation is assigned using this command, the program will use the more
stringent of the code-required value and the user-specified value. With this same command the user may
also assign an explicit value to use, which will override the calculated value. These assignments have no
impact on the design of the beams.

Building Codes
The requirements for live load reduction are different for each Building Code. They are outlined below by
Building Code.
5.4.1 IBC 2000, 2003, 2006 and 2009
The requirements for Live Load Reduction are given in Section 1607.9, Reduction in live loads, of the IBC
2000, 2003 and 2006. There are two methodologies. The General Method is based on ASCE 7-05, and the
Alternate method is based on UBC 97. These options are given in the Criteria Live Load Reduction
command in the RAM Manager. On the Reports, IBC is listed as the Building Code when the General
method is selected; IBC Alt is listed when the Alternate method is selected.

The General live load reduction methodology is given in Section 1607.9.1. For members for which K
LL
A
T
is
400 ft
2
or more, the live load may be reduced according to the following formula:
General Live Load Reduction

=
0.25 +
15
(Equation 16-21)

where:
is the reduced design live load per square foot of area, psf,
is the unreduced design live load per square foot of area, psf,
is the tributary area, ft

2
,
is the Live Load element factor from Table 1607.9.1.

For members supporting one floor, shall not be less than 0.50L
0
(this is a 50% reduction). For members
supporting two or more floors, shall not be less than 0.40L
0
(this is a 60% reduction). To be consistent
with the way the Live Load reduction is reported by the program for other Building Codes, the Live Load
Reduction value will be computed and given as a percent reduction, rather than as a multiplier.

The Live Load Reduction value is further limited to the user specified maximum, if any.

There is a special provision in the Code (Section 1607.9.1.1 Heavy live loads) for live loads greater than 100
psf. In the program, this type of load is referred to as Storage live load and, for such loads a reduction of
up to 20% (if allowed by Eq. 16-21) is allowed on members carrying storage load from two or more levels.
The user must explicitly designate loads as Storage. Any live load designated by the user as Storage will be
treated as explained whether the load is greater than 100 psf or not, and any load not specified by the user as
Storage will not be treated as Storage even if it exceeds 100 psf.

Table 1607.9.1 gives values for
. Theoretically it is the ratio of the Influence Area to the Tributary Area:
. Typically the value for columns is 4, and the value for beams is 2. With these values, the equation
gives the same reduction values as ASCE 7-95 and ASCE 7-93, which is what has been implemented for
BOCA Live Load Reduction. When there are large cantilevered areas contributing to the area supported by
the member, the values of 4 for columns and 2 for beams are considered unconservative. The table gives a
value of 3 for edge columns with cantilever slabs, 2 for corner columns with cantilever slabs, and 1 for edge
beams with cantilever slabs. The Code does not give any indication as to what fits within the definition of
cantilever slabs. For example, it does not seem that a column supporting beams that carry a nominal slab
edge would need to be included under this classification. The table also specifies a value of 1 for cantilever
beams.
Building Codes

The program determines both the tributary area and the influence area for each member. K
LL
is then
calculated:

To conform to the table values, which show integer numbers, the program will round the calculated
to
an integer value as well. This is done as follows:

If
is greater than 3.85, it rounds up to 4, otherwise it rounds down to 3.

If

If
L

The 0.15 tolerance for rounding up is to avoid unduly penalizing members that carry some nominal slab
edge or very short cantilevers.

For loads on the cantilever portion of a cantilever beam,
= 1.

K
LL
is calculated independently for both Reducible Live Loads and Storage Live Loads based on their
respective tributary and influence areas.

The alternate live load reduction methodology is given in Section 1607.9.2. It is based on the methodology
specified by the UBC, with one subtle but significant difference: the UBC says that for members receiving
load from one level only the reduction is limited to 40% and for members receiving load from two or more
levels the reduction is limited to 60%; the IBC says that the reduction for horizontal members (i.e., beams)
is limited to 40% and the reduction for vertical members (i.e., columns) is limited to 60%. Note that this
means that a column carrying load from only one level can be reduced up to 60%, and a transfer girder
carrying load from more than one level can only be reduced up to 40%.
Alternate Live Load Reduction

For loads specified as Reducible, any member supporting 150 square feet or more of Reducible live load is
reduced per Equation 16-22: R = 0.08(A 150) where A is the tributary area and R is the reduction percent,
limited to a maximum of 40% for beams and 60% for columns as explained above. The reduction is further
limited to that obtained from Equation 16-23: R = 23.1(1+D/L) where D/L is the ratio of the Dead Load to
Live Load, and it is further limited to the user specified maximum, if any.

There is a special provision in the Code (Section 1607.9.2.2) for live loads greater than 100 psf. In the
program, this type of load is referred to as Storage live load and, for such loads a reduction of up to 20%
(if allowed by Eq. 16-22 and Eq. 16-23) is allowed on columns carrying storage load. No such reduction is
made on beams. The user must explicitly designate loads as Storage. Any live load designated by the user as
Storage will be treated as explained whether the load is greater than 100 psf or not, and any load not
specified by the user as Storage will not be treated as Storage even if it exceeds 100 psf.

Minimum Roof Live Load is specified in Section 1607.11 Roof Loads, and is given by:
Roof Live Load Reduction

= 20
1

2
(Equation 16-24)

Building Codes
where,
is the Roof live load per square foot of horizontal projection, psf,
1
is a reduction factor based on tributary area, A
t
(sq. ft):

1
= 1.0
200 . (Equation 16-25)

1
= 1.2 0.001
200 <
< 600 . (Equation 16-26)

1
= 0.6
600 . (Equation 16-27)

2
is a reduction factor based on slope, F (inches of rise per ft). See Equation 16-28 through 16-30. The
slope of the framing is automatically determined and the
2
value is calculated and applied.

is limited to the range of 12 psf to 20 psf , which means a reduction of up to 40% is allowed. Note that
any value of Roof live load can be input (not necessarily 20 psf) and the program will reduce it by the
appropriate factor. For example, if a Roof live load of 30 psf is assigned to a member carrying over 600
square feet of roof area, the load is reduced to 18 psf (i.e., 30 psf times 0.60). To be consistent with the other
Building Codes, the Live Load Reduction value is computed and reported as a percent reduction.

The Live Load Reduction value will further be limited to the user specified maximum, if any.
5.4.2 BOCA
For BOCA, the reduction of Reducible Live Loads is based on influence area rather than tributary area. The
code defines influence area as ...four times the tributary area for a column, two times the tributary area for
a beam.... It is important to note that for all members regardless of configuration, the program first
calculates the tributary area, determines the portion of that area loaded by Reducible Live Load, then
multiplies that area by four when calculating the reduction for columns and by two when calculating the
reduction for beams. The reduction is limited to 50% for members receiving load from one floor only and is
limited to 60% for members receiving load from more than one floor (the reduced load is not less than 40%
of the unreduced value). It is important to note that the output lists the reduction factor as a percent by
which the load can be reduced. No reduction is permitted for members having an influence area less than
400 square feet.

There is a special provision in the Code (Section 1606.7.2.3) for live loads greater than 100 psf. The
program refers to this type of load as a Storage load and, for loads specified as Storage live loads, a
reduction of up to 20% is allowed on columns loaded by more than one level. No such reduction is made on
beams even if they receive load from more than one level. If the equation involving influence area indicates
a lesser reduction, the reduction is limited to the smaller amount. Note that in calculating the influence area,
only the area loaded by Storage live load is considered and is derived from the tributary area as explained
above. The user must explicitly designate loads as Storage. Any live load designated by the user as Storage
will be treated as explained whether the load is greater than 100 psf or not, and any load not specified by the
user as Storage will not be treated as Storage even if it exceeds 100 psf.

Roof live loads are reduced per Table 1607.3. However, any value of Roof live load can be input (not
necessarily 20 psf) and the program will reduce it with the appropriate factor. For example, if a Roof live
load of 30 psf is assigned to a member carrying over 600 square feet of roof area, the load is reduced to 18
psf (30 psf times 0.60). It is assumed that the roof is flat or has a rise less than four inches per foot. The
reduction is based on the tributary area loaded by Roof live load.

No reduction is made on loads specified as Unreducible.
Building Codes
5.4.3 SBC
For loads indicated as Reducible, any member supporting 150 square feet or more of Reducible live load is
reduced at the rate of 0.08% per square feet (R = 0.08*Area). The reduction is limited to 40% for beams and
60% for columns. The reduction is further limited to that obtained by the equation R = 23.1(1+D/L).

There is a special provision in the Code (Section 1604.2-2) for live loads greater than 100 psf. The program
refers to this type of load as a Storage load and, for loads specified as Storage live loads, a reduction of up to
20% is allowed on columns. No such reduction is made on beams. If the equations involving tributary area
indicate a lesser reduction, the reduction is limited to the smaller amount. The reduction is further limited to
that obtained by the equation R = 23.1(1+D/L). The user must explicitly designate loads as Storage. Any
live load designated by the user as Storage will be treated as explained whether the load is greater than 100
psf or not, and any load not specified by the user as Storage will not be treated as Storage even if it exceeds
100 psf.

Roof live loads are reduced per Table 1604.6 with the reduction not to exceed that obtained by the equation
R = 23.1(1+D/L). Any value of Roof live load can be input (not necessarily 20 psf) and the program will
reduce it with the appropriate factor. For example, if a Roof live load of 30 psf is assigned to a member
carrying over 600 square feet of roof area, the load is reduced to 18 psf (30 psf times 0.60). It is assumed
that the roof is flat or has a rise less than four inches per foot. The reduction is based on the tributary area
loaded by Roof live load.

5.4.4 UBC
For loads indicated as Reducible, any member supporting 150 square feet or more of Reducible live load is
reduced per UBC Eq (7-1): R = 0.08(A - 150). The reduction is limited to 40% for members receiving load
from one floor only and is limited to 60% for members receiving load from more than one floor. The
reduction is further limited to that obtained by the equation R = 23.1(1+D/L).

There is a special provision in the Code (Section 1607.5) for live loads greater than 100 psf. The program
refers to this type of load as a Storage load and, for loads specified as Storage live loads, a reduction of up to
20% is allowed on columns. No such reduction is made on beams. If the equations involving tributary area
indicate a lesser reduction, the reduction is limited to the smaller amount. The user must explicitly designate
loads as Storage. Any live load designated by the user as Storage will be treated as explained whether the
load is greater than 100 psf or not, and any load not specified by the user as Storage will not be treated as
Storage even if it exceeds 100 psf.

Roof live loads may be reduced per either Method 1 or Method 2 of Table 16-C. However, any value of
Roof live load can be input (not necessarily 20 psf) and the program will reduce it with the appropriate
factor. For example, if a Roof live load of 30 psf is assigned to a member carrying over 600 square feet of
roof area, the load is reduced to 18 psf (30 psf times 0.60) for Method 1. It is assumed that the roof is flat or
has a rise less than four inches per foot. The reduction is based on the tributary area loaded by Roof live
load. The reduction is limited to a maximum of 40% regardless of the number of levels from which the
member receives load, and is further limited to the value obtained by UBC Eq (7-2).

Building Codes
5.4.5 NBC of Canada
For loads specified as Reducible, the live load on any member supporting 20 square meters or more of
Reducible live load is reduced per the equation in NBC Clause 4.1.6.9.3.

NBC Clause 4.1.6.9.2 is applicable for members supporting assembly loads of 4.8 kPa or more, or storage,
manufacturing, retail, etc. For Live Load Reduction purposes, the program classifies these types of loads as
Storage Live Load. For loads specified as Storage, the live load on any member supporting 80 square meters
or more of Storage live load is reduced per the equation in NBC Clause 4.1.6.9.2.

The user must explicitly specify loads as Reducible or as Storage in order for the corresponding reductions
to be performed. Any live load designated by the user as Storage will be treated as such whether the load is
greater than 4.8kPa or not, and any load specified as Reducible will be treated as such (using the reduction
in Clause 4.1.6.9.3) even if the load is greater than 4.8 kPa.

No reduction is made on loads specified as Unreducible or Roof.

It is important to note that the output lists the reduction as a percent by which the load can be reduced, rather
than as a load multiplier.
5.4.6 BS 6399
Imposed Loads are referred to in the program and documentation as Live Loads. Live Loads specified as
Reducible are reduced as allowed by BS 6399: Part 1: 1996 Clause 6, Reduction in total imposed floor
loads, as described below. Note that the UK National Annex to Eurocode 1 (NA to BS EN 1991-1-1:2002)
uses this same methodology.

For columns, Live Loads specified as Reducible are reduced by the greater of Table 2 and Table 3. In the
determination of Number of Floors used in Table 2, the user may specify that only floors carrying Reducible
Live Load be included in that number by invoking the Criteria Live Load Reduction Command in the
RAM Manager as explained previously.

The Code explicitly requires that, when the Live Load is reduced, the Live Load Reduction Factor used on
column moments is that corresponding to the beam which creates the moment, while the Live Load
Reduction Factor used on column axial load is that corresponding to the column itself. As a simplification,
the program only reduces the column axial load; it does not reduce the column moments. Since beam Live
Load Reductions are small (generally about 2 to 5%), this is not likely to have a significant impact on the
design, and is conservative.

Reducible Live Loads on beams are reduced per Table 3. Reductions for intermediate areas are calculated
by linear interpolation.

For transfer girders, the reduction of the point load from the column is that of the column itself, and the
reduction of the remaining Live Loads is based on the supported area not including that coming from the
column.

Live Loads specified as Roof loads are reduced based on the slope of the roof in the vicinity of the member
per BS 6399:Part 3:1988 Clause 4.3.1. If the slope is less than 30 degrees no reduction is taken. If the slope
Building Codes
is greater than 60 degrees the load is completely reduced (to 0.0). For intermediate slopes the percent
reduction is interpolated.

No reduction is made on Live Loads specified as Unreducible or Storage.

5.4.7 Eurocode
Imposed Loads are referred to as Live Loads. Reducible Live Loads are those of Categories A to D. For
loads indicated as Reducible, any horizontal member supporting 10 square meters or more of Reducible live
load is reduced per EN 1991-1-1:2001 Eq (6.1):
=
5
7

o
+
A
o
A
1.0

A is the tributary area.
o
is specified in the RAM Manager Criteria - Eurocode Factors command. The
Eurocode requires that for Categories C and D, the reduction factor
be greater than or equal to 0.6. This

is not done automatically by the program, but can be accomplished by specifying a limit to the Live Load
Reduction of 40% in the Modeler using the Layout - Beam - LL Reduction command.

Storage Live Loads are those of Category E. The Live Load reduction on horizontal members is performed
the same as for Reducible Live Loads except that the
o
factor is different, as specified in the RAM
Manager Criteria - Eurocode Factors command.

For vertical members supporting Reducible or Storage loads, the reduction is based on Eq (6.2):

=
(2 + ( 2)
o
)

is the number of stories supported by the member.
o
is specified in the RAM Manager Criteria -
Eurocode Factors command.

No reduction is made on loads specified as Unreducible for either horizontal or vertical members.

No reduction is made on loads specified as Roof for either horizontal or vertical members.

It is important to note that the output lists the reduction factor as a percent by which the load can be reduced,
rather than a load multiplier.
5.4.8 Australian / New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 1170.1:2002
For loads specified as Reducible, the live load on any beam or column is reduced per the equation for
a
in
Clause 3.4.2(b).

No reduction is made on loads specified as Storage, Unreducible or Roof.

Building Codes
5.4.9 China GB 50009-2001
For loads specified as Reducible, the live load on any beam supporting 25 m
2
or more of Reducible live load
is reduced 10% (the reduction coefficient is 0.90) per Clause 4.1.2.1(1). This would be applicable to loads in
Item 1 in Table 3.1.1.

For loads specified as Storage, the live load on any beam supporting 50 m
2
or more of Storage live load is
reduced 20% (the reduction coefficient is 0.80) per Clause 4.1.2.1(2).

For loads specified as Reducible, the live load on any column is reduced per Table 4.1.2 as specified in
Clause 4.1.2.2(1). As specified in that table, for a one-story column if the tributary area of the column is
greater than 25m
2
, the reduction coefficient is 0.90.

For loads specified as Storage, the live load on any column supporting 50 m
2
or more of Storage live load is
reduced 20% (the reduction coefficient is 0.80) per Clause 4.1.2.2(2).

The user must explicitly specify loads as Reducible or as Storage in order for the corresponding reductions
to be performed.

No reduction is made on loads specified as Unreducible or Roof.

5.4.10 Hong Kong Building Regulation
For beams, Live Loads specified as Reducible are reduced by 5% for each complete 45 m
2
supported,
but not more than 20% in all. No interpolation is performed for intermediate areas.

For columns, Live Loads specified as Reducible are reduced by the greater of Table 2 and 5% for each
complete 45 m
2
supported, but not more than 20% in all. In the determination of Number of Floors used
in Table 2, the user may specify that only floors carrying Reducible Live Load be included in that number
by invoking the Criteria Live Load Reduction Command in the RAM Manager as explained previously.
Note that the Regulation allows the user to also include the roof level in the determination of the number of
stories supported.

No reduction is made on loads specified as Storage, Unreducible or Roof.

5.4.11 Live Load Reduction in RAM Frame
In RAM Frame, the Live Loads are applied to the entire structure, and then the resulting member forces are
reduced based on the Live Load Reduction factor for each individual member. The resulting reducible,
storage and unreducible load case results are combined into a single Live Load case. For SBC and UBC this
requires calculating an equivalent Live Load Reduction factor for each member using a weighted average,
since the Live Load Reduction factor can vary from load to load under those Codes.

Building Codes
For beams with cantilevers, the Live Load Reduction factor calculated for the span is also assigned to the
cantilevers.

Live Load Reduction factor is calculated for walls. Therefore, member forces in walls are based on reduced
Live Loads.

No Live Load Reduction factor is calculated for braces. Therefore, member forces on braces are based on
unreduced Live Loads.

No Live Load Reduction factor is calculated for individual nodes. Therefore, nodal displacements are based
on unreduced Live Loads.

It should be noted that live load reduction covered in this section is only applicable for loads on one-way
slabs. Regarding two-way slabs, the engineer is provided the ability to use user-specified live load
reductions for each member.
5.5 Material Properties
As a building analysis tool, RAM Frame is not material-specific. Beams, braces and columns can be of any
material type such as concrete, steel or timber. Walls can be of concrete or any other material with user-
specified Youngs Modulus, unit weight, Poissons ratio and thickness.

The following values of Modulus of Elasticity, E, and Shear Modulus of Elasticity, G, for steel are used by
the program:
5.5.1 Steel
Poissons ratio = 0.3

5.5.1.1 AISC ASD and LRFD
Modulus of Elasticity E = 29000 ksi
Shear Modulus of Elasticity G = 11200 ksi

5.5.1.2 CAN/CSA-S16-01
Modulus of Elasticity E = 200000 Mpa
Shear Modulus of Elasticity G = 76923 Mpa

5.5.1.3 BS 5950
Modulus of Elasticity E = 205 kN/mm2
Shear Modulus of Elasticity G = 78.85 kN/mm2

5.5.1.4 Eurocode
Modulus of Elasticity E = 210000 Mpa
Shear Modulus of Elasticity G = 80769 Mpa
Building Codes
5.5.2 Concrete
5.5.2.1 ACI 318
1.5
33
in psi

for values of
(unit weight of concrete) between 90 and 155 lb/ft

3
.
: compressive strength of concrete in psi.

5.5.2.2 EUROCODE: ENV 1992-1-1:1991
= 9.5 (
+8)
1/3
in kN/mm
2

: characteristic cylinder compressive strength of concrete in N/mm

2

5.5.2.3 CANADIAN CODE: A23.3-94
= 3300
+ 6900

2300
1.5

for values of
(unit weight of concrete) between 1500 and 2500 kg/m

3
.

5.5.2.4 BRITISH CODE: BS8110 Part 2
= 20 +0.2
2

for concrete weight between 2160 and 2480 kg/m
3
.
For lightweight aggregate concrete Ec is multiplied by

2400
2

5.5.2.5 AUSTRALIAN CODE: AS/NZS 1170.1
=
1.5
0.043
in megapascals

is the concrete density (for normal-weight concrete, taken not less than 2400 kg/m
3
)
: compressive strength of concrete

5.6 Section Properties
All steel and other member section properties are taken directly from the master steel table or as specified
by the user. For concrete beams the section properties are calculated based on the provided section
dimensions. In the modeler, the engineer is able to defined crack factors for axial, flexural and torsion.
Hence, moments of inertia (I
xx
and I
yy
), section cross-section area (A) and section torsional constant (J) are
multiplied by the user specified cracked section factors.

For concrete walls, two crack factors are defined: one for membrane (in-plane) actions, and one for bending
(out-of-plane) action. These crack factors are applied to the stiffness properties of walls.

When a concrete beam sections is defined as a T sections and the option to calculate the flange width is
selected, the section properties for the member are calculated using a code specific effective flange width.
The flange width is calculated using similar information to what is used for the calculation of composite
steel beam effective widths. Please refer to the RAM Steel Beam manual for a detailed discussion of how
openings, penetrations, slab edges and beam member connectivity impact the slab width to either side of the
beam member. In T sections when the slab thickness on either side of the beam is different, the flange
thickness is taken as the thickness for the side that is under consideration.

Building Codes
The beam effective flange width is calculated using the most applicable code based on the live load
reduction method selected in RAM Manager.
5.6.1 ACI 318 - 99
The effective width calculation assumes the beam section satisfies sections 8.10.1. For T section the
effective flange width is based on section 8.10.2. For L sections the effective flange width is based on
sections 8.10.3.
5.6.2 Eurocode 1992-1-1
The effective width calculation assumes that the span is the center to center length of a continuous beam.
For T and L sections the effective flange width is based on section 2.3.2.2.1. The value
z
l = 0.70 x Span
Length is taken from 2.5.2.2.1 part 4 Fig 2.3.
5.6.3 CSA A23.3-94
The effective width calculation assumes that the beam is always continuous. For T sections the effective
flange width is based on section 10.3.3. For L sections the effective flange width is based on section 10.3.4.
5.6.4 BS8110 Part 1
The effective width calculation assumes that the span is the center to center length of a continuous beam.
For T and L sections the effective flange width is based on section 3.4.1.5 (a) and (b). The value
z
l = 0.70 x
Span Length is taken from 3.4.1.5.
5.7 Redundancy Factors
RAM Frame calculates the so-called reliability/redundancy factor, Rho which is used in generating load
combinations in the 1997 UBC and 2000/2003 IBC code. The Redundancy Factor, Rho, is a function of the
shear taken by a given member and the ground floor area of the building.

In addition to evaluating the governing Rho factor for the whole structure for each of the seismic load
cases, the program also calculates and outputs the Rho factor for each column, brace and wall element in
the structure for all seismic load cases. The Rho factor will then be used in generating load combinations
in the Steel post-processors. Note that rho is not applied to the load case results (member forces, reactions,
etc.) in Analysis Load Cases mode.

The following rules are enforced in calculation of redundancy factors for each member at stories:

1. If it is found that there is only one diaphragm at a story, the program uses total story shear and total
story area for each member at the story without checking that the member is connected to the
diaphragm.
2. If it is found that there are more than one diaphragm at a story, and
a. If a member is found to be connected to a diaphragm at the story, the diaphragm area and
total shear at this diaphragm are used for the member
Building Codes
b. If a member is found to be not connected to any diaphragm at the story, the total story area
and total story shear are used for the member
c. If a member is found to be connected more than one diaphragm, the sum of all diaphragm
areas and the sum of shears at these diaphragms are used for the member

Note that the redundancy factor for IBC 2006/ASCE7-05 is different from previous provisions of IBC. It is
given either as 1.0 or 1.3, and it is not calculated. The program does not do any determination of the
Redundancy factor, and it will be input by the user as part of the Load Combination generators.

5.7.1.1 IBC 2000\IBC 2003
The calculation of the Redundancy Factor is the same as for UBC 97 with the following two exceptions:
Every story must be investigated, not just those stories at or below the 2/3 height, and the floor area used in
the equation is the area of the floor at the level being investigated, not the area of the base.

In equation 16-32, if the area of the current level is zero, the program uses the area of the nearest non-zero
floor above. If there are no floors above with an area,
i
is set to 0.00.

For structures in Seismic Design Category A, B or C, the Redundancy Factor is permitted to be 1.0 per
Section 1617.2.1. The program does not consider the Seismic Design Category so it does not automatically
set the value to1.0. In the combination generation the user should specify to use a value of 1.0, rather than
the calculated value, when appropriate.

There are limits on the permissible values of the Redundancy factors for Special Moment Frames in
structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E and F. This provision is not implemented; no warning
will be given if the permissible values are exceeded.

For structures with vertical combinations of frames (e.g., moment frames sitting on walls), there is a
requirement for modifying the rho factor for the lower portion of the structure. This provision is not
implemented.
5.8 Notional Load
Several options are available for generating Notional story forces. These are:
1. User-defined
2. AISC 360
3. BS 5950
4. CAN/CSA S16-01
5. BS8110

The gravity loads that have been applied on each diaphragm are reported in the Loads Gravity for
Notional command. Based on these values, notional loads can be generated. The fraction, or percent, of the
gravity loads to be applied as notional loads is specified by the code selected. In the case of AISC 360 the
user has an option of what fraction to use, depending on the type of design that is to be subsequently
performed.

Notional Loads can be specified in both the X- and Y-directions. For models with tension-only members,
there is also an option to generate the notional loads in the negative directions as well.
Building Codes

Notional Loads can be generated for Dead, Live and Roof or Snow loads, except for BS 8110 which only
generates the Dead Load notional load. The generated notional load cases are unfactored, but they are
factored in the load combinations as necessary.

Technical Notes
6 Technical Notes

All references to members refer only to lateral frame members (those that have been modeled as Lateral)
unless explicitly noted otherwise (as Gravity).
6.1 Finite Element Analysis Library
The finite element library (RAMFE) is an object-oriented C++ library and it is analysis engine for several
RAM Structural Systems programs. It provides a collection of frame and shell elements as well as static and
dynamic solver.

The library, by default, is armed with two in-core solvers:
In-core direct solver (Hughes, 2000): accompanied with a skyline band-width optimization routine
(Siek, et. al., 2002) which provides a substantial reduction in both storage and computation time
requirements during analysis
In-core direct sparse solver (Intel Math Kernel Library, PARDISO Sparse Solver, 2004 )

For very large models, the in-core solver might run into insufficient memory issues. For this reason, an out-
of-core (OOC) direct sparse solver and some new optimization routines are also provided in the library. The
program, however, does not automatically detect if OOC solution is required. Please note that for most
models, it is not necessary to use OOC. This solution is only needed for very large models for which
insufficient memory errors are given during analysis. Also note that since the OOC solution requires
repeated access to the hard drive, this substantially increases analysis time. The default choice of the
program (in-core direct solver) still provides the best performance if there is no memory limitation for
models.

An improved version of subspace iteration method (Bathe, 1996; Hughes 2000) is also implemented to find
Eigen modes shapes and Eigen values of structural models.
6.2 Coordinate Systems
Two types of Cartesian coordinate systems are used by RAM Frame to define the geometry of the building,
external loads, nodal displacements, story displacements are defined in global coordinate system. Internal
member forces are defined in element local coordinate system.
6.2.1 Global Coordinate System
The Global coordinate system defines the geometry of floor types. The origin of this coordinate system is
selected arbitrarily by the user. The X and Y axes are fixed by RAM Modeler and are always in plan, the Z
axis is vertical.

Technical Notes

(a) Plan View

(b) 3D View

Figure 6-1. RAM Frame Global Coordinate System

The following input and output quantities refer to the global coordinate system:
1. Member coordinates
2. Mass coordinates
3. Nodal coordinates
4. Static and dynamic lateral story forces
5. Nodal Loads
6. Story drift and displacements
7. Nodal displacements
8. Foundation reactions

Technical Notes
6.2.2 Local Coordinate System
The local coordinate system defines the orientation of individual members such as beams, columns, braces
and walls. In general, x, y defines the plane of the member.

The following are the quantities that are defined by the local coordinate system:
1. Member forces
2. Element section properties such as moment of inertia

X
Z
Y
j
i

Figure 6-2. Local Coordinate System for an Element.

6.2.3 Sloping Framing
The sloping framing feature allows the engineer to directly take into consideration the slope of the beams
and differing column lengths when performing a lateral analysis.

A sloping beam or a wall member can be created in RAM Modeler by changing elevation height of columns
or walls located on a typical story (refer to the RAM Modeler section). Coordinates of all beams and wall
members that are framed into these columns are set properly so that the effect of the sloping angle is carried
out in stiffness calculation of beam and wall members
6.3 Sign Convention
The sign convention used by RAM Frame is consistent with that used by the other RAM Structural System
modules.
6.3.1 Applied Loads
Externally applied lateral loads are positive when acting in the positive direction of the global X and Y axes.
Vertical loads, such as Dead and Live Load and the vertical component of nodal loads, are positive when
acting downward (in the negative direction of the global Z axis).
Technical Notes
6.3.2 Member Forces
The traditional beam sign convention is used for columns, beams and braces. In this convention, moments
that create compression in the top flange of beams and braces are positive.

The Process - Results - Member Forces command displays on the screen the magnitude of the member
forces. When in a plan or elevation view where the view plane coincides with the axis for which forces are
being shown, the value is listed on the side of the member considered to be the positive face, where the
positive face is defined as the face in the direction of the positive local axis. A positive number for the
moments, for example, indicates that the face on which the value is listed is in compression.

Figure 6-3 shows direction of positive member forces for beams and Figure 6-4 shows the direction of
positive member forces for columns and braces.

Axial force
Torsion
Major moment
Axial force
Major moment
Minor moment
Minor moment
Torsion
Major shear
Major shear
Node I
Node J

Figure 6-3. Sign Convention for Beam Member Forces.

Output for the individual wall elements consists of axial force, major axis shear and major axis bending
moments. The axial and shear forces on a given wall are constant through the depth of the wall. The bending
moments of wall elements, on the other hand, correspond to the moment at the bottom of the wall.

For C or L shaped wall systems, even though RAM Frame captures the 3-D behavior, the member forces
given are for the individual components of the wall and not for the system. The integration of the wall forces
for such wall systems is done separately by the program for wall groups defined by the user. The Results-
Wall Group Forces command displays the integrated wall group forces at the centroid of the wall group.
6.3.3 Wall forces considering sloping framing
Wall (resultant) forces (axial force, shear force and overturning moment) are calculated to consider the slope
of both the top and bottom of shear walls. As shown in Figure 6-5, RAM Frame determines the internal
nodal forces in the wall. These nodal forces are used to determine the wall forces as follows:

Technical Notes

Axial force
Axial force
Minor
direction
Major
direction
Global Z
Minor shear
Minor shear
Major shear
Major
shear
Bottom major
moment
Top
major
moment
Top minor
moment
Bottom minor
moment

Figure 6-4. Sign Conventions for Column Member Forces.

Figure 6-5: Wall Forces with Sloping Framing.
Technical Notes
A
xial force
M
ajor Shear
M
ajor
m
om
ent

Figure 6-6. Wall Member Forces

=
1
+
2
(6.1)

=
3
+
4
(6.2)

=
1

+
2

+
1
+
2
+ (
3

4
)
2
(6.3)

Note that the wall overturning moment is taken around point O, which is at the average height of nodes K
and L.
6.3.4 Wall Group Forces
Due to modeling and analysis accuracy considerations, shear walls are often modeled as a series of panels in
the RAM Structural System. The shear wall member force outputs consist of forces and moments for these
individual panels only. However, structural designers are more interested in the total shear forces, bending
moments, axial forces and twisting moments in a shear wall group as shown in Figure 6-7 rather than
individual wall panels. The integration of panel forces to arrive at such forces and moments for wall groups
is done by the program separately. Wall groups are defined by the user by assigning a unique number to a
group of wall panels. A given wall group can also contain piers modeled as columns.

Figure 6-7 Wall Group Forces

In RAM Frame, the user can assign a unique Wall-Group number to a group of wall panels. The user can
also assign such number to concrete or other columns which act as piers. RAM Frame calculates the
center of gravity and determines the local axis of the wall group. This is best done by letting the user pick
the wall panel that defines the local axis to be considered for integrating the wall forces: the local axis of the
Technical Notes
last panel selected for a given wall group number will be used to define the local axis of the wall group. The
minor axis of the wall-group is orthogonal to this major axis. The integrated wall-group forces are always
painted on the panel that defines the wall-group local axis.

The integrated wall forces for wall-groups are available for viewing and printing through the following
commands. Note that individual wall panel forces are still available through Member Forces command.

By selecting the Process - Results Wall-Group Forces command the user will be able to view the wall-
group forces on the screen. The forces will be shown at the wall panel(s) that defines the wall-groups local
axis. The exact location is determined by projecting the coordinate of the center of gravity of the wall-group
on the wall panel(s). This painting of integrated forces on such wall panels will give the user explicit
information on the location of the local axis considered by the program in addition to the magnitudes of the
wall-group forces.

Selecting the Reports Print Wall-Group Forces will print the integrated forces (P, V-Major, V-Minor,
M-Major, M-Minor and M-Torsion) story-by-story and group-by-group.
6.3.5 Reactions
All Reaction components, including the vertical reaction Rz, are based on the Right-Hand Rule sign
convention and are always referred with respect to the Global coordinate system.
6.3.6 Displacements
For nodal and story displacements, the Right Hand Rule is used. Note that upward vertical displacements
are considered positive in this rule.
6.4 Modeling Shear Walls
6.4.1 Meshing Walls
Finite elements used for modeling wall behavior produce acceptable but approximate results as compared to
elements used for modeling beams and columns where exact results are always produced in a linear-elastic
analysis. It is acceptable since the element always satisfies equilibrium equations. On the other hand, the
results are referred to as approximate since compatibility along edges between wall elements is
approximately satisfied. Hence, based on element formulation, it is observed that analysis results start to
converge to exact values when walls are subdivided into smaller elements (i.e. generating a finer mesh).

RAM Frame uses an advanced meshing program to model walls with any openings (Computing Objects
SARL). By utilizing this program, the walls are not only meshed along their lengths, but they are also
meshed along their heights. The user has control in setting the mesh density. As mentioned above, the
generated results for walls are approximate but acceptable so that the wall mesh density (either coarse or
fine mesh) has influence in analysis results. For instance, a coarse mesh for a wall creates a stiffer wall
while a fine mesh generates a flexible wall. The following summary might be helpful in understanding the
influence of mesh over analysis results:

Technical Notes
It is well known that a mesh with rectangular\square elements produces the best analysis results. If
there is no opening in a wall segment, the program always tries to generate a mesh with rectangular
elements. The user may define a finer mesh by setting a smaller value for Max. Distance Between
Nodes on Mesh Line. Note that having a very fine mesh, increase analysis time substantially.
If there is an opening in a wall, the program aims to generate the best possible rectangular\square
like elements as much as possible. In many cases, the generated mesh configuration (or the quality of
the mesh generated) is acceptable. In other cases, the user may want to adjust mesh parameters to
obtain an optimum mesh configuration.
It should be noted that the results are still acceptable (i.e. equilibrium equations are always satisfied)
even if an ideal mesh is not used in the analysis. However, the analysis results (i.e., calculated
member forces) might be over-conservative.

The program provides several user controls for meshing walls. These are controlled thorough the General
Criteria dialog:

Figure 6-8. General Criteria Dialog

Technical Notes

Max. Distance Between Nodes on Mesh Line in the Analytical Model box in the Criteria
dialog, which allow the user to define the maximum distance between nodes on wall edges and
nodes on semirigid diaphragm edges. To obtain a finer mesh, a smaller value should be entered.
Note that the program may generate some additional nodes on walls, which might be closer than the
user entered value. This is necessary to generate the best possible mesh configuration. On the other
hand, the distance between nodes is never larger than the user defined value.
The Geometry Tolerance is mostly used in geometry calculation as a threshold tolerance. This
should not be confused with a merge (close) node tolerance. Examples are as follows: it is used as a
tolerance to check a node is on a line or to check a point is inside a polygon, etc...

The user can generate coarse or fine meshed walls by setting the above parameters. Usually, a coarse mesh
gives conservative results since the walls are stiffer. A finer mesh leads to more flexible walls, which leads
to better results, but it may significantly increase analysis time.
6.4.2 Walls at Foundation Level
For walls at foundation level, RAM Frame introduces additional foundation nodes when a finer mesh is
generated. For instance, Figure 6-9 shows two different mesh configurations for the same wall segments.
Note that the walls with the coarse mesh (Figure 6-9a) have only 5 foundation nodes, whereas the finer
meshed walls (Figure 6-9b) have more.

Figure 6-9. (a) Walls with a coarse mesh; (b) walls with a fine mesh

Even though each wall with a fine mesh is more flexible compared to the other one, it also becomes stiffer
because of having more foundation nodes.
6.4.3 Loads Located in Wall Openings
Distributed loads on slabs (i.e., dead or live loads) are processed and applied to existing adjacent walls
based on their tributary areas. Other loads such as point or line loads can also be applied to walls directly. If
these lateral walls have openings through their top edges, the loads located over such openings are ignored
Technical Notes
in RAM Frame during analysis. For instance, Figure 6-10depicts an example for a wall with two openings
defined at top of the wall (Figure 6-10a). Since some loads are located over openings, the program
disregards these loads and only loads not located on openings are considered (Figure 6-10b). Hence, the
loads over openings are lost and analysis carried out without them. RAM Frame produces a warning
message if such loads are found and show a list of these loads in Analysis Log report.

Figure 6-10. Handling Loads located in wall openings
6.4.4 Reaction Calculations at Wall Foundation Nodes
Reactions at foundation nodes for all members are given in the Reactions report. It should be mentioned
that reactions at wall foundation nodes are only reported at wall physical nodes, not at all wall foundation
nodes. This is explained further in Figure 6-11 where a wall segment is composed of three sub-elements
(i.e., meshed into three sub-elements). Note that n1 and n2 are the wall physical nodes (i.e., they are created
when the user create this wall in Modeler). The nodes n2 and n3 are internally created by RAM Frame when
meshing these walls and they are referred to as internal nodes. Since the wall is on the foundation, all these
nodes are also foundation nodes.

The reactions R1 and R2 are calculated in such a way that the program adds the reactions at the internal
nodes (n2-n3) to the reactions at physical nodes (n1 and n4). Hence, the reported reactions at the physical
nodes not only contain the reactions from n1 and n4, but also they contain reactions from n2 and n3.

Note that from equilibrium point of view, the equilibrium equations are always satisfied since R1 and R2 are
always the total resultants at the foundation nodes (i.e., R1 + R2 = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4+ F6). The reactions at
internal foundation nodes are not given in the report.

P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
1
P
3
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
q
5
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
q
5
(a)
(b)
Technical Notes

Figure 6-11. Calculation reactions at wall physical nodes

In order to see reactions at all foundation nodes for wall bases, they can be displayed by invoking the
Reaction button on the analysis toolbar and then selecting Show Reactions for All Nodes option (see
Section 3.6.9). Note that these reactions are only shown on screen but they are not given in any reports.

6.4.5 Remarks on Meshing Walls
It is well known that a regular (ideal) mesh for walls produces better analysis results. By saying regular, it
is meant to generate a mesh with rectangular or square elements for walls. Analysis results are still valid
even if an ideal mesh is not used in analysis. However, the user is advised to check member results to make
sure that the results are not over-conservative.

Moreover, the user should always avoid generating a distorted mesh for a wall. For instance, Figure 6-12a
shows a four-story building with several wall segments (1-16), including an opening spanning over several
segments. The wall segment 6 is a complete opening whereas the wall segments 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11 share the
same opening partially. Figure 6-12b shows a coarse mesh for the model. Note that there are a few meshed
elements on the side of the opening, which are very distorted. A finer mesh is usually recommended to
correct distorted elements, which is shown in Figure 6-12c.

Usually, the user does not need to create a very fine mesh for walls as shown in Figure 6-12c. For instance,
the above model can be modeled in a different manner by reducing the number of wall segments. This is
illustrated in Figure 6-13, where the four story building is modeled with a total wall segment count of four
(note that wall segment 1 in Figure 6-13a is modeled with 4 segments as shown in Figure 6-12a). The mesh
generated for this case is given in Figure 6-13b. Even though the meshes shown in Figure 6-12c and Figure
6-13b are good meshes, the mesh in Figure 6-13b has computationally less overhead and also produce
acceptable results.

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
F6
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
R1 R2
F1 F2+F3 F4+F5 F6
R1
R2
R1 = F1 + (2/3) (F2+F3) + (1/3) (F4+F5)
R2 = F6 + (1/3) (F2+F3) + (2/3) (F4+F5)
n1 n2 n3 n4
Technical Notes

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6-12. Meshing of a four story building: (a) Original model,
(b) coarse mesh containing distorted elements, (c) fine mesh, distorted elements corrected

Figure 6-13. Four story building with fewer wall segments, (a) the original model, (b) the meshed
walls
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16

1
2
3
4
Technical Notes
6.5 Member Gravity Loads
A note regarding terminology: Repeated reference is made throughout the program and the documentation
to Live Loads. In some codes, these loads are referred to as Imposed Loads.
6.5.1 Load Properties
One of the key features of the RAM Structural System is the ability to automatically determine the loads to
each individual member based on user defined surface, line, and point loads. In the Modeler, loads are
defined by first creating a list of load properties and then assigning these load properties to the layout with
the use of polygons, lines, and points as appropriate. A load property consists of a Label, a Dead Load, a
Construction Dead Load, a Live Load with its associated Live Load Reduction flag, a Construction Live
Load, and a Mass Dead Load.

The Dead Load is the total dead load such as slab, deck, partitions, miscellaneous, etc. Column, beam, wall
and slab/deck self-weight can be automatically determined and applied. See Section 6.5.2, Self-Weight
Calculations.

The Construction Dead Load, or Pre-composite Dead Load, is a temporary load and is that portion of the
Dead Load that is applied to the beam prior to composite action. It must be less than or equal to the Dead
Load. This value is only used in the RAM Steel Beam Design module when designing unshored
(unpropped) composite beams. This is in addition to the Construction Live Load described below. When a
column is supported by a composite beam, RAM Steel Beam Design assumes that the full column load is
applied to the post-composite section; the column induces no Construction Dead Load on the pre-composite
section. This value is not used in RAM Frame.

The Live Load is the total live load appropriate for the particular building based on the applicable Building
Code and use of the building. Live Loads may be defined as Reducible, Storage, Unreducible, or Roof. Roof
loads may be treated as Reducible or Uneducible. Live Load Reduction is discussed in Section 5.4.

The Construction Live Load is a temporary load that is applied to the beam prior to composite action. It
represents the temporary load due to workers and equipment on the bare beam prior to composite action.
This load is combined with the Construction Dead Load when investigating the pre-composite beam. No
Live Load reduction is performed on this load. Its magnitude is independent of the Live Load value. This
value is used only in the RAM Steel Beam Design module when designing unshored (unpropped)
composite beams. This value is not used in RAM Frame.

The Mass Dead Load is the load that will be used in calculating the diaphragm mass properties used in
RAM Frame. It should be input as the projected mass; no transformation of mass magnitudes is performed
to account for sloping framing.

Snow loads, including varying drifting snow loads can also be applied. A current limitation in the program
is that Roof Live Loads and Snow Loads cannot be considered simultaneously. Both types of loads can exist
simultaneously in the model, but only one or the other will be considered. In the Criteria Live Load
Reduction command in the RAM Manager there are two options: Consider Snow Loads, Ignore Roof Live
Loads and Consider Roof Live Loads, Ignore Snow Loads. This is used to specify which set of loads is
to be considered. If both types of load need to be considered, it may be necessary to design the members
Technical Notes
twice, once with each option selected. Note that this limitation is only between Snow and Roof Live loads;
Snow and Reducible, Storage or Unreducible Live loads can be considered simultaneously by the program.

Snow drift loads on non-orthogonal framing may produce parabolic loads on the supporting beams. The
program deals with this by subdividing the load on the beam into a series of trapezoidal loads that
approximate the parabola. This is done automatically by the program when necessary; it is not necessary for
the user to model the snow drift loads as a series of stepping load strips.

Surface load properties are assigned to the model by defining the boundaries of the load polygon. Virtually
any number of load polygons may be assigned to a given layout. Additionally, overlapping polygons are
permitted; the last polygon assignment will over-ride all previous assignments rather than be additive.

Polygon boundaries need not coincide with beam locations; boundaries can fall within a bay. Such changes
in loads will result in multiple uniform or trapezoidal loads generated on the beam and will be shown
individually on the Beam Output. Care should be taken in the RAM Modeler when laying down load
polygons, especially those whose sides should coincide with a beam line, so that extraneous minuscule loads
are not generated on the beam.
6.5.2 Self-Weight Calculations
Self-weight of columns, beams, walls and slabs/decks can be automatically included in the loads by
selecting the Criteria Self-Weight command in the RAM Manager. If the options are not selected, the
self-weights are not included, even if values are specified in the Modeler.

Self-weight of Steel Joists is not automatically included. In order for the design to consider the self-weight
for these members, it must be applied by the user as part of the surface load or as a series of separate line
loads. This is necessary because only the self-weight of Standard steel joists is known (although even that
can vary with the actual span). The actual self-weight of Girders and Special joists is not known. So for
consistency, no self-weight is automatically considered for any Steel Joists.

Self-weight of Braces is not automatically included.

For walls with openings, the wall self-weight is reduced to account for the opening (i.e., the openings are
considered when calculating wall self-weight).

When the top of a wall slopes, the wall self-weight is applied as a trapezoidal load rather than a uniform
load, based on the wall thickness, unit weight and height of the wall at each end.

For columns, the calculated self-weight is applied as a point load at the top of the column.

The self-weight of Concrete columns and beams is calculated using the value of Unit Weight for Self-
Weight, specified by the user in the Modeler. This value of Unit Weight is separate from the value specified
for Unit Weight used in the calculation of material properties (e.g., modulus of elasticity).

Note that self-weights are based on the center-to-center of supports and floor-to-floor heights of beams and
columns respectively. This means that there is a duplication of self-weight at the joints. The program does
not make any attempt to reduce this.
Technical Notes
6.5.3 Self-Mass Calculations
In addition to the mass values specified as part of the Surface, Line and Point loads, the self-weight of
columns, beams, walls and slabs/decks can be automatically included in the mass by selecting the mass
options of the Criteria Self-Weight command in the RAM Manager. If the options are not selected, the
self-masses are not included, even if values are specified in the Modeler.

This feature is similar to that of Self-weight.

Self-mass of Steel Joists is not automatically included. In order for the design to consider the self-mass for
these members, it must be applied by the user as part of the surface load or as a series of separate line loads.

Self-mass of Braces is not automatically included.

For columns and walls there is an option to either split the mass of the column or wall between the two
adjacent levels, half up and half down, or to apply all of the mass of the column or wall to the level above.

For walls with openings, the wall self- mass is reduced to account for the opening (i.e., the openings are
considered when calculating wall self- mass).

When the top of a wall slopes, the wall self-mass is based on the average height of the wall at each end.

The self-mass of Concrete columns and beams is calculated using the value of Unit Weight for Self-Weight,
specified by the user in the Modeler. This value of Unit Weight is separate from the value specified for Unit
Weight used in the calculation of material properties (e.g., modulus of elasticity).

Note that self-masses are based on the center-to-center distance of supports and floor-to-floor heights of
beams and columns respectively. This means that there is a duplication of self-mass at the joints. The
program does not make any attempt to reduce this.
6.5.4 Effects of Sloping Framing
In the Modeler, Surface and Line Live loads that are applied to sloping framing areas should be assigned
magnitudes equivalent to their projected area loads (for Surface loads) and projected length loads (for Line
loads). Live Loads specified in most building codes are already specified as projected area loads, so no
modification is necessary. Dead Loads should be input as the actual loads, based on the actual weights; the
program accounts for the effects of sloping. Figure 6-14 shows how beam Live loads are dealt with in the
RAM Structural System. Figure 6-14a shows the load as applied by the user. The load is then transformed to
calculate the load per unit length along the member, as shown in Figure 6-14b. The load is transformed
again to calculate both the perpendicular and axial components along the member, as shown in Figure
6-14c. In RAM Frame both the perpendicular and axial components are considered in the analysis and
design. See Section 5.4 for information on the effects of sloping framing on Live Load reduction for Roof
Live Loads.

Technical Notes

Figure 6-14. Handling Loads on Sloped Members

6.5.5 Loads on Slab Edges (One-way Slab Systems)
For slab edges (i.e., the area of slab between beam centerline and edge of overhanging slab), loads are
carried back to the beam as if the deck is perpendicular to the beam, regardless of the actual deck
orientation. When laying down polygons to define surface loads it is important to lay them down such that
they include the slab edge rather than end at beam centerline. If the area between the beam and the edge
does not fall inside of a load polygon, no load will be applied. It is permissible to assign a different load to
the slab edge than to the opposite bay.

Slab edge lines can be laid out either parallel to neighboring beams, or they can be defined in a free-form.
The program carries out a few automated steps to figure out slab edge load polygons, and then computes
projected loads within slab-edge load polygons. The projected loads are applied on beams. It should be
mentioned that the current implementation works on purely geometric properties of slab edges and
neighboring beams even though projecting loads onto beams may involve a more elaborated analysis
approach. Instead, a simplified approach is attained in the current procedure, which leads to acceptable
results for most configurations. In the following subsections, the current implementation is briefly explained
and some limitations of the current approach are addressed.

Procedure Details
Two closed polygons are first determined by the program: beam-loop polygon and slab-edge polygon (this
is indicated in the first figure below with red and green lines, respectively). Note that the beam-loop
polygon might be composed of beams, joists or walls. Then, the area between the slap-edge and beam-loop
polygons is partitioned into load polygons, which is used to distribute loads on slab edges (see the second
figure below). These load polygons are generated in such a way that any angle between two beams (or
walls) is halved outward. Finally, any loads (point, line or surface loads) detected on load polygons are
projected back onto beams.

It is important to know that there must be at least one close loop with beams (including joist and walls), and
one closed loop with slab edges. Otherwise, the program cannot construct load polygons and cannot process
loads on slab edges. For some configurations, generated load polygons may not be acceptable (in order to
see this, it is suggested to check projected loads on beams in Steel beam module). A typical example is
given in Figure 6-16. If this is the case, it is suggested that loads should be first removed from these areas,
and then manually applied to neighboring members. Any loads (point, line or surface loads) found inside or
on the load polygons are projected back to beams (or walls). This is carried out in such a way that the loads
Technical Notes
are tribbed perpendicular to the beams (straight back to beams). Thus, loads found on the corner of slab
edges are skipped (see Figure 6-17).

(b)
Figure 6-15 (a) Slab-edge and beam-loop polygons are shown in green and red colors,
respectively; (b) Generated slab edge load polygons

Figure 6-16 Improper load polygon example

Figure 6-17 Loads located within shaded area are ignored
Technical Notes
6.5.6 Openings and Penetrations
Loads on slab edges around openings (created in the RAM Modeler with the Layout-Slab-Openings
command) are treated as described earlier. No load is applied to the area within the opening, even if it falls
within a load polygon.

Penetrations (openings created in the RAM Modeler with the Layout-Slab-Penetrations command) have
no effect on loads. Their presence is ignored by the program when calculating member loads. Their purpose
is to limit the effective flange width of composite beams in the RAM Steel Beam Design module.
6.5.7 Positive Loads, Negative Loads, and Skip Loading
On the outputs, gravity loads are referred to as Positive or Negative. A Positive load is a downward acting
load while a Negative load is an upward acting load. For simple span beams, Positive loads create beam
reactions which become Positive loads on the supporting members. However, Positive loads on a cantilever
create uplift on the backspan support, the reaction of which becomes a Negative load on the supporting
member. Negative loads only occur as a result of cantilevered beams or from user-defined negative loads.
The program keeps track of Positive and Negative loads independently.

On the outputs, moments and reactions are labeled Maximum Positive and Maximum Negative. If there is
no Negative value, it is listed as 0.0 or not shown at all. If there is no Positive value, it is listed as 0.0 or not
shown.

As required by Code, when a beam is cantilevered at one or both ends RAM Steel Beam Design skip loads
the Live load on adjacent spans and alternating spans such as to create the maximum moments, deflections,
and reactions. Not only does RAM Steel Beam Design skip load the Live loads, it applies the Positive and
Negative loads on alternating spans such that the worst conditions are calculated.

Roof Live Loads are also skip loaded.

RAM Frame does not skip load the Live loads except when calculating the reactions on the frame members
from gravity members with cantilevers.
6.5.8 Gravity Loads on Walls
The floor loads that are distributed to a wall at a particular level are calculated by the program, and loads in
Gravity walls are distributed to supporting members below, whether a beam, column or another wall based
on a simple vertical takedown of loads. For such multi-level wall systems, a more precise takedown of wall
forces can be obtained by including all walls as part of the lateral system and performing a frame analysis in
RAM Frame.

Load Reduction factor is calculated for walls. All wall output is in terms of reduced live load for the Live
Load cases.
6.5.9 Penthouse / Mechanical Levels
It will be fairly common to have penthouse or mechanical levels above the roof level modeled in the RAM
Modeler that have no lateral system in common with the main lateral system. The lateral system of these
levels may not even be included in the model. It may be undesirable to have large generated
Technical Notes
story\diaphragm forces applied to these levels. The user can prevent this for seismic forces by using the
Combine option in the Loads - Masses command or for wind forces by using the No Exposure option of the
Loads - Exposure command. Note that for generated wind loads, specifying No Exposure on the uppermost
level(s) causes the program to ignore those levels entirely (while specifying No Exposure on an intermediate
level merely causes the program to distribute the pressures at that story to the adjacent stories).

It may be preferable to model these levels without any lateral members, and allow the program to calculate
the story\diaphragm forces without using the Combine option or the No Exposure option as explained
above. In that situation, the program calculates the story\diaphragm forces for all levels, then checks to see
if the uppermost level(s) have any lateral members. If the upper levels(s) have no lateral members, the
calculated story\diaphragm forces are automatically combined down to the highest level that does have
lateral members.

Note that in a Dynamic analysis the masses at levels with no lateral members are ignored unless the user
combines them to levels below or above.
6.5.10 Loads on Stub Cantilevers
Gravity Loads on a stub cantilever framing into a lateral member (column, beam or wall) are taken into
account in the program. Gravity Loads on Frame Members show gravity loads due to stub cantilevers.

If stub cantilever is a gravity member and framing into a lateral wall or beam, loads on the stub are
transferred to the beam/wall as a concentric moment and torque in addition to point load.

If stub cantilever is a gravity member and framing into a lateral column, loads on the stub are transferred to
the column as a point load and moment.

If stub cantilever is a lateral member, it is directly included in analytical model and loads on the stub
directly applied onto itself.
6.5.11 Partition Loads
Partition loads are one of the live load types. In RAM Frame, they are internally added to unreducible live
loads so that they are not separately reported neither analyzed.
6.6 Element Stiffness Formulations
RAM Frame contains 3D beam, brace, column and wall elements. Both buildings and industrial structures
can be modeled using a combination of these basic elements. The element stiffness properties, assumptions
and limitations of these elements are discussed in this section. All the elements are assumed to be linear
elastic and obey the small deflection assumption.
6.6.1 Beam Element Formulation
An elastic 1
st
order 3D beam finite element is used and it has twelve degrees of freedom as shown in Figure
6-18. These are the three rotations and three translations at each of the beam element. Axial, bending and
torsional deformations are considered in the stiffness formulations. In addition, shear deformations are also
Technical Notes
integrated into the formulation considering equivalent shear area concept (McGuire, W., Gallagher, R.H.,
and Ziemian, R.D., 2000). The effects of rigid end zones are accounted for in the formulation and
transformation of beam elements.

Figure 6-18. Three Dimensional Beam Element

The beam element can model only prismatic sections. Some beam members may have more than two nodes.
This is due to the fact that beam types such as cantilevers, beams in chevron and eccentric braces or beams
with columns or girders framing to a point along their span are in fact divided into beam finite elements
internally by the program. However, as far as member force outputs and summaries are concerned, these
beams will still be treated as single beams.
6.6.2 Column Element Formulation
Similar to the 3D beam element, the stiffness matrix of a column element is defined in terms of twelve
degrees of freedom. The effects of rigid end zones are also accounted for in the formulation and
transformation. The element formulation includes axial, bending torsional and shear deformations. The
stiffness formulation of a column assumes that the column element is prismatic. Any sloped column cann be
defined.

6.6.3 Brace Element Formulation
The formulations for brace elements are basically the same as those of a column element. Axial, shear,
bending and torsional deformations are considered. However, brace elements can span in any direction in a
vertical plane between two floors with their major direction always in the vertical plane. Brace elements can
also span across multiple floors. A set of additional transformations are required to transform the stiffness of
brace elements to the global coordinate system. Specifying releases in all the three rotational directions
reduces brace elements to simple truss elements with axial deformation capability only.

The brace element of RAM Frame does not include the effects of rigid end zones.
2
w
2
u
2 z
2 y
2 x
1
w
1 z
2
v
1 y
1
v
1
u
1 x
X
Z
Y
Node I
Node J
Technical Notes
6.6.4 Wall Element Formulation
Walls are meshed and represented with a collection of shell finite elements. Currently, an option to include
shell out-of-plane stiffness (bending) is provided to the user. If the out-of-plane stiffness is not considered in
analysis, walls are acted only in their in-plane direction (membrane action).

The shell finite element is a quadrilateral shell element and it has a total of six degrees of freedom at its
each node: three translational, two bending and one drilling. The formulation for element stiffness
matrix includes membrane stiffness and plate bending stiffness. These stiffness matrices are calculated
separately and then combined to form element stiffness matrix for the shell element.

The membrane stiffness accommodates three degrees of freedom at each node, namely two in-plane
translational and one drilling degrees of freedom. The formulation utilizes Allman type shape functions
within Hughes-Brezzi variational formulation framework. It includes a correction matrix to remove any
existing membrane locking from element behavior. Also, another correction matrix is applied to calculated
stiffness matrix in case of warped planes of shell (Ibrahimbegovic, at. al., 1990; Taylor, 1997; and Long at.
al., 2004).

The plate bending stiffness is derived based on thin plate assumption and it is a typical Discrete Kirchoff
Element (shear deformations over the thickness of the element ignored). The formulation includes three
degrees of freedom at each node: remaining two rotational degrees of freedom and one translational degrees
of freedom, perpendicular to the plane of the shell.

Unlike beam, brace and column elements whose stiffness coefficients are obtained exactly, the shell finite
element gives results that are exact or close to the theoretical solution only if a finer mesh is used and
convergence achieved. For most practical purposes, the use of only a single wall element in a typical bay
may significantly underestimate deflections. In some cases, it could also give wrong results. RAM Frame
automatically meshes wall systems in a building. In general, a coarse mesh for walls lead overstiff wall
systems while a fine mesh for walls gives more flexible results. The reader is referred to Section 5.7 for
further information.

Since individual wall elements are basically two dimensional elements, singularity could occur during the
solution process if shell out-of-plane stiffness is not included in analysis. RAM Frame provides a very small
out-of-bending stiffness for walls to prevent such singularities if necessary.

RAM Frame assembles the stiffness coefficients of its elements in a 3-Dimensional fashion. Therefore,
walls that intersect at an angle (and hence share common nodes) form a 3-D system and the 3-D behavior is
captured by the analysis. However, member force outputs will be for the individual components of the wall,
and not for the system.

RAM Frame assumes that wall finite elements at the lowest story are foundation nodes, i.e. they are fixed at
the bottom. If both ends of the wall are foundation nodes, the internal nodes at the base created by the mesh
are also considered foundation nodes. If only one end of the wall is a foundation node, the internal nodes are
not considered foundation nodes. The reader is also referred to Section 6.4.2 and Section 6.4.4 for more
information about how reactions at wall foundations level are calculated and how meshing walls impact
foundation node configuration.

Technical Notes
It should be know that a user can define two separate crack factors for concrete walls: one for membrane
(in-plane) actions, and one for bending (out-of-plane) action. These crack factors are applied to the stiffness
properties of concrete walls and hence, their stiffness for in-plane and out-of-plane are reduced with the
crack factors.

Rigid end effects are not applicable for walls.
6.7 Assembly of Stiffness and Mass Coefficients
6.7.1 Stiffness Matrix
RAM Frame assembles the building (global) stiffness matrix considering all lateral members in a 3-D
fashion. As a result of this, there is full compatibility of displacements and equilibrium of forces at all nodal
points in the building structure. The stiffness matrix assembled is a sparse, symmetric system.

By default, the assembled stiffness matrix is in memory (random access memory, RAM). The in-core
solvers directly solve system in memory. For large structures, out-of-core solvers are recommended, which
directly work with files on hard disk. See Section 6.1 provides further information.
6.7.2 Mass Matrix
For building structures, the masses are assumed to be lumped at the centers of mass of the diaphragms for
rigid diaphragms or it is distributed among frames if it is a pseudo-flexible diaphragm or it is spatially
distributed over diaphragms if it is a Semirigid diaphragm. It should be noted that computed mass matrix is
always a diagonal matrix.

Referring to rigid diaphragm, RAM Frame provides an option whereby users can specify that the masses of
stories such as penthouses, mechanical levels and stair landings be combined to the mass of another
diaphragm as desired. However, for Eigen Value Analysis, it is necessary that each lateral stiffness equation
(i.e., associated with rigid diaphragms) have a corresponding non-zero mass coefficient. Therefore,
whenever the user requests such combining of mass, RAM Frame combines the mass to the desired
diaphragm, however, if the original diaphragm contains lateral members, then 5% of its original mass is
assigned to its corresponding entry in the mass matrix. The combining of masses will affect not only the
inertia response (periods and modes) but also the distribution of generated seismic loads. The seismic
diaphragm loads will be generated based on the combined mass distribution as requested by the user.
6.8 Solution Techniques
6.8.1 Static Analysis
A version of Gauss elimination (decomposition) is implemented to solve the system equations:

= (6.4)

Technical Notes
where is assembled global structure stiffness matrix, is load matrix in global system and is the global
displacement matrix (i.e., solution of equilibrium equations).

In in-core direct solver, the solution algorithm used performing the factorization of the left-hand-side of the
above equation is referred to as Crout elimination ( =
decomposition). Once the factorization is

completed, the unknown displacements are calculated by back-substitution [Hughes, T.J.R, 2003]. The
current implementation also adopts an in-core direct solver supported with band-width optimization [Siek,
et. al., 2002], where the solution procedure utilizes a sky-line (column-wise) storage scheme to store only
values below the sky-line of . Thus, a sparse global stiffness matrix is obtained, provided that both storage
requirements and analysis time to solve the above equation are optimized.

In addition, an in-core sparse solver (from INTEL-MKL, 2008) is also available, which is mainly used for
high performance computations (ideal for big models).

In a typical RAM Frame run, the force matrix contains a number of load cases. The corresponding
displacement vector also has as many columns as the number of load cases. Note that there is no limit on
the number of load cases that can be handled in a single run.

6.8.2 Dynamic Analysis
Eigen value extraction (obtaining lowest modes that are usually the most important modes in considerations
of dynamic response of a building) and response spectrum analysis constitute the dynamic capabilities of
RAM Frame.
6.8.3 Eigenvalue Problem
The free vibration equations of equilibrium are of the form:

+
= (6.5)

The generalized Eigen value problem can be formulated as follows:

= (
) = (6.6)

in which is the global stiffness matrix and is the lumped diagonal building mass matrix.

The Eigen value extraction consists of determining the lowest frequencies (, which also corresponds to
highest periods) and mode shapes () of the structure. The fundamental structural periods in the global X
and Y directions can be used in the generation of equivalent static seismic loads.

The subspace iteration method (Bathe, 1996) is used to extract these quantities. The method is mostly
effective in an Eigen value problem where lowest frequencies (i.e., highest periods) are of interest while
higher frequencies are not. Therefore, the method is particularly focused on obtaining the lowest frequencies
instead of obtain all frequencies. The subspace iteration method basically consists of setting starting trial
iteration vectors and using them to form a reduced subspace of the problem, which is conveniently solved
by generalized Jacobi method. The Eigen values and Eigen vectors (dynamic mode shapes) are determined
Technical Notes
and iterations carried out until convergence is achieved. A check is carried out to verify that the required
Eigen values and corresponding eigenvectors are evaluated.

Referring to rigid diaphragm concept, building masses are lumped (concentrated) at rigid diaphragm mass
centers. This leads to a modeling configuration where only a few nodes have mass and vast majority of the
nodes are massless. RAM Frame applies a static condensation method to remove these massless degrees of
freedom from the solution since they do not have any effect in calculating dynamic properties of structures
(i.e., periods of structures and Eigen vectors). Hence, the reduced system after static condensation is solved
by the subspace iteration method. For pseudo-flexible diaphragms, diaphragm masses are distributed
among contributing frames in the diaphragm, based on user defined frame participation ratios. And finally
for Semirigid diaphragms, spatial distribution of diaphragm mass is directly taken into account in such a
way that computed mass over each diaphragm is distributed among diaphragm nodes and then the system is
solved for Eigen values with distributed masses.

Calculated dynamic properties of structures are reported in "Periods and Modes" report. In the current
implementation, calculated mode shapes are normalized with respect to the building mass matrix. Thus, the
following equation is always satisfied:

= (6.7)

where is identity matrix. In literature, there exist different normalization techniques. It should be noted,
however, that analysis results do not change based on the chosen normalization method. The above method
is chosen because of its numerical advantages in computer implementations.

As seen in the above equation, the mode shapes values are units-dependent due to the linearization method.
A special note is added to the end of the report to provide some guidance regarding mode shapes and their
relationship to the selected units.
6.8.4 Response Spectra Analysis
In a response spectra analysis, the program evaluates modal story and joint displacements and member
forces for a given digitized acceleration vs. period response spectrum. RAM Frame has a library of common
response spectra such as El Centro (1940), discretized UBC and NEHRP. Users can also create response
spectra tables (See the RAM Manager manual for details). For IBC 2006, 2003, 2000, UBC 1997, China
GB50011-2001 and AS 1170.4-2007 specifications for dynamic analysis, RAM Frame allows users to enter
the parameters that define the spectrum curve to be used.

A response spectra analysis is always preceded by an Eigenvalue analysis. The modal responses associated
with each direction of excitation are then calculated. The modal responses (story displacements, nodal
displacements, member forces etc.) are then combined using any of the two common methods, namely CQC
(complete quadratic combination) and SRSS (square root of the sum-of-squares). Users can select the
desired method while specifying the lateral load cases.

The SRSS method, as its name implies, takes the square root of the sum of the squares of the modal
responses. The CQC method, on the other hand, is based on random vibration theory and combines modal
responses by taking the complete quadratic terms and cross-modal coefficients. The cross-modal
coefficients are evaluated as functions of modal frequencies and damping ratios of the structure.

Technical Notes
It should be mentioned that research has shown that the SRSS method may give errors in three-dimensional
buildings [Wilson, et al., 1981]. As a result, the CQC method is recommended for use for three-dimensional
building structures where the frequencies are often close and the mode shapes coupled. For two-dimensional
structures, the SRSS scheme gives results as good as CQC.
6.8.5 Accidental Torsion in Dynamic Analysis
Most building codes require the inclusion of accidental torsion in both the equivalent static load procedure
and dynamic analysis. The code requirements for evaluating accidental torsion in the equivalent static load
procedures and dynamic response spectra procedures are implemented in RAM Frame.

If the options to consider the plus- and minus eccentricity for each direction are selected, four load cases
will be created. For the dynamic load cases the centers of mass of each floor level are translated by the
amount of eccentricity specified. The stiffness matrices and mass matrices are calculated independently for
each load case, with respect to the translated centers of mass, and the dynamic analysis performed.

It should be noted that accidental torsion effects can be included in analysis for Rigid and Semirigid
diaphragms (see Section 6.12.3 ). For pseudo-flexible diaphragm, it is assumed that a flexible diaphragm is
not able transmit diaphragm torsional moments, and hence accidental torsion effect is ignored for flexible
diaphragms.
6.9 Boundary Conditions
By default, all foundation nodes are assumed to be fixed in all the six directions. However, a pinned
boundary condition at a foundation node can be achieved through member-end releases. For example, a
moment pin at a node can be modeled by releasing moment restraints of the end of all members that meet at
that node. Note that a foundation node can have releases only in three directions: namely minor axis
rotation, major axis rotation or torsional rotation.

The base at the lowest level of each column is considered a foundation node, even if the column stops at
some level other than the lowest. Stepped foundation conditions can be modeled merely by stopping some
columns in a higher layout type than others. A warning may be given during the Data Check in the RAM
Modeler indicating that such columns have no support below, but the condition is permitted.

In building structures with rigid diaphragms, stories can be restrained from moving in the lateral directions
by specifying that the ground level is at the level of the story of interest. This is done in Criteria - General.
All stories at, or below the ground level will be restrained from moving in any lateral direction (see
Section 3.1.3 for further information).
6.10 Internal Releases
RAM Frame allows users to specify member-end releases (pinned or fixed). Beams, columns and braces can
have releases in any of the minor, major or torsional directions. However, care should be observed while
assigning member end releases to members other than at foundation nodes. Local instabilities could occur if
excessive releases are specified.

Technical Notes
The fixed end force and stiffness coefficients of a member with specified end releases are adjusted internally
by the program.
6.11 Joint Face Distance and Rigid End Zones
The joint face distance is the distance from centerline of joint to the face of the support of a beam or a
column element. It is sometimes referred to as the panel zone. Since there may be negligible deformation in
this zone, analysis based on centerline-to-centerline dimensions of such members may overestimate the
actual deflections of the structure. Criteria - General provides a feature to account for the effect of this area
of little or no deformation by allowing the user to specify that the joint face distance or a portion of it be
considered a rigid end zone. The rigid end zone is then assumed to be infinitely rigid.

Since rigid end offsets reduce the effective length of a member, only the length of the flexible part of the
member is taken for stiffness calculations. The stiffness matrix is then transformed to a coordinate system at
the joints [Ghali and Neville, 1989].

Since the panel zone may actually deform to some degree, considering the full joint face distance as the
rigid end zone may underestimate the deflections. Criteria - General provides a feature for specifying a
reduction factor for the rigid end zone length. This can be helpful to realistically model a members
effective length that will not underestimate the actual deflections.

Member forces are always output at the face of the joint when rigid end zones are considered. For analysis
runs where rigid end zones are neglected, RAM Frame gives users an option to print or display the results
either at the joint centerline or at the face. RAM Frame does not consider rigid end zones for braces and
walls.

Figure 6-19. Joint Face Distance.
Joint face dist. for beam
Top joint face dist.

For column string axis
Bottom joint face dist.
For column string axis
Technical Notes
6.11.1 Joint Face Distance for Beams
The joint face distance at each end of a beam is given as:

= 0.5
(+)

2
+
2
(6.8)

where
ColumnDepth and ColumnWidth are the depth and width, respectively, of a column
extending down from the story level from the end of the beam under consideration.
is the angle between the beam and the major direction of the column that frames to it.
is the angle the beams major axis makes with the horizontal as shown in the
is the angle the column makes with the vertical as shown in Figure 6-19.

When the plane of the beams web does not align with the plane of the column web, and are both
measured in the plane defined by the major axes of the column and beam.

The column below is used to calculate the joint face distance. The joint face distance will be zero at the end
of the beam if the beam or column is pinned in a given axis.
6.11.2 Joint Face Distance for Columns
Columns have joint face distances at the top and the bottom ends in both the major and minor directions.
The column joint face distances are determined from the depth of the beams that frame to the column under
consideration.

At each end of a column the joint face distance is calculated by:

= 0.5
2
(6.9)
= 0.5
2
(6.10)

where:

=

(+ )
( +) (6.11)

and is the depth of the beam that frames into the columns.
and are calculated for each beam that frames to the column, and the largest
value is used. For pinned columns, the rigid end zone distance that corresponds to the direction of moment
release will be zero. Pinned beams produce no rigid end zone.

Technical Notes
Column minor direction
Column major direction
Beam I
Beam Depth

Figure 6-20. Joint Face Distance for Columns.

6.11.3 Effective Lengths and Reduction Factors
RAM Frame uses the effective lengths of beams and columns to calculate the stiffness of these members in
the coordinate system at the end of the rigid end zone. These are then transformed to a coordinate system at
the joint centerline.

Determination of the rigid end zone depth assumes that the beams web is parallel to the column flanges or
parallel to the columns web.

Figure 6-21.

A reduction factor can be used to scale down the effect of the full rigid end offsets. The Rigid End Zone is
then given by:
=

where is the reduction factor.

Technical Notes
For beams the effective length is calculated as:

(6.12)

where is length of member, centerline to centerline,
is the Rigid End Zone at end " and
is the
Rigid End Zone at end .

For columns, the major axis effective length is calculated as:

(6.13)

and the minor axis effective length is calculated as:

(6.14)

Where L is length of member, centerline to centerline,
is the Major Axis Rigid End Zone at Top,
is the Major Axis Rigid End Zone at Bottom,
is the Minor Axis Rigid End Zone at Top

and
is the Minor Axis Rigid End Zone at Bottom.

6.11.4 Loads within Rigid End Zone Lengths
Distributed loads (due to dead or live loads) on rigid end zone lengths of beams are handled as shown in
Figure 6-22. Note that the beam in the figure has rigid end zone lengths at its end and the distributed load
extends over the length.

Technical Notes

Figure 6-22. Handling Distributed Loads on Rigid End Zone Lengths

6.11.5 Beams Spanning in Rigid End Zones
Beams that span to the rigid end zones of other beams are not uncommon. If the rigid end zone correction
for such beams are larger than the beam segment, RAM Frame ignores the rigid end zone and uses the
center to center dimension as the effective lengths.

Similarly, columns in very short dummy stories could have rigid end offsets larger than their own heights.
Again, in such cases RAM Frame uses the clear heights of the columns as their effective lengths without
carrying out rigid end zone corrections.

a b
L
q
qa qb
q
qa+qL/2 qb+qL/2
qL
2
/12 qL
2
/12
qa+qL/2
qb+qL/2
qL
2
/12+(qa+qL/2)a qL
2
/12+(qb+qL/2)b
Technical Notes
6.12 Analysis of Models with Diaphragms
Diaphragms are horizontal structural components, which constitutes primary load transferring path for story
shears and torsional moments to vertical force-resisting members like columns or walls. The way in which
story shears and torsional moments are distributed to the vertical members depends on relative stiffness of
diaphragms with respect to vertical members in the building. Diaphragms are also primary components to
transfer gravity loads to vertical members through its one-way or two-way load distribution action.

Regarding diaphragms in-plane (membrane) stiffness, a diaphragm can be assumed rigid if it is relatively
stiffer than vertical members. The salient characteristics for a rigid diaphragm can be summarized as
follows:

It is assumed that the diaphragm is rigid enough so that no axial, bending and shear deformations are
expected in the plane of the diaphragm. Thus, the diaphragm is displaced as one rigid component
under applied loads.

Diaphragm deformation characteristics can be uniquely defined with three degrees of freedom: two
lateral displacements in the plane of the diaphragm (i.e., one along global X-direction, and one along
global Y-direction) and one rotation perpendicular to the diaphragm (i.e., rotation around global Z-
axis). These three degrees of freedom uniquely define the kinematics of the diaphragms behavior.

Diaphragm mass is similarly lumped at diaphragms mass center and it has three components: mass
in X and Y direction and around Z-axis (i.e., rotational inertia of diaphragm mass)

All members connected to the diaphragm are forced to be moved with the same displacements of the
diaphragm (compatibility requirement). Thus, all these connected members experience the same
lateral displacements in global X- and Y-directions. Plus, additional displacements are imposed due
to the diaphragm rotation around the global Z-axis.

It is interesting to know that it may be possible to see horizontal shear reversal in the diaphragm and
this behavior can be attributed primarily to the nature of structural configuration, relatively irregular
stiffness distribution of vertical members and finally due to the compatibility requirement for rigid
diaphragms.

Story shears are distributed to supporting vertical members based on their relative rigidities. Thus,
stiffer members attract more story shears.

Diaphragm masses can be concentrated at the diaphragm mass centers. And analysis is carried out
based on the assumption that applied loads are imposed through the center of mass of the diaphragm
but they are resisted through diaphragm center of rigidity. Thus, if diaphragms center of rigidity
and center of mass are not coincident, an inherit torsional moment is imposed on the diaphragm and
it is further transmitted to vertical members through the rigid diaphragm.

A diaphragm can be assumed to be flexible (also referred to as pseudo-flexible or semirigid) if it is
relatively less stiffer than vertical members. For the discussion followed below, a flexible diaphragm is
defined as a diaphragm that is not capable of transmitting torsional moments and it is relatively more
Technical Notes
flexible than the vertical members. Important salient characteristics of a flexible diaphragm are summarized
below:

A flexible diaphragm can be viewed as a deep beam where lateral forces are applied through its web.
Thus, the diaphragm experiences flexural deformations in its own plane. Collectors and chords are
used to transmit shear and flexural forces to the vertical members (deep beam flanges can be viewed
as collectors or chords).

It can be assumed that story shears are transmitted to the vertical resisting members based on
tributary areas of the frames.

The diaphragm is not capable of transmitting torsional moments.

In RAM Frame, a diaphragm can be modeled either as rigid, pseudo-flexible or semirigid. This can be
defined for each diaphragm in Story Diaphragm dialog. Note that there can be multiple diaphragms at a
story and the user can assign rigid or flexible for each diaphragm.

Gravity loads are distributed to vertical members through diaphragms by means of two methods: one-way
load distribution and two-way load distribution. Each diaphragm can be composed of one or more decks and
each deck type (one-way or two-way deck) is assigned in the Modeler. One-way load distribution is well
known tributary area load distribution so that gravity loads are projected to beams, walls and columns based
on one-way deck orientation and load tributary areas. Two-way load distribution is carried out through
diaphragms out-of-plane (bending) stiffness. For this reason, the diaphragm should be meshed (the program
meshes the diaphragm automatically if a two-way system is detected). See Section 6.13 for two-way load
distribution.
6.12.1 Rigid Floor Diaphragms
6.12.1.1 In-Plane Stiffness
The in-plane stiffness of the floor systems of most building structures are very high compared to the
stiffness of framing members. As a result, the in-plane deformations can be neglected, assuming that it is
infinitely stiff for axial deformations. Furthermore, columns and walls connected to a rigid diaphragm will
have the same lateral displacements. Based on this assumption, forces on rigid diaphragms are distributed to
connected members according to their relative stiffness. RAM Frame uses this assumption to reduce the size
of the system equations of buildings with such floor types. If the Rigid Diaphragm option is selected, the
program automatically carries out the necessary transformation for all the elements to arrive at a system
equation that allocates only three in-plane degrees of freedom for each diaphragm.

The equations that govern the transformation of the in-plane lateral displacements of each member to that of
the lateral displacements at the center of mass are:

=
(6.15)

=
(6.16)

(6.17)

Technical Notes
where
and
are the lateral displacements at the center of mass of a diaphragm, and and are
the distances from the point of interest to the center of mass of the diaphragm.

For dynamics, the predominant masses in such buildings are the ones that correspond to the three degrees of
freedom per story (translation in X and Y direction and rotation around Z-axis). In the dynamic analysis of
buildings with rigid diaphragms, RAM Frame evaluates corresponding stiffness and mass coefficients in
these three degrees of freedom.

When all nodes on a beam are connected to the diaphragm, the rigidity of the diaphragm prevents any axial
deformations of the beam from being considered; there are no relative in-plane displacements between any
two points on the diaphragm. This means that there will be no axial load attributed to the beam. However, if
any node along a beam is disconnected from the diaphragm, the beam will receive axial load.

For Chevron type and eccentric braces, RAM Frame automatically disconnects the interior nodes of the
beam from the diaphragms. As a result, the link beams in such braces will have axial forces. However, note
that for each disconnected node in the building three additional degrees of freedom are introduced in the
system equations. Disconnecting these nodes from diaphragms not only increases the degrees of freedom of
the structure and hence the size of the system equation to be solved, but also results in a softer structure.

Columns can also be disconnected from the diaphragms. This is done in the RAM Modeler where the user
defines the slab edges. Columns outside the region bounded by the slab edges will be automatically
disconnected from the diaphragm. When columns are supported by a beam, the node at the base of the
column is automatically disconnected from the diaphragm. Specifying penetrations or slab openings around
a column also disconnects the column from a diaphragm. When columns are supported by a beam, the node
at the base of the column is automatically disconnected from the diaphragm. Nodes can also be
disconnected (or connected) in RAM Frame by using the Disconnect option in the Assign Nodes
Diaphragm Connection command.

The Rigid Diaphragm option can be specified using Criteria - Diaphragm. When the Rigid Diaphragm
option is selected, lateral forces are typically input as story forces, either user-specified or generated, applied
to the diaphragm. Lateral nodal loads can also be applied at any node in the structure. The diaphragm acts as
the mechanism by which the story forces are distributed to the individual frame members.

When the Rigid Diaphragm option is selected, story displacements and story drift outputs are available. For
stories with all columns and braces disconnected from the diaphragm, RAM Frame assumes that there is no
diaphragm at that level. As a result, story displacements and drifts of zero are printed for such a story level
since its only displacements are the joint displacements of the disconnected nodes.

For building models with no diaphragms, such as industrial buildings, only nodal displacements are
available. Since story drifts and drift ratios have no meaning for such buildings, RAM Frame does not
evaluate these quantities when the No Diaphragm option is selected.

The option should not be used if the diaphragm lacks sufficient rigidity for this type of analysis to be valid.

If the No Diaphragm option is selected, lateral forces must be input as nodal loads.

Technical Notes
6.12.1.2 Sloping Framing Effect
In the context of sloped framing it is important to note that the diaphragm is always assumed to be rigid on a
horizontal plane, even though the members in the floor may be sloped. The effects of this are illustrated in
Figure 6-23.

Figure 6-23 Sloping Framing Effects on Rigid Diaphragms

In addition, any story mass associated with the diaphragm is assumed to occur on the horizontal plane only.
Therefore, both user-specified and generated story lateral forces are applied to the horizontal plane of the
sloped diaphragm, at the height of the story.

Any sloped beam attached to the diaphragm will be constrained in the horizontal plane. However, unlike the
case of a horizontal beam, the sloped beam will experience varying axial force along its length due to the
component of gravity load acting along the longitudinal axis of the member. In addition, under lateral loads the
sloped beam member may have the same lateral displacements with the diaphragm, but the relative vertical
displacements of the beam-ends could again result in axial forces in the beam.

If the effects of the rigid diaphragm assumption are too severe, the user should specify No Diaphragm
(using the Criteria Diaphragm command in RAM Frame) for this level, and apply any story forces as
Nodal Loads (Nodal Loads are defined in Elevation View in the Modeler).
Technical Notes

6.12.1.3 User Defined Seismic and Wind Load Cases
Currently the program allows the engineer to specify user-specified seismic and wind cases for rigid
diaphragms as shown in the following figures.

Regarding Seismic Story Forces for buildings with rigid diaphragms, force, direction angle, and the X and Y
coordinates are needed to be defined for each diaphragm. By default, X and Y coordinates are at
diaphragms mass centers. If any eccentric loading is needed, the user needs to adjust X and Y locations so
that any difference between X, Y coordinates and mass center coordinates is considered as diaphragm
eccentricity.

For buildings with semirigid diaphragms, force, direction angle and eccentricities (e
x ,
e
y
) are needed. Note
(e
x ,
e
y
) is only applicable for semirigid diaphragms. See Section 6.12.3.4 for more information.

Figure 6-24 User Specified Seismic Story Forces

Wind Story Forces for buildings with rigid diaphragms, the user needs to enter force, direction angle and
wind exposures, in X and Y directions for each diaphragm. Wind percentages (WF, LF) and eccentricities
(e
x,
e
y
) are only applicable for semirigid diaphragms (see Section 6.12.3.5 ).

Technical Notes

Figure 6-25 User Specified Wind Story Forces

6.12.1.4 Analysis with Two-way Decks
The diaphragm is meshed if a two-way deck is found inside a diaphragm. Note that the diaphragm type can
be rigid or semirigid. The program locks the diaphragm for lateral analysis if it is a rigid diaphragm. Hence,
A two-way load distribution is considered for gravity loads. This is accomplished by out-of-plane
(bending) stiffness of the diaphragm
For lateral analysis, the diaphragm is locked: the diaphragm in-plane stiffness is represented with 3
degrees of freedom (translations in X and Y directions and rotation around Z-axis).
This procedure is automated and transparent to the user.
6.12.2 Pseudo-Flexible Floor Diaphragms
It is assumed that flexible diaphragms are not able to transfer torsional moments and that story shears are
transferred to vertical members based on tributary areas of the frames. Under these observations, it is fair to
conclude that each frame acts independently from the others. Therefore, behavior of a flexible diaphragm
can be represented by the help of independently acting frames in the diaphragm followed by resolving story
shears for each frame.

Based on this observation, a feature is provided in RAM Frame to capture the behavior of flexible
diaphragms. It is referred to as pseudo-flexible diaphragm since the behavior of the flexible diaphragm is
not directly captured by considering finite stiffness of the diaphragm, but rather by considering frame
partitioning of the diaphragm (i.e., by use of independently acting frames with distributed story shears).

To this end, frame effective participation ratios are required for each frame, which explicitly define what
percentage of the story forces are resisted by each frame at the diaphragm. Note that the effective ratios can
be approximated due to tributary area of each frame.

Technical Notes
It is essential and expected that the user first assigns frame numbers to the members. It should be noted that
this information directly affects analysis results. The effective participation ratios are then entered in the
Pseudo-Flexible Diaphragm Properties dialog.

After building base shear for a wind or seismic load case is calculated, the program distributes the base
shear over the height of the building according to the chosen design code. Once diaphragm load (which is a
fraction of the base shear) is calculated for each diaphragm, it is further distributed among the participating
frames in the diaphragm if the diaphragm is flexible (otherwise, for rigid diaphragms, the calculated
diaphragm load is applied at the diaphragms mass center considering any eccentricities). The effective
participation ratios are used to determine how much of the diaphragm load goes to which frame. Thus, it is
important to recognize that the participation ratios assigned for each frame directly affect the validity of
analysis results.

Once the load for each frame is resolved, it is further distributed among members in the frames, based on
either members' relative rigidities or on equal distribution among members (the user can specify which
method is to be used in the dialog). Note that calculated story masses are always distributed
among members equally. If distribution based on relative rigidities of members is chosen, the following
equations are used to evaluate member rigidities:

For columns and braces:
=
3
3
(6.18)

=
3
3
(6.19)

For walls:
=
1
3
3
+
6
5
(6.20)

=
3
3
(6.21)

Finally, frame joint forces are calculated and they are applied as global nodal loads at member joints. This
completes the analysis with flexible diaphragms procedure implemented in the program.

It is always advised to check the Loads and Applied Forces report after analysis completed to review nodal
forces applied at frame joints for pseudo-flexible diaphragms.

In computation of interstory drifts and drift\height ratios for flexible diaphragms, the diaphragm member
displacements are averaged and these averaged values are used as the flexible diaphragm displacements.
Thus, all drift related quantities are based on these averaged values.
6.12.3 Semirigid Floor Diaphragms
6.12.3.1 In-plane Stiffness
Distribution of horizontally applied loads through diaphragms to lateral load-resisting elements depends on
relative rigidity of diaphragms and the resisting elements. In general, diaphragms are assumed to be Rigid if
the distribution is directly proportional to relative stiffness of the lateral resisting members. In this case, the
Technical Notes
diaphragm is able to transfer torsional moments and diaphragm deflections are not significant compared to
the deflections of the resisting members. On the other hand, the diaphragm is referred to as Flexible\None
(none-rigid) if horizontally applied loads are not distributed to the resisting elements based on their relative
stiffness (i.e., the distribution is independent of the relative stiffness). In this case, the diaphragm is not able
to transfer any diaphragm torsional moments and diaphragm deflections are significantly larger compared to
the deflection of the resisting members.

For the cases where diaphragm deflections and resisting members deflections are in the same order of
magnitude, then such diaphragms cannot be categorized as Rigid or Flexible\None. Instead, it is referred to
as a Semirigid diaphragm, which basically represents a diaphragm condition between Rigid and
Flexible\None. Analysis with semirigid diaphragms considers diaphragms stiffness and thus, it reflects real
diaphragm deflections and provides a more involved load distribution among the resisting members.

It should be noted that diaphragm properties (such as thickness, E, etc) and its dimensions do not alone
reflect whether diaphragm is categorized as rigid, none-rigid or semirigid. Rather, its interaction with the
resisting members and relative stiffness of diaphragms as well as of the resisting members plays a major
role in this decision. Many building codes provide some guidelines for determination of diaphragm types.

If a diaphragm is defined as Semirigid in RAM Frame, then the program automatically meshes the
diaphragm. Most of the meshing details are taken care of by the program so that the user does not need to go
over this tedious process manually. Figure 6-26 shows the dialog where diaphragm type can be assigned as
semirigid.

If applicable, crack factor is applied to in-plane thickness of the diaphragm. Hence, in-plane (membrane)
stiffness of the semirigid diaphragm is reduced by applying crack factor.

Figure 6-26 Story Diaphragm Dialog
Technical Notes

6.12.3.2 Eccentric Loading
Several building codes require eccentric loading on diaphragms to account for accidental torsion effects.
Referring to models with rigid diaphragms, such eccentric loading is accomplished by simply shifting loads
to a new position that accounts for eccentric distances. For instance, concentrated story loads for seismic
load cases are first calculated at diaphragms mass center and then they are applied at their shifted locations.
For wind load cases, a similar procedure is followed: story wind loads are calculated based on building
profiles (one for X and one for Y-direction) and then they are lumped and applied at their shifted locations.

On the other hand, for models with semirigid diaphragms, the above procedure is not applicable since such
diaphragms are meshed and loads on these diaphragms are not concentrated at a certain location but rather
they are distributed over the diaphragm for seismic\dynamic load cases and they are applied along building
edges for wind load cases. To address these issues for semirigid diaphragms, different methods are
implemented and they are explained in the following sections.

Eccentric Seismic and Response Spectra Load Cases on Semirigid Diaphragms
After a semirigid diaphragm is meshed, the program processes all mass loads over the diaphragm. At the
end of this process, all the mass are converted into point (nodal) mass loads and they are directly applied at
mesh nodes. In order to explain the current method used for seismic and response spectra load cases, an
example is provided in this section (in the following example, a diaphragm loaded in (+) Y direction with
(+) eccentricity). The following steps are pursued for this purpose:

Figure 6-27 . Procedure for Eccentric Seismic Loads for Semirigid Diaphragms

(cm,m)
(cm1,m1)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(cm2,m2)
(cme,m)
Technical Notes

The program calculates mass center for the diaphragm. This is shown in Figure 6-27a. Mass center
line is determined (i.e., a line passing through the mass center and parallel to global Y-axis)

For the load case in Y-direction, the diaphragm is divided into two zones: one zone at the left side
and one zone of right side of the mass center line (Figure 6-27 b). For each zone, mass centers are
calculated according to the following equations:

1
=

=1

=1
=

=1
1
(6.22)

2
=

=1

=1
=

=1
2
(6.23)

Where
1
and
2
are the mass center coordinates for the zone 1 and 2, respectively (see Figure
6-27-b). Note that the index is reserved for nodes located inside Zone 1, and the index is
reserved for nodes in Zone 2.

If it is a rigid diaphragm, calculated seismic story loads are concentrated at a single point
,
(i.e.,
= + for (+) eccentricity in Y-direction). In other words, the mass

center is shifted to its new location,
to account for eccentric loading. Once the concentrated

load is applied at this location, additional moment (i.e., accidental torsion) is created at .

For a semirigid diaphragm, two new terms are introduced,
1
and
2
, and they are obtained
from solving the following two equations:

=

1

1
+
2

2

1
+
2

(6.24)

1
+
2
=
=1
= = Total mass of the diaphragm (6.25)

Then,
1
=
=1

2
(6.26)

2
= +
=1

2
(6.27)

The terms
1
and
2
can be interpreted as the amount of lumped masses at each zone so that
the final system has a combined mass center at
. Then, the program calculates effective mass

coefficients for each zone as follows:

1
=

1

=1
=

1
1
(6.28)

2
=

2

=1
=

2
2
(6.29)
Technical Notes

Finally, each point mass (or calculated seismic point load at each node) in zones 1 and 2 are
multiplied with
1
and
2
, respectively. Once, each point mass (or point seismic load) is modified as
explained above, the analysis is carried out with this modified configuration. Note that it is for
seismic load cases when each seismic point loads are modified with
1
and
2
. Similarly, it is
response spectra load cases when each point mass is modified with
1
and
2
.

The following is summarized based on the above procedure:

1
=

1
1
,
2
=

2
2
(6.30)

And also note that diaphragm mass is always conserved

:
1
+
2
=
1
+
2
= (6.31)

1
+
2
2
= (6.32)

Figure 6-28a shows an example of eccentrically loaded diaphragm (i.e., Y+E). Note that the arrows of the
right side of the diagram are relatively longer than those on left side, which indicates that these seismic
point loads are amplified with
2
whereas those on left side are reduced with
1
. In addition, the deflected
shape shown in Figure 6-28b indicates presence of eccentric loading.

(a) (b)
Figure 6-28 . (a) Eccentric seismic loads, (b) deflected shape under eccentric seismic loads

If it is a seismic load case, the seismic point loads are modified as explained above. If it is a dynamic load
case (Response Spectra Analysis), nodal masses are modified according to the same method explained.

Technical Notes

Eccentric Wind Load Cases on Semirigid Diaphragms
Wind pressures on semirigid diaphragms are calculated for each Windward and Leeward surfaces of the
building. Then, these pressures are converted to uniform line loads and applied along semirigid diaphragm
edges as shown in Figure 6-29.

Figure 6-29 . Windward and Leeward Wind Loads on Semirigid Diaphragm

Figure 6-30 . Procedure for Eccentric Wind Loads for Semirigid Diaphragms

Figure 6-30a shows a uniform load applied at Windward side of the building. If diaphragm type is rigid,
then the program converts the uniform load into a concentrated load and applies it at mid-width location of
story (Figure 6-30Figure 6-42b). If there is any eccentricity defined, the concentrated load is shifted to its
location (indicated in the figure with b), or associated moment (w * a * b) is applied at the mid-width
location (Figure 6-30c).

Windward loads
Leeward loads
a/2
a/2
w
w a
b
w a
w a b
(a)
(b)
(c)
Technical Notes

Figure 6-31 . Trapezoidal Load Pattern for Eccentric Wind Loads

In order to account for eccentric loading on a semirigid diaphragm, uniform wind line load is represented
with a trapezoidal load pattern (Figure 6-31). The following equations are solved for new load pattern:

Force Equilibrium:
(
1
+
2
)
2
= (6.33)

Moment Equilibrium:

1

2
8

1

2
8
+
1
+
2
2

1

2
24
+
1
+
2
2

1

2
8
+
2

1
+
2
2

2
12
= (6.34)

Figure 6-32 Equivalent Loading Systems

And solving the above two equations, one can find

1
=
6
= 1
6
(6.35)

2
= +
6
= 1 +
6
(6.36)

It should be noted that the trapezoidal load profile generates the same amount of total load as of the uniform
load, plus it also generates the same moment (w*a*b). This is graphically portrayed in Figure 6-32.

a/2
a/2
w
2
w
1
w
2
w
1
w
w a b
Technical Notes
Figure 6-33 shows an example of eccentric wind loads on a semirigid diaphragm. Note that if there is no
eccentricity defined (Figure 6-33a), the loading profile is linear. Otherwise, it is converted to a trapezoidal
profile (Figure 6-33b) to reflect the effect of eccentric loads.

(a) (b)
Figure 6-33 Eccentrically Loaded Diaphragm for with Load Cases

6.12.3.3 Wind, Seismic and Response Spectra Load Cases

If a diaphragm defined as semirigid, mass associated with the diaphragm (including mass from surface, line
and point loads, which are defined in the Modeler, and member self mass including decks) is distributed to
diaphragm nodes as explained in the previous sections. Center of Mass command on the toolbar menu
shows lumped mass for rigid diaphragms as well as nodal mass assigned to nodes on semirigid diaphragms.
Also, Criteria, Mass & Exposure report shows nodal mass quantities for semirigid diaphragms.
Seismic Load Case

Based on chosen building code, the program calculates building base shear and then it distributes it over the
height of the building as a lateral load to be applied to each diaphragm. Finally, the loads are distributed to
nodes on the semirigid diaphragm, which are in proportion with nodal masses at each node. If t here exist
any eccentricity, these loads are modified as explained in Section 0. Loads and Applied Forces report
tabulates loads applied to each node for semirigid diaphragms.

Analysis is conducted based on distributed nodal masses over semirigid diaphragms. Thus, analysis results
reflect the effect of spatial distribution of mass related to semirigid diaphragms. If t here exist any
eccentricity, nodal masses are modified as explained in Section
Response Spectra Load Case
0.

The wind loads on semirigid diaphragms are automatically computed for both the windward and leeward
side. The wind loads are applied on the diaphragm edges as line loads. The edges on a diaphragm are
internally marked as the windward edge or the leeward edge depending upon the direction of the wind i.e.
+X, -Y etc. The computations of windward and leeward forces are based on the respective pressures and the
normal areas on which the loads are applied. When computing the line load on a diaphragm edge it is
Wind Load Case
Technical Notes
assumed that the edge is covered both above and below the diaphragm. The program applies forces to the
diaphragm edges even if they are partially or fully covered by some other edges e.g. see orange edge in
Figure 6-34.

Some building codes specify a certain minimum wind loading on the structures which acts as a minimum
threshold. These codes, however, dont specify the windward and leeward pressures for such cases. In these
situations program lumps the entire wind load on the windward edges of the diaphragm.

If t here exist any eccentricity, wind line loads are modified as explained in Section 0.

Figure 6-34 . A semirigid diaphragm showing windward and leeward forces

6.12.3.4 User Defined Seismic Load Cases
Currently the program allows the engineer to specify a user-specified seismic load case as shown in the
following figure. Regarding semirigid diaphragms, force, a direction angle, and eccentricities are needed to
be entered (coordinates X and Y are not considered for semirigid diaphragms. they are only applicable for
rigid diaphragms. See Section 6.12.3.4Error! Reference source not found.).

Technical Notes

Figure 6-35 . User defined Seismic Story Forces Dialog

Note that eccentricity definitions (ex , ey) are measured from diaphragm mass center and they are defined
along X and Y directions, respectively:

Figure 6-36 . User Specified Seismic Loads for Semirigid Diaphragms

6.12.3.5 User Defined Wind Load Case
The program allows the engineer to specify a user-specified wind load case as shown in the following
figure. Regarding semirigid diaphragms, force, a direction angle, windward and leeward face percentages
and eccentricities are needed to be entered (coordinates X and Y are not considered for semirigid
diaphragms. they are only applicable for rigid diaphragms. See Section 6.12.3.5).

Technical Notes

Figure 6-37 . User defined Wind Story Forces Dialog

Note that (ex, ey) are eccentricities defined along X and Y directions, respectfully and they are measured
from center of exposure.

Figure 6-38 . User Specified Wind Loads for Semirigid Diaphragms

6.12.3.6 Gravity and Other Load Cases
Gravity loads one one-way decks and gravity loads on two-way decks are treated separately in the program.
One-way load distribution is enforced for gravity loads on one-way decks so that beams, columns, braces
and walls are loaded with gravity loads (including dead and live loads) but they are not applied to meshed
diaphragm. This is the same treatment as used for rigid diaphragms with one-way decks.

Technical Notes
Gravity loads for two-way decks are more involved process. Section 6.13 provides more information.

For other load cases (including notional, and virtual load cases), applied diaphragm loads are uniformly
distributed to nodes on semirigid diaphragms.

6.12.3.7 Drift Calculations
At a given drift point, the program first finds closest shell element at this location. If the drift point is
exactly at one of the corner nodes of the shell, displacements at this node is used for drift computation. If the
point is located inside the shell, then the program calculates drift values from interpolated displacements of
the corner nodes of the shell.

For some building codes, it is required to calculate drift values at mass center of diaphragms. In a very rare
situation if the mass center is happened to be in an opening, then the program collects displacements at the
corner nodes of the opening and uses averages of these displacements in drift computation.

6.12.3.8 Sloped Diaphragm Modeling
Sloping semirigid diaphragms are allowed in the program. Note that this requires that decks must be
redefined in the modeler (each sloped plane must be modeled as a separate deck polygon). In the following
example, roof floor is defined as sloped as indicated in Figure 6-39 (note that columns are lowered at top
and bottom perimeter lines and other columns at center are not). In order to correctly define sloped roof, two
separate deck polygons are modeled (Figure 6-40) and each deck polygon represent a unique sloped plane.
The program automatically calculates sloped plane coordinates based on members (columns, walls, etc)
located inside each deck polygon. And finally, Figure 6-41 shows sloped roof model.

Figure 6-39 . Plane view of sloped roof floor

Figure 6-40 . Each deck polygons uniquely define a sloped plane

Technical Notes

Figure 6-41 . Model with sloped semirigid diaphragm

Any loads (dead, live, snow or roof loads) on sloped diaphragms are also corrected due to sloped planes
(live loads computed on projected areas and dead loads are computed according to true sloped areas).

6.13 Analysis with Two-way Slabs: Out-of-Plane Stiffness (Bending)
Diaphragm slabs can be defined either one-way or two-way slabs. A combination of these two types is also
allowed within the same diaphragm.

With one-way slab system, gravity loads are processed based on tributary area concept: gravity loads are
projected onto lateral members based on deck orientation. This part is the same as if gravity loads on rigid
diaphragms.

On the other hand, loads on two way deck areas are directly applied to diaphragms. In order to achieve this,
the diaphragm should be meshed. The program automatically meshes the diaphragm if it includes any two-
way deck or if it is designated as semirigid. Once it is meshed, gravity loads (line, surface and point loads)
are applied directly to the meshed diaphragm.

An example is given in Figure 6-42: one way deck and two way deck are defined within the same
diaphragm. As shown in Figure 6-43, only two-way deck is directly loaded with gravity loads and the loads
on one-way deck are handled with tributary area approach.

It is important to know that out of plane stiffness for shell elements located inside a two-way deck is
always included in analysis. On the other hand, for shells inside a one-way deck, out of plane stiffness is
not included by default. In order to include out of plane stiffness for shells inside a one way deck, the user
option Include out of plane stiffness for one way decks in Story Diaphragm dialog must be check out.

Technical Notes

Figure 6-42 . One-way and two-way deck example

Figure 6-43 . Two-way deck area subjected to gravity loads

The followings are important to note for two-way slabs:

Gravity loads (including dead, live, roof and snow loads) are applied to two-way slabs

User specified live load reductions for members are used for these members located inside two-way
slab areas.

Decks can be defined as a two-way system in the Modeler. Note that a bending thickness is needed
for considering out-of-plane action (bending or plate action) in two-way load distribution.

A diaphragm is directly meshed if it includes a two-way deck.
Technical Notes

Out of plane stiffness for shells in a two-way deck is always included in analysis.

Gravity loads on two-way decks are handled in a similar way as explained for mass loads. See
Section 6.14.3

Applied story forces command can be used to visually see gravity loads on two-way decks.

Gravity loads report shows calculated gravity loads on two-way decks.

Gravity columns and walls under a two-way deck can be also represented either with vertical springs
or with including these gravity members directly in the analysis (see Diaphragm Stiffness Section in
Section 6.13.1).

If applicable, the program applies crack factor to out-of-plane bending stiffness.

Referring to transfer columns, the followings are important to note

If a transfer gravity column is sitting on a one-way deck, the load in the column is projected to
nearest lateral beams or walls based on the deck orientation.

If a transfer gravity column is sitting a on two-way deck, the load in the column, is applied to the
deck directly.

Lateral Columns that are supported on one-way slabs are not permitted and should not be modeled as
such. The engineer should always apply a supporting lateral beam under this column to appropriately
distribute the loads (the beam can run in the direction of the slab to get the desired behavior). If this
is not done, the results of the analysis may result in instability, large inappropriate displacement of
the column through the one-way slab if the slab is considered semirigid, or distribution of the load
through two-way action in the one-way slab if out-of-plane stiffness is considered on one-way slabs.
In this last case there could be up to a doubling of the transfer load considered for gravity load cases
due to transfer point loads on one-way slabs also being distributed through the framing process and
applied to the supporting lateral beams and walls as a point load.
6.13.1 Diaphragm Out-of-Plane Stiffness
The Story Diaphragm dialog includes several options related to out-of-plane stiffness (bending) for a
meshed diaphragm. If a diaphragm includes a two-way deck, its out-of-plane stiffness is automatically
included in the program. On the other hand, the same is optional for one-way decks. If the user wants to
include the bending stiffness for one-way decks, Included Out-of-Plane Stiffness for One-Way Decks
should be checked.

Additional flexibility provided for two-way deck systems. One can include gravity columns and walls,
which are under a two-way deck, as vertical springs.

Technical Notes
Include Gravity Columns as Vertical Springs: if it is invoked, the program inserts vertical springs
at the locations of all gravity columns inside the meshed diaphragm. A stiffness value of AE/L is
assigned to these springs.

Include Gravity Walls as Vertical Springs: if it is invoked, the program inserts vertical springs at
the locations of all gravity walls inside a meshed diaphragm.

Model Data report tabulates calculated spring stiffness values for these gravity columns and walls. In
addition, Spring Forces report (available after the analysis run) shows how much loads are carried by these
springs.

Figure 6-44 Out-of-Plane Stiffness Controls

In addition, for gravity members (columns and walls) that support a two-way deck, one can include these
gravity members in analysis. This can be carried out by invoking Include Gravity Members option in the
dialog. It should be noted that this is only applicable for gravity members that under a two-way deck.
The followings are applied if the option is selected:
Only those gravity columns and walls under a two-way deck are included in analysis.
These members are only included for gravity load cases (dead and live load cases). One can see
member forces calculated for these members. In addition, the program graphically shows them on
screen but there is no report that prints outs members forces for the gravity members.
These members are excluded when a seismic or wind load case is run. Hence, they do not provide
any stiffness for lateral load cases.
For Eigenvalue analysis (and also for dynamic-response spectra- load cases), the program includes
these members in Eigenvalue calculation.
Deformed shape on screen includes these members.
Technical Notes
Calculated reactions also include reactions at these gravity members.
The program does not calculate any rigid end zone for gravity columns that support a two-way deck.
It is not possible to assign any fixity to these members in the program (member end fixity conditions
can be defined in the Modeler).
In Center of Rigidity calculation for diaphragms, gravity members are never used.

For newly created models, Include Gravity Members option is the default choice by the program. In
addition, it is the engineers responsibility to assign sizes to gravity columns prior to run the model if this
option is selected.
6.14 Diaphragm Meshing and Loads on Meshed Diaphragms
A diaphragm is meshed if and only if
the diaphragm is designated as semirigid or
there exists a two-way deck inside the diaphragm
If any of the above condition is detected, the diaphragm is directly meshed. Note that even if a rigid
diaphragm is meshed if a two-way deck is found inside the rigid diaphragm. The meshing process is fully
automated. It detects all wall intersections with the diaphragm (hence, the diaphragm and walls are attached
at the same mesh points to provide proper load transverse from the diaphragm to walls) as well as deck
polygons, openings, slab edge polygons.

Figure 6-26 shows story diaphragm dialog and it includes several options used for controlling meshing
procedures. In the followings, they are briefly explained.

6.14.1 Diaphragm Boundary
It determines the extension of meshed area of the diaphragm. If Use Slab Edges for Exterior Boundary is
chosen, the program uses slab edges as an exterior boundary of the meshed diaphragm (see Figure 6-45). It
is important to note that the area between the most exterior beams and slab edges are also meshed. If Use
Beams for Exterior Boundary is chosen, the program uses the most exterior beams as exterior boundary of
the meshed diaphragm (see Figure 6-46). Note that there should be a closed beam loop constructed with
exterior beams. Otherwise, the program fails to mesh in the absence of a closed boundary if this option is
chosen, and then it automatically switches to the other option.

Figure 6-45 . Generating diaphragm mesh (Use Slab Edges for Exterior Boundary)

Technical Notes

Figure 6-46 Generating diaphragm mesh (Use Beams for Exterior Boundary)

These two options are provided because
For some configurations, slab edge offset distance may be too small (only a few inches) and there
are many beams running parallel to slab edges. If the first option is chosen, then it is very likely that
very small distorted elements are created between exterior beams and slab edges. Thus, the user is
advised to use the second option, which leads to a more balanced meshed configuration.

For slabs with no beams (like concrete flat slabs) or no closed beam loop exists, then user needs to
use the first option.
6.14.2 Hard Node Density Factor
This factor determines how dense a mesh is generated around a hard node located inside the diaphragm. A
hard node is simply a column or wall end points. For most cases, a value of 1.0 generates a good mesh
around a hard node. An example is defined in the following figure.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 6-47 Hard node density factor, (a) a column and mesh generated around the column based on
the factor (b) 0.1, (c) 1.0, and (d) 5.0
6.14.3 Loads on Diaphragms (Physical and Mass Loads)
Once a diaphragm is meshed and represented with a collection of shells, all loads on the diaphragm are
converted to point loads which are directly applied to the shells. The loads on diaphragms are simply
surface, line or point loads as defined in the Modeler. Any overlapped surface loads are automatically
resolved. Both mass loads and physical loads are processed the same way. The program can also include
self weights and mass from elements including decks.

In the following figures, mass loads are shown but physical loads are also processed the same way.

Technical Notes
Line Loads: they are directly applied to the meshed surface. The program converts line loads into
equivalent point loads which are applied to shells nodes (note that if a line load is crossing any shell
element, then the portion of the line load located inside the shell is extrapolated to the shells nodes
as equivalent nodal loads). An example is given in Figure 6-48.

Point Loads: They are directly applied to the meshed surface. If point load is located directly on a
shell node, it is applied to the node directly. If the point load is located inside a shell element, it is
extrapolated to the shells nodes as equivalent nodal loads. An example is given in Figure 6-49.

Surface Loads: They are also applied to mesh nodes. The program first detects overlapping surface
load areas (the surface load placed last or at very top is considered as active load). Each surface load
on each shell is calculated and then, it is converted to equivalent point loads to be applied at the
shells nodes. An example is given in Figure 6-50.

Members Self weight and Mass: They are directly applied to the members as point loads. This
includes all gravity and lateral beams, columns and walls. An example is given in Figure 6-51.

Self weight and mass for Decks: Similarly, if deck mass is included in analysis, it is again treated as
a surface load and applied to the meshed surface.

Regarding diaphragm masses, two additional options are provided to the user:
Use Calculated: the program processes all masses related loads according to the procedure explained
above. In contrast to rigid diaphragm approach where diaphragm mass is lumped at diaphragm mass
center, this procedure considers a spatial mass distribution over semirigid diaphragms.

Uniformly Distribute Total Mass Over Diaphragm: The total mass calculated for the diaphragm is
distributed to shell elements based on each shells effective area. This method can be used if a truly
uniform mass distribution over the diaphragm exists. Also, it is provided as a alternative method if
Use Calculated method fails to resolve mass polygons over the diaphragm due to some numerical
difficulties.

Technical Notes

(a)

(b)

Figure 6-48 Line load example, (a) Applied line loads (indicated with yellow lines), (b) converted to
point loads applied to mesh nodes directly

Technical Notes

(a)

(b)

Figure 6-49 Point load example, (a) Applied point loads (indicated with yellow circles), (b) converted
to point loads applied to mesh nodes directly

Technical Notes

(a)

(b)

Figure 6-50 Surface load example, (a) Surface loads (indicated with yellow polygons),
(b) converted to point loads applied to mesh nodes directly
Technical Notes

(a)

(b)

Figure 6-51 Members self weight or mass loads, (a) All gravity and lateral members shown, (b)
Calculated loads directly applied to members

6.14.4 Mesh Control Parameters
The section called Mesh Controls is for the mesh generated for semirigid diaphragms (note that any change
in this section also affects the mesh generated for walls).
Max. Distance between Nodes on Mesh Line: it allows the user define the maximum distance
between nodes on wall edges and nodes on semirigid diaphragm edges. The program may generate
Technical Notes
additional nodes closer than user entered value, but it is never allowed to be larger than that value.
The user can generate coarse or fine mesh by setting Max. Distance between Nodes on Mesh Line.
Usually, a coarse mesh gives conservative results since the walls and diaphragms are stiffer. A finer
mesh leads to more flexible walls and diaphragms, which leads better results but it may significantly
increase analysis time. Figure 6-52 demonstrates an example, which shows how this parameter
affects generated mesh density: Figure 6-52 shows a mesh generated with 16 feet whereas it is 2 feet
in Figure 6-52b.

Merge Node Tolerance: Once meshing process for walls and semirigid diaphragms is completed,
the program generates a finite element model for analysis, which is basically composed of nodes and
elements (columns, beams, braces and shells in walls and meshed diaphragms). During this process,
it is possible that several nodes are very close. To have a good (and valid) analytical model, these
nodes are merged to a single node and elements connected to this node are adjusted accordingly. The
Merge Node Tolerance is used in such a way that if distance between any 2 (or more) nodes are
found to be smaller than the Merge Node Tolerance, then they are treated as a single node (i.e.,
these close nodes are merged together).
Geometry Tolerance is mostly used in geometry calculation as a threshold tolerance value. This
should not be confused with a merge (close) node tolerance. Examples are as follows: it is used as a
tolerance to check a node is on a line or to check a point is inside a polygon, etc...

(a) (b)
Figure 6-52 . (a) the mesh is generated with 16 foot max. allowed distance,
(b) the mesh is generated with 2 foot max. allowed distance
6.14.5 Closing Remarks on Diaphragm Meshing
Only lateral members are included during the meshing process. Gravity members are only considered in
finding closed beam loop if Use Beams for Exterior Boundary option is chosen or for inserting vertical
springs as gravity columns and walls (Section 6.13.1)

All openings are accounted for but penetrations are not. After the meshing is completed, the diaphragm is
represented with a collection of finite shell elements. For each shell, the program calculates its properties
(such as thickness, E, etc ) based on the information assigned to decks in the Modeler. This process is
Technical Notes
internally taken care of by the program so that the user does not need to go through this tedious task
manually. The Model Data report provides more information regarding calculated shells properties.

During the meshing process, the following details are taken care of by the program automatically:
Walls and Semirigid Diaphragms

: when a wall is found to be a part of the diaphragm, the mesh
around the wall is generated in such a way that both the diaphragm and the wall are attached to the
same mesh nodes. This provides compatibility between the diaphragm and the walls (hence, the load
transfer from the diaphragm to the wall is ensured in analysis).
Columns and Semirigid Diaphragms

: Similarly, when a column is found to be attached to a
semirigid diaphragm, the interaction between them is taken into account in such a way that both the
column and the diaphragm are attached to the same column point (hence, both load transfer and
compatibility fulfilled).
Beams and Semirigid Diaphragms

: Beams located inside the diaphragm are also meshed along their
lengths. Note that the meshed beams are attached to the diaphragm at the nodes created along their
lengths. It is always guaranteed that no individual shell element crosses the meshed beams.
Deck Geometry:

Any changes in deck geometry are considered during the meshing process. Thus, no
finite element is created that crosses decks with different properties (i.e., E or thickness).
Sloped Diaphragms:
6.12.3.8
A sloped diaphragm can be defined by setting correct orientation of decks
located inside the diaphragm. Each deck represents a unique plane and by adjusting column and wall
elevations inside the deck, one can create a sloped plane for the deck. It is assumed that each sloped
deck constitute a flat-plane (no warped surface allowed). An example is given in Section . l

Column Drop Zones:
In Story Displacement report, diaphragm mass center location is used to show story displacements
for semirigid diaphragms.
The program considers column drop areas during meshing process. Generated
final mesh visually shows column drop zones.

For openings located inside a semirigid diaphragm, the program skips member self weights and mass
for columns and walls that are located inside these openings.
6.15 Eigenvalue Analysis with Meshed Diaphragms: Distributed
Mass Idealization
Building mass is distributed throughout an actual structure. In Eigenvalue analysis of such buildings, it is
usually assumed that mass distribution can be idealized as lumped at the nodes of a discretized structure.
Furthermore, it is generally assumed that building mass is mostly concentrated at story levels and hence
usually no mass is considered between stories.

Technical Notes
For a 3D model, the mass lumped at a node is associated with only 3 translational degrees of freedom, X, Y
and Z (these degrees of freedom are referred to as dynamic degrees of freedom). Rotational mass inertias at
each individual node can be ignored since they have negligible influence on the overall dynamic properties
of building type structures (Chopra, A. K., 2001)

Regarding displacements and rotations (deformation characteristics), six degrees of freedom (3 translational
and 3 rotational) are defined at each node. They are needed for an accurate stiffness representation. Note the
distinction between dynamic degrees of freedom which has a reference to the mass, and Deformation
degrees of freedom which has a reference to the stiffness.

Figure 6-53 . Degrees of Freedom Definitions for 3D Structures

To this end, one can notice that the number of dynamic degrees of freedom may not always match the
deformation degrees of freedom in an analytical model. Hence, there are degrees of freedom with no mass
defined at all and they can be statically condensed out from the solution since they have no influence on
dynamic properties.

Further simplification can be carried out if one assumes that the diaphragm is rigid (i.e., in-plane stiffness of
the diaphragm is infinitely stiff). This is a reasonable assumption for most buildings and it significantly
reduces the number of degrees of freedom. The diaphragm behavior can be represented with only three
(a) Dynamic Degrees of Freedom
(b) Deformation Degrees of Freedom
X
Y
Z
X
Y
Z
Technical Notes
degrees of freedom: translation in X and Y direction and rotation around Z-direction. Building lateral
stiffness is then expressed in terms of these 3 degrees of freedom (usually using master\slave constraint
equations). Similarly, one can also convert a distributed (spatial) network of nodal masses (Figure 6-53a or
Figure 6-55a) to a lumped mass system at the diaphragm mass center (Figure 6-55b). Note that vertical
mass components can be also ignored if no vertical acceleration is considered in analysis.

The user is provided an option in General Criteria dialog that the user can also include nodal mass
components in Z-direction as well (see Figure 6-54). This is only applicable for semirigid diaphragms.

Figure 6-54 . Nodal Mass in Z-direction Option

It should be noted that the configuration shown in Figure 6-55a is equivalent to the configuration shown in
Figure 6-55b as far as dynamic properties (periods and model shapes) of the structure in concerned. One
can use the parallel axis theorem (
2
,
and
are the i
th
node mass value and distance from the
node to the mass center, respectively) to calculate an equivalent rotational mass inertia of the diaphragm
(i.e., 3
rd
degree of freedom in Figure 6-55b).

In RAM Frame, the mass distribution shown in Figure 6-55a is used if the diaphragm is specified as
semirigid while the mass distribution shown in Figure 6-55b is used if the diaphragm is specified as rigid.

Technical Notes

Figure 6-55 . Converting distributed nodal masses (a) into a lumped mass system (b)

The rotational inertia of mass is basically represented with the 3
rd
degree of freedom in Figure 6-55b. The
same effect is actually captured with the distributed nodal masses (i.e., mass particles) as shown in Figure
6-55a. In other words, spatial distribution of mass defined at each node suffices for capturing all essential
dynamic properties (including Eigen modes related to rotational inertias or twisting modes of buildings).
6.16 P-Delta Effects
Additional moments are induced on a structure due to the movement of its mass\weight under lateral loads.
This structural phenomenon is called the P-Delta effect. Various codes of practice require that these effects
be considered in the analysis and design of building structures.

A theoretically exact approach based on nonlinear stiffness formulations is available in the literature. There
are also a number of approximate methods to model these effects. The theoretically exact method involves
the use of iterations for convergence and special non-linear solution algorithms to negotiate the non-linear
part of the load-deflection curve. At each iteration, the nonlinear stiffness terms are evaluated. This is
computationally very expensive procedure. On the other hand, the approximate methods are relatively easy
to implement and use. Most approximate methods in the literature involve modifying the total stiffness
matrix of the structure either by adding fictitious members of negative stiffness or subtracting what is
known as a geometric stiffness matrix.

In RAM Frame, two different methods are implemented to consider P-Delta effects in analysis and they are
explained below. Note that either mass loads or gravity loads (DL+LL) can be used in each one of the
methods.
X
Y
Z
X
Y
Z
(a)
(b)
1
2
3
Technical Notes
6.16.1 Non-iterative P-Delta Method
This method is suited for models with rigid diaphragms (in-plane stiffness action considered). It is an
approximate method developed by Wilson et al (1987), and it is referred to as the Geometric Stiffness
Method. Small deflections are assumed and it involves modifying the stiffness matrix by subtracting what is
called the geometric stiffness matrix.

This method forces P-Delta effects on both static and dynamic (Eigen value extraction) analyses. The
softening effect of P-Delta analysis results in additional story displacements, horizontal shears and
overturning moments. The same softening effect also results in lengthening of the periods of the structure.
Note that the reactions components obtained from analysis where P-Delta effects are considered contain
additional horizontal shears and overturning moments.

The details of the P-Delta method are given in the reference. However, certain modifications have been
made in the implementation of the method in RAM Frame. For buildings with columns disconnected from a
rigid diaphragm, the P-Delta modifications are made only to the rigid diaphragm stiffness. In some building
floor type configurations, users may disconnect a significant number of columns from the diaphragm
resulting in small overall diaphragm stiffness. P-Delta corrections may introduce singularity in the lateral
stiffness corresponding to such diaphragms. RAM Frame detects such singularities and aborts the program.
Users may then wish to combine the mass of such a diaphragm to the ones above or below it. Singularities
could also occur in other types of buildings if P-Delta effects are high.

6.16.2 Preliminary P-Delta Analysis Method
RAM Frame utilizes a non-iterative method to address P-Delta effects for rigid diaphragms in which global
building stiffness are modified due to diaphragm mass\weights. Unfortunately, this method is strictly suited
for only rigid diaphragm idealization where diaphragm response is represented with three degrees of
freedom (two for lateral translation and one for rotation around global Z-axis).

The Preliminary P-Delta Analysis method is developed to be used for models with semirigid diaphragms. It
involves a preliminary assessment of column\brace axial loads under only gravity or mass loads. Briefly,

The model is run against only gravity loads (dead and live) or mass loads. Axial forces for columns
and braces are stored (only columns and braces located inside a semirigid diaphragm are
considered). These axial forces are also referred to as P-Delta Axial Forces.

Element geometric stiffness matrix for each column and brace is calculated based on the P-Delta
axial force of each element. Then, element stiffness matrix is modified with the geometric stiffness
matrix. Note that this modification is applied only once.

The program runs all load cases while modified element stiffnesses are used to assemble building
stiffness matrix.
This process is automated and transparent to the user. It can be regarded as a 2 iteration analysis: in the 1
st

iteration, P-Delta axial forces in columns\braces due to gravity\mass loads are detected and then, in the 2
nd

iteration, these axial forces are used to predict P-Delta effects for all remaining load cases.
Technical Notes

It should be noted that the current implementation fully satisfies equilibrium equations. The main
assumption imposed with this approach is that axial forces due to gravity\mass loads do not significantly
change under lateral loads (in fact, this is the same assumed for the non-iterative P-Delta method
implemented for rigid diaphragms).

Note that P-Delta effects are reflected in each individual element stiffness matrix instead of in assembled
building global stiffness matrix as observed in non-iterative P-Delta method. Thus, one may conclude that
the non-iterative P-Delta method modifies global stiffness matrix whereas the Preliminary P-Delta Analysis
method modifies each individual element stiffness matrix. In either case, geometric stiffness matrices are
calculated.

In calculating P-Delta axial forces, it is important to note that primarily diaphragms out-of-plane (bending)
stiffness play an important role in distributing vertical loads (gravity or mass) loads to columns and braces.
The diaphragms in-plane stiffness (membrane stiffness) has a secondary impact. Thus, if a semirigid
diaphragm is composed of one-way deck and if its out-of-plane stiffness is not included, then the vertical
load distribution is carried our according to the diaphragms in-plane (membrane stiffness) only.

Live load reductions are also applied to P-Delta axial forces for each column\brace. Furthermore,

6.16.3 P-Delta Loads
Two sources of loads that are used in P-Delta effects are considered in the program:

Mass Loads: This option uses building mass to calculate P-Delta effects. It is briefly related to mass
associated with diaphragms (including member mass as well as any mass load defined with
surface\line and point loads). This is the default method used in the program. RAM Frame provides
users with an option for specifying factors for magnifying the P-Delta effects. To account for P-
Delta effects due to live loads and/or factored loads, users may want to specify values larger than
unity for the P-Delta factor. The program puts a maximum limit of 10.0 for the P-Delta factor.
However, it needs to be remembered that the P-Delta modification scheme adopted in RAM Frame
assumes small deflections in the building. Deflections within the range allowed by Code would
generally be considered small
Use Gravity: Instead of using building mass, this option uses applied dead and live loads to
calculate P-Delta effects. Note that different scale factors can be defined for dead and live load
components. Live load reduction factors are also applied for live loads.
If Mass Loads option is chosen, the mass is converted to weights to be used in P-Delta calculations.
Technical Notes

Figure 6-56 P-Delta Controls

When gravity loads are chosen for P-Delta calculations, the program uses the gravity loads as summarized
in Diaphragm Gravity Loads dialog. Note that user defined gravity loads can be also used for P-Delta
calculates for diaphragms with one-way decks.

Figure 6-57 Gravity loads for P-Delta Effects

Technical Notes
6.16.4 Closing Remarks for P-Delta Analysis
In RAM Frame, in-plane diaphragm action can be defined with one of four types: Flexible/None, Pseudo-
Flexible, Semirigid and Rigid. Regarding P-Delta effects, only Rigid and Semirigid diaphragm types are
considered. In addition, the program allows one-way or two-way load distribution for gravity loads and this
can be defined with one-way or two-way deck definition in the Modeler.

Briefly, whole diaphragm behavior is defined with a combination of its in-plane and out-of-plane behavior.
The in-plane behavior (transferring wind, seismic or dynamic loads to lateral load resisting members) can be
defined with one of the four types. The out-of-plane behavior (distributing gravity loads to beams and
columns through either one-way or two-way load distribution) can be determined with 1-way or 2-way deck
assignment. Mass loads or gravity loads can be used for P-Delta effects. Considering all these choices, there
exist different ways of handling P-Delta effects in the program. The following figure shows all possible
choices and briefly explains how the program proceeds:

Figure 6-58 P-Delta Controls

P-Delta
Mass Loads
Rigid
Diaphragm
Semirigid
Diaphragm
Calculated
lumped mass
loads used
User defined
mass loads
can be included
Merging\
combining
mass loads
possible
Member mass
can be included
See diaphragm
masses dialog
One-way
Deck
Two-way
Deck
Same as one-
way deck
Note that
diaphragm is
meshed but it is
locked for
lateral analysis
Diaphragm is
meshed
Spatially
distributed
mass loads
converted to
gravity loads
(DL)
Member mass
can be
included
Out-of-plane
stiffness can
be used
One-way
Deck
Two-way
Deck
Diaphragm is
meshed
Spatially
distributed
mass loads
converted to
gravity loads
(DL)
Member mass
can be used
Out-of-plane
stiffness
automatically
included
Gravity Loads
(DL+LL)
Rigid
Diaphragm
Semirigid
Diaphragm
Calculated
lumped gravity
loads used
Live load
reduction
applied
User defined
gravity Loads
can be used
User defined
live load
reductions can
be included
Merging\
combining
gravity loads
possible
Member self
weights can be
included
See diaphragm
gravity loads
dialog
One-way
Deck
Two-way
Deck
Same as one-
way deck
Note that
Diaphragm is
meshed but it is
locked for
lateral analysis
Diaphragm is
meshed
Gravity Loads
(DL+LL) are
distributed
according to
one-way load
distribution.
Hence, no
spatial load
distribution
considered
(only beams,
columns and
walls loaded).
Member self
weights can be
included.
Live load
reduction
coefficient can
be applied
(either
calculated or
assigned)
Out-of-plane
stiffness can
be used
One-way
Deck
Two-way
Deck
Diaphragm is
meshed
Spatially
distributed
gravity loads
(DL+LL) used
Member self
weights can be
included
Live load
reduction
coefficient
applied (either
calculated or
assigned)
Out-of-plane
stiffness
automatically
included
Technical Notes
6.17 Analysis with Tension-Only Members
Tension-only brace members are capable of resisting tensile forces but do not have resistance to
compressive forces. They behave similar to regular frame members except they do not provide any stiffness
in compression.

RAM Frame utilizes a nonlinear analysis algorithm to track tension-only members during solution of the
structural model under applied lateral loads. The program applies the loads for a given load case to the
structure and iteratively controls the stiffness of the tension-only members. In some cases, it is necessary to
apply the loads incrementally in order for the analysis to converge to a solution. When this is necessary, the
program incrementally increases the applied loads while it searches the correct equilibrium state. If the
equilibrium state is not found, the loads are applied with smaller increments. The program automatically
adjusts load increments as it processes lateral loads.

Further information on analysis with tension only members are provided in Section 3.3.8

It should be noted that only axial forces in the tension-only members are monitored during the iterative
analysis. In other words, bending stiffness of tension-only members still exists if the members ends are not
released (or fixed) and it is not changed during the iterative process.

For models with tension-only braces, the superposition of analysis results is not appropriate for any two load
cases for which the direction of the load in any given brace differs. This is due to the fact that for one load
case some braces may be in tension while for another load case other braces may be in tension. Generally
the load cases must first be combined and then the load combinations iteratively analyzed, rather than the
load cases independently analyzed and then combined. Note, however, that RAM Frame does not analyze
load combinations; it analyzes load cases and then combines the results in the combinations. Therefore, in
order for these results to be valid, the following assumptions are necessary:

It is assumed that tension-only members do not carry Gravity loads. Hence, in RAM Frame the tension-only
members are turned off when the Dead and Live Load cases are analyzed. This allows gravity load case
results to be superimposed with lateral load cases without requiring that those combinations be explicitly
iterated on.

In Eigen solution and dynamic load cases, and in the calculation of centers of rigidity, tension-only
members are treated as regular brace members (i.e., they carry tensile and compressive forces) except that
their axial stiffness (and bending stiffness if their ends are not pinned) is reduced by half. This is based on
the assumption that tension-only braces generally occur in pairs, and that for any given load case one brace
or the other will be in compression (inactive) while the other is in tension (fully active), which allows these
load cases to be analyzed even when there are tension-only members.

For all other load cases (Wind, Seismic, User Defined lateral load cases, Virtual load cases, Nodal load
cases, etc.), tension-only members are defined with their full stiffness in tension but no stiffness in
compression.
It is assumed that the user will not create user-specified load combinations that combine two lateral load
cases for which different braces are in tension versus compression.

Direction of the lateral loads becomes important in an iterative analysis. For example, a positively directed
load case will give different results than a negatively directed load case, and the differences will not be
Technical Notes
merely a difference in the sign of the resulting member forces. Therefore, RAM Frame provides an option
whereby additional load cases can be created by selecting the Generate Additional Load Cases for
Analysis with Tension-Only Members option when generating lateral load cases (implemented for wind
and seismic load cases only).

For instance, there are 12 load cases generated for a regular IBC2000 (ASCE 7-98) wind load case. If this
box is checked, the number of load cases becomes 22. Additional load cases are created to account for
directional effects of applied loads so that the most severe loading case is captured. Figure 6-59
conceptually shows an example of this application:

When load cases are created in this way, with one load case with loads in the positive direction and another
with loads in the negative direction, it is not necessary (nor correct) to use load combinations with both a
positive and negative load factor. For instance, the following two load combinations are automatically
created in the Load Combination module of RAM Frame for AISC LRFD 2
nd
Edition in absence of tension-
only members:

1.2 D + 0.5 Lp + 0.5 Rfp + 1.3 W1
1.2 D + 0.5 Lp + 0.5 Rfp - 1.3 W1

Figure 6-59. Creating additional load cases for analysis with Tension-only members

where W1 is a typical wind load case. However, if there are tension-only members, the program generates
only the first load combination:

1.2 D + 0.5 Lp + 0.5 Rfp + 1.3 W1

Note that the second load combination (1.2 D + 0.5 Lp + 0.5 Rfp - 1.3 W1) is not valid. To consider a load
case in a negative direction within a load combination, the user should first create additional load cases as
explained above. The program then generates one more load cases (in which W2 = - W1) and iteratively
solves both lateral load cases. Finally, the following load combinations are automatically generated by the
program:

1.2 D + 0.5 Lp + 0.5 Rfp + 1.3 W1
1.2 D + 0.5 Lp + 0.5 Rfp + 1.3 W2

The above procedure is automated within RAM Frame if additional load cases are created.

If Load Combinations are generated automatically and there are tension-only members, the program allows
combining results of one dead load case (or live load case) with only one lateral load case. Note that an
iterative analysis is carried out for only lateral loads and dead or live loads are not considered during the
Additional Load Cases
Regular Load Cases
Technical Notes
iterative analysis. Therefore, superposing results of one dead load case with one lateral load case is based on
the assumption that ignoring gravity loads in an iterative analysis does not significantly change the results.
Even though this may not be correct if gravity loads cause significant P-Delta effects applied along with
lateral loads, this can be compensated by turning on the P-Delta option. In this case, P-Delta effects are
considered in the iterative analysis.

If there are no tension-only members in the model, the analysis is a typical (non-iterative) analysis. If the
user has generated the additional (tension-only) load cases, the program gives a warning message stating
that additional load cases have been created but there are no tension-only members. The additional load
cases are not needed because their effect can be accounted for by the sign in the load combinations.

If there are tension-only members in the model but the user has not generated the additional (tension-only)
load cases, the program gives a warning message indicating that an iterative analysis would be performed
without the additional load cases.

The tension-only methodology has been implemented as described because of the ease and convenience
given to the user. This implementation continues to allow load case results to be superimposed in load
combinations, and does not require that the user generate and analyze in RAM Frame all of the
combinations that will be used subsequently in all of the design modules.
6.17.1 Tension-Only Design
The ability to design several typically tension-only members has been added to the Steel Post-Processor
capabilities in RAM Structural System. These shapes include the round bar, flat bar, single angle and Tee
section. In many cases only the tension capacity is available for these sections as they are assumed to be
acting as tension-only members. Refer to the RAM Frame Steel Postprocessor manual for more information.
6.18 Analysis with Buckling Restrained Braces
Buckling-Restrained Braces are a special type of brace that yields inelastically, both in tension and
compression. This is achieved by encasing a steel 'yielding' core inside a restraining steel member filled
with a solid material (such as mortar-filled hollow tube). A small gap between the yielding core and the
restraining material prevents the core from buckling when in compression. The result is a member whose
ductility, strength and stiffness is relatively similar whether under compression or tension loading.
6.18.1 Axial Stiffness Modifier
Buckling Restrained Braces (BRBs) are typically proprietary, but each brace is comprised of similar
components. There is a reduced steel core over a portion of the length of the brace with significantly larger
unrestrained non-yielding segments attached to a gusset at each end. It is recommended that a cross section
with the area of the yielding core be assigned to the BRB in the program. However, as the steel core only
extends over a portion of the full brace length (node-to-node) it is necessary that the axial stiffness of the
brace be adjusted to accurately capture the behavior in the analysis. To this end an Axial Stiffness Multiplier
should be assigned to the BRB (Ref 14). This multiplier can also be used to account for a steel core modulus
other than 29000 ksi which is assumed for steel when using US codes.

Technical Notes
For Example. A BRB has a yielding core that extends over 60% of the work-point to work-point distance
(Lwpt) of the brace. Assume the steel core has an elastic modulus of 30,000ksi. What multiplier should be
used ?

Note that axial stiffness is calculated as EA/L. Assume the brace outside the steel core is infinitely stiff
under axial compression (this assumption is at engineers discretion and actual stiffness of non-yielding
element can be used).

Actual EA/L of total brace (assuming rigid non-yielding section) = Stiffness of core = 30,000 x A / ( 0.6
Lwpt )

To calculate stiffness multiplier the stiffness of full node-to-node brace length (Lwpt) should equal that just
calculated above:
Multiplier x 29,000 x A / Lwpt should equal 30,000 x A / 0.6 Lwpt, so Multiplier = ( 30,000 x A / 0.6 Lwpt
) / ( 29,000 x A / Lwpt )
Multiplier = 1.72

Contact the buckling restrained brace manufacturer for more accurate multiplier values.
6.18.2 Design of Buckling Restrained Braces
Braces designated as buckling restrained have core member capacity calculated for a compression force
similar to that for a tension. That is, as the member cannot buckle the capacity is always a plastic capacity,
similar to that which is calculated for a member in pure tension. The BRB member capacity is therefore
always calculated as if the force were in tension on the brace, even when subject to compression. Refer to
the Steel Post-Processor Design manual for more information.

In RAM Frame the proprietary analysis and design of Star Seismic Buckling Restrained Braces have been
implemented. Other manufacturers buckling restrained brace shapes can be assigned and analyzed
generically.
6.18.3 Generic Buckling Restrained Braces
A table with the buckling restrained brace shapes by Corebrace is available to simplify the process of
specifying those shapes. To use these shapes do the following:

1. In the Criteria Master Steel Table command in RAM Manager select COREBRACEAISC.TAB
for Corebrace shapes. Note that this table is identical to RAMAISC.TAB, which contains the AISC
steel shapes, with the addition of the buckling restrained brace shapes.

2. Assign the shapes to the braces in Elevation View in the Modeler using the Layout Braces
Assign Size command or in RAM Frame using the Assign Braces Size command. In that dialog
select Flat Bar from the list of shapes. The CoreBrace shapes will be listed. Note that these shapes
are listed under the Flat Bar section for convenience, not because they are necessarily flat bar
shaped. Note that in lieu of assigning a Corebrace shape, any shape with the desired area (e.g., a flat
bar, a round bar, etc.) could be assigned.

Technical Notes
3. Designate each brace as a Buckling Restrained Brace using the Assign Braces Buckling
Restrained Generic command. Assign the appropriate Axial Stiffness Multiplier as described in
Section 6.18.1 or, more appropriately, as provided by the brace manufacturer.

These braces can then be analyzed using the Process Analyze command and designed in Steel Standard
Provisions mode using the Process Member Code Check command or View/Update command, as is
normally done for frame analysis and design.

In addition to the standard provisions of the steel specification, there are additional seismic requirements per
AISC 341, but those provisions are not currently checked by the program for generic Buckling Restrained
Braces. The engineer should perform these checks independently.

6.18.4 Star Seismic Buckling Restrained Braces
Star Seismic Brace size can be assigned by using the Assign Braces Size command. This launches the
following dialog that contains specific Star Seismic Buckling Restrained Braces (BRB) sizes:

Figure 6-60 Assign Brace Size Dialog for Star Seismic BRB

When a Star Seismic size is assigned the brace is automatically tagged as a Buckling Restrained Brace. It is
not necessary to explicitly designate as the brace as a BRB, nor is it necessary to assign an Axial Stiffness
Modifier; that is done automatically by the program.

The design criteria for Star Seismic Buckling Restrained Braces can be defined by using the Criteria
Buckling Restrained Star Seismic command. This is also referred to as global setting for all Star Seismic
BRBs in the model and it applies to all Star Seismic BRBs. Figure 6-61 shows global settings. Note that the
Minimum Clearance refers to the distance between the column and beam flanges and the end of the brace.

Technical Notes

Figure 6-61 Start Seismic Criteria Dialog: Global Settings

It is also possible to assign specific values to specific braces, on a brace-by-brace basis, using the Assign
Braces Buckling Restrained Star Seismic command:

Figure 6-62 Assign Start Seismic Dialog
Technical Notes
Note that this command can be used to assign a specific Stiffness Modifier value to the brace, although it is
generally not necessary since the program automatically calculates that value.

6.18.4.1 Star Seismic Buckling Restrained Brace File
The file RAMStarSeismic.ssd contains proprietary information for each Star Seismic BRB size.

6.18.4.2 Analysis with Star Seismic BRBs
The View Members command is used to view what is assigned to each Star Seismic BRB for the
Stiffness Modifier, whether it is a calculated value or an assigned value. If the program is using a calculated
value the label will show Calc followed by the calculated value in parentheses.

When the Analysis is performed, the Stiffness Modifiers are applied accordingly. The Member Forces report
is enhanced to include pertinent Star Seismic brace information, including the Stiffness Modifier. When the
Calculated value is used, it is listed; when a User-specified value has been assigned, both the Calculated and
the User-specified values are listed, along with the ratio of the User-specified to Calculated values.

In addition to the standard provisions of the steel specification, there are additional seismic requirements per
AISC 341; those provisions are checked in the RAM Frame Steel Seismic Provisions module for Star
Seismic Buckling Restrained Braces.
6.19 Beams with End Connections
A lateral beam element can be defined with end connections. The command Assign-Beams-Connection
from the main menu launches Assign Frame Beam Connection Type dialog. Five different types of
connections are currently available to the engineer: Standard, Spring, Custom, Reduced Beam Section
(RBS) and SidePlate. Engineer can pick one of these connection types and can assign it to any lateral beam
with Single, Fence or All command.

Figure 6-63. Beam Connection Assignment Command

In Members Options dialog, Connections checkbox displays all connections assigned to beams.

Technical Notes

Figure 6-64. Frame Member Connection Option

Currently, a connection is defined either as a zero-length element (i.e. spring connection) or it refers to a
special zone defined at the end of a beam, in which the zone is composed of several finite length elements.
The connection zone is applicable for custom, reduced beam section and SidePlate.

The following symbols are displayed on screen for connections:

Spring connection:

Custom connection:

RBS connection:

SidePlate connection:

Technical Notes
6.19.1 Standard Connection
This has reference to the default fixed/pinned assignments. It is the default Type. This option provides a
means for clearing the assignment of the other types. All other types override the basic fixed/pinned
assignments. If this type of connection is chosen and assigned to a beam, the previous connection
assignment for the beam is removed and it is set back to Standard type.

Figure 6-65. Standard Connection Type
6.19.2 Springs Connection
The engineer is able to specify spring connection and assign it to a lateral beam. This type of connection is
also referred to as moment connection which means that it only transfers moment between a beam and a
column.

Connection spring can be assigned to either the left or right end of the beam. If values are not assigned to a
particular end (No Spring), the Standard fixity assignments is used.

Technical Notes

Figure 6-66. Spring Connection Type

A spring connection configuration can be conceptually idealized as in the following figure: two infinitely
rigid plates are defined; one is attached to the column face and the other is on the beam and these plates are
connected to each other through a rotational spring with stiffness k
r
.

Figure 6-67. Spring Connection Idealization

If the spring is infinitely stiff, connection rotation,
r
, is zero. This means that two rigid plates are attached
together and there is no relative rotation between them. This represents a fixed end condition for the beam
and there is full moment transfer from beam to column or vice versa. On the other hand,
r
is substantially
large if k
r
is almost zero. This represents a pined end condition for the beam (no moment transfer between
k
r
,
r
Technical Notes
beam and column). These two extremes bound the range of the response of the connection. Any finite
number of k
r
yields connection rotation within this range.

Connection stiffness (k
r
) is defined in terms of moment per radian and this type of connection is only
applicable for major axis bending. The term k
r
can be defined either as a percentage of beam major axis
bending stiffness (i.e., 4EI/I
maj
) or it can be directly entered by the engineer.

Note that Member forces report shows calculated/used spring stiffness values in the analysis for beams with
spring connections. In addition, the same report also explicitly reports moments and rotations at the spring
connections for analyzed load cases. Modal data report also shows stiffness values for connections.

6.19.3 Custom Connection

This type of connection allows the engineer to specify a zone at each end of the beam in which the beams
stiffness is modified by specified Stiffness Multipliers. Distance indicates the length of the zone at the
beam end. Design check is performed at the location defined by Distance, rather than at the face of column
or center line of column.

Figure 6-68. Custom Connection Type

When a custom connection is applied to a beam, the program internally inserts one element at the end of the
beam where the custom connection defined. If one can turn All Node Numbers option on, internally
created nodes for custom connection are shown on screen.
Technical Notes

Figure 6-69. Custom Connection Zone Elements

Member Forces and Modal data report provide more information about elements created for custom
connection zone (element length, stiffness properties, etc)

6.19.4 Reduced Beam Section (RBS) Connection

When a beam is specified as RBS it is assumed that there is a dogbone at both ends. The engineer can
specify that the reduced section either be considered or ignored in the analysis.

Figure 6-70. Reduced Beam Section (RBS) Type

Technical Notes
The reduced beam section properties can be defined by invoking RBS Properties button:

Figure 6-71. Reduced Beam Section Properties Dialog

When a RBS connection type is applied to a beam and Use Reduced Section Properties in Analysis
option is chosen, the program creates four finite elements at the end of the beam: one for section a and
three for section b. Stiffness properties for section a are the same as the beam. Stiffness properties for
section b are calculated in such a way that the section is first divided into 3 elements and then section
properties for each element is calculated at its mid-length (see Figure 6-72).

Figure 6-72. Reduced Beam Section Modeling

The following equations are used to calculate section stiffness properties at a given x distance:

b a
b
f

c
b/3
A
A
B
B
1 2
b/3 b/3
3 4
C
C
Technical Notes

Figure 6-73. Reduced Beam Section Properties

=
2
8
+
2
(6.37a)

=

2

2
( ) (6.37b)

2 (6.37c)

= 2
1
12

2
+
1
12
2
(6.37d)

= 2
1
12

+
1
12

3
( 2
) (6.37e)

=
2
3

3
+
1
3

3
( 2
) (6.37f)

= 2
(6.37g)

(6.37h)

= 2
5
6

(6.37i)

b
a
c
R
b
f
x
h
c
Technical Notes

Figure 6-74. Reduced Beam Connection Zone Elements

In the above figure, it is shown that the zone a is modeled with one element and the zone b is modeled
with three elements. The length of each elements depend on values defined in Reduced Beam Section
Properties Dialog (see Fig. Figure 6-71).

If Use Full Section Properties in Analysis option is invoked, the above mentioned internal elements
defined at the end of the beams are removed (also internal nodes created for these elements removed). In
other words, this is the case that the full stiffness properties is used everywhere along the beam.

Design check is performed at the end of Section b.

Member Forces and Modal data report provides more information about elements created for custom
connection zone (element length, stiffness properties, etc)
6.19.5 SidePlate Connection

SidePlate connection can be assigned to either or both ends of a lateral beam. If it is not assigned to an end,
the Standard fixity assignment is used. This assignment can only be made to Steel beams supported by
Steel columns. An error message is given if an attempt is made to assign it to beams of other material or to
Steel beams not supported by Steel columns.

Technical Notes

Figure 6-75. SidePlate Connection

6.19.5.1 SidePlate Table

A data table specifically for SidePlate data is available. The file is RAMSidePlate.spl. It should be noted
that it contains proprietary information and hence, it is a binary file which prevents the users from editing or
viewing the contents.

6.19.5.2 Analytical Modeling Details

When a SidePlate connection is assigned to a lateral beam, the program applies the following steps:

A beam rigid end zone is always defined irrespective of Rigid End Zone option given in the Criteria
dialog. In other words, the program always inserts a rigid end zone link between the beam and the
column even though Rigid End Zone option in the Criteria dialog is not invoked. The link starts from
the centerline of the column and extends to the column face (hence, its length is half of the column
depth ). This link is infinitely rigid for bending and axial.

A column rigid end zone is always defined for the column framing into the beam with SidePlate
connection. Again, this is carried out irrespective of Rigid End Zone option given in the Criteria
dialog. The length of the column rigid end zone is determined as follows:
o The rigid end zone at the top of the column below the joint is: 0.5 d
bm

o The rigid end zone at the bottom of the column above the joint is: d
pl
0.5 d
bm

Technical Notes
in which, d
bm
and d
pl
are the beam depth and panel zone plate depth, respectively.

SidePlate connection zone is composed of 4 zones (elements):
o Rigid Link Zone: This link element is infinitely rigid for bending and axial. Its length is half
of the column depth.
o Gap Zone: The length and stiffness properties of this zone are based on beam size and other
proprietary information available in the SidePlate table.
o SidePlate Zone: The length and stiffness properties of this zone are based on beam size and
other proprietary information available in the SidePlate table.
o The zone starting from end of SidePlate zone to Hinge Point: The length of this zone is
based on beam size and other proprietary information available in the SidePlate table. It has
the same stiffness properties of the beam.

Figure 6-76. SidePlate Connection Zone Modeling

The following figure shows an example that a SidePlate connection is assigned to left end of a beam, and
then the program creates several finite elements at the end of the beam and the column framing into the
beam.

Rigid Link
Gap Zone
SidePlate Zone
H
Zone from end of SidePlate to Hinge Point
SidePlate Connection
Technical Notes

Figure 6-77. SidePlate Connection Zones

Section properties for each zone are different for high seismic applications versus wind and low seismic
applications. It is necessary to set of values are to be used. If the program detects there is at least a beam
with SidePlate connection, the following dialog (in Criteria Menu) become available:

Figure 6-78. SidePlate Analysis Type Dialog

Seismic Displacement is the default choice.

Design check is performed at the end of SidePlate Zone.

6.19.5.3 Geometric Compatibility

When a SidePlate connection is assigned to a lateral beam, the beam and column must be geometrically
compatible. This is given by:

+ 2
(6.38)

Technical Notes
in which
are the flange length and flange thickness of the beam, respectively, and
is
the flange length of the column. If this is not satisfied, the program gives an error:

The beam and column sizes are not compatible for SidePlate connection at Node n. The beam is too
wide. Select a beam with a narrower flange or a column with a wider flange or contact SidePlate
Systems, Inc. for a project specific connection design.

Also, if data for the combination of the beam size and column size are not found in the RAMSidePlate.spl
file, the program gives an error:

No SidePlate data is available for the beam size assigned at Node n. Assign a size that is acceptable
for the SidePlate connection.

6.19.6 Beam Connections with Rigid End Zones
For spring, custom and RBS connections, the program internally inserts a rigid end zone element (link) if
Rigid End Zone option is invoked in the Criteria dialog (note that the rigid links for beams and columns are
always enforced for a SidePlate type connection whether the option is invoked or not).

For example, the following figure shows how an analytical model created for a beam with spring, custom or
RBS type connection if Rigid End Zone option is invoked. In the following figure, zero percent reduction is
assumed.

Figure 6-79. Rigid End Zone Elements for Beams with Connections

Rigid End Zone Option is OFF.
Member defined at centerline
Spring Connection
RBS or Custom Type Connection
Spring Connection
RBS or Custom Type Connection
Rigid End Zone Option is ON (zero percent reduction).
Member defined at the face of the Column
Technical Notes
6.20 Limitations of RAM Frame
RAM Frames library of 3D beam, brace, column and wall elements gives it a capability to handle a wide
variety of building structures. There are no programming and modeling limits on the size of a building that
RAM Frame can analyze.

However, the current version of RAM Frame has the following limitations:

It cannot calculate the inertia effects (dynamic) of buildings with no diaphragms such as
industrial buildings.
6.21 RAM Frame Error Messages
The RAM Modeler provides data checks for structural configuration and loading. These data checks help to
detect most of the errors in a model. In addition, RAM Frame has a number of rules that minimize run-
time errors. For example, unless masses are defined for all the levels that carry structural members and have
diaphragms, the seismic generated load cases that request program calculated periods are not available for
analysis. In the analyze list box, these load cases are grayed out and a red button placed against them to
indicate that they are not a valid load case. The same is true for an Eigen value request.

Similarly, for wind loads RAM Frame tests if exposures and building extents have been defined. If these are
not defined, the generated wind loads will not be available for analysis.

The analysis module of RAM Frame also has a built-in data check that will abort the execution of the
analysis phase in the event run-time errors are encountered. These exits return control to the RAM Frame
windows where users can make the necessary changes and run the analysis again.

Such exits are always accompanied by an error message that describes the nature of the error and possible
remedies.

RAM Frame also produces several warning messages which are reported in Analysis Log report. The
program execution is not interrupted due to these warnings but the user is advised to check their validity
after analysis is completed. Among these are warning messages for local instability or for loads on located
on openings if applicable.

A list of error messages and the steps necessary to correct the error are given in the following sections.
6.21.1 Geometry and Modeling Errors and Warnings
Section Property not Assigned for Beam Number # __ on Story __.
Section Property not Assigned for Brace Number #__ on Story __.
Section Property not Assigned for Column Number #__on Story _.
Material Property not Assigned for Wall Number #__ on Story __.
Solution:
Assign sizes in RAM Modeler, RAM Frame, or Gravity Design Modules.

Zero Mass Detected at Story: label.
Technical Notes
Solution:
Enter a nonzero mass value in Loads - Masses.

Some mass has been detected on one or more stories that is not associated with any diaphragms. It
will be ignored in Analysis unless it is combined with one or more diaphragms. See the Loads -
Masses command.
Solution:
The program detected and calculated masses which are not associated with any rigid diaphragm. They
are usually from point or line loads stayed outside of any rigid diaphragms and they have mass
components defined, or they are from some member self masses, which are not connected t any rigid
diaphragms. In Diaphragm Mass dialog, they are labeled as None and they correspond to stories. It
is the user responsibility to lump them to any other rigid diaphragm if they are required to be
considered in analysis.

Diaphragm # on Story "#" Contains No Lateral Member. This Diaphragm is Exposed to Wind
Pressures. Calculated Loads Are Ignored During Analysis.
Solution:
A diaphragm with no lateral member found but it is still exposed to wind. The program calculates wind
forces for this diaphragm but it does not apply it to the diaphragm.

Diaphragm # on Story "#" Contains No Lateral Member. This
Diaphragm Contain Mass. The Diaphragm Mass is Ignored if It is Not
Combined to Another Diaphragm.
Solution:
A diaphragm with no lateral member found but it still has mass. The program calculates seismic forces
for this diaphragm but it does not apply it to the diaphragm. The mass at the diaphragm should be
lumped to another diaphragm if it is required to be considered in analysis.

Incorrect Mass Combination Found for Story "#" at Diaphragm
"#". Diaphragm Combination Flag is Reset for this Diaphragm.
Solution:
The program detected that there is illegal diaphragm lumping (for example, if mass in Diaphragm A is
lumped to Diaphragm B, and if Diaphragm B is later deleted in the Modeler, the program generates this
message). Diaphragm lumping flags are reset for such diaphragms, and the user should re-set them.
6.21.2 Load Generation Warning
Diaphragm Load Applied to a Story with no Diaphragm at: label.
Combine the Mass and/or Set the Exposure to None and/or,
Create Nodal Load Case(s) and Merge.
Solution:
This error is encountered in buildings with diaphragm-less story levels (such as levels where all the
columns, braces and walls are disconnected from the diaphragm). Since there is no diaphragm at that
level, RAM Frame cannot apply a story (diaphragm) force at that level. User-specified loads at such
levels must be modified by inputting them as nodal loads or by adding them to another story level.
Similarly, generated story forces need to be inputted as nodal loads, or lumped to the level above or
below by specifying combining of mass (i.e., in Loads - Masses - for seismic generated loads) or
setting the exposure to None (i.e., in Loads - Exposure - for wind loads).
Technical Notes

UBC Error in structure period. T is specified as zero.
ASCE Error in structure period. T is specified as zero.
Solution:
Specify a non-zero structural period in the load dialog boxes in Loads - Load Cases.

6.21.3 Static Analysis Errors
Excessive P-Delta Deformation at Story: label.
Solution:
This error may be caused by a poorly configured structure such as one with a level or levels with large
masses and small stiffness or some dummy levels with no mass and with staggered configurations. The
calculated P-Delta effects may not be realistic and hence produces this error. It may be necessary to
modify the framing configuration of the model.

This error may also occur if a significant number of columns and braces are disconnected from the
diaphragm at a certain story level, resulting in excessively reduced diaphragm stiffness. Disconnecting
fewer columns in RAM Frame or combining the mass of that level with another in Loads - Masses can
resolve this problem.
6.21.4 Dynamic Analysis Errors
Only the first n of required m Eigen values found. The solution guarantees that these are lowest
frequencies (i.e., largest periods). This partial result may satisfy the design requirement regarding
mass participation. To use this result, set required number of Eigen values for Load Cases to n and
re-run the analysis. Or increase the number of Eigen Values searched and re-run the analysis.
Solution:
The program generates this error message if it fails to find all Eigen values (i.e., structural periods)
requested by the user. The Eigen solution is a sub-space iterative method in which the program creates
a sub-space of the real problem (reduced system) and tries to convergence iteratively to lowest
frequencies (or highest periods) (see Section 6.8.3 for further information). The error message indicates
that the program successfully found the first n Eigen values and it is assured that they are the highest
periods (i.e., till the first n value, no Eigen values are skipped). If the design criteria for total mass
participation is satisfied with these n periods, the user can use this result first setting number of Eigen
values searched to n and re-run the analysis again.

This kind of behavior is usually observed when some part of the structure is too stiff compared to other
part of the structure or many nodes at a story level are disconnected and only a few nodes are attached
to rigid diaphragm at the same story (again not uniform stiffness distribution) and hence, the solution
experience some numerical trouble in converging.

Eigen Analysis Failed. Any Modal instability, Severe P-Delta Effects, Irrational Stiffness\Mass
Distributions or Improper Node Connect\Disconnect Information May Cause This Error. Analysis
Terminated.
Solution:
This might be an indication of a poor stiffness vs. mass proportioning or unrealistic P-Delta effects. It is
advised first to run the model without P-Delta and observe the behavior of the model. Please see
Technical Notes
Section 6.16 and 6.21.3 (i.e. Excessive P-Delta Deformation at Story: label) for limitations of P-Delta
method. Sometimes this error is also encountered when too many nodes are disconnected from rigid
diaphragms while only a few nodes are connected at a particular story level.

Also, check the mass of each diaphragm; indiscriminate use of the Combine mass command could
also cause this error, particularly, if the level in question has lateral members.

Response Spectra Analysis: Error Opening File.
Solution:
This error is encountered if the response spectra file is corrupted. Correct or reinstall the file.
6.21.5 Pseudo-Flexible Diaphragm Warning
Changes for Pseudo Flexible Diaphragms Detected. This May Be Due to Recent Changes in
Diaphragm Types, Frame Numbers or Members Properties. The Program Recalculates Properties
and Effective Percentages for The Frames. Please Verify the Effective Percentages in Pseudo Flexible
Diaphragm Properties Dialog.
Solution:
This warning message is generated because some recent changes for flexible diaphragms are detected.
It is always advised to visit Pseudo Flexible Diaphragm Properties dialog.
6.21.6 Semirigid Diaphragm Warning
During meshing process, the program post several warning messages in Meshing Process Status dialog.
They are briefly explained here.

Failed to Mesh Diaphragm x on Story y. The Diaphragm Will be Set to Rigid.
Solution:
Check slab edges and exterior beams. In order to generate a valid mesh, a closed exterior polygon is
necessary. Check openings inside diaphragms. Any openings crossing each other or touching each other
at several points might cause problems. Check that any lateral member is crossing an opening. Even
though the program is capable of handling this case, it is still possible that it may not resolve it
completely. As a final resort, changing Diaphragm Boundary flag from slab edge boundaries to exterior
beam boundaries (or vice versa) might provide a temporary solution.

Failed to Mesh Diaphragm x on Story y for Load Polygons. Gravity Loads on Diaphragm will be
ignored.
Solution:
Check surface load polygons applied in the Modeler. If possible, remove unnecessary load polygons
applied to diaphragms (for instance, surface load polygons found in overlapped regions). If possible,
avoid too many overlapping load polygons.

Failed to Mesh Diaphragm x on Story y for Mass Load Polygons (Simplifying Surface Load Polygons
on this Diaphragm May Resolve it)
Solution:
Technical Notes
Check surface load polygons applied in the Modeler. If possible, remove unnecessary load polygons
applied to diaphragms (for instance, surface load polygons found in overlapped regions). If possible,
avoid too many overlapping load polygons.

Failed to Create Closed Beam-Loop for Diaphragm x on Story y. Slab Edges are Used for Diaphragm
Exterior Boundaries.
Solution:
Make sure that there is a valid closed beam-loop for the diaphragm (closed beam-loop is constructed
from the most exterior beams along diaphragm edges).

Deck properties for some elements on story y for diaphragm x cannot be identified. These elements
are not included in analysis. Please check the mesh on this diaphragm.
Solution:
This message indicates that diaphragm is successfully meshed but the program fails to identify
properties for each finite element (i.e., E, thickness, poissons ratio, etc). These finite elements are
excluded in analysis (see meshed diaphragm on screen, and they can be easily identifiable). Make
sure that valid deck properties are assigned to each deck.

No Dead Load Case Selected for Analysis P-Delta Effects for Semirigid Diaphragms are not
calculated.
Solution:
In order to calculate P-Delta effects for semirigid diaphragms, at least dead load case is needed to be
selected for analysis. Otherwise, the program skips P-Delta effects for semirigid diaphragms.

Technical Notes
6.22 References

1. Alemdar, B.N., RAMFE (2011), C++ Object Oriented Finite Element Analysis Library
2. Bathe, K.J., (1996), Finite Element Procedure, Prentice Hall
3. Ghali, A. and Neville, A. M., (1989) Structural Analysis: A Unified Classical and Matrix
Approach, Chapman and Hall, London.
4. Hughes, J.R.T, (2000), The Finite Element Method: Linear Static and Dynamic Finite Element
Analysis, Dover Publication
5. Ibrahimbegovic, A., Taylor, R. L., and Wilson, E. L., (1990), A Robust Quadrilateral membrane
Finite Element with Drilling Degrees of Freedom, International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, Vol. 30, 445-457
6. Long, C.S, and Groenwold, A. A., (2004), Reduced Modified Quadratures for Quadratic Membrane
Finite Elements, International Journal of Numerical Methods in Engineering, 31:837-855
7. Siek, J.G., Lee, L., and Lumsdaine, A. (2002), The Boost Graph Library: User Guide and Reference
Manual, Addison Wesley
8. Taylor, R.L, (1987), Finite Element Analysis of Linear Shell Problems, Proceedings The
Mathematics of Finite Elements and Applications, Academic Press, New York, pp.211-223
9. Wilson, E. L., Der Kiureghian, A., and Bayo, E. R., (1981) A Replacement for the SRSS Method in
Seismic Analysis, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 9, pp. 187-192
10. Wilson, E. L. and Habibullah, A., (1987) Static and Dynamic Analysis of Multi-Story Buildings
Including P-Delta Effects, Earthquake Spectra, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Vol. 3,
No. 3.
11. O.Schenk and K.Gartner (2004). Solving unsymmetrical sparse systems of linear equations with
PARDISO. J. of Future Generation Computer Systems, 20(3):475-487
12. INTEL Math Kernel Library (MKL), www.intel.com, 2008.
13. Computing Objects SARL, (2005), CM2 MeshTools, www.computing-objects.com
14. Lopez, W and Sabelli, R (2004), Seismic Design of Buckling Restrained Braced, Structural Steel
Educational Council, Steel TIPS, July 2004
15. McGuire, W., Gallagher, R.H., and Ziemian, R.D., Matrix Structural Analysis, 2
nd
Edition, 2000,
John Wiley & Son, Inc.
16. Chopra, Anil K., 2001, Dynamic of Structures, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall

Technical Notes

Reports Load Cases Mode
7 Reports Load Cases Mode

Note that report styles can be modified by the user using the Tools - Report Styles command in the RAM
Manager. See the RAM Manager manual for more information on Reports and Report Styles.

RAM Frame output is designed to provide the engineer with the necessary data for review of and calculation
submittal for the frame analysis of the building frames. Following is a detailed description of all the report
menu commands and the report output available in the Analysis Load Cases Mode.
7.1 Report Destination
7.1.1.1 Printer/Screen/Text File/Viewer File
The first four items in the Reports menu allow the engineer to specify where the output is to be sent. The
engineer can choose to send output directly to the printer, to the screen, to a comma separated text file or to
a viewer file format. This last option allows the engineer to later view the file, with all its formatting, using
the file viewer application provided with the program. This file can also be delivered, along with the viewer,
to anyone wishing to view the report.
7.2 Select Cases
The Select Cases command works as filter for the results of an analysis by limiting the number of load
cases that will appear on any given report.

Issuing the Reports - Select Cases command provides a list of currently analyzed load cases. Normally the
results for all analyzed load cases will be included in the outputs. However, the Select Cases command
allows the user to select a subset of the analyzed cases for which results are to be included in the output and
for viewing on-screen; the results of all other load cases will be suppressed. An unanalyzed load case cannot
be selected. Through selecting and deselecting load cases, output is customized to meet the particular needs.
7.3 Model Data
The Model Data report is a listing of the data pertaining to the lateral frame members in the model.
7.3.1.1 Story Data
Story data is listed by level and includes the story level label, the layout type corresponding to each level
and the floor-to-floor height.

7.3.1.2 Section Properties
If concrete or other members are included in the model, a listing of the column, beam and brace section
properties defined for these members is included.

Shape:
This is the shape of a concrete member. Columns and braces may be Rectangle or Round. Beams may be
Rectangle or T-Section.

7.3.1.3
Depth/Diam:
This is the depth, or major axis dimension, of a rectangular concrete column, beam or brace, or the diameter
of a round concrete column or brace.

Width:
This is the width, or minor axis dimension, of a rectangular concrete column, beam or brace.

Flange Overhang:
This is the flange overhang distance, beyond the side of the beam stem, of a concrete T-Section. Calc means
that the distance will be automatically calculated per the Code requirements based on the adjacent beam
geometry.

Flange Thickness:
This is the flange thickness of a concrete T-Section. Calc means that the thickness will be automatically
determined from the slab thickness assigned in the vicinity of the beam.

Web-Thk:
This is the web thickness of a concrete T-Section.

Cracked Factor:
The moments of inertia of the concrete sections (I
xx
and I
yy
), cross-section area (A) and section torsional
constant (J) are multiplied by corresponding factors to account for loss of section due to cracking.

H:
This is the depth, or major axis dimension, of an other column, beam or brace.

B:
This is the width, or minor axis dimension, of an other column, beam or brace.

Area:
This is the gross area of an other column, beam or brace.

Ix:
This is the major axis moment of inertia of an other column, beam or brace.

Iy:
This is the minor axis moment of inertia of an other column, beam or brace.

J:
This is the torsional constant of the cross section of an other column, beam or brace.

Asx:
This is the major axis shear area of an other column, beam or brace.

Asy:
This is the minor axis shear area of an other column, beam or brace.

7.3.1.4 Frame Members
The Frame Members section of the report lists each frame member and its properties. Data is sorted first by
frame number, then by level, then by section type, and then by material type.

Column and brace data requires two lines for each member. The first line is the data for the top end, the
second line is for the bottom end.

Beam data requires two lines for each member. The first line is the data for the i-end, the second line is the
data for the j-end.

X:
This is the X-coordinate of the member. For walls the first occurrence is for the i-end, the second for the j-
end.

Y:
This is the Y-coordinate of the member. For walls the first occurrence is for the i-end, the second for the j-
end.

RigMaj:
This is the Rigid End Zone dimension for the major axis of columns.

RigMin:
This is the Rigid End Zone dimension for the minor axis of columns.

RigEnd:
This is the Rigid End Zone dimension for the major axis of beams.

Fixity (or Fix):
This is the fixity condition of the member end. F means Fixed, P means Pinned. The value in the x column
of xyt represents the condition in the major axis, the value in the y column of xyt represents the condition in
the minor axis, and the value in the t column of xyt represents the condition in torsion.

Section:
This is the size assigned to the steel member.

Sec:
This is the Section Property number, listed in the Section Properties section of the output, that is assigned to
the concrete or other member.

Fy:
This is the yield strength of the steel member.

Pois:
This is Poissons ratio for the member.

UnitWt:
This is the unit weight of the member.

fc:
This is the compressive strength of the concrete member.

E:
This is the modulus of elasticity of the other member.

Thick:
This is the thickness of the concrete or other wall.

T-O:
This indicates whether or not a brace is a Tension-only member. Y means it is capable of taking tension
forces only, N means it is capable of taking tension or compression forces.

BRB:
This indicates if a vertical brace has been designated a Buckling Restrained Brace. If the brace is a buckling
restrained brace frame then the assigned Axial Stiffness Multiplier Value (see Section 6.18 ) will be
displayed, else N will be indicated.

7.3.1.5 Gravity Wall and Gravity Column Spring Properties
This section gives information related to vertical springs placed at gravity column and wall locations. For
each spring, the program tabulates the following information: Node number (at spring location), spring
stiffness values.

7.3.1.6 Semirigid Diaphragm Properties
This section is only included in the report if Include semirigid diaphragm nodes results option is checked
in Reports menu command. For each finite element generated during meshing semirigid diaphragms, the
report tabulates the following information: Node connectivity information, Poissons ratio, thickness (both
membrane and bending) and modulus of elasticity (E).

7.3.1.7 Nodes
All of the nodes are listed with their coordinates, including internal nodes created during mesh for walls.

X, Y, Z:
Coordinate relative to the respective global axis.

Fdtn:
Indicates whether or not the node is a foundation node.

Diaphr (Diaph.# - Story Name):
Indicates whether or not the node is attached to a diaphragm. The following rules apply:
If node is a foundation node, -- will be printed for the node
If node is attached to a diaphragm (or it is a part of a diaphragm), diaphragm number with story
name is printed for the node
If node is not a foundation node and it is not a connected node, None is printed for the node.

7.4 Analysis Log
This output summarizes several warning messages created during the analysis process, including local
instability messages for members, loads in openings. The report also contains a list of sum of reactions for
all load cases to check global equilibrium.
7.5 Criteria, Mass and Exposure
The Criteria, Mass and Exposure report lists the analysis criteria, the mass data as entered by the engineer
and/or as calculated by the program and the wind exposure information.

7.5.1.1 Criteria
The analysis criteria as set using the Criteria - General, Criteria - Diaphragm and the Criteria - Ground
Level command is summarized in the criteria section of the report.

7.5.1.2 Diaphragm Mass Data
It tabulates diaphragm data per story, indicating they are defined as Rigid or not. It also indicates the
current conditions of parameters for Disconnected Internal Nodes and Disconnect Nodes Outside.

7.5.1.3 Story Mass Data
For models with rigid diaphragms, the mass data as calculated by the program is listed. For each level, this
includes the level label, diaphragm number, the weight, the mass, mass moment of inertia, center of mass,
eccentricity and whether the mass is to be combined with another diaphragm. If the user has specified
different values than those calculated, the user specified values are also listed. It also indicates whether self
mass from beams, columns, walls or slab\deck are included in calculated mass properties.

Note that if there is line or point loads with mass components defined and they stay outside of any
diaphragm, or there are members that are not a part of any diaphragm and they have self-mass defined, the
program calculates mass associated with these, and they are labeled as None story mass component.

This section also tabulates distributed masses for semirigid diaphragms (Section 6.12.2 explains how
diaphragm masses are handled for semirigid diaphragms). In addition, distributed nodal masses can be also
included in the report for Semirigid diaphragms if Reports- Include Semirigid diaphragm nodal results
command is activated. Otherwise, the report only shows a summary of total nodal masses for Semirigid
diaphragms.

Weight:
This is the weight of the diaphragm.

Mass:
This is the mass of the diaphragm.

MMI:
This is the mass moment of inertia.

Xm:
This is the X-coordinate of the center of mass.

Ym:
This is the Y-coordinate of the center of mass.

EccX:
This is the distance from the center of mass, or eccentricity, that seismic story forces will be applied if
specified as eccentric load cases, measured along the X-axis. The default is 5% of the diaphragm dimension.

EccY:
This is the distance from the center of mass, or eccentricity, that seismic story forces will be applied if
specified as eccentric load cases, measured along the Y-axis. The default is 5% of the diaphragm dimension.

Combine:
Mass lumping\combining data for diaphragms are given separately in the report based on story and
diaphragm numbers. It indicates whether or not the mass properties of the indicated diaphragm is lumped or
combined to another diaphragm. None indicate the mass properties are not lumped; otherwise, it indicates
diaphragm number with story label.

7.5.1.4 Wind Exposure Data
Wind exposure data is used to calculate story\diaphragm forces in the generated wind load cases. The data is
listed by story level and by diaphragm number.

Exposure:
This flag indicates whether or not a diaphragm is exposed to the wind. Full indicates that the diaphragm is
to be assigned a wind story force; None indicates that the diaphragm is not to be assigned a wind story force
(any wind force is carried by the adjacent levels instead).

Parapet:
This is the parapet height.

7.5.1.5 Story Gravity Loads Data

RAM Frame automatically calculates the total Dead Loads, Live Loads (Imposed Load) and Roof or Snow
Loads for each diaphragm. Calculated loads, referred to as gravity loads, are listed in this section of this
report, along with the location of their centroids. If the user has specified different values than those of
calculated, the user specified values are also listed in the report. The report also contains live load reduction
factors listed, either calculated by the program or defined by the user.
7.6 Pseudo-Flexible Diaphragm Properties
User defined frame effective percentages are tabulated in this report. The data is printed according to load
case type. Also, total sum of effective percentages is indicated for each diaphragm.
7.7 Exposure Boundaries
The Exposure Boundaries report graphically shows the boundaries around each diaphragm of each story that
the program uses to calculate the diaphragm forces for the automatically generated wind load cases. For
each diaphragm, the diaphragm is shown with the diaphragms above and below that create the boundaries.
The various zones are labeled, and the beginning and end points and height (the sum of the story heights
between diaphragms) of each zone are listed. If the boundary is defined by a parapet, it is identified as such.
The information given in the report for beginning and end points and for parapets is based on the exposure
data given in the Loads Exposure command, as reported in the Criteria, Mass and Exposure report.
7.8 Loads and Applied Forces
This report is only available for models with rigid, semirigid and pseudo-flexible diaphragms.

The Loads and Applied Forces report lists the story and diaphragm force load cases and the defining criteria.
The forces applied to each diaphragm are listed first. It is actually a series of outputs; each different load
case or related load case is listed separately. Response Spectra load cases are also included. In the second
part, a summary of forces at story level are also given in the report, which is simply constructed from sum of
all forces applied to the diaphragms at the story level. Only analyzed load cases will be output.

Note that calculated applied loads on Semirigid diaphragms are converted into nodal loads applied directly
to nodes on the Semirigid diaphragms (these nodes are created during meshing diaphragms). The report can
also show these nodal loads if Reports- Include Semirigid diaphragm nodal results command is activated.
Otherwise, the report only gives a summary of total nodal loads on Semirigid diaphragms.

7.8.1.1 Load Case
Each load case defined for the model is listed along with a summary of loading conditions associated with
it. Other data pertaining to the load cases, such as ground level and mean roof height for wind load cases are
also included. See the Frame Loads section in Chapter 3 for more information.

7.8.1.2 Applied Diaphragm Forces
The Diaphragm Forces section shows how each load case is applied to the structure. For each load case, the
following data is listed by diaphragm level: the height at which the force is applied, the force components
and the X or Y coordinate at which the force is applied.

If there exists any pseudo-flexible diaphragm, this section also includes a detailed summary of calculated
nodal loads for frame members (see Section 6.12.2). Also, if there is any Semirigid diaphragm, this section
can also print nodal loads applied to diaphragm nodes (if Reports- Include Semirigid diaphragm nodal
results command is activated).

7.8.1.3 Applied Story Forces
The Applied Story Forces section summarizes how each load case is applied to the structure. For each load
case, the following data is listed by story level: the height at which the force is applied, the force
components. The total applied force is also listed for both the X and Y component of the force.
7.9 Nodal Loads
This report is available for models both with diaphragms and without diaphragms.

The Nodal Load Case report lists the nodal load cases, nodal load definitions, and the node number and
nodal coordinates to which the nodal loads are applied.

7.9.1.1 Nodal Load Case
The Nodal Load Case section of this report lists the nodal load cases defined in the RAM Modeler along
with their user assigned labels.

7.9.1.2 Nodal Load Definition
This section lists each nodal load with the Fx, Fy and Fz force components associated with it.

7.9.1.3 Applied Nodal Loads
The Applied Nodal Load section is organized by load case and story level. Each node with an applied load
is listed along with the nodal load label and the coordinates at which the force is applied.
7.10 Merged Loads
This output lists the total applied load at a story due to a merged load case that consists of story\diaphragm
forces and nodal loads. The story\diaphragm forces from the constituent story force load case are also
printed along with the nodal load case.
7.11 Gravity Loads
The Gravity Loads on Frame Members report lists the gravity load cases and loads calculated by RAM
Frame from the data supplied by the RAM Modeler. Note that this is different than the Gravity Loads on
Frame Members report available in Post-Processing - Frame Loads in RAM Manager.

7.11.1.1 Criteria
The Criteria section of the report lists the Building Code by which Live Load Reduction is calculated and
the Roof Live Load specification as it was defined using the Criteria - Live Load Reduction command in
the RAM Manager.

7.11.1.2 Load Cases
The gravity load cases generated by RAM Frame are listed. Pos- has reference to positive or downward
acting, loads; Neg- has reference to negative, or upward acting, loads.

7.11.1.3 Applied Gravity Loads
The Applied Gravity Loads section is organized first by frame number and then by floor type. Within each
floor type, data is separated by member type. Every frame column is listed along with its column number,
live load reduction factors and loading information. Every frame beam is listed along with its beam number,
beam length, live load reduction factors, and loading information. Every frame wall is listed, similar to
beams. The Live Load Reduction factors are applied to the analysis results to obtain design forces for each
member.

7.11.1.4 Loading Information - Column Point Loads
The Live Load Reduction factors for the column are listed for each type of applied live load that may be
reduced for columns: Reducible, Storage and Roof.

Point loads listed in this section are only those point loads that are externally applied to the frame, such as
from a gravity beam (but not from a frame beam). It does not indicate the total column load.

7.11.1.5 Loading Information - Beam and Wall Line Loads
Dist1:
This represents the distance, measured from the left end of the beam, to the beginning of a line load.

Dist2:
This represents the distance, measured from the left end of the beam, to the end of a line load.

DL1:
This represents the magnitude of the dead load at Dist1.

DL2:
This represents the magnitude of the dead load at Dist2.

LL1:
This represents the magnitude of the unreduced live load at Dist1.

LL2:
This represents the magnitude of the unreduced live load at Dist2.

RedType:
This represents the type of live load reduction used on the beam based on the currently selected building
code. Red indicates that the live load is Reducible, and can be reduced by the percent shown. Roof
indicates that the live load is a Roof load, and can be reduced by the percent shown. NonRed indicates
that the live load is non-reducible. Storage indicates that the live load is a storage live load. Snow
indicates that the live load is an unreducible roof snow load.

7.11.1.6 Loading Information - Beam and Wall Point Loads
Dist:
This represents the distance, measured from the left end of the beam, to the point load.

DL:
This represents the magnitude of the dead load.

PosRed:
This represents the magnitude of the positive reducible live load.

PosStor:
This represents the magnitude of the positive storage live load.

PosNonRed:
This represents the magnitude of the positive nonreducible live load.

NegRed:
This represents the magnitude of the negative reducible live load.

NegStor:
This represents the magnitude of the negative storage live load.

NegNonRed:
This represents the magnitude of the negative nonreducible live load.

PosRoof:
This represents the magnitude of the positive roof live load.

NegRoof:
This represents the magnitude of the negative roof live load.
7.12 Gravity Loads (Two-Way Deck)
This report can be invoked from Reports - Gravity Loads Two-Way Deck menu command. If there is a
two-way deck in a semirigid diaphragm, the program calculates gravity loads on two-way decks and this
report shows calculated nodal loads due to these gravity loads. For each gravity load type (dead and live
loads), the report tabulates nodal loads with their node number and applied point loads. Also given is a
summary of total gravity loads at each semirigid diaphragm.
7.13 Member Forces
The Member Forces report lists the member force results of the frame analysis for an individual member. It
also includes member information, the analysis criteria and a list of load cases analyzed. An example of this
report is contained in the RF_Analysis_MemberForces file.

This report can be printed for one member at a time (Single), for all members in a fenced area (Fence), all
members of a specified frame number (Frame), all members currently visible on the screen (Current View)
or for all members in the model (All). A separate output for each member is created. A report for all
members in a model can be quite lengthy.

A similar report is available in the Load Combinations Mode, but outputs forces based on load combinations
as opposed to load cases.

Member information is listed including: the member number, the frame number to which it is assigned, the
level on which it is located, its end coordinates, material properties, and member size.

7.13.1.2 Input Parameters
Analysis criteria as set using the Criteria - General and the Criteria - Ground Level commands are listed
here along with the fixed end conditions and calculated joint face distance of the member.

7.13.1.3 Load Cases
This lists the load cases that were analyzed.

7.13.1.4 Member Forces
When printed from Analysis mode, the member forces are those for the Load Cases. When printed from the
Load Combinations Mode, the member forces are those for the Load Combinations.

LdC:
This identifies the Load Case. It only appears when the output is printed while in Analysis mode. It refers to
the list of Load Cases.

LC#:
This identifies the Load Combination. It only appears when the output is printed while in the Load
Combinations Mode. It refers to the list of Load Combinations.

@:
This identifies the location at which the output is being list.

T:
This is the top end of a column or brace.

B:
This is the bottom end of a column or brace.

i:
This is the i-end of a beam.

j:
This is the j-end of a beam segment at an interior node.

i:
This is the i-end of a beam segment at an interior node.

j:
This is the j-end of a beam.

P:
This is the axial force.

Mx:
This is the strong axis moment.

My:
This is the weak axis moment.

Vx:
This is the strong axis shear force.

Vy:
This is the weak axis shear force.

Tors:
This is the torsional force.
7.14 Wall Group Forces
The Wall Group Forces report lists the integrated wall force results of the frame analysis for user-defined
wall groups. It also includes the geometrical information on the wall group, the analysis criteria and a list of
load cases analyzed.

This report can be printed for one wall group at a time (Single), for all wall groups in a fenced area (Fence),
all wall groups of a specified wall group number (Wall Group), all wall groups currently visible on the
screen (Current View) or for all wall groups in the model (All). A report for all wall groups in a model can
be quite lengthy.

A similar report is available in the Analysis-Load Combinations Mode.

Member information is listed including: the member number, the frame number to which it is assigned, the
level on which it is located, its end coordinates, material properties, and member size.

7.14.1.2 Input Parameters
Analysis criteria as set using the Criteria - General and the Criteria - Ground Level commands are listed
here along with the fixed end conditions and calculated joint face distance of the member.
7.15 Member Force Summary
The Frame Member Force Summary report provides a summary of the member forces for all frame
members in the structure.

7.15.1.1 Criteria
See Section 7.11.1.1.

7.15.1.2 Load Cases

7.15.1.3 Member Force Listing
The Member Force listing is organized first by frame number, then by story level within each frame. Each
member is listed with its member number and calculated member forces. When printed from Analysis
mode, the member forces are those for the Load Case.
7.16 Member Force Envelope
The Member Force Envelope Report lists the maximum and minimum member forces for an individual
member.

Member information is listed including: the member number, frame number to which it is assigned, the level
on which it is located, its end coordinates, material properties, and member size.
7.16.1.2
7.16.1.3 Criteria

7.16.1.4 Load Cases

7.16.1.5 Member Force Maxima and Minima
The maximum and minimum member forces acting at each end of a given member and the load case
associated with it are listed. Additionally, the maximum and minimum member force for any point along the
member is listed along with the controlling load case and its location along the member.

LC:
This refers to the Load Case.
7.17 Reactions
The Reactions report list the reactions for each foundation node.

7.17.1.1 Criteria

7.17.1.2 Load Cases

7.17.1.3 Reactions Listing
The reactions listing is organized by frame number. Each foundation node number is listed with its
reactions. The reactions are with respect to the global coordinate system. When printed from Analysis mode,
the reactions are those for the Load Cases.

LdC:
This refers to the Load.

Rx:
This is the reaction component in the X-direction.

Ry:
This is the reaction component in the Y-direction.

Rz:
This is the reaction component in the Z-direction (vertical).

Mxx:
This is the moment about the X-axis.

Myy:
This is the moment about the Y-axis.

Tzz:
This is the moment about the Z-axis.

7.18 Reactions Envelope
The Reactions Envelope report list the maxima and minima reactions for each foundation node. All
definitions are the same as the output for reactions.
7.19 Spring Forces
This report shows calculated spring forces after analysis is carried out. For each load case (gravity and
lateral load cases), the report shows forces at each spring.
7.20 Building Story Shear
The Building Story Shear output lists the story\diaphragm shears at each level of the whole building for
each load case.
7.21 Frame Story Shear
The Frame Story Shear output lists the story shears at each level of the selected frame of the building for
each load case.
7.22 Story Displacements
This report is only available for models with rigid diaphragms.

The Story Displacements report lists the displacements for the center of mass at each story level. For
multiple diaphragm configurations, story displacements are shown per each rigid diaphragm.

7.22.1.1 Criteria

7.22.1.2 Load Cases

7.22.1.3 Story Displacements Listing
The Story Displacements section lists each level with its center of mass and the story\diaphragm
displacements and rotations. When printed from Analysis mode, the displacements are those for the Load
Cases.

LdC:

Disp X:
This is the displacement in the X-direction.

Disp Y:
This is the displacement in the Y-direction.

Theta Z:
This is the rotation about the Z-axis.
7.23 Nodal Displacements
The Nodal Displacements Report lists translational and rotational displacements for every node. If there is
meshed diaphragms and Reports Include semirigid diaphragm node results option is check out, the
report also gives nodal displacements for nodes on semirigid diaphragm. Note that the report can be too long
for big models.

7.23.1.1 Criteria

7.23.1.2 Load Cases

7.23.1.3 Nodal Displacement Listings
Nodal displacements are organized by floor level. Each node is listed with the three translational and three
rotational displacements. The displacements are with respect to the global coordinate system.

Nodal Displacements for Live Load cases are based on Unreduced Live Loads.

LdC:

Disp X:
This is the displacement in the X-direction.

Disp Y:
This is the displacement in the Y-direction.

Disp Z:
This is the displacement in the Z-direction.

Theta X:
This is the rotation about the X-axis.

Theta Y:
This is the rotation about the Y-axis.

Theta Z
This is the rotation about the Z-axis.
7.24 Periods and Modes
This report is only available for models with rigid, semirigid and pseudo-flexible diaphragms. This report
is only available if an Eigen solution has been performed.

The Periods and Modes report lists the results of the Eigen solution, including the frequency and period,
modal participation factors, modal direction factors, and modal effective mass factors for each mode
included in the dynamic analysis. It also lists the mode shape for each mode.

7.24.1.1 Frequencies and Periods
The frequency and period for each analyzed mode are listed.

7.24.1.2 Modal Participation Factors
The modal participation factor is the summation of the mass times the mode shape in a given direction:
( )
=
i i i
m F . It is used to identify the fundamental mode in a given direction.

7.24.1.3 Modal Direction Factors
This section indicates the proportion that each direction contributes to the excitation in each mode, in
percentage terms.

7.24.1.4 Modal Effective Mass Factors
This section indicates the percent of the building mass that is associated with each mode.

7.24.1.5 %Mass:
This is the percent of the mass of the structure that is associated with a particular mode in a given direction.
It indicates the significance of a particular node in a given direction.

7.24.1.6 %SumMass:
This is a summation of the percent of the mass of the structure that is associated with a particular mode and
all previous modes in a given direction.

7.24.1.7 Mode Shapes
This section lists the X-, Y-, and rotational components of the mode shape for each mode. It should be noted
that calculated mode shapes are normalized with respect to the building mass matrix. Thus, Mode Shapes
values are units-dependent. However, this choice does not affect analysis results. Please refer to Section
6.8.3 for further information. A special note is included at the end of the report to provide some guidance
regarding mode shapes and their relationship to the selected units.

For Semirigid diaphragms and pseudo-flexible diaphragms, diaphragm mass are distributed over diaphragm
nodes or over frame joints, respectively. If Reports- Include Semirigid diaphragm nodal results command is
activated, this section also include mode shape values at these nodes as well. It should be noted that the
report can be too long of the command is activated.

7.25 Centers of Rigidity
The Centers of Rigidity report lists the centers of rigidity of the building at each of rigid diaphragms that
carry lateral members. The report also includes the list of the centers of mass at each diaphragm. In
addition, it also lists the story stiffnesses.
7.26 Redundancy Factors
The Redundancy Factors report lists the Rho-factors for each of the seismic load cases. Additional
information include story\diaphragm shear at each of the levels, member shears and r-max for each seismic
load case. The redundancy factors reported for each individual member here are the actual calculated values
and are not limited by code specifications. However, the Rho listed for the load case is the actual
redundancy factor that will be used in the load combinations for that load case, based on the worst member
value and limited by the Code limits. Note that the Redundancy Factor is not applied to the load case results
(member forces, etc.) in Analysis Load Cases mode. An example of this report is located in the
RF_Analysis_Redundancy- Factors file.
7.27 Redundancy Factor Summary
The Redundancy Factor Summary report lists a summary of the actual Rho-factors for each of the seismic
load cases, story\diaphragm shear at each of the levels, member shears and r-max for each seismic load cases.
7.28 ASCE 7 Stability Coefficients
The ASCE 7 Stability Coefficients report list calculated stability coefficients according to Eq. 12.8-16 in
ASCE 7-05. These coefficients are only reported for ASCE 7 seismic load cases. Note that gravity load cases
must be also analyzed in order to calculate the stability coefficients. The report contains two sections for each
seismic load case analyzed: the first section reports diaphragm shears, drifts and vertical loads; the second
section shows calculated stability coefficients and also it reports max. permitted limits according to ASCE 7-
05. Note that calculated vertical loads include dead, live and roof loads (live loads are reduced with live load
reduction factors).
7.29 Takeoff

The Frame Takeoff provides a listing of the weight of steel frame members for each floor as well as a total
for the structure. The frequency of each member size and the corresponding cumulative length and weight is
furnished for every floor type in the model. The values for the different floor types are then combined to
give a listing for the entire structure. Listings are separated by the grades of steel used. This report only
includes those members that have been specified as Lateral members; it does not include Gravity columns
and beams.

Floor Area:
This is the gross floor area as defined by the slab edge. This value is only listed for models with decks/slabs
and slab edges.

#:
This is the number of pieces of the listed size.

Length:
This is the cumulative length of the listed size. It is based on the nominal member lengths (centerline
dimensions).

Weight:
This is the cumulative weight of the listed size. It is based on the value listed for length.

UnitWt:
This is the weight of steel per unit gross floor area. This value is only listed for models with decks/slabs and
slab edges defining the floor areas.
7.30 Print Screen, Preview and Setup
The current screen view can be printed using the Reports - Print Screen command or the Print button. This
provides a convenient means of obtaining graphical output of the member forces, deflected shape, structural
model, etc. Reports - Print Preview provides a means of viewing what the printout will look like before it
is printed. Reports - Print Setup provides a means of modifying printer selection and settings.

When the view of the screen is printed, the black background is printed white and any white entities are
printed black.

Reports Load Combinations Mode
8 Reports Load Combinations Mode

The following outputs are available in the Load Combinations Mode.

Load Combinations
Member Force (single, fence, frame, current view, all)
Wall Group Force
Member Force Summary (single, fence, frame, current view, all)
Member Force Envelope (single, fence, frame, current view, all)
Reactions
Reactions Envelope
Building Story Shear
Frame Story Shear
Story Displacement
Nodal Displacement

With exception of Load Combination, all the reports are similar to the reports in the Load Case mode. In
this mode however, load combination results created using the Combinations-Custom command are used
to create the reports.

A summary of some of the important outputs is included here, refer to chapter 7 for more details.
8.1 Load Combinations
User generated load combinations are reported in this comprehensive output. Custom (user) combinations
are created by selecting the Combinations-Custom command and entering the appropriate data. The
custom combinations can be selected for inclusion in outputs by selecting the box in the use column. In this
Load Combination output only load combinations which are valid (all load cases in the combination are
analyzed) and selected by the user, are shown.
8.2 Member Forces
The Member Forces report in Analysis Load Combinations Mode lists the member force results for a
single member for all the load combinations (user-defined) of the frame analysis. It also includes member
information and the analysis criteria.

members in a model can be quite lengthy. See Section 7.13.1.4 for a description of the various elements of
this report.
Reports Load Combinations Mode
8.3 Wall Group Forces
The Wall Group Forces report lists the integrated wall force results of the frame analysis for user-defined
wall groups. It also includes the geometrical information on the wall group, the analysis criteria and a list of
load combinations.

This report is printed for all the wall groups in the model.
8.4 Member Force Summary
The Member Forces report in Post Processor Mode lists the member force results for all the load
combinations (user-defined and generated) of the frame analysis for an individual member. It also includes
member information, the analysis criteria, a list of load cases analyzed and the user-defined and generated
load combinations.

This report can be printed for all members of a specified frame number (Frame). A report for all members in
a model can be quite lengthy depending on the number of load combinations.
8.5 Member Force Envelope
The Member Forces Envelope report in Load Combinations Mode lists the maximum and minimum
member force results for all the load combinations of the frame analysis for an individual member. It also
includes member information, the analysis criteria and a list of load cases analyzed.

members in a model can be quite lengthy.

Reports Shear Wall Forces Module

9 Reports Shear Wall Forces Module

The following outputs are available in the RAM Shear Wall Forces Module, launched by selecting the
Process Results Shear Wall Forces Module command in RAM Frame:

Wall Section Forces
Wall Section Force Summary
Wall Section Force Envelope

The module is available from either Analysis Load Cases mode or Analysis Load Combinations mode in
RAM Frame. Depending on which is the current mode in RAM Frame the reports will either show Load
Case results or Load Combination results. In order to obtain these reports it is necessary to first define
section cuts through the walls. See Section 3.7.
9.1 Wall Section Forces
This report shows the wall forces through the specified section cuts. It is given for single or selected section
cuts (selected by using the Single, Fence, or All options).

9.1.1.1 Criteria
Select criteria used in the frame analysis are listed.

9.1.1.2 Load Cases / Load Combinations
Each of the analyzed Load Cases, if in Load Case mode, or valid Combinations, if in Load Combination
mode, is listed.

9.1.1.3 Section Cut Information
For each section cut the cut information indicating the location of the cut is given.

Offset:
The perpendicular distance from the section cut to the item listed as Measured from.

Orientation:
The orientation of the section cut line, either Horizontal or Vertical.

A end:
The starting point of the section cut.

B end:
The ending point of the section cut.

Length:
The length of the section cut.

Reports Shear Wall Forces Module
9.1.1.4 Elements in Section Cut
The wall panels and columns or beams, if any, that are included in whole or in part in the section cut are
listed, along with their properties.

9.1.1.5 Wall Forces
For each load case or combination the axial forces, moments, shear forces and torsion acting along the
section cut are listed.
9.2 Wall Section Force Summary
This report shows the wall forces through the section cuts, in Summary form. All section cuts are included,
listed by Level and then alphabetically by Section Label.

9.2.1.1 Criteria
Select criteria used in the frame analysis are listed.

9.2.1.2 Load Cases / Load Combinations
Each of the analyzed Load Cases, if in Load Case mode, or valid Combinations, if in Load Combination
mode, is listed.

9.2.1.3 Wall Forces
For each load case or combination the axial forces, moments, shear forces and torsion acting along the
section cut are listed.
9.3 Wall Section Force Envelope
This report is identical to the Wall Section Forces report except that rather than listing the wall forces for
every load case or load combination it lists the maximum and minimum values, along with the controlling
load case or load combination.

Index
A
accidental torsion ....................................................................... 161
Analysis log ................................................................................. 235
Analysis with Gravity Members .................................................. 188
Analyze ..................................................................................... 7, 45
ASCE 7 Stability Coefficients Report ........................................... 247
Assign
Beam
Fixity ................................................................................... 30
Size ..................................................................................... 30
Brace
Fixity ................................................................................... 30
Size ..................................................................................... 30
Column
Fixity ................................................................................... 30
Size ..................................................................................... 30
Foundation Springs .................................................................. 33
Frame Numbers ....................................................................... 33
Nodes
Diaphragm Connection ...................................................... 31
Wall Group Numbers ............................................................... 33
Assign Menu ................................................................................. 30
B
Beam
Joint Face Distance ................................................................ 163
Stiffness Formulation ............................................................ 155
Beam Connections ...................................................................... 211
Custom .................................................................................. 215
Reduced Beam Section (RBS) ................................................ 216
Rigid End Zones ..................................................................... 223
SidePlate ................................................................................ 219
Spring Connection ................................................................. 213
Standard ................................................................................ 213
Boundary Conditions
Foundation ............................................................................ 161
Brace
Buckling Restrained Brace
Axial Stiffness Modifier .......................................................... 207
Design Of ............................................................................... 208
Proprietary Shapes ................................................................ 208
Star Seismic ........................................................................... 209
Buckling Restrained Brace .................................................... 31, 207
Building Codes .............................................................................. 67
Building the Framing Tables ........................................................... 5
C
Cantilevers
Skip Loading .......................................................................... 154
Codes
Lateral Loads ........................................................................... 67
Colors ....................................................................................... 9, 18
Column
Joint Face Distance ................................................................ 163
Columns
Disconnected ........................................................................ 169
Construction Load ...................................................................... 149
Coordinate System ..................................................................... 137
Coordinates
global .................................................................................... 137
local ....................................................................................... 139
CQC ............................................................................................. 160
Crack Factor
Concrete Beam, Column or Brace ......................................... 133
Concrete Wall................................................................ 133, 158
Diaphragm (Bending) ............................................................ 187
Diaphragm (In-plane) ............................................................ 174
Criteria
Diaphragm ............................................................................... 24
Disconnected Nodes .......................................................... 26
General
AISC 360 ............................................................................. 24
Dynamic Analysis Forces .................................................... 23
Member Forces .................................................................. 22
Meshing Walls.................................................................... 22
P-Delta ............................................................................... 22
Rigid End Zone ................................................................... 21
Solver Type ........................................................................ 24
Wall Elements .................................................................... 23
Ground Level ........................................................................... 28
Redundancy Factors ................................................................ 29
D
Dead Load................................................................................... 149
Deflected Shape ........................................................................... 53
Diaphragm
Disconnected Columns .......................................................... 169
Diaphragm Criteria ....................................................................... 24
Diaphragm Modeling ...................................................................... 5
Direct Analysis Method .......................................................... 24, 67
Disconnect Nodes ......................................................................... 31
Distributed Mass Model ............................................................. 198
Drift
at a point ........................................................................... 55, 56
at control points ................................................................ 55, 56

DXF ............................................................................................... 64
Dynamic Analysis
load cases ................................................................................ 37
mass data ................................................................................ 39
Sign .......................................................................................... 23
Dynamics
Accidental Torsion ................................................................. 161
Response Spectra Analysis .................................................... 160
Solution Techniques .............................................................. 159
E
Effective Length
Eigenvalue Analysis
Distribuated Mass Idealization .............................................. 197
Eigenvalues ................................................................................. 159
Error Messages
Geometry .............................................................................. 224
Modeling ............................................................................... 224
P Delta ................................................................................... 226
Error Messages ........................................................................... 224
Error Messages
Geometry and Modeling Errors ............................................ 224
Error Messages
Loads ..................................................................................... 225
Export DXF .................................................................................... 64
F
File
Export DXF ............................................................................... 64
Model Status ............................................................................. 6
Save ........................................................................................... 7
View DXF ................................................................................. 64
Flexible Diaphragm ....................................................................... 25
Foundation Nodes ...................................................................... 161
Foundation Springs ....................................................................... 33
At Brace Base .......................................................................... 36
At Column Base ....................................................................... 34
At Wall Base ............................................................................ 36
Clearing ................................................................................... 37
Frame Member Data
Output ................................................................................... 233
Frame Numbers .............................................................................. 5
Assign ...................................................................................... 33
Frame Reactions
Output ........................................................................... 243, 244
Framing Tables ............................................................................... 5
G
Gravity Loads ................................................................................ 37
On Walls ................................................................................ 154
Gravity Walls................................................................................... 4
Ground Level ........................................................................ 28, 161
H
Hanging Column ............................................................................. 4
Hide Member Information ........................................................... 19
I
IBC2000
Live Load Reduction .............................................................. 125
Imposed Loads ........................................................................... 149
J
Joint Face Distance ..................................................................... 162
Beams ................................................................................... 163
Columns ................................................................................ 163
L
Lambda Critical ............................................................................. 56
Lateral Loads ................................................................................ 37
Penthouse/Mechanical ......................................................... 154
Story Forces ...................................................................... 71, 98
Wind........................................................................................ 41
Lateral Members ............................................................................ 3
Limitations .................................................................................. 224
Live Load .................................................................................... 149
in RAM Frame ....................................................................... 131
reducible ............................................................................... 123
roof reducible ....................................................................... 123
storage .................................................................................. 123
unreducible ........................................................................... 123
Live Load Reduction
Beams and Columns .............................................................. 131
Walls ..................................................................................... 132
Live Load Reduction ................................................................... 123
Live Load Reduction Requirements
BOCA ..................................................................................... 127
BS 6399 ................................................................................. 129
Eurocode ............................................................................... 130
IBC2000 ................................................................................. 125
NBC ....................................................................................... 129
SBC ........................................................................................ 128
UBC ....................................................................................... 128
Load Case
Generation .............................................................................. 42
Labels ...................................................................................... 43
Numbers ................................................................................. 43
Output ................................................................................... 237
Load Combination Mode .............................................................. 65
Load Combinations ....................................................................... 65
Load Generation ........................................................................... 67
Load Polygon .............................................................................. 150
Load Properties .......................................................................... 149
Loads ............................................................................................ 37
Dead ...................................................................................... 149

Exposure .................................................................................. 41
lateral ...................................................................................... 37
live ................................................................................. 131, 149
Load Cases ......................................................................... 37, 42
Mass ........................................................................................ 40
mass dead load ...................................................................... 149
nodal........................................................................................ 37
on Cantilevered Beam ........................................................... 154
Output ................................................................................... 237
roof live load.......................................................................... 154
Sign Convention ............................................................. 139, 154
Skip Loading ........................................................................... 154
static ........................................................................................ 37
surface loads ......................................................................... 150
Technical................................................................................ 149
Wind ........................................................................................ 41
Loads on Slab Edges .................................................................... 152
Lumped Mass Model .................................................................. 198
M
Mass
Distributed Model ................................................................ 198
Lumped Model ...................................................................... 198
Spatial Model ........................................................................ 198
Mass Data ..................................................................................... 39
Output ................................................................................... 235
Mass Dead Load .......................................................................... 149
Mass Matrix ................................................................................ 158
Material Properties ..................................................................... 132
Maximum Live Load Percent ...................................................... 124
Member Force Results .................................................................. 52
Member Forces
Output ............................................................. 22, 240, 249, 250
Sign Convention ..................................................................... 140
Merged Load Cases ....................................................................... 44
Meshing
Boundary ............................................................................... 189
Diaphragms ........................................................................... 189
Loads on Diaphragms ............................................................ 190
Mesh Control Parameters ..................................................... 195
Meshing Walls .............................................................................. 22
Mode
Analysis
Load Case ............................................................................. 6
Load Combination .............................................................. 65
Mode Shapes ................................................................................ 54
Model Data Output ..................................................................... 231
Modeling Issues
Diaphragm ................................................................................. 5
Frame member support ............................................................ 3
Member Sizes ............................................................................ 3
Walls .......................................................................................... 4
Modes ............................................................................................. 6
Output ................................................................................... 246
Switching ................................................................................. 19
Modulus of Elasticity. ................................................................. 132
N
Negative Load ............................................................................. 154
Nodal Displacements
Output ................................................................................... 245
Nodal Loads .................................................................................. 37
Output ................................................................................... 238
Nodal Mass
Z-direction ............................................................................. 199
Nodes ..................................................................................... 26, 31
Notional Loads...................................................................... 37, 135
O
Output
Frame Gravity Loads
Applied Loads................................................................... 238
Criteria ............................................................................. 238
Frame Reactions............................................................ 243, 244
Gravity Loads on Frames ....................................................... 238
Load Combination Mode ............................................... 249, 251
Load Combinations ............................................................... 249
Loads ..................................................................................... 237
Applied Story Forces ........................................................ 237
Load Case ......................................................................... 237
Member Force Envelope ....................................................... 243
Member Forces ..................................................... 240, 249, 250
Member Forces Summary ..................................................... 242
Merged Loads ....................................................................... 238
Model Data ........................................................................... 231
Frame Members .............................................................. 233
Section Properties ............................................................ 231
Story Data ........................................................................ 231
Modes ................................................................................... 246
Nodal Displacements ............................................................ 245
Nodal Loads ........................................................................... 238
Periods .................................................................................. 246
Redundancy Factors .............................................................. 247
Rigid End Zone ...................................................................... 162
Story Displacements ............................................................. 244
Story Mass Data .................................................................... 235
Wall Group Forces ......................................................... 242, 250
Weight Takeoff ...................................................................... 248
Wind Exposure Data .............................................................. 236
Output Filter ............................................................................... 231
P
Panel Zone .................................................................................. 162
Partition loads ............................................................................ 155
P-Delta ............................................... 22, 69, 70, 123, 197, 200, 207
Gravity Loads......................................................................... 202
Mass Loads ............................................................................ 202
Non-iterative P-Delta Analysis .............................................. 201
P-Delta Loads ........................................................................ 202
Preliminary P-Delta Analysis ................................................. 201
Technical ............................................................................... 200

Penetrations ............................................................................... 154
Periods
Output ................................................................................... 246
Positive Load ............................................................................... 154
Print Screen ................................................................................ 248
Process
Analyze .................................................................................... 45
Results ..................................................................................... 46
Applied Story Forces .......................................................... 46
Building Story Shears ......................................................... 47
Center of Mass ................................................................... 57
Center of Rigidity ............................................................... 57
Deflected Shape ................................................................. 53
Diagrams ............................................................................ 49
Drift at control points ................................................... 55, 56
Drift-at-a-Point ............................................................. 55, 56
Frame Story Shears ............................................................ 48
Member Force Envelope .................................................... 52
Member Forces .................................................................. 52
Mode Shapes ..................................................................... 54
Reactions ............................................................................ 53
Redundancy Factor ............................................................ 57
Shear Wall Forces ......................................................... 52, 58
Wall Group Forces ...................................................... 52, 143
View Update
Load Case ........................................................................... 46
Load Combo ....................................................................... 66
Properties
loads ...................................................................................... 149
Pseudo-Flexible Diaphragm ................................................ 167, 172
Accidental Torsion ................................................................. 161
Diaphragm Properties ..................................................... 10, 236
Diaphragm Setting ................................................................... 24
Drift ......................................................................................... 56
Eigen Analysis ........................................................................ 160
Mass ................................................................................ 57, 158
Mode Shapes ......................................................................... 247
Warnings ............................................................................... 227
R
Reactions .................................................................................... 243
Sign Convention .................................................................... 143
Redundancy Factors ..................................................................... 57
Output ................................................................................... 247
Redundancy Factors Technical ................................................... 134
Reset Model.................................................................................. 18
Response Spectra Analysis.......................................................... 160
AS 1170.4-2007 ..................................................................... 118
China GB5001-2001 ............................................................... 113
IBC 2000 ................................................................................ 105
IBC 2003 ................................................................................ 102
IBC 2006 .................................................................................. 99
NBCC 2005 ............................................................................. 111
Results .......................................................................................... 46
Load Combination Mode ......................................................... 66
Member Force Envelope ......................................................... 52
Mode Shapes ........................................................................... 54
Rigid Diaphragm ........................................................................... 25
Analysis with Two-way Decks ............................................... 172
In-Plane Stiffness .................................................................. 168
P-Delta .................................................................................. 201
Sloping Framing .................................................................... 170
Technical ............................................................................... 168
User Defined Wind and Seismic Load Cases ......................... 171
Rigid End Zone
Effects ..................................................................................... 21
Framing Beams ..................................................................... 166
Roof Live Load ............................................................................ 154
S
Save Settings ................................................................................ 18
Section Properties ...................................................................... 133
Seismic Loads
AS 1170.4-2007 ..................................................................... 118
China GB5001-2001 .............................................................. 113
IBC 2000 ................................................................................ 105
IBC 2003 ................................................................................ 102
IBC 2006 .................................................................................. 99
NBCC 1995 ............................................................................ 113
NBCC 2005 ............................................................................ 107
Select Cases Command .............................................................. 231
Self-Weight Calculations .................................................... 150, 151
Semirigid Diaphragm ............................................................ 24, 173
Applied Story Forces ............................................................... 46
Diaphragm Boundary ............................................................ 189
Diaphragm Settings ................................................................. 26
Drift ......................................................................................... 56
Drift Calculators .................................................................... 184
Eccentric Loading .................................................................. 175
Eccentric Seismic and Response Spectra Load Cases ............ 175
Eccentric Wind Load Case ..................................................... 178
Eigen Analysis........................................................................ 160
Gravity and Other Load Cases ............................................... 183
In-Plane Stiffness .................................................................. 173
Mass ................................................................................ 57, 158
Mode Shapes ........................................................................ 247
Node Connectivity................................................................... 32
P-Delta .................................................................................... 22
P-Delta .................................................................................. 201
Response Spectra Load Case ................................................. 180
Seismic Load Case ................................................................. 180
Seismic Loads .......................................................................... 99
Show Mesh ............................................................................... 9
Sloping Diaphragms .............................................................. 184
User Defined Wind/Seismic Load Cases ................................ 181
View Mesh .............................................................................. 18
Wind Load Case .................................................................... 180
Wind Loads ............................................................................. 73
Settings
Saving ...................................................................................... 18
Shear Wall Forces Module ........................................................... 58
Sign Convention ......................................................................... 139
Sizes ................................................................................................ 3
Skip Loading ............................................................................... 154
Slab Openings ............................................................................. 154
Sloping Framing .......................................................................... 139

Spatial Mass Model .................................................................... 198
SRSS ............................................................................................ 160
Star Seismic Buckling Restrained Brace ...................................... 209
Static Loads ................................................................................... 37
Statics
Status Indicator Light ................................................................ 7, 46
Stiffness Formulation
Beam ..................................................................................... 155
Brace...................................................................................... 156
Column .................................................................................. 156
Effective Member Length ...................................................... 164
Mass Coefficients .................................................................. 158
Rigid End Zone ....................................................................... 164
Stiffness Formulations ................................................................ 155
Stiffness Matrix ........................................................................... 158
Story Displacements
Output ................................................................................... 244
Story Forces ............................................................................ 71, 98
Stub Cantilever ........................................................................... 155
Surface Load ............................................................................... 150
T
Takeoff ........................................................................................ 248
Technical
Spread Footing
Coordinate System ........................................................... 134
Technical Notes .......................................................................... 137
Tension Only ............................................................................... 205
Tension Only Braces...................................................................... 44
Toolbars .......................................................................................... 7
Analysis Mode ........................................................................... 9
Drift Control Mode .................................................................. 12
Primary ...................................................................................... 7
Steel Mode .............................................................................. 11
Troubleshooting
Analysis .................................................................................. 235
Two-way ....................................................... 3, 4, 46, 123, 185, 240
Two-way Slabs
Analysis .................................................................................. 185
Diaphram Out of Plane Stiffness ........................................... 187
U
Unrestrained Nodes .................................................................... 161
V
View
3D 13
Elevation ................................................................................. 13
Extents .................................................................................... 15
Frames .................................................................................... 16
Members ................................................................................. 14
Nodal Loads ......................................................................... 8, 17
Options
Pen Colors .......................................................................... 18
Save Settings ...................................................................... 18
Options - Pen Colors.................................................................. 9
Plan ......................................................................................... 13
Rotate ..................................................................................... 13
Zoom - Fence ....................................................................... 8, 13
Zoom - Full .......................................................................... 8, 13
View Commands ........................................................................... 13
View DXF File ................................................................................ 64
View Menu ................................................................................... 13
View/Update
Load Case Mode ...................................................................... 46
Load Combination Mode ......................................................... 66
W
Wall Elements............................................................................... 23
Wall Group Forces ........................................................................ 52
Output ........................................................................... 242, 250
Technical ............................................................................... 142
Wall Group Numbers - Assign ...................................................... 33
Wall Modeling ................................................................................ 4
Wind
Exposure Data Output ........................................................... 236
Wind Exposure ............................................................................. 41
Wind Loads
AS/NZS 1170.2
2002 ................................................................................... 93
BS 6399 ................................................................................... 85
China GB5001-2001 ................................................................ 91
Codes ...................................................................................... 71
Eurocode ................................................................................. 90
IBC 2000 .................................................................................. 75
IBC 2003 .................................................................................. 73
IBC 2006/2009......................................................................... 73
NBCC 1995 .............................................................................. 83
NBCC 2005 .............................................................................. 77
Z
Zoom ............................................................................................ 13

Ram Frame Analysis

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ram Frame Analysis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DAA036860-1/0012

The RAM Structural System V8i

: major moment of inertia

: minor moment of inertia

, and vice versa. In lieu

= 0.8 Eq. (A-7-3)

: Topographic factor. It can be specified by the user or it is obtained from

is combined net pressure on parapet,

velocity pressure evaluated at top of parapet from

is the Topographic Factor input by the user.

is given by Equation 6-6. See Section 6.5.8.2.

= statistical peak factor for the loading effect

+0.88 0.25 <

is the external pressure component

is the internal pressure component

= internal pressure coefficient (Figure B-15 of Commentary, P.29)

= gust effect factor determined using simple procedure or detailed procedure.

, the simple procedure is explained on Page 13 of the Commentary of NBCC 95 (

term may be replaced by

= Windward and Leeward Net Pressure Coefficients given in Table 5. In

to be used at all levels.

= Dynamic Pressure defined in Clause 2.1.2. It is given by Equation 1:

= Site Wind Speed defined in Clause 2.2.2 and is given by Equation 8:

are input by the user as explained above.

is as defined in Clause 1.7.3.3, and is the greater of:

= Displacement Height and is input by the user.

may vary with each level.

. When the structure is not

: wind dynamic effect factor at location of height z

: building shape factor

: wind load variant factor at location of height z

: basic wind pressure

is the modified wind pressure calculated at height z.

): This value is provided by the engineer in the dialog.

): This value depends on Exposure type that is provided by the engineer in

): The dynamic effect factor is calculated at a given height z, and currently

: user entered value is used

: mode shape factor (mode shape value at height z)

: wind load variant factor at location of height z

and T (building period for a given direction).

and apply them whenever

: density of air (1.2 kg/m

: aerodynamic shape factor (depending on which part and geometry of structure

: dynamic response factor ( =1 for non wind sensitive structures)

is calculated at a given height z.

: area reduction factor (Section 5.4.2 in the building code)

: combination factor (Section 5.4.3). For all structures,

cannot be less than 0.8/

is 1.0 in all cases except when determining the

: reduction factor for porous cladding (Section 5.4.5)

: combination factor (Section 5.4.3)

: combination factor (Section 5.4.3)

: design wind pressure in pascals (normal to surface) at height z, calculated

: reference area, in square meters, at height z

must be used for frictional drag forces)

) are used for +X and X. This is also true for +Y and Y.

and it is not limited by

. Also note from

. This new part is

can be used for . The approximate period can be directly defined by

and are defined in Table 12.8-2. Only

is required from the user and corresponding value of

is the height above the base to the highest level of the