Drilling rig A drilling rig is a machine which creates holes (usually called boreholes) or shafts in the ground.

Drilling rigs can be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to be moved manually by one person. They sample subsurface mineral deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical properties, and also can be used to install sub-surface fabrications, such as underground utilities, instrumentation, tunnels or wells. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or marinebased structures (such as oil platforms, commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if they don't contain a drilling rig). The term "rig" therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earth's crust. Drilling rigs can be: y Small and portable, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, water wells and environmental investigations. y Huge, capable of drilling through thousands of meters of the Earth's crust. Large "mud pumps" circulate drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and up the casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is drilled. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews (which may be more than a hundred). Marine rigs may operate many hundreds of miles or kilometres distant from the supply base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle. Petroleum drilling industry A petroleum drilling rig capable of drilling thousands of feet Oil and natural gas drilling rigs can be used not only to identify geologic reservoirs but also to create holes that allow the extraction of oil or natural gas from those reservoirs. Primarily in onshore oil and gas fields once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig will be moved off of the well and a service rig (a smaller rig) that is purpose-built for completions will be moved on to the well to get the well on line. This frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain services, i.e., completions vs. drilling. History Until internal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the main method for drilling rock was muscle power of man or animal. Rods were turned by hand, using clamps attached to the rod. The rope and drop method invented in Zigong, China used a steel rod or piston raised and dropped vertically via a rope. Mechanised versions of this persisted until about 1970, using a cam to rapidly raise and drop what, by then, was a steel cable. In the 1970s, outside of the oil and gas industry, roller bits using mud circulation were replaced by the first pneumatic reciprocating piston Reverse Circulation (RC) drills, and became essentially obsolete for most shallow drilling, and are now only used in certain situations where rocks preclude other methods. RC drilling proved much faster and more efficient, and continues to improve with better metallurgy, deriving harder, more durable bits, and compressors delivering higher air pressures at higher volumes, enabling deeper and faster penetration. Diamond drilling has remained essentially unchanged since its inception. Mobile drilling rigs In early oil exploration, drilling rigs were semi-permanent in nature and the derricks were often built on site and left in place after the completion of the well. In more recent times drilling rigs are expensive custom-built machines that can be moved from well to well. Some light duty drilling rigs are like a mobile crane and are more usually used to drill water wells. Larger land rigs must be broken apart into sections and loads to move to a new place, a process which can often take weeks. Small mobile drilling rigs are also used to drill or bore piles. Rigs can range from 100 ton continuous flight auger (CFA) rigs to small air powered rigs used to drill holes in quarries, etc. These rigs use the same technology and equipment as the oil drilling rigs, just on a smaller scale. The drilling mechanisms outlined below differ mechanically in terms of the machinery used, but also in terms of the method by which drill cuttings are removed from the cutting face of the drill and returned to surface. Drilling rig classification There are many types and designs of drilling rigs, with many drilling rigs capable of switching or combining different drilling technologies as needed. Drilling rigs can be described using any of the following attributes: By power used y Mechanical the rig uses torque converters, clutches, and transmissions powered by its own engines, often diesel

Electric the major items of machinery are driven by electric motors, usually with power generated on-site using internal combustion engines y Hydraulic the rig primarily uses hydraulic power y Pneumatic the rig is primarily powered by pressurized air y Steam the rig uses steam-powered engines and pumps (obsolete after middle of 20th Century) By pipe used y Cable a cable is used to raise and drop the drill bit y Conventional uses metal or plastic drill pipe of varying types y Coil tubing uses a giant coil of tube and a downhole drilling motor By height (All rigs drill with only a single pipe. Rigs are differentiated by how many connected pipe they are able to "stand" in the derrick when needing to temporarily remove the drill pipe from the hole. Typically this is done when changing a drill bit or when "logging" the well.) y Single can pull only single drill pipes. The presence or absence of vertical pipe racking "fingers" varies from rig to rig. y Double can hold a stand of pipe in the derrick consisting of two connected drill pipes, called a "double stand". y Triple can hold a stand of pipe in the derrick consisting of three connected drill pipes, called a "triple stand". By method of rotation or drilling method y No-rotation includes direct push rigs and most service rigs y Rotary table rotation is achieved by turning a square or hexagonal pipe (the "Kelly") at drill floor level. y Top drive rotation and circulation is done at the top of the drill string, on a motor that moves in a track along the derrick. y Sonic uses primarily vibratory energy to advance the drill string y Hammer uses rotation and percussive force (see Down-the-hole drill) By position of derrick y Conventional derrick is vertical y Slant derrick is slanted at a 45 degree angle to facilitate horizontal drilling Drill types There are a variety of drill mechanisms which can be used to sink a borehole into the ground. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, in terms of the depth to which it can drill, the type of sample returned, the costs involved and penetration rates achieved. There are two basic types of drills: drills which produce rock chips, and drills which produce core samples. Reverse circulation (RC) drilling RC drilling is similar to air core drilling, in that the drill cuttings are returned to surface inside the rods. The drilling mechanism is a pneumatic reciprocating piston known as a "hammer" driving a tungstensteel drill bit. RC drilling utilises much larger rigs and machinery and depths of up to 500 metres are routinely achieved. RC drilling ideally produces dry rock chips, as large air compressors dry the rock out ahead of the advancing drill bit. RC drilling is slower and costlier but achieves better penetration than RAB or air core drilling; it is cheaper than diamond coring and is thus preferred for most mineral exploration work. Reverse circulation is achieved by blowing air down the rods, the differential pressure creating air lift of the water and cuttings up the "inner tube", which is inside each rod. It reaches the "bell" at the top of the hole, then moves through a sample hose which is attached to the top of the "cyclone". The drill cuttings travel around the inside of the cyclone until they fall through an opening at the bottom and are collected in a sample bag. The most commonly used RC drill bits are 5-8 inches (1320 cm) in diameter and have round metal 'buttons' that protrude from the bit, which are required to drill through shale and abrasive rock. As the buttons wear down, drilling becomes slower and the rod string can potentially become bogged in the hole. This is a problem as trying to recover the rods may take hours and in some cases weeks. The rods and drill bits themselves are very expensive, often resulting in great cost to drilling companies when equipment is lost down the bore hole. Most companies will regularly re-grind the buttons on their drill bits in order to prevent this, and to speed up progress. Usually, when something is lost (breaks off) in the hole, it is not the drill string, but rather from the bit, hammer, or stabiliser to the bottom of the drill string (bit). This is usually caused by a blunt bit getting stuck in fresh rock, over-stressed metal, or a fresh drill bit getting stuck in a part of the hole that is too small, owing to having used a bit that has worn to smaller than the desired hole diameter. y

Although RC drilling is air-powered, water is also used, to reduce dust, keep the drill bit cool, and assist in pushing cutting back upwards, but also when "collaring" a new hole. A mud called "Liqui-Pol" is mixed with water and pumped into the rod string, down the hole. This helps to bring up the sample to the surface by making the sand stick together. Occasionally, "Super-Foam" (a.k.a. "Quik-Foam") is also used, to bring all the very fine cuttings to the surface, and to clean the hole. When the drill reaches hard rock, a "collar" is put down the hole around the rods, which is normally PVC piping. Occasionally the collar may be made from metal casing. Collaring a hole is needed to stop the walls from caving in and bogging the rod string at the top of the hole. Collars may be up to 60 metres deep, depending on the ground, although if drilling through hard rock a collar may not be necessary. Reverse circulation rig setups usually consist of a support vehicle, an auxiliary vehicle, as well as the rig itself. The support vehicle, normally a truck, holds diesel and water tanks for resupplying the rig. It also holds other supplies needed for maintenance on the rig. The auxiliary is a vehicle, carrying an auxiliary engine and a booster engine. These engines are connected to the rig by high pressure air hoses. Although RC rigs have their own booster and compressor to generate air pressure, extra power is needed which usually isn't supplied by the rig due to lack of space for these large engines. Instead, the engines are mounted on the auxiliary vehicle. Compressors on an RC rig have an output of around 1000 cfm at 500 psi (500 Ls1 at 3.4 MPa). Alternatively, stand-alone air compressors which have an output of 9001150cfm at 300-350 psi each are used in sets of 2, 3, or 4, which are all routed to the rig through a multivalve manifold. Diamond core drilling Diamond core drilling (exploration diamond drilling) utilizes an annular diamond-impregnated drill bit attached to the end of hollow drill rods to cut a cylindrical core of solid rock. The diamonds used are fine to microfine industrial grade diamonds. They are set within a matrix of varying hardness, from brass to high-grade steel. Matrix hardness, diamond size and dosing can be varied according to the rock which must be cut. Holes within the bit allow water to be delivered to the cutting face. This provides three essential functions lubrication, cooling, and removal of drill cuttings from the hole. Diamond drilling is much slower than reverse circulation (RC) drilling due to the hardness of the ground being drilled. Drilling of 1200 to 1800 metres is common and at these depths, ground is mainly hard rock. Diamond rigs need to drill slowly to lengthen the life of drill bits and rods, which are very expensive. Core samples are retrieved via the use of a core tube, a hollow tube placed inside the rod string and pumped with water until it locks into the core barrel. As the core is drilled, the core barrel slides over the core as it is cut. An "overshot" attached to the end of the winch cable is lowered inside the rod string and locks on to the backend(aka head assembly), located on the top end of the core barrel. The winch is retracted, pulling the core tube to the surface. The core does not drop out of the inside of the core tube when lifted because either a split ring core lifter or basket retainer allow the core to move into, but not back out of the tube. Diamond core drill bits Once the core tube is removed from the hole, the core sample is then removed from the core tube and catalogued. The Driller's assistant unscrews the backend off the core tube using tube wrenches, then each part of the tube is taken and the core is shaken out into core trays. The core is washed, measured and broken into smaller pieces using a hammer or sawn through to make it fit into the sample trays. Once catalogued, the core trays are retrieved by geologists who then analyse the core and determine if the drill site is a good location to expand future mining operations. Diamond rigs can also be part of a multi-combination rig. Multi-combination rigs are a dual setup rig capable of operating in either a reverse circulation (RC) and diamond drilling role (though not at the same time). This is a common scenario where exploration drilling is being performed in a very isolated location. The rig is first set up to drill as an RC rig and once the desired metres are drilled, the rig is set up for diamond drilling. This way the deeper metres of the hole can be drilled without moving the rig and waiting for a diamond rig to set up on the pad. Direct push rigs Direct push technology includes several types of drilling rigs and drilling equipment which advances a drill string by pushing or hammering without rotating the drill string. While this does not meet the proper definition of drilling, it does achieve the same result a borehole. Direct push rigs include both cone penetration testing (CPT) rigs and direct push sampling rigs such as a PowerProbe or Geoprobe. Direct push rigs typically are limited to drilling in unconsolidated soil materials and very soft rock. CPT rigs advance specialized testing equipment (such as electronic cones), and soil samplers using large hydraulic rams. Most CPT rigs are heavily ballasted (20 metric tons is typical) as a counter force against the pushing force of the hydraulic rams which are often rated up to 20 kN. Alternatively, small, light CPT

rigs and offshore CPT rigs will use anchors such as screwed-in ground anchors to create the reactive force. In ideal conditions, CPT rigs can achieve production rates of up to 250300 meters per day. Direct push drilling rigs use hydraulic cylinders and a hydraulic hammer in advancing a hollow core sampler to gather soil and groundwater samples. The speed and depth of penetration is largely dependent on the soil type, the size of the sampler, and the weight and power the rig. Direct push techniques are generally limited to shallow soil sample recovery in unconsolidated soil materials. The advantage of direct push technology is that in the right soil type it can produce a large number of high quality samples quickly and cheaply, generally from 50 to 75 meters per day. Rather than hammering, direct push can also be combined with sonic (vibratory) methods to increase drill efficiency. Hydraulic rotary drilling Oil well drilling utilises tri-cone roller, carbide embedded, fixed-cutter diamond, or diamond-impregnated drill bits to wear away at the cutting face. This is preferred because there is no need to return intact samples to surface for assay as the objective is to reach a formation containing oil or natural gas. Sizable machinery is used, enabling depths of several kilometres to be penetrated. Rotating hollow drill pipes carry down bentonite and barite infused drilling muds to lubricate, cool, and clean the drilling bit, control downhole pressures, stabilize the wall of the borehole and remove drill cuttings. The mud travels back to the surface around the outside of the drill pipe, called the annulus. Examining rock chips extracted from the mud is known as mud logging. Another form of well logging is electronic and is frequently employed to evaluate the existence of possible oil and gas deposits in the borehole. This can take place while the well is being drilled, using Measurement While Drilling tools, or after drilling, by lowering measurement tools into the newly drilled hole. The rotary system of drilling was in general use in Texas in the early 1900s. It is a modification of one invented by Fauvelle in 1845, and used in the early years of the oil industry in some of the oil-producing countries in Europe. Originally pressurized water was used instead of mud, and was almost useless in hard rock before the diamond cutting bit.[2] The main breakthrough for rotary drilling came in 1901, when Anthony Francis Lucas combined the use of a steam-driven rig and of mud instead of water in the Spindletop discovery well.[3] The drilling and production of oil and gas can pose a safety risk and a hazard to the environment from the ignition of the entrained gas causing dangerous fires and also from the risk of oil leakage polluting water, land and groundwater. For these reasons, redundant safety systems and highly trained personnel are required by law in all countries with significant production Limits of the technology Drill technology has advanced steadily since the 19th century. However, there are several basic limiting factors which will determine the depth to which a bore hole can be sunk. All holes must maintain outer diameter; the diameter of the hole must remain wider than the diameter of the rods or the rods cannot turn in the hole and progress cannot continue. Friction caused by the drilling operation will tend to reduce the outside diameter of the drill bit. This applies to all drilling methods, except that in diamond core drilling the use of thinner rods and casing may permit the hole to continue. Casing is simply a hollow sheath which protects the hole against collapse during drilling, and is made of metal or PVC. Often diamond holes will start off at a large diameter and when outside diameter is lost, thinner rods put down inside casing to continue, until finally the hole becomes too narrow. Alternatively, the hole can be reamed; this is the usual practice in oil well drilling where the hole size is maintained down to the next casing point. For percussion techniques, the main limitation is air pressure. Air must be delivered to the piston at sufficient pressure to activate the reciprocating action, and in turn drive the head into the rock with sufficient strength to fracture and pulverise it. With depth, volume is added to the in-rod string, requiring larger compressors to achieve operational pressures. Secondly, groundwater is ubiquitous, and increases in pressure with depth in the ground. The air inside the rod string must be pressurised enough to overcome this water pressure at the bit face. Then, the air must be able to carry the rock fragments to surface. This is why depths in excess of 500 m for reverse circulation drilling are rarely achieved, because the cost is prohibitive and approaches the threshold at which diamond core drilling is more economic. Diamond drilling can routinely achieve depths in excess of 1200 m. In cases where money is no issue, extreme depths have been achieved, because there is no requirement to overcome water pressure. However, circulation must be maintained to return the drill cuttings to surface, and more importantly to maintain cooling and lubrication of the cutting surface. Without sufficient lubrication and cooling, the matrix of the drill bit will soften. While diamond is the hardest substance known, at 10 on the Mohs hardness scale, it must remain firmly in the matrix to achieve cutting. Weight on bit, the force exerted on the cutting face of the bit by the drill rods in the hole above the bit, must also be monitored. Research of new drilling technologies

Limits of the conventional contact drilling technologies caused strengthen of the research of new noncontact effective drilling technologies. There were several attempts to achieve sufficient results of the research which would negate disadvantages of current contact technology. The best known are technologies based on the utilization of water jet, chemical plasma, hydrothermal spallation or laser. The research teams round the world have been developing these technologies for a long time. Nowadays, utilization of high energetic electrical plasma shows very promising in deep drilling applications. This approach has potential to replace conventional drilling technologies because of several advantages. It would be able to produce boreholes with large constant diameter without frequent replacement of the drill bits. It would decrease time and money consumption. This technology is in the research phase and need a strong support, but it can bring a large shift in drilling segment. Causes of deviation Most drill holes deviate slightly from their planned trajectory. This is because of the torque of the turning bit working against the cutting face, because of the flexibility of the steel rods and especially the screw joints, because of reaction to foliation and structure within the rock, and because of refraction as the bit moves into different rock layers of varying resistance. Additionally, inclined holes will tend to deviate upwards because the drill rods will lie against the bottom of the bore, causing the drill bit to be slightly inclined from true. It is because of deviation that drill holes must be surveyed if deviation will impact the usefulness of the information returned. Sometimes the surface location can be offset laterally to take advantage of the expected deviation tendency, so the bottom of the hole will end up near the desired location. Oil well drilling commonly uses a process of controlled deviation called directional drilling (e.g., when several wells are drilled from one surface location). Rig equipment

y Blowout preventers: (BOPs) The equipment associated with a rig is to some extent dependent on the type of rig but (#23 & #24) are devices installed at the wellhead to prevent fluids and gases from unintentionally escaping from the borehole. #23 is the annular (often referred to as the "Hydril", which is one manufacturer) and #24 is the pipe rams and blind rams. In the place of #24 Variable bore rams or VBR's can be used, they offer the same pressure and sealing capacity found in standard pipe rams, while offering the versatility of sealing on various sizes of drill pipe, production tubing and casing without changing standard pipe rams. Normally VBR's are used when utilizing a tapered drill string (when different size drill pipe is used in the complete drill string). y Centrifuge: an industrial version of the device that separates fine silt and sand from the drilling fluid. y Solids control: solids control equipments for preparing drilling mud for the drilling rig. y Chain tongs: wrench with a section of chain, that wraps around whatever is being tightened or loosened. Similar to a pipe wrench. y Degasser: a device that separates air and/or gas from the drilling fluid. y Desander / desilter: contains a set of hydrocyclones that separate sand and silt from the drilling fluid. y Drawworks: (#7) is the mechanical section that contains the spool, whose main function is to reel in/out the drill line to raise/lower the traveling block (#11). y Drill bit: (#26) device attached to the end of the drill string that breaks apart the rock being drilled. It contains jets through which the drilling fluid exits.

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Drill pipe: (#16) joints of hollow tubing used to connect the surface equipment to the bottom hole assembly (BHA) and acts as a conduit for the drilling fluid. In the diagram, these are "stands" of drill pipe which are 2 or 3 joints of drill pipe connected together and "stood" in the derrick vertically, usually to save time while tripping pipe. Elevators: a gripping device that is used to latch to the drill pipe or casing to facilitate the lowering or lifting (of pipe or casing) into or out of the borehole. Mud motor: a hydraulically powered device positioned just above the drill bit used to spin the bit independently from the rest of the drill string. Mud pump: (#4) reciprocal type of pump used to circulate drilling fluid through the system. Mud tanks: (#1) often called mud pits, provides a reserve store of drilling fluid until it is required down the wellbore. Rotary table: (#20) rotates the drill string along with the attached tools and bit. Shale shaker: (#2) separates drill cuttings from the drilling fluid before it is pumped back down the borehole. Bell nipple (#22) is a section of large diameter pipe fitted to the top of the blowout preventers that the flow line attaches to via a side outlet, to allow the drilling mud to flow back to the mud tanks. Casing head (#27) is a large metal flange welded or screwed onto the top of the conductor pipe (also known as drive-pipe) or the casing and is used to bolt the surface equipment such as the blowout preventers (for well drilling) or the Christmas tree (oil well) (for well production). Centrifuge (not pictured) is an industrial version of the device that separates fine silt and sand from the drilling fluid. It is typically mounted on top or just off of the mud tanks. Crown block (#13) is the stationary end of the block and tackle. Degasser (not pictured) is a device that separates air and/or gas from the drilling fluid. It is typically mounted on top of the mud tanks. Derrick (#14) is the support structure for the equipment used to lower and raise the drill string into and out of the wellbore. Desander / desilter (not pictured) contains a set of hydrocyclones that separate sand and silt from the drilling fluid. Typically mounted on top of the mud tanks. Drill floor (#21) is the area on the rig where the tools are located to make the connections of the drill pipe, bottom hole assembly, tools and bit. It is considered the main area where work is performed. Drill line (#12) is thick, stranded metal cable threaded through the two blocks (traveling and crown) to raise and lower the drill string. Drill string (#25) is an assembled collection of drill pipe, heavy weight drill pipe, drill collars and any of a whole assortment of tools, connected together and run into the wellbore to facilitate the drilling of a well. The collection is referred to singularly as the drill string. Elevators (not pictured) are hinged devices that is used to latch to the drill pipe or casing to facilitate the lowering or lifting (of pipe or casing) into or out of the wellbore. Flow line (#28) is large diameter pipe that is attached to the bell nipple and extends to the shale shakers to facilitate the flow of drilling fluid back to the mud tanks. Goose-neck (#10) is a thick metal elbow connected to the swivel and standpipe that supports the weight of and provides a downward angle for the kelly hose to hang from. Kelly drive (#19) is a square, hexagonal or octagonal shaped tubing that is inserted through and is an integral part of the rotary table that moves freely vertically while the rotary table turns it. Kelly hose (#9) is a flexible, high pressure hose that connects the standpipe to the kelly (or more specifically to the gooseneck on the swivel above the kelly) and allows free vertical movement of the kelly, while facilitating the flow of the drilling fluid through the system and down the drill string. Monkey board (#15) is the catwalk along the side of the derrick (usually about 35 or 40 feet above the "floor"). The monkey board is where the derrick man works while "tripping" pipe. Pipe rack (#17) is a part of the drill floor (#21) where the stands of drill pipe are stood upright. It is typically made of a metal frame structure with large wooden beams situated within it. The wood helps to protect the end of the drill pipe. Stand (#16) is a section of 2 or 3 joints of drill pipe connected together and stood upright in the derrick. When they are pulled out of the hole, instead of laying down each joint of drill pipe, 2 or 3 joints are left connected together and stood in the derrick to save time. Standpipe (#8) is a thick metal tubing, situated vertically along the derrick, that facilitates the flow of drilling fluid and has attached to it and supports one end of the kelly hose. Suction line (#3) is an intake line for the mud pump to draw drilling fluid from the mud tanks. Swivel (#18) is the top end of the kelly that allows the rotation of the drill string without twisting the block.

Traveling block (#11) is the moving end of the block and tackle. Together, they give a significant mechanical advantage for lifting. y Vibrating hose (#6) is a flexible, high pressure hose (similar to the kelly hose) that connects the mud pump to the stand pipe. It is called the vibrating hose because it tends to vibrate and shake (sometimes violently) due to its close proximity to the mud pumps. An oil well is a general term for any boring through the earth's surface that is designed to find and acquire petroleum oil hydrocarbons. Usually some natural gas is produced along with the oil. A well that is designed to produce mainly or only gas may be termed a gas well. Life of a well y

A schematic of a typical oil well being produced by a pumpjack, which is used to produce the remaining recoverable oil after natural pressure is no longer sufficient to raise oil to the surface. The creation and life of a well can be divided up into five segments: y Planning y Drilling y Completion y Production y Abandonment

Drilling The well is created by drilling a hole 5 to 50 inches (127.0 mm to 914.4 mm) in diameter into the earth with a drilling rig that rotates a drill string with a bit attached. After the hole is drilled, sections of steel pipe (casing), slightly smaller in diameter than the borehole, are placed in the hole. Cement may be placed between the outside of the casing and the borehole. The casing provides structural integrity to the newly drilled wellbore, in addition to isolating potentially dangerous high pressure zones from each other and from the surface. With these zones safely isolated and the formation protected by the casing, the well can be drilled deeper (into potentially more-unstable and violent formations) with a smaller bit, and also cased with a smaller size casing. Modern wells often have two to five sets of subsequently smaller hole sizes drilled inside one another, each cemented with casing. To drill the well y The drill bit, aided by the weight of thick walled pipes called "drill collars" above it, cuts into the rock. There are different types of drill bit; some cause the rock to disintegrate by compressive failure, while others shear slices off the rock as the bit turns. y Drilling fluid, a.k.a. "mud", is pumped down the inside of the drill pipe and exits at the drill bit. Drilling mud is a complex mixture of fluids, solids and chemicals that must be carefully tailored to provide the correct physical and chemical characteristics required to safely drill the well. Particular functions of the drilling mud include cooling the bit, lifting rock cuttings to the surface, preventing destabilisation of the rock in the wellbore walls and overcoming the pressure of fluids inside the rock so that these fluids do not enter the wellbore. y The generated rock "cuttings" are swept up by the drilling fluid as it circulates back to surface outside the drill pipe. The fluid then goes through "shakers" which strain the cuttings from the good fluid which is returned to the pit. Watching for abnormalities in the returning cuttings and monitoring pit volume or rate of returning fluid are imperative to catch "kicks" early. A "kick" is when the formation pressure at the depth of the bit is more than the hydrostatic head of the mud above, which if not controlled temporarily by closing the blowout preventers and ultimately by increasing the density of the drilling fluid would allow formation fluids and mud to come up through the annulus uncontrollably. y The pipe or drill string to which the bit is attached is gradually lengthened as the well gets deeper by screwing in additional 30-foot (9 m) sections or "joints" of pipe under the kelly or topdrive at the surface. This process is called making a connection. Usually, joints are combined into three joints equaling one stand. Some smaller rigs only use two joints and some rigs can handle stands of four joints. This process is all facilitated by a drilling rig which contains all necessary equipment to circulate the drilling fluid, hoist and turn the pipe, control downhole, remove cuttings from the drilling fluid, and generate on-site power for these operations. Completion After drilling and casing the well, it must be 'completed'. Completion is the process in which the well is enabled to produce oil or gas. In a cased-hole completion, small holes called perforations are made in the portion of the casing which passed through the production zone, to provide a path for the oil to flow from the surrounding rock into the production tubing. In open hole completion, often 'sand screens' or a 'gravel pack' is installed in the last drilled, uncased reservoir section. These maintain structural integrity of the wellbore in the absence of casing, while still allowing flow from the reservoir into the wellbore. Screens also control the migration of formation sands into production tubulars and surface equipment, which can cause washouts and other problems, particularly from unconsolidated sand formations of offshore fields. After a flow path is made, acids and fracturing fluids are pumped into the well to fracture, clean, or otherwise prepare and stimulate the reservoir rock to optimally produce hydrocarbons into the wellbore. Finally, the area above the reservoir section of the well is packed off inside the casing, and connected to the surface via a smaller diameter pipe called tubing. This arrangement provides a redundant barrier to leaks of hydrocarbons as well as allowing damaged sections to be replaced. Also, the smaller crossectional area of the tubing produces reservoir fluids at an increased velocity in order to minimize liquid fallback that would create additional back pressure, and shields the casing from corrosive well fluids. In many wells, the natural pressure of the subsurface reservoir is high enough for the oil or gas to flow to the surface. However, this is not always the case, especially in depleted fields where the pressures have been lowered by other producing wells, or in low permeability oil reservoirs. Installing a smaller diameter tubing may be enough to help the production, but artificial lift methods may also be needed. Common solutions include downhole pumps, gas lift, or surface pump jacks. Many new systems in the last ten

years have been introduced for well completion. Multiple packer systems with frac ports or port collars in an all in one system have cut completion costs and improved production, especially in the case of horizontal wells. These new systems allow casings to run into the lateral zone with proper packer/frac port placement for optimal hydrocarbon recovery. Production The production stage is the most important stage of a well's life, when the oil and gas are produced. By this time, the oil rigs and workover rigs used to drill and complete the well have moved off the wellbore, and the top is usually outfitted with a collection of valves called a Christmas tree or Production trees. These valves regulate pressures, control flows, and allow access to the wellbore in case further completion work is needed. From the outlet valve of the production tree, the flow can be connected to a distribution network of pipelines and tanks to supply the product to refineries, natural gas compressor stations, or oil export terminals. As long as the pressure in the reservoir remains high enough, the production tree is all that is required to produce the well. If the pressure depletes and it is considered economically viable, an artificial lift method mentioned in the completions section can be employed. Workovers are often necessary in older wells, which may need smaller diameter tubing, scale or paraffin removal, acid matrix jobs, or completing new zones of interest in a shallower reservoir. Such remedial work can be performed using workover rigs also known as pulling units or completion rigs to pull and replace tubing, or by the use of well intervention techniques utilizing coiled tubing. Depending on the type of lift system and wellhead a rod rig or flushby can be used to change a pump without pulling the tubing. Enhanced recovery methods such as water flooding, steam flooding, or CO2 flooding may be used to increase reservoir pressure and provide a "sweep" effect to push hydrocarbons out of the reservoir. Such methods require the use of injection wells (often chosen from old production wells in a carefully determined pattern), and are used when facing problems with reservoir pressure depletion, high oil viscosity, or can even be employed early in a field's life. In certain cases depending on the reservoir's geomechanics reservoir engineers may determine that ultimate recoverable oil may be increased by applying a waterflooding strategy early in the field's development rather than later. Such enhanced recovery techniques are often called "tertiary recovery". Types of wells Fossil-fuel wells come in many varieties. By produced fluid, there can be wells that produce oil, wells that produce oil and natural gas, or wells that only produce natural gas. Natural gas is almost always a byproduct of producing oil, since the small, light gas carbon chains come out of solution as they undergo pressure reduction from the reservoir to the surface, similar to uncapping a bottle of soda pop where the carbon dioxide effervesces. Unwanted natural gas can be a disposal problem at the well site. If there is not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it is virtually valueless since it must be piped to the end user. Until recently, such unwanted gas was burned off at the wellsite, but due to environmental concerns this practice is becoming less common. [citation needed] Often, unwanted (or 'stranded' gas without a market) gas is pumped back into the reservoir with an 'injection' well for disposal or repressurizing the producing formation. Another solution is to export the natural gas as a liquid.[7] Gas-to-liquid, (GTL) is a developing technology that converts stranded natural gas into synthetic gasoline, diesel or jet fuel through the Fischer-Tropsch process developed in World War II Germany. Such fuels can be transported through conventional pipelines and tankers to users. Proponents claim GTL fuels burn cleaner than comparable petroleum fuels. Most major international oil companies are in advanced development stages of GTL production, e.g. the 140,000 bbl/d (22,000 m3/d) Pearl GTL plant in Qatar, scheduled to come online in 2011. In locations such as the United States with a high natural gas demand, pipelines are constructed to take the gas from the wellsite to the end consumer. Another obvious way to classify oil wells is by land or offshore wells. There is very little difference in the well itself. An offshore well targets a reservoir that happens to be underneath an ocean. Due to logistics, drilling an offshore well is far more costly than an onshore well. By far the most common type is the onshore well. These wells dot the Southern and Central Great Plains, Southwestern United States, and are the most common wells in the Middle East. Another way to classify oil wells is by their purpose in contributing to the development of a resource. They can be characterized as: y wildcat wells are those drilled outside of and not in the vicinity of known oil or gas fields. y exploration wells are drilled purely for exploratory (information gathering) purposes in a new area. y appraisal wells are used to assess characteristics (such as flow rate) of a proven hydrocarbon accumulation. y production wells are drilled primarily for producing oil or gas, once the producing structure and characteristics are determined.

At a producing well site, active wells may be further categorised as: y oil producers producing predominantly liquid hydrocarbons, but mostly with some associated gas. y gas producers producing almost entirely gaseous hydrocarbons. y water injectors injecting water into the formation to maintain reservoir pressure, or simply to dispose of water produced with the hydrocarbons because even after treatment, it would be too oily and too saline to be considered clean for dumping overboard offshore, let alone into a fresh water resource in the case of onshore wells. Water injection into the producing zone frequently has an element of reservoir management; however, often produced water disposal is into shallower zones safely beneath any fresh water zones. y aquifer producers intentionally producing water for re-injection to manage pressure. If possible this water will come from the reservoir itself. Using aquifer produced water rather than water from other sources is to preclude chemical incompatibility that might lead to reservoir-plugging precipitates. These wells will generally needed only if produced water from the oil or gas producers is insufficient for reservoir management purposes. y gas injectors injecting gas into the reservoir often as a means of disposal or sequestering for later production, but also to maintain reservoir pressure. Lahee classification y New Field Wildcat (NFW) far from other producing fields and on a structure that has not previously produced. y New Pool Wildcat (NPW) new pools on already producing structure. y Deeper Pool Test (DPT) on already producing structure and pool, but on a deeper pay zone. y Shallower Pool Test (SPT) on already producing structure and pool, but on a shallower pay zone. y Outpost (OUT) usually two or more locations from nearest productive area. y Development Well (DEV) can be on the extension of a pay zone, or between existing wells (Infill). Oil Rig Systems

Anatomy of an oil rig Once the equipment is at the site, the crew sets the rig up. Here are the major systems of a land oil rig: Power system y large diesel engines - burn diesel-fuel oil to provide the main source of power y electrical generators - powered by the diesel engines to provide electrical power Mechanical system - driven by electric motors

hoisting system - used for lifting heavy loads; consists of a mechanical winch (drawworks) with a large steel cable spool, a block-and-tackle pulley and a receiving storage reel for the cable y turntable - part of the drilling apparatus Rotating equipment - used for rotary drilling y swivel - large handle that holds the weight of the drill string; allows the string to rotate and makes a pressure-tight seal on the hole y kelly - four- or six-sided pipe that transfers rotary motion to the turntable and drill string y turntable or rotary table - drives the rotating motion using power from electric motors y drill string - consists of drill pipe (connected sections of about 30 feet (10 meters) and drill collars (larger diameter, heavier pipe that fits around the drill pipe and places weight on the drill bit) y drill bit(s) - end of the drill that actually cuts up the rock; comes in many shapes and materials (tungsten carbide steel, diamond) that are specialized for various drilling tasks and rock formations Casing - large-diameter concrete pipe that lines the drill hole, prevents the hole from collapsing, and allows drilling mud to circulate Circulation system - pumps drilling mud (mixture of water, clay, weighting material and chemicals, used to lift rock cuttings from the drill bit to the surface) under pressure through the kelly, rotary table, drill pipes and drill collars y pump - sucks mud from the mud pits and pumps it to the drilling apparatus y pipes and hoses - connects pump to drilling apparatus y mud-return line - returns mud from the hole y shale shaker - shaker/sieve that separates rock cuttings from the mud y shale slide - conveys cuttings to the reserve pit y reserve pit - collects rock cuttings separated from the mud y mud pits - where drilling mud is mixed and recycled y mud-mixing hopper - where new mud is mixed and then sent to the mud pits y

Derrick - support structure that holds the drilling apparatus; tall enough to allow new sections of drill pipe to be added to the drilling apparatus as drilling progresses Blowout preventer - high-pressure valves (located under the land rig or on the sea floor) that seal the high-pressure drill lines and relieve pressure when necessary to prevent a blowout (uncontrolled gush of gas or oil to the surface, often associated with fire) The Oil Drilling Process The crew sets up the rig and starts the drilling operations. First, from the starter hole, the team drills a surface hole down to a pre-set depth, which is somewhere above where they think the oil trap is located. There are five basic steps to drilling the surface hole: 1. Place the drill bit, collar and drill pipe in the hole. 2. Attach the kelly and turntable, and begin drilling.

As drilling progresses, circulate mud through the pipe and out of the bit to float the rock cuttings out of the hole. 4. Add new sections (joints) of drill pipes as the hole gets deeper. 5. Remove (trip out) the drill pipe, collar and bit when the pre-set depth (anywhere from a few hundred to a couple-thousand feet) is reached. Once they reach the pre-set depth, they must run and cement the casing -- place casing-pipe sections into the hole to prevent it from collapsing in on itself. The casing pipe has spacers around the outside to keep it centered in the hole. The casing crew puts the casing pipe in the hole. The cement crew pumps cement down the casing pipe using a bottom plug, a cement slurry, a top plug and drill mud. The pressure from the drill mud causes the cement slurry to move through the casing and fill the space between the outside of the casing and the hole. Finally, the cement is allowed to harden and then tested for such properties as hardness, alignment and a proper seal. How Oil Drilling Works Oil Exploration Oil is a fossil fuel that can be found in many countries around the world. In this section, we will discuss how oil is formed and how geologists find it. Forming Oil Oil is formed from the remains of tiny plants and animals (plankton) that died in ancient seas between 10 million and 600 million years ago. After the organisms died, they sank into the sand and mud at the bottom of the sea. Over the years, the organisms decayed in the sedimentary layers. In these layers, there was little or no oxygen present. So microorganisms broke the remains into carbon-rich compounds that formed organic layers. The organic material mixed with the sediments, forming fine-grained shale, or source rock. As new sedimentary layers were deposited, they exerted intense pressure and heat on the source rock. The heat and pressure distilled the organic material into crude oil and natural gas. The oil flowed from the source rock and accumulated in thicker, more porous limestone or sandstone, called reservoir rock. Movements in the Earth trapped the oil and natural gas in the reservoir rocks between layers of impermeable rock, or cap rock, such as granite or marble. These movements of the Earth include: y Folding - Horizontal movements press inward and move the rock layers upward into a fold or anticline. y Faulting - The layers of rock crack, and one side shifts upward or downward. y Pinching out - A layer of impermeable rock is squeezed upward into the reservoir rock. Finding Oil The task of finding oil is assigned to geologists, whether employed directly by an oil company or under contract from a private firm. Their task is to find the right conditions for an oil trap -- the right source rock, reservoir rock and entrapment. Many years ago, geologists interpreted surface features, surface rock and soil types, and perhaps some small core samples obtained by shallow drilling. Modern oil geologists also examine surface rocks and terrain, with the additional help of satellite images. However, they also use a variety of other methods to find oil. They can use sensitive gravity meters to measure tiny changes in the Earth's gravitational field that could indicate flowing oil, as well as sensitive magnetometers to measure tiny changes in the Earth's magnetic field caused by flowing oil. They can detect the smell of hydrocarbons using sensitive electronic noses called sniffers. Finally, and most commonly, they use seismology, creating shock waves that pass through hidden rock layers and interpreting the waves that are reflected back to the surface. In seismic surveys, a shock wave is created by the following: y Compressed-air gun - shoots pulses of air into the water (for exploration over water) y Thumper truck - slams heavy plates into the ground (for exploration over land) y Explosives - drilled into the ground (for exploration over land) or thrown overboard (for exploration over water), and detonated The shock waves travel beneath the surface of the Earth and are reflected back by the various rock layers. The reflections travel at different speeds depending upon the type or density of rock layers through which they must pass. The reflections of the shock waves are detected by sensitive microphones or vibration detectors -- hydrophones over water, seismometers over land. The readings are interpreted by seismologists for signs of oil and gas traps. Although modern oil-exploration methods are better than previous ones, they still may have only a 10percent success rate for finding new oil fields. Once a prospective oil strike is found, the location is marked by GPS coordinates on land or by marker buoys on water.

3.

Preparing to Drill Once the site has been selected, it must be surveyed to determine its boundaries, and environmental impact studies may be done. Lease agreements, titles and right-of way accesses for the land must be obtained and evaluated legally. For off-shore sites, legal jurisdiction must be determined. Once the legal issues have been settled, the crew goes about preparing the land: 1. The land is cleared and leveled, and access roads may be built. 2. Because water is used in drilling, there must be a source of water nearby. If there is no natural source, they drill a water well. 3. They dig a reserve pit, which is used to dispose of rock cuttings and drilling mud during the drilling process, and line it with plastic to protect the environment. If the site is an ecologically sensitive area, such as a marsh or wilderness, then the cuttings and mud must be disposed offsite -- trucked away instead of placed in a pit. Once the land has been prepared, several holes must be dug to make way for the rig and the main hole. A rectangular pit, called a cellar, is dug around the location of the actual drilling hole. The cellar provides a work space around the hole, for the workers and drilling accessories. The crew then begins drilling the main hole, often with a small drill truck rather than the main rig. The first part of the hole is larger and shallower than the main portion, and is lined with a large-diameter conductor pipe. Additional holes are dug off to the side to temporarily store equipment -- when these holes are finished, the rig equipment can be brought in and set up. Setting Up the Rig Depending upon the remoteness of the drill site and its access, equipment may be transported to the site by truck, helicopter or barge. Some rigs are built on ships or barges for work on inland water where there is no foundation to support a rig (as in marshes or lakes). Maersk Drill Pioneer AMFELS Drilling cantilever Rig barge

Barge

Lake

Maracaibo

drilling

The offshore drilling rig Maersk Pioneer is a Drill Barge type rig. It is currently owned by Maersk Contractors. Maersk Pioneer Drill Barge Design: Built: Age: Drilling Rig Type: Additional Type Spec: Water Depth Rating: Drilling Depth: Classification: Drilling Rig Specification: AMFELS Lake Maracaibo cantilever drilling barge AMFELS at the Brownsvilletx shipyard 1998 Drill Barge AMFELS Lake Maracaibo cantilever drilling barge 150 ft 20,000 ft ABS