RRM Lecture 2

Radio Resource Management
PART II Wireless Channels and Techniques 1- Mobile Wireless Channels 2- OFDM 3- Performance Measures 4- Diversity Techniques
Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University
Introduction
Before we start the detailed analysis of RRM algorithms we need to introduce the main concepts of mobile channels. This is very important topic to see the effects of channels on transmitted signals. We need also to introduce the performance measure tools. This is important because it gives the possibility to evaluate the received signals if it is excellent, good, poor, very poor, ..etc. The above two topics will be covered in this lecture.
Mobile Channel Characteristics

In wireless communication, the information source or the transmitter modulate the information signals (analog or digital) with a higher frequency carrier. The total modulated signal is fed to the transmitter antenna, which propagates this signal into space with a speed close to the speed of light. The transmitted signal should have some characteristics enabling the intended receiver(s) to select it, and treat the other signals as (co or cross) channel interference. The receivers antenna will transform these electromagnetic fluctuations into (very weak) electric current.

This electrical signal is first filtered to permit only the required signal bandwidth to pass. Then it is amplified, demodulated, , until we get a signal very similar to the transmitted one. The received signal will face a lot of degradations such as the propagation loss which reduces the transmitted signal power in order of (d2 up to d5) depends on the propagation environment, where d is the distance between the transmitter and the receiver, another types of degradation called fading, co/cross channel interference, thermal and other types of noise sources, Intersymbol interferences (ISI), and others. These types of degradation which occurred on the received signals should be studied and understood in order to design a successful and reliable communication.

The channel effects on the propagated signal can be summarized as
Losses according to distance and the natural obstacles (buildings, trees, mountains, ) The signal arrives to the receiver antenna from different paths, each path has different delay and angle of arrival. Those paths causes the signal amplitude to vary fast because of the phase difference (from the out-of-phase up to the in-phase cases). The time varying nature of the channel distorts the received signal. It is called Doppler effect.
Example
Study the effect of multipath environment by assuming the transmission of 1.8GHz of unmodulated carrier. Assume only two paths, one path has fixed delay and the other path has random delay. Plot the received signal power (in dB scale) using Matlab if the random delay has uniform distribution in the interval [0,1] s. Solution: Name the two paths signals as x1(t) and x2(t), and the received signal y(t)= x1(t) + x2(t), Also let the received amplitude is fixed (usually it is also random). Assume the received amplitude of the first path is 1 volt and the second path is 0.9 volt.
x1 ( t ) = A1 cos ( 2 f 0 [t 0 ]) = A1 cos ( 2 f 0t 2 f 0 0 ) = A1 cos ( 2 f 0t 0 ) x2 ( t ) = A2 cos 2 f 0 t 2 ( t ) = A2 cos ( 2 f 0t 2 f 0 2 ( t ) ) y ( t ) = x1 ( t ) + x2 ( t ) = cos ( 2 f 0t 0 ) + 0.9 cos ( 2 f 0t 2 f 0 2 ( t ) ) let 0 = 0 y ( t ) = 1.81 + 1.8cos ( 2 f 0 2 ( t ) ) cos ( 2 f 0t + n ) From previous equation we see that the amplitude is random and depends
on the delay. Pr ( t ) = 1.81 + 1.8cos ( 2 f 0 2 ( t ) ) 2
Example
4 2
It is clear the large fluctations of the received power because of the second random delay path
Power dB w
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10 time
Example
The Matlab Code: f0=1.8e9; % carrier frequency tao=1e-6*rand(200,1); %generation of 200 random delay Pr=(2+1.8*cos(2*pi*f0*tao))/2; % instantaneous power Pr_db=10*log10(Pr); % expressing the power in dBw plot(Pr_db) %plot the power
More details about channel behaviors is shown in the next slide.

Fading channel manifestations
Large-scale fading due to motion over large areas Mean signal attenuation Variations about the mean Small-scale fading due to small changes in position Time
Time variance of the channel
FF: Flat Fading FSF: Frequency selective fading FaF: Fast Fading SF: Slow Fading FT: Fourier Transform
5 spreading of
the signal
Time-delay Domain description
7
FT
Frequency Domain description
10
Time Domain description
13
FT
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Doppler-shift Domain description
FSF 8
FF 9
FSF 11
FF 12 14 FaF SF 15
17
18 FaF SF
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The mobile channel is characterized by two fading effects : Large-scale fading and Small scale fading. Large scale fading represents the average signal power attenuation or the path loss due to motion over large areas. In slide 9, the large scale fading is shown in blocks 1,2, and 3. This phenomenon is affected by prominent terrain contours (e.g., hills, forests, clumps of buildings, etc.) between the transmitter and receiver. The receiver is often said to be shadowed by such prominences.
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The measurements and analysis show that the large scale fading can be described mathematically as a mean-path loss (nth-power law) and a log-normally distributed variations about the mean. The received power in the presence of the large scale fading can be represented as: Where Pt= transmitted power, P =P n r t d Pr=received power, d=distance between the transmitter and receiver, n= loss power (=2 in free space), it has been shown that n=4 gives good model for mobile channels, and is a random variable with log-normal distribution.
Radio Resource Management Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University 11

From the previous slide we can see the received power in terms of large scale fading. We may represent the received signal in dB as
Pr _ dB = P _ dB 10n log10 ( d ) + ( dB ) t
Where denotes a zero mean, Gaussian random variable (in decibels) with standard deviation (also in decibels). is site and distance dependent. The variance 2 can be between 5 up to 8 dB or even more.
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Small scale fading (blocks 4-18) refers to the dramatic changes in signal amplitude and phase due to small changes (as small as half-wavelength) in the spatial positioning between a receiver and transmitter. As indicated in slide 9, the small scale fading manifests itself in two mechanisms:
Time spreading of the signal (or signal dispersion ) Time-variant behavior of the channel.
For mobile radio applications, the channel is time-variant because motion between the transmitter and receiver results in propagation path changes.

Small scale fading is a random phenomenon and can be modeled using different probability density functions depends on the scenario. The most popular models are
Rayleigh fading: in this model the received signal amplitude is represented as random variable with Rayleigh distribution. This model is accurate when represents multiple reflective paths that are large in number, and if there is no line-of-sight signal component. Rician fading: When there is a dominant non-fading signal component present, such as line-of-sight propagation path, the small-scale fading envelope is described by a Rician probability density function.
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There are three basic mechanisms that impact signal propagation in a mobile communication system
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon a smooth surface with very large dimension relative to the RF signal wavelength (). Diffraction occurs when the propagation path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a dense body with dimensions that are large relative to , causing secondary waves to be formed behind the obstructed body. It is often termed shadowing because the diffracted field can reach the receiver even when shadowed by an impenetrable obstruction. Scattering occurs when a radio wave impinges on either a large, rough surface or any surface whose dimensions are on order of or less, causing the energy to be spread out (scattered) or reflected in all directions. Typical scatterers are lampposts, street signs, and foliage.
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reflections
Lin
f eo
Sig
ht
scattering
Diffraction
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Multipath Scenario
Multipath causes two different kinds of problems
Fading (due to the phase differences) in the band pass, i.e., before demodulation Inter-Symbol-Interference (ISI) in the baseband domain
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The effects of multi-path could be illustrated using the following basic figure Multi-path
transmitter components of first pulse receiver
First received path t1 t2
last received path
t1+
t2+
When d 1/BW then we have large time spreading in the received signal which can > lead to considerable signal distortion. BW is the signal bandwidth.

Using complex notation, a transmitted signal is written as: Where Re{.} denotes the real part of {.}, and fc is the carrier frequency. The base-band g(t) is called the complex envelop of s(t) and can be expressed as
s (t ) = Re g (t ) e j 2 fct
g (t ) = g (t ) e j (t ) = R (t ) e j (t ) Where R(t) is the envelop magnitude, and (t) is its phase. For phase- or frequency modulation, R(t) is almost constant.
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Now we discuss the small scale fading in more details. Assume that the received signal is arrived from different paths where each path has time delay n then the received signal can be represented as
r (t ) = n (t ) s (t n (t ))
n =1
Where n(t) is the gain of path n at time t, m is the number of paths, and s(t) is the transmitted signal. Usually it is easier to work with base band signal, then substitute for s(t) (see the previous slide)
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We obtain
'- m 'm * 1 j 2 f t * / / j 2 f #t (t )% j 2 f t r t = Re ) n t g t n t e c$ n & , = Re ) . n t e c n ( ) g t n t 2 e c , ) , )/ , / ( n=1 + 3 ( 0 n=1 +
()
() (
( ))
()
( ))
From above the equivalent received baseband signal is

z ( t ) = n ( t ) e j 2 fc n (t ) g (t n (t ) ) = n (t ) e jn (t ) g (t n (t ) )
n =1 n =1 m m
The above relation is the discrete convolution between the transmitted signal and the channel impulse response.
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It is clear that n (t ) = 2 fc n (t ) that it is enough for the so delay to be 0.5/fc to get the phase of the received signal be changed by (180 degree). For example, for a cellular radio operating at fc=1800 MHz, the delay which makes the phase rotate by is 0.5/fc=0.277 nanosecond which corresponds to a change in propagation distance of 8.33 cm !! Since the phases of the received paths can be summed constructively or destructively then the total amplitude is dramatically changed.
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The received signal strengths are different for each path. Because the signal experiences different obstacles which have different parameters such as sizes, reflection coefficient, and so on. The paths parameters can be described in terms of orthogonal components xn(t) and yn(t), where
xn ( t ) + jyn ( t ) = n (t ) e jn (t )
If the number of such stochastic components is large, then the orthogonal components will be random variables with Gaussian distribution.

These orthogonal components yield the small-scale (fading) magnitude r0(t), where
r0 (t ) = xr2 (t ) + yr2 (t ) , xr (t ) = xn (t ), yr (t ) = yn (t )
n n
In case of non dominant component (i.e. no line-of-sight component or in other words xr and yr are zero mean Gaussian distribution), it is not difficult to prove that r0(t) has Rayleigh distribution such as r0 r02 2 exp 2 for r0 0 2 is the predetection mean f ( r0 ) = 2 power of the multi-path signal otherwise 0
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If there is dominant component or line-of-sight component then r0(t) has Rician distribution such as
r r02 + A2 r A I 0 0 2 exp for r0 0, A 0 2 0 2 f ( r0 ) = 2 0 otherwise

Where A denotes the peak magnitude of the non-faded signal component (called the specular component), and I0(.) is the modified Bessel function of the first kind and zero order. The Rician distribution is usually described in terms of parameter K, where K = A2 2 2
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-70 -80 -90
Large scale fading Small scale fading
received power (dB)
-100 -110 -120 -130 -140 -150 100
200
300
400
500 600 distance
700
800
900
1000
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13

The channel characteristics can be analyzed by sending very wide band signal such as impulses or spread spectrum signal then testing the received signal. For example, if an impulse has been sent, then if the channel is ideal we will receive just one impulse after the propagation delay. But because of the paths then we will receive a signal with multiple peaks, this signal represents the impulse response of the channel as shown in the next slide. Different information can be extracted from such a signal as the maximum excess delay, this signal is called the multi-path intensity profile. In the measurements, the time is measured from first arrived peak up to some threshold (can be 10-20 db less than the strongest component). Practically the received signal is never be zero because of the background noise.
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Multi-path intensity profile
S ( ) S (v )
Dual functions Doppler power spectrum fc-fd fc fc+fd
0 Spacedfrequency correlation function
Tm
Fourier Transform b |R(f)| f
Fourier Transform |R(t)| c
Spaced-time correlation function Dual functions
t 0 T0=1/fd Coherence time

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University 28
f0=1/Tm Coherence bandwidth

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Let us call the time duration of transmitted symbol as Ts, if Tm >Ts then we have frequency selective fading This condition occurs whenever the received multi-path components of a symbol extend beyond the symbols time duration. Such multi-path dispersion of the signal yields the same kind of ISI distortion that is cased by an electronic filter. In this case, one can mitigate the fading because many of the paths components are resolvable. If Tm <Ts then we have frequency nonselective or flat fading. In this case all received multi-path components of a symbol arrive within the symbol time duration; hence the components are not resolvable.
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If we take the Fourier transform of the multi-path intensity profile we get the spaced-frequency correlation function as shown in figure (b) in slide 28. One can say that it represents the channels frequency transfer function. The coherence bandwidth f0 is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase. Tm is not always the best parameter to express the channel excess delay. A more useful parameter is the delay spread, most often characterized in terms of its root-mean squared (rms) value, called the rms delay spread as:
= E 2 ( E [ ])
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There are many approximations for the relation between the channel coherence bandwidth and the rms delay spread. For example if the coherence bandwidth is defined as the frequency interval over which the channels complex frequency transfer function has a correlation of at least 0.9, the coherence bandwidth is approximately 1 f0 50 If the correlation is at least 0.5 then the relation is
f0
Radio Resource Management Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University
1 5
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The flat fading or frequency selective fading can be described in frequency domain as well. We saw that the channel is frequency selective if Tm >Ts otherwise it is flat fading channel. We can say also that the channel is frequency selective if f0< W, where W is the signal bandwidth, in PSK we can approximate W=1/ Ts. The above statement means that, the frequency selective fading distortion occurs whenever a signals spectral components are not all affected equally by the channel. Some of the signals spectral components falling outside the coherence bandwidth will be affected differently (independently), compared with those components contained within the coherence bandwidth.
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Transmitted signal bandwidth
Channel frequency transfer function
Typical frequency selective fading case (f0<W)

spectral density
f0
frequenct
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Transmitted signal bandwidth
spectral density
Typical flat fading case (f0<W)
Channel frequency transfer function
f0
frequency
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Signal dispersion and coherence bandwidth discussed before explains channels time-spreading properties but it does not explain the characteristics of the time-varying nature of the mobile channel. The mobile channel is time varying because of free motion of mobile users as well as the movements of objects (such as cars) within the channel. Figure (c) in slide 28 shows the function R(t), designated the space-time correlation function; it is the autocorrelation function of the channels response to a sinusoid. This function specifies the extent to which there is correlation between the channels response to a sinusoid sent at time t1 and response to a similar sinusoid sent at time t2, where t= t2 - t1 .
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The coherence time T0 is a measure of the expected time duration over which the channels response is essentially invariant. To measure the time variant nature of the channel, we use narrow band signal, for example single frequency (sinusoidal signal). The same signal is transmitted at different time intervals (t) then we compute the cross-correlation function between the transmitted and received signal (as shown in Figure (c) in slide 28). The function R(t) and the parameter T0 provide knowledge about the fading rapidity of the channel.
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It can be shown that, for a constant mobile velocity V and an unmodulated CW signal having wavelength , the normalized R(t) may be described as
R ( t ) = J 0 ( kV t )
Where J 0 (.) the zero-order Bessel function of the first kind, is Vt is distance traveled, and k=2/ is the free-space phase constant (transforming distance to radians of phase). It has been shown experimentally that the received signals are statistically uncorrelated if distance between the receiving antennas is just 0.4 !

The time-variant nature or fading rapidity mechanism of the channel can be viewed in terms of two degradation categories as shown in slide 9: fast fading and slow fading. The term fast fading is used for describing channels in which T0<Ts, where T0 is the channel coherence time, and Ts is the time duration of the transmission symbol. Fast fading describes a condition where the time duration in which the channel behaves in a correlated manner is short compared with the time duration of a symbol. Therefore, it can be expected that the fading character of the channel will change several times during the time span of a symbol, leading to distortion of the baseband pulse shape. A channel is generally reffered to as introducing slow fading if T0>Ts
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Taking the Fourier transform of the spaced-time correlation function we get the frequency domain also called Doppler shift domain (see figure (d) in slide 28). It can be shown that for outdoor channels, vertical receive antenna with constant azimuthal gain, uniform angle of arrival (0,2), and unmodulated CW signal, the signal spectrum at the antenna terminal is
1 2 v f c S ( v ) = f d 1 f d 0
fd + fc v f d + fc
else where
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The largest magnitude of S(v) occurs when the scatterer is directly a head of the moving antenna platform or directly behind it. In that case, the magnitude of the frequency shift is given by V where V is the relative velocity and is fd = and receiver move toward each other, fd When the transmitterthe signal wavelength. is positive, and when they move away from each other fd is negative. For scatterers directly broadside of the moving platform, the magnitude of the frequency shift is zero.
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The Doppler spread fd is regarded as the typical fading rate of the channel. T0 was described as the expected time duration over which the channels response to a sinusoid is essentially invariant. And the relation was given as T0 =1/ fd. When T0 is defined more precisely as the time duration over which the channels response to a sinusoid yields a correlation between them at least 0.5, the relationship between fd and T0 is approximately
T0 =
9 16 f d
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In Doppler domain, a channel is said to be fast fading if the symbol rate 1/ Ts (=W) is less than the fading rate 1/T0(=fd); that is, fast fading is characterized by
W < fd
or
Ts > T0
Otherwise the channel is slow fading. From previously, one can see that from signal dispersion point of view, the coherence bandwidth f0 sets up upper limit on the signalling rate (or bandwidth) that can be used without suffering frequency-selective distortion, and from Doppler spreading the channel fading rate fd sets a lower limit on the signalling rate that can be used without suffering a fast fading distortion.
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From previous discussions we conclude that the transmitted signal arrives to the receivers antenna in form of paths, each path has its own delay and gain, if the maximum delay difference is less than the symbol duration, the channel is called flat fading channel, in this case using equalizers may not considerably enhance the reception quality. If the maximum delay difference is greater than the symbol duration then it is called frequency selective channel, in this case equalizers or Rake receivers (for CDMA) could be used to mitigate the fading. However, more complicated receiver would be needed. How fast the channel characteristics will change? This could be described by studying the time-varying nature of the mobile channel. The rate of change is related to the Doppler shift of the channel.
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The channel impulse response can be represented such as a FIR filter:
m
h ( t , ) = k ( t ) e j 2 fdk t ( t k ),
k =1
( t ) = k ( t )e j ; k ( t ) =
k
d
n k
(t )
Where k is the absolute channel gain for path k, fdk is the Doppler frequency for path k, k is the phase offset for path k, is random number with lognormal distribution, and dk(t) is the distance of the path k between transmitter and receiver at time t.
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The channel gain may includes transmitter and receiver antenna gains as well. If the transmitted signal is s(t), then the received signal will be the convolution between s(t) and the channel impulse response such as
r ( t ) = s ( t ) h (t , ) = k (t ) e j 2 f dk t s (t k ),
k =1
If the symbol duration greater than the maximum delay difference (Flat Fading) then the above equation can be simplified as
r ( t ) = s (t 0 ) k (t ) e j 2 f dk t = b (t ) s (t 0 ) ; where b (t ) = k (t ) e j 2 f dk t
k =1 k =1
In this case the channel can be represented by a multiplicative operation (with a complex number) rather than convolution.
Mitigating ISI
In many situations the problem of ISI is more stringent than the problem of the additive noise. The limitations of noise can be mitigated through several ways such as increasing the transmission power, improving the front-end receiver amplifier, using channel coding, higher antenna gains, and so on. However, the problem of ISI cannot be mitigated by just increasing the transmission power or improving the SNR. It can be mitigated by using equalizers which reduce the ISI problem. High quality equalizers which can work at high data rate are very complex. Moreover, equalizers need training sequence to be transmitted periodically to track channel variations. This reduces overall system capacity and efficiency. There is another way to mitigate the ISI by using CDMA, where the autocorrelation is very small. Therefore, when a copy of the transmitted code arrives after a certain delay (> chip duration), it will have very small contribution because of low correlation. Moreover, it can enhance the communication quality with Rake receiver (exploit the time diversity behavior). In wireless channels if the delay spread of the channel is 1 ms, then the symbol rate will be limited to be less than 1 kSymbol/s!! Using equalizers this can be relaxed to few kSymbols/ s, but still not enough for high data rate. One clever way to mitigate the ISI problem for high data rate systems is using Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
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ISI Limitations
To understand the main concept of OFDM, lets take this simple example. Example: For certain wireless channel, the significant delay spread is 0.1 ms, find the symbol rate (roughly) in order to have free ISI reception without using equalizers. If it is possible to have 1024 parallel orthogonal transmission simultaneously, what is the achievable symbol rate in this case (without equalizers). Solution In the first case, the symbol rate should be around 5 kSymbol/s. In the second case, now we have 1024 parallel orthogonal transmission, where every branch may send at 5 kSymbol/s, i.e., the total symbol rate becomes: 5.12 MSymbol/s
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ISI Limitations
From previous we conclude that: Wide bandwidth signals (i.e., signal with high data rate), will suffer from the ISI problem according to the channel dispersion. One very effective way to solve this problem is to divide this high bandwidth to many smaller bandwidth signals and send every one over orthogonal carriers. One intuitive way to do that is by reducing the transmitted data rate through serial to parallel converter and then using sinusoidal carriers to transmit the parallel resultant signal. Next slide shows simple realization of the multi-carrier (MC) transmission for three channels.
MC-FDMA Realization
s1 (t ) a0a3
fs Multiplier (Mixer)
MF=Matched Filter
MF
a0a1a2a3a4a5
Rate=3fs
Serial to Parallel (S/P) Encoder
Channel
s (t )
cos ( 2 f 1t + 1 )
sum
cos ( 2 f 1t + 1 )
s 2 (t ) a1a4
fs
cos ( 2 f 2t + 2 )
x (t )
y (t )
MF
P/S
cos ( 2 f 2t + 2 )
s 3 (t ) a2a5
fs
cos ( 2 f 3t + 3 )
MF
cos ( 2 f 3t + 3 )
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MC-FDMA Realization
What is the minimum frequency separation between sine waves to guarantee orthogonality between different channels so that it would be easy to demodulate them without interfere each other? Lets assume that the symbol duration after serial to parallel encoder is Ts seconds (it means that the symbol duration was Ts/3 before S/P encoder, or generally Ts/N if we use N parallel channels). The frequency separations must satisfies the following condition:
T 0, i k 1 s cos ( 2 f i t + i ) cos ( 2 f k t + k ) dt = Ts A 0, i = k 0 When A=1, it is called orthonormal.
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MC-FDMA Realization
To find the separation condition necessary for orthogonality,
1 Ts
Ts
cos ( 2 f
0 Ts 0
t + i ) cos ( 2 f k t + k ) dt =
f k ) t + i k ) + cos ( 2 ( f i + f k ) t + i + k )dt 0 Ts 1 sin ( 2 ( f i f k ) t + i k ) sin ( 2 ( f i + f k ) t + i + k ) = + 2T s 2 ( f i f k ) 2 ( f i + f k ) 0 1 sin ( 2 ( f i f k )T s + i k ) sin (i k ) 4 ( f i f k )T s

i
1 2T s
cos ( 2 ( f
We may guarantee that the above is zero when n 1 ( f i f k )T s = n , n = any integer 0 ( f i f k ) = ( f i f i 1 ) = Ts Ts

Minimum frequency separation
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MC-FDMA Realization
If the original (broadband) signal s(t) has bandwidth Bt as shown in figure, then after dividing to the total band into three sub-bands we will have the following system
S (f
3f s 2 2 S 1 (f )
S/P
S 2 (f
3f s 2
S 3 (f
fs 2
fs 2
fs
2f s 5f s
2
fs 2
fs 2
fs 2
fs 2
fs 2
fs 2
The required bandwidth with using this technique is higher than the original bandwidth
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MC-FDMA Realization
If we applied this technique in practice we would need even higher bandwidth, because we should keep guard band between different signals bands to handle any frequency changes according to channel or local oscillator drifts. And also because the bands are not perfectly limited (otherwise it would need time duration)! This is shown below. This explains why the idea of multi-carrier parallel transmission was not applied before. It considerably reduce the spectrum efficiency.
54
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OFDM
When VLSI implementation of DSPs becomes very efficient and at reasonable price, it becomes possible to handle the multicarrier orthogonality by using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and its spouse Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT). Because the modulation process is done jointly with IFFT, we may not consider the phase shifts. In this case the minimum shift between carriers to handle the f 1 = ,s hence, the spectrum can be orthogonality becomes: 2T s 2 greatly reduced (it will be same as the original spectrum as shown in the figure below) Prove this result using slide 52. Now we do not have spectrum loss.
Radio Resource Management Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University
3f s 2
3f s 2
55
Simple OFDM Transmitter

Simple description of OFDM transmitter is shown next. It should be noted that, different other realizations are also possible.
Bit stream with rate Rb
Adaptive M-level Modulation e.g., 8-ary PSK, QPSK, 16QAM, .. + Coding and Power Allocation
S/P Encoder
Multicarrier orthogonal modulation using IFFT
Cyclic prefix (to reduce the ISI)
P/S
Information via feedback channel (e.g., received SNR per sub-channel) Radio Resource Management
RF
56
Modulator Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University
28

We can see from the previous figure that we use serial to parallel encoder to divide the data rate on each subchannel to Rb/N, where Rb is the original data rate and N is the number of subchannels. Next block we have baseband modulator. In this part, the bits are mapped into symbols. Each symbol may carry more than 1 bit. For example, we may use PAM with M- possible levels, which carry log2(M) bits. Another possible way, is to use M-ary PSK modulation. Of course, higher modulation level means higher rate on the subchannel. The cost is less performance (i.e., higher BER). To optimize the transmission we need to know the received signal quality of the subchannels. This information is obtained from the receiver through the feedback channel. Sending information about every subchannel is not efficient, because large feedback bandwidth would be needed. There are several methods to optimize the transmission of the channel information.
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Power allocation and coding are used to optimize the transmission (highest possible throughput and in the same time achieving the QoS requirements such as BER and latency constraints per single or group of subchannels). The optimization between power allocation per subchannel, channel coding (technique and rate), and multi-level modulation is very challenging problem. It is known as NP- complex problem, however, there are so many suboptimal solutions in the literature. Next to that we observe the multi-carrier modulator which is the heart of the OFDM system. It has been realized with the Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) which can be done efficiently with reasonable price VLSI circuits.
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Lets see how the IFFT modulator work. The IFFT performs exactly the same function of Inverse DFT but in much more efficient way. The IDFT is given by:
x ( k ) = X ( m )e j 2 mk
X ( 0) X (1) x (0) x (1)
m =0 N 1 N

X ( N 1)
IFFT
Note that e j 2 mk N is discrete representation of the complex sinusoidal signal. The orthogonality concept is applied here, i.e.,
N 1 k =0
x ( N 1)
j 2 mk N
e j 2 bk
= e
k =0
N 1
j 2 ( m b ) k N
m =b 1, = ( m b ) = 0, elsewhere
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The principle of OFDM transmitter can be described as follows. The S/P encoder, with N branches, will divide the bandwidth of the signal into N equally spaced bands where every band is Bt/N, where Bt is the total signal bandwidth. Think about the input of the IFFT as frequency domain input, then the output will be time samples separated by 1/Bt seconds. Actually the IFFT will maintain the orthogonality between the different bands of its input. However, observe that the output of the IFFT is mixed from all inputs. For example
x 0 = X m , x 1 = X m e j2 m N ,
()
N 1
m=0
( ) ()
N 1
m=0
( )
In the receiver, it is possible to retrieve the original signal again by using FFT operation as explained in the next slide.
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When the output signal of the IFFT is applied as an input to FFT system, the output will be the same original signal applied to the IFFT. We can prove this easily as, since the DFT (or its efficient N 1 version FFT) operation is Z (b ) = x ( k )e j 2bk N k =0 So that FFT has identical structure as IFFT. If the output of the IFFT applied as input to FFT we obtain
Z b =
()
1 N
x (k ) e
k=0 N 1 N 1 m=0 k=0 N 1
N 1
j2 bk N
=
(
1 N
)
$ X ( m ) e
k=0 m=0
N 1 N 1
" #
j2 mk N
% j2 bk 'e &
( )
= ,
1 N
X ( m) e
k=0 m=0
N 1 N 1
j2 mb k N
Z b =
()
1 N
X ( m) e e
( )
j2 mb k N
1 N
X ( m) e
m=0 k=0
N 1
N 1
j2 mb k N
from slide 59,
j2 mb k N
= mb Z b =
k=0 Radio Resource Management
1 N 1 X b = X b N m=0 Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University
()
()
()
61
The process of IFFT in frequency domain can be described in this Figure.

Note: Theoretically any orthogonal transformation could be used instead of IFFT/FFT. However, practically IFFT/FFT is preferred because of its feature in removing ISI as will be explained
S/P Encoder
IFF T
P/S Decoder
62
31

Next we have the cyclic prefix block. The main motivation of OFDM modulation is to handle the ISI problem which is very acute for very short duration symbols. Very short duration symbols means high data rate (large bandwidth). When the delay spread of the channel (e.g., maximum delay with considerable power) more than the symbol duration then ISI will occur. In OFDM the symbol duration considerably increased, however, some ISI problem could still occur. In practice, the ISI problem can not be eliminated 100% (bandwidth-time duration dilemma). Moreover, the channel dispersion leads also to interference between subchannels (ICI) which is a more serious problem. This small ISI problem can be effectively removed (actually reduced) by using cyclic prefix and simple equalizer. Next we will talk about the cyclic prefix concepts.
Cyclic Prefix
The principle of cyclic prefix is to extend the transmitted signal beyond the nominal symbol period into a guard interval, so as to provide a cyclic signal. The receiver correlator, however, only integrate over the nominal symbol period. Thus any signals delayed by channel dispersion remain orthogonal, eliminating both ISI and ICI provided the delay is less than the guard interval. The guard interval is therefore always implemented in OFDM systems operating on a dispersive channels.
Tg T Correlator window
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Cyclic Prefix
Cyclic prefix is a crucial feature of OFDM used to combat the intersymbol-interference (ISI) and inter-channel-interference (ICI) introduced by the multi-path channel through which the signal is propagated. The basic idea is to replicate part of the OFDM time-domain waveform from the back to the front to create a guard period. The duration of the guard period Tg should be longer than the delay spread of the target multi-path environment
Note that, the prefix duration is added to prevent ISI. Adding part of original symbol in this prefix duration will maintain the orthogonality between subchannels so that we mitigate inter channel interference (ICI).
prefix
Tg
T
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Simple OFDM Receiver

Next slide shows simple OFDM receiver. The blocks represent the inverse actions done at the transmitter. Because of the added noise and interferences we need to add some redundancy bits to increase the robustness of the transmitted symbols. This is known as forward error correction codes. The channel coding enable the receiver to correct certain number of errors when happened. Sometimes this is known as coded OFDM (COFDM). However, it is natural to add channel coding to all OFDM systems.
33
Simple OFDM Receiver

RF Demodulator
S/P
Cyclic prefix remove
Multicarrier demodulation using FFT
Baseband
Demodulation + Equalization + Subband channel estimation
P/S
Bit stream
Channel state information sent through feedback channel Radio Resource Management Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University 67
Interleaving
The impulsive noise or the deep fading problem may cause packet loss, where most of the packet bits arrive in error, or sometimes, the packet could not be decoded. One solution to mitigate this problem is to distribute the packet bits over several subchannels. For example if each packet consists of 8 bits. And we have 8 subchannels so that we send one bit from each packet over one subchannel. If one subchannel lost because of fading or noise, then we loss only one bit from each packet. The FEC will be able to correct this bit in each packet. This technique will give some kind of diversity. Next slide shows simple realization of the interleaving with OFDM
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Interleaving - Deinterleaving
Bin Bout
S/P Encoder Multicarrier orthogonal modulation using IFFT
deinterleaving
b2 b7 bC b3 b8 bD
Interleaving
Bout
Bin
Bin=b0b1b2b3b4b5b6b7b8b9bAbBbCbDbEbF b0 b1 b2 b3 b5 b6 b7 b8 bA bB bC bD
Bout=b0b5bAb1b6bBb2b7bCb3b8bDb4b9bE b0 b1 b6 bB b4 b9 bE B5 bA
Bout=b0b5bAb1b6bBb2b7bCb3b8bDb4b9bE
Bin=b0b1b2b3b4b5b6b7b8b9bAbBbCbDbEbF
Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University 69
b4 b9 b Management Radio ResourceE
70
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Performance Measure in Wireless Communication

In the previous lecture we show one performance measure for CDMA systems which is known the signal to noise ratio or bit energy to noise spectral density ratio. In next few slides we will explain this in more details. Now we will show some very common ways to measure the performance in wireless communication systems. Measuring the performance is very important to evaluate or assess the quality of communication. Each operator should achieve the necessary services and performance for their costumers. This is known the Quality of Services (QoS) which should be guaranteed by the operator.
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The Quality of Service (QoS)

Generally the QoS denotes the communication properties such as: Communication reliability Security Probability of Outage Communication performance Throughput Packet loss Delay Delay Spread (Jitter) Bit error rate Communication cost Priority
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The Quality of Service (II)

The QoS level depends on the type of communication. It can be divided to
Real time data streams Audio samples Video frames Sensor inputs Actuator commands Non-real time data streams Internet exploring File DOWN/UP-loads
Audio Streams
The un-coded data rate depends on the sound quality. Telephone quality needs (with PCM) 64 Kbit/s CD quality needs 1.4 Mb/s (two-channel-stereo stream) The compression methods can dramatically reduce the required data rate at small degradation in the quality Recommended maximum delay for real time audio streams is 32 ms In mobile communication, some audio compression methods are used to reduce the required bandwidth without much of scarifying the voice quality. Usually the Linear Predictive Code (LPC) is used for this purpose. With LPC the required bit rate for voice is reduced from 64 Kb/s to only 13 Kb/s!
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37
Throughput
The throughput of a stream defines the amount of user data transferred in a certain time unit between source and sink. Because of possible errors during the transmission there is possibility of retransmission requirement will reduce the actual throughput. Furthermore, the data do not contain only payload data but also other data like coding bits. This is also reduce the throughput. Generally throughput data rate [data]=[Address ; Payload ; Coding Bits ; ..] Throughput Data Rate Some applications need high throughput such as video transmission, high quality sound, and download of large files. Speech signals and text email transmission are examples of low throughput applications.
75
Delay
Transferring data packets between stream source and sink consumes time spent for processing, and queuing in the nodes and for transmission in the network. An upper bound on the delay Dmax denotes the maximum time any packet of a stream will need to be transferred. For real time applications the maximum allowed delay is restricted. More relaxed delay is allowed for non-real time applications. The allowed delay of packets determine the priority of transmission.
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38
Jitter
Data packets of the same stream may experience different transfer delays. The delay variation is usually called jitter. Jitter can be represented as the difference between the maximum delay and the minimum delay of the packets. The problem of jitter may cause the packets do not arrive in the correct order. For example if the delay of the first packet is much more than the delay of the second one, this may cause the second packet to arrive first! This problem can be solved by numbering the packets, however, this has other problem such as reducing the efficiency and increasing the system complexity.
Bit Error Rate

The bit error rate is an important parameter of the communication QoS. Relatively high BER can be allowed for speech communication (in worst case ~10-2). Low BER should be achieved for Data communication (10-6 for certain applications). Usually we monitor the received Eb/No to estimate the BER. The relation is well defined for additive white noise channel. But the relation can be very complex for fading channel, in this case a lot of assumptions are used to derive tractable mapping.
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Bit Error Rate

Generally speaking the BER can be expressed as
BER = f ( E b N 0 )
Where f(.) is the mapping between the BER and the SINR. This mapping depends on:
Modulation type (FSK, PSK, 8PSK, 16QAM,..etc.) Channel type (additive noise, interference structure,..) Fading type (flat fading, frequency selective channel, ..etc)
For simple additive noise channel and BPSK modulation the relation is given by
2 E b BER=Q N Radio Resource Management 0
where
2 1 Q(x ) = e t 2 dt , Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University 2 x
x0
79
Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR)

10
0
10
-1
10
-2
Probability of Bit Error
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
Coherent PSK Coherent FSK Non-Coherent FSK -5 0 Eb/N0 (dB) 5 10 15
10
-7
-10
80
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SNR versus BER in Fading Channels

In reality the received signal magnitude increase and decrease randomly even when the transmitted power is fixed. This amplitude fluctuation is due the multi-path characteristic and the time varying nature of mobile channels as shown in previously. Consequently, the received SNR increase and decrease in a random manner, i.e. the SNR becomes a random process. In this case it is not accurate to use the previous mapping between the SNR and the BER because it gives only the instantaneous BER.
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SNR versus BER in Fading Channels

If the received energy bit to noise spectral density (=Eb/No) f ( ) is a R.V. with the probability density function The average BER is given by
PB = g ( ) f ( ) d
0
Where g() is the instantaneous mapping between SNR and the BER
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Packet Loss
Packets may be lost due to congestions, deep fading, impulsive noises, buffer overflow, hardware errors etc. The probability of packet loss is one of the QoS parameters in communication systems.
83
Diversity Techniques
The problem of fading is very serious in wireless communication systems. There is always probability for the signal amplitude to be less than the minimum required to detect it. This causes loss of packets. There are some solutions to mitigate this problems (it is not possible to avoid it 100%). Some solution are expensive and difficult and some others are much cheaper and easier. Some of the expensive solution is to use very high sophisticated equalizers to mitigate the ISI problem, joint equalizers and smart antennas, Rake receivers, MIMO systems,.. The most common simple solution is to use diversity. The diversity can be utilized on different dimensions such as frequency, time, spatial, polarization, ..etc.
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The frequency diversity is utilized by sending the information with different carriers. The separation between carriers should be enough to experience independent (or at least uncorrelated) channels. If the probability of one carrier to be faded is p then the probability of two distinct carriers to be faded in the same time is p2. The frequency diversity is used for example in GSM where they use slow frequency hopping (217 hops/s) to compensate for those cases where the mobile unit is moving very slowly (or not at all) and experiencing deep fading.
85
Time Diversity: can be provided by transmitting the signal on L different time slots separation of at least T0 (see slide# 28). Interleaving, when used along with error-correction coding is a form of time diversity. Spatial diversity is one simple and efficient solution for fading problems. It is based on simple idea is to use more than one antenna to receive the signal. The antennas should be separated enough to be at least uncorrelated channels (for example 10 wavelengths). It is possible to combine the signals from different antennas by different techniques. The simplest way is by just add all signals together. Another method by selecting the best antenna and use its signal for decoding. Best performance is obtained by coherently adding all branches signals together. Several other combining algorithms were discussed in Digital Communication course.
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Diversity Analysis
From slide 82 we presented that the average BER over fading channel is given by
PB = g ( ) f ( ) d
0
Where =Eb/No. Since the received magnitude has a Rayleigh distribution then will have exponential distribution such as
f () = 1 exp , where = E [ ]
87
Diversity Analysis
If each diversity (signal) branch, i=1,2,,M, has an instantaneous Eb/No= i and we assume that each branch has the same average Eb/No, then
f ( i ) = 1 exp i , where = E [i ]i = 1,.., M
The probability that a single branch has Eb/No to be less than some threshold t is
t t
Pr ( i t ) =
f ( i )d i =
exp d
0
t = 1 exp
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Diversity Analysis
The probability that all M independent signal diversity branches are received simultaneously with an Eb/No less than some threshold value t is
t Pr ( 1 t , 2 t ,L , M t ) = 1 exp
M
Example: For certain mobile communication system the channel can be expressed as Rayleigh channel with an average Eb/No =5 dB. The packet will be lost if the received Eb/No < 4 dB. Find the probability of packet lost if using single antenna then if using 4 antennas with large separation.
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Diversity Analysis
Solution
tdB = 4dB t = 100.4 = 2.51 = 5dB = 100.5 = 3.16 2.51 Pr i t = 1 exp = 0.54! 3.16 The probability of successful reception is only: 1-0.54=0.46
When using 4 uncorrelated antennas the probability of successful reception increases to

2.51 1 1 exp = 0.91 3.16 Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University
4
90
45

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Radio Resource Management

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

on the delay. Pr ( t ) = 1.81 + 1.8cos ( 2 f 0 2 ( t ) ) 2

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

More details about channel behaviors is shown in the next slide.

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Time-delay Domain description

Frequency Domain description

Doppler-shift Domain description

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

First received path t1 t2

last received path

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Mobile Channel Characteristics

From above the equivalent received baseband signal is

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Radio Resource Management

Mohammed Elmusrati Vaasa University

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Mobile Channel Characteristics

Mobile Channel Characteristics