1.1 High-Strength Concrete (HSC) and High-Performance Concrete (HPC) - Background

1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 High-strength Concrete (HSC) and High-Performance Concrete (HPC) -

Background

The advancement of material technology and production methods has led to the development
of high performance concrete (HPC) and particularly higher grades of concrete strengths. The
use of high-strength concrete (HSC) elements for concrete structures has proven most
popular, with economy, superior strength, stiffness and durability being the major reasons for
its popularity. With future advances in concrete technology, the definition of high-strength
concrete will undoubtedly change, however for the purposes of this seminar series HSC is
considered to be concrete with a 28 day characteristic compressive strength of at least 50
MPa. Without any doubt, HSC differs in many respects from normal or ordinary strength
concrete (NSC). NSC is concrete with f
c
< 50 MPa. It must be noted that with the improved
quality control and the quality of materials, concrete up to 65 MPa can be considered as
normal strength concrete. New applications of HSC have been introduced in last 2 decades.
This trend will continue in the future and many other new applications will be developed in the
1950s 35 MPa was considered high strength, and in the 1960s compressive strengths of up to
50 MPa were being used commercially. In Australia HSC (up to 60 MPa) was introduced to
high-rise buildings in 1980s. Presently, concretes with strengths up to 130 -140 MPa are used
in projects around the world. These concretes can be produced using conventional production
procedures. ACI363 (2010) committee has changed the definition of high-strength concrete
from 41 MPa to 55 MPa.

Quality control is an essential part of the production of high-strength concrete; hence full
collaboration between the material and ready-mixed concrete suppliers, engineers and
builders is required for the effective application of this valuable product. High-strength
concrete will normally consist of not only Portland cement, aggregates and water, but also
superplasticisers and supplementary cementitious material.

A high-strength concrete is always a high-performance concrete, but a high-performance
concrete is not always a high-strength concrete.

Pre-Conference Workshop on High Performance Concrete Design and Applications January 2012
2nd International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment (ICSBE) 2012
14th, 15th, 16th December 2012
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High Performance Concrete

A high-performance concrete is something which demands much higher performance from
concrete as compared to performance expected from conventional concrete. The American
Concrete Institute (ACI) defines high-performance concrete as concrete meeting special
combinations of performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved
routinely when using conventional constituents and normal mixing, placing and curing
practices.Some promising technologies have recently been developed that should make HPC
a more attractive material to owners, architects, engineers and contractors from both an
economical and a sustainable perspective (Aitcin, 2011).

My definition

A high-performance concrete provides much higher performance from concrete as compared
to performance expected from conventional concrete in improving both safety and
sustainability of structures.

High-performance concrete will provide superior performance in characteristics that may be
considered critical for a particular application. However the performance should be tested not
only in normal conditions but severe environmental and other loading conditions. Durability
under severe environmental conditions is also should be a mandatory requirement for HPC.

HPC is designed to provide several benefits in the construction of concrete structures as
listed below:
- Ease of placement
- Compaction without segregation
- Early age strength
- Long-term strength and mechanical properties
- Permeability
- Density
- Heat of hydration
- Toughness
- Volume stability
- Long life in severe environments
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- Modulus of Elasticity
- Shrinkage
- Creep
- Abrasion Resistance
- Chloride Permeability
- Cost Benefits
- Sustainability and lower life-cycle costs

High-performance concretes are also more sensitive to changes in constituent material
properties than conventional concretes. This means that a greater degree of quality control is
required for the successful production of high-performance concrete.

How is HPC obtained in practice?

By careful selection of raw materials (including chemical/mineral admixtures) & appropriate
mix design to achieve the desired performance objectives. Most high-performance concretes
have a high cementitious content and a water-cementitious material ratio of 0.40 or less
(http://www.concretebasics.com).

How is HSC obtained in practice?

Manufacture of high-strength concrete involves making optimal use of the basic ingredients
that constitute normal-strength concrete. Producers of high-strength concrete know what
factors affect compressive strength and know how to manipulate those factors to achieve the
required strength. In addition to selecting a high-quality portland cement, producers optimize
aggregates, then optimize the combination of materials by varying the proportions of cement,
water, aggregates, and admixtures. When selecting aggregates for high-strength concrete,
producers consider the strength of the aggregate, the optimum size of the aggregate, the
bond between the cement paste and the aggregate, and the surface characteristics of the
aggregate. Any of these properties could limit the ultimate strength of high-strength concrete.

Admixtures

Pozzolanic admixtures, such as fly ash, ground granulated iron blast furnace slag and silica
fume, are the most commonly used supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in high-
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strength concrete. These materials impart additional strength to the concrete by reacting with
portland cement hydration products to create additional C-S-H gel, the part of the paste
responsible for concrete strength.

It would be difficult to produce high-strength concrete mixtures without using chemical
admixtures. A common practice is to use a superplasticiser in combination with a water-
reducing retarder or accelerator. The superplasticiser gives the concrete adequate workability
at low water-cement ratios, leading to concrete with greater strength. The water-reducing
retarder slows the hydration of the cement and allows workers more time to place the
concrete. More details are given later.

1.2 Advances in Concrete Technology

Numerous advances in all areas of concrete technology including materials, mixture
proportioning, recycling, structural design, durability requirements, testing and specifications
have been made. Innovative contracting mechanisms have been considered, explored and
tried. Some progress has been made in utilizing some of these technology innovations in
routine practice.

The following sections describe some of the innovations.

1.2.1 Concrete materials

The development of chemical admixtures has revolutionized concrete technology in the last
fifty years. The use of air entraining admixtures, accelerators, retarders, water reducers and
corrosion inhibitors are commonly used for bridges and pavements. The use of self-
consolidating concrete is becoming popular (mostly used for precast elements and mass
concrete). Supplementary cementitious materials e.g. fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace
slag (GGBFS) and amorphous silica (especially silica fume) are routinely used.

1.2.2 Use of recycled materials in concrete

Recycled concrete aggregate, slag aggregates and manufactured sand are being used where
appropriate. As the useable sources for natural aggregates for concrete are depleted
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utilization of these products will increase. Utilization of fly ash and GGBFS in concrete
addresses this issue in addition to improving concrete properties. The replacement of
Portland cement by fly ash or GGBFS reduces the volumes of cement utilized which is a
major benefit since the cement manufacture is a significant source of carbon dioxide
emissions worldwide (Vanikar, 2004). Silica fume is a comparatively expensive product and it
is added in smaller quantities in concrete mixture rather than as a cement replacement,
usually for sprayed concrete or high strength-high durability applications.

1.2.3 Concrete mixture proportioning

Continuous gradation and consideration of workability during laboratory testing are slowly
gaining acceptance in practice. The utilization of laboratory as well as full scale trial batches
are used on major projects.

1.2.4 Concrete durability properties

Concrete durability requirements are specified on some project specifications now
(particularly for most major bridge and pavement projects). Typically the requirements are
based on Rapid Chloride Permeability tests or other test methods. There are many guides
available on durability including those published by the Concrete Institute of Australia and the
American Concrete Institute. The lack of better laboratory and field tests has hindered
progress in this area.

1.2.5 Concrete tests

The utilization of advanced test procedures e.g. various shrinkage tests, air-void analyzer and
non-destructive tests have become widespread. The non-destructive tests including maturity
test are gaining wider acceptability. New types of Workability test are being evaluated by
several organizations. Koheler and Fowler (2003) identified 61 different types of workability
tests. They have described the key principles and trends in the measurement of workability.
Based on the successes and failures of past test methods and the current needs of the
concrete industry, requirements for new test methods were proposed.

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1.2.6 Concrete construction control

In-situ concrete testing, effective curing practices and utilization of computer software to
monitor concrete strength development as well as minimizing cracking potential are used on
major projects.

1.2.7 Specifications

Performance related specifications rather than prescriptive specifications for concrete are
becoming popular (Hootan et al.,2011). The use of incentive/disincentive clauses in
specifications tends to improve concrete quality.

1.3 Engineering Properties
1.3.1 Compressive Strength
Enhanced compressive strength is the most important of HSCs functional properties.

Admixtures such as silica fume or fly ash are not essential to the manufacture of high-strength
concrete; however, the incorporation of these mineral admixtures, particularly silica fume does
facilitate the process. The main reason for the spectacular increase in concrete strength in
silica fume concrete is the creation of a dense concrete matrix enabled by the uniformly
distributed fine silica fume particles in between larger cement particles. The use of
superplasticisers and good compaction by vibration aids in the densification process lead to
the higher strength. The microstructure of high-strength concrete is very dense and
amorphous and contains very little free water. It has a very low-porosity and lacks the
accumulation of lime crystals, as in the case of NSC.

Test methods to determine the characteristic compressive strength of NSC are applicable to
high-strength concrete cylinders. The only exception being that in some circumstances the
limitations in the capacity of testing machines or other facilities may necessitate the use of
smaller cylinders of size 100(D) x 200(H). In November 2005, ACI Subcommittee 318-A
voted to allow the use of 4 x 8 in. (100 x 200 mm) cylinders (commonly known as 4 x 8s) for
acceptance testing of concrete. Section 5.6.2.4 of ACI is 318 as follows:
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A strength test shall be the average of the strengths of at least two 6 by 12 in. [150 by
300 mm] cylinders or at least three 4 by 8 in. [100 by 200 mm] cylinders made from
the same sample of concrete and tested at 28 days or at test age designated for
determination of f
c
'.

The reason behind requiring at least three 4 x 8s (100x200 mm) instead of two 6 x 12 in. (150
x 300 mm) cylinders (commonly known as 6 x 12s) is explained in the Commentary: Testing
three 4 by 8 in. [100 by 200 mm] cylinders preserves the confidence level of the average
strength because 4 by 8 in. [100 by 200 mm] cylinders tend to have approximately 20 percent
higher within-test variability than 6 by 12 in. [150 by 300 mm] cylinders.

A discussion about Compressive Strength Testing of Concrete with Different Cylinder
Specimen Sizes is given by Taghddos et al. (2010).

The important factors that affect the strength of HSC are:

1.3.2 Curing

Whilst there are conflicting reports on the relative importance of curing on strength gain of
HSC cylinders compared with NSC cylinders, curing procedures similar to those followed for
NSC members are sufficient and should be adopted. However, the possibility of self-
desiccation and high early shrinkage of HSC requires continuous moist curing for a longer
period.

De Larrad (1988) reports that self-desiccation is probable in HSC and hence specimens cured
in water will absorb water, thus increasing the strength of the concrete. An opposite view is
expressed by some who argue that water evaporation from a NSC cylinder is greater than
that from a HSC cylinder. Therefore, the strength development of a NSC cylinder will be more
affected by deficient curing than the strength development of a HSC cylinder.

Studies by Aitcin (1998) on curing of HSC show that HSC members have a delayed response
to strength gain. Aitcin suggests that due to the low permeability of high-strength concrete it
takes considerable time for water to penetrate the concrete and contribute to the hydration
process, hence longer periods of moist curing of HSC specimens is recommended.

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Carino and Meeks (2001) summarized the results of an exploratory study on the effects of
curing duration on the variation of mortar strength with distance from the drying surface of
high-performance concrete specimens. The data tended to show that 1 day of moist curing
might be sufficient to ensure adequate strength development at a depth of 25 mm from the
exposed surface.

1.3.3 Water/binder (w/b) ratio and cement content

HSC usually contains one or two mineral additives which are used as partial replacement for
cement. Therefore, the term water/cement (w/c) ratio used in reference to NSC is replaced by
w/b ratio, where the binder is the total weight of the cementitious materials (cement +
additives). HSCs have been made with w/b ratios as low as 0.2. However, high dosages of
superplasticisers are required to maintain workability.

Silica fume is a pozzolan that is commonly used in HSC but others such as fly ash and slag
can also be used. Typically, such high performance concrete mixtures results in lower
porosity, permeability and bleeding because resulting from higher binder contents when
compared with normal strength (Normal Class) concretes making the paste structure denser.
The use of ultra-fine mineral admixtures like silica fumes, generate the higher strength due to
the following two actions:
a) Filler effect - the fine grains fill up the larger voids in between the cement particles,
thus reducing the water demand.
b) Pozzolanic effect - The siliceous particles react with lime released by the cement in
the presence of water, to generate products of hydration.

Importantly, the above can also be achieved by other binder systems and achieving a low w/b
ratio at an appropriate workability is key to having a usable HPC system in the field.

1.3.4 Influence of Mineral Admixtures on Compressive Strength

As mentioned earlier, the incorporation of mineral admixtures such as silica fume, fly ash or
slag facilitates the manufacture of high-strength concrete. However, the incorporation of
these mineral admixtures is not mandatory.

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Silica fume is a by-product of electric arc furnaces. These are used to manufacture ferro-
silicon and silicon metal alloys. Silica fume contains mainly non-crystalline silica in the form of
very fine particles (0.1 microns average diameter). Due to its finess as compared to other
mineral admixtures, silica fume is by far the most effective mineral admixture that can be used
to manufacture HSC as compared with other commercially available mineral admixtures. As
described later, it is essential to produce very high-strength concrete. AS3582.3 Condensed
Silica Fume (CSF) has been renamed Amorphous Silica in 2002 version, thus recognizing
that there are other Amorphous Silica materials other than silica fume that satisfy all the
chemical and physical requirements in that standard.

Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of pulverised coal in thermal power plants. It is
removed as a fine dust by mechanical extractors, electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters. Fly
ash can be included into concrete either blended with cement or directly introduced as an
additional cementitious material at the concrete mixing plant. Typical applications are in
pumped or in superplasticized concretes, particularly where heat of hydration is considered to
be a problem. AS3582.1-1998 (with an amendment in 1999) covers fly ash. Ultrafine Fly Ash
(Special Grade) is a potential substitute for Silica Fume to produce HSC.

Slags are by-products of the metallurgical industry. Slags that are most commonly used in
concretes for building and construction applications usually originate from iron blast furnace
facilities. These slags are glassy (amorphous) materials and are obtained by melt
waterquenching. In fresh concrete, slags tend to improve the workability of the concrete due
to their angular shape and smooth surface texture. However, their relatively slow reaction
rates [when compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC)] cause increases in setting time
and bleeding tendencies. Slag cement concretes generally produce less heat of hydration
than do equivalent OPC concretes. Reductions in temperature rise and the associated
likelihood of thermal cracking can be reduced with slag inclusion into concrete, but such
reductions only become significant at higher slag replacement levels. AS3582.2-2001 covers
SlagGround granulated iron blast-furnace.

1.3.5 Superplaticizers

Superplasticisers, also known as high range water reducers, are chemicals used as
admixtures where well-dispersed particle suspension is required. These polymers are used as
dispersants to avoid particle aggregation, and to improve the flow characteristics (rheology) of
suspensions such as in concrete applications. Their addition to concrete or mortar allows the
reduction of the water to cement ratio, not affecting the workability of the mixture, and enables
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the production of self-consolidating concrete and high performance concrete. This effect
drastically improves the performance of the hardening fresh paste. Indeed the strength of
concrete increase whenever the amount of water used for the mix decreases. However, their
working mechanisms lack of a full understanding, revealing in certain cases cement-
superplasticiser incompatibilities.

Superplasticisers are essential to produce good workable high-strength concrete. Adding 1-
2% superplasticiser per unit weight of cement is usually sufficient. However, note that most
commercially available superplasticisers come dissolved in water, so the extra water added
has to be accounted for in mix proportioning. Adding an excessive amount of superplasticiser
will result in excessive segregation of concrete and is not advisable. Some studies also show
that too much superplasticiser will result in a retarding effect.

Plasticizers are commonly manufactured from lignosulfonates, a by-product from the paper
industry. High Range Superplasticiser have generally been manufactured from sulfonated
naphthalene condensate or sulfonated melamine formaldehyde, although new-generation
products based on polycarboxylic ethers are now available. Traditional lignosulfonate-based
plasticisers, naphthalene and melamine sulfonate-based superplasticisers disperse the
flocculated cement particles through a mechanism of electrostatic repulsion. In normal
plasticizers, the active substances are adsorbed on to the cement particles, giving them a
negative charge, which leads to repulsion between particles. Lignin, naphthalene and
melamine sulfonate superplasticisers are organic polymers. The long molecules wrap
themselves around the cement particles, giving them a highly negative charge so that they
repel each other.

Polycarboxylate ethers (PCE) or just polycarboxylate (PC), the new generation of
superplasticisers, are not only chemically different from the older sulfonated melamine and
naphthalene-based products, but their action mechanism is also different, giving cement
dispersion by steric stabilisation, instead of electrostatic repulsion. This form of dispersion is
more powerful in its effect and gives improved workability retention to the cementitious mix.
Furthermore, the chemical structure of PCE allows for a greater degree of chemical
modification than the older-generation products, offering a range of performance parameters
that can be tailored to meet specific needs. The amount of superplasticiser to be added to a
mix is governed by the required workability. With a relatively low dosage (0.51.5% by cement
weight) they allow a water reduction up to 40%, due to their chemical structure which enables
good particle dispersion. Some commercial examples are GLENIUM 27 and RHEOBUILD
1000 MSDS.

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Superplasticisers are covered in AS 1478.1-2000 Chemical admixtures for concrete, mortar
and grout - Admixtures for concrete and AS 1478.2-2005 Chemical admixtures for concrete,
mortar and grout - Methods of sampling and testing admixtures for concrete, mortar and
grout.

1.3.6 Coarse Aggregates

As compared to NSC, the mineralogy and the crushing strength of coarse aggregates has a
significant effect on the strength of a HSC mix. For an optimum compressive strength with a
high cement content and low water/cement ratio, the maximum aggregate size should be kept
to a minimum of about 10 mm (Donnaes, 2000). According to Setunge (1994), higher
strength aggregates do not necessarily produce higher-strength concretes. A more desirable
property is the compatibility of the stiffness of the aggregates and the mortar. The ideal
material will be crushed rock with low stiffness and high strength. It is generally observed that
smaller aggregates are desirable to produce high strength concrete due to:
a) reduction in the water accumulating near the coarse aggregates
b) larger available surface area for bonding with cement matrix

For commercial applications, taking into account the economy of production, workability and
shrinkage and creep, well graded aggregates of 14-20mm size are recommended.

In another experimental study, Mak and Sanjayan (1990) report that:
(a) the compressive strength of HSC is dependent on the type of aggregate used.
(b) gap graded aggregates yield higher strength but lower workability
(c) a higher percentage of sand increases the workability of the HSC mix but reduces the
compressive strength and
(d) 25% increase in strength was observed with a 8% replacement of cement by silica
fume.

Aitcin (1992), for the purposes of discussion divided high-strength concrete and very high-
strength concrete into five categories and discussed the relative importance of various factors
on the strength of concrete.

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Category I - 50 -75 MPa - This grade of concrete can be manufactured using good quality but
generally used materials, existing production technology and a w/b ratio of about 0.40. There
is no particular need to incorporate mineral admixtures to attain this grade of concrete.
Superplasticisers may be used to achieve the required workability at the low w/c ratio and
also for slump recovery at the job site.

Category II - 75-100 MPa - To achieve this strength, high quality, generally used materials are
required. However, due to the very low w/b ratio of about 0.25 - 0.30, superplasticisers are
required to achieve adequate workability. The use of mineral admixtures is also strongly
recommended. The coarse aggregates have a significant influence on the resulting strength
of the concrete and they must be round or cubic in shape.

Category III - 100-125MPa - Very high quality materials, efficient mixing techniques and
stringent quality control are needed. The w/b ratio must be lowered to 0.22 - 0.25. If high
quality materials are not locally available they must be imported. High dosages of
superplasticisers are essential in conjunction with silica fume.

The other two categories refer to 125 MPa and beyond and will not be discussed here as they
are not commonly used, difficult to achieve in the field and beyond the scope of this seminar
series.

Manufacturers of high-strength concrete need to have in place a quality assurance
programme which controls the process from contract review through to onsite delivery (Munn,
1994). Some typical commercial mix proportions taken from Shah et. al. (1994) and Malier et.
al. (1992) are given in Table 1.1 A. A typical high-strength concrete mix used in Australia is
given in Table 1.1 B. This mix was used for the 53 storey Century Tower in Sydney. As seen
the concrete was required to have an elastic modulus of 45 GPa at 90 days in addition to the
high strength.

Aggregates are covered in AS 2758.1-1998: Aggregates and rock for engineering purposes -
Concrete aggregates.

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Table 1.1 A Examples of commercially produced high strength concrete mixes
Mix Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
water (kg/m
3
) 170 195 158 165 145 160 135 151 144 130
cement (kg/m
3
) 425 505 564 451 315 475 500 475 564 513
fly ash (kg/m
3
) - 60 - - - 59 - 104 - -
slag (kg/m
3
) - - - - 137 - - - - -
silica fume (kg/m
3
) 30 - - - 36 24 30 74 89 43
coarse aggregate
(kg/m
3
)
1033 1030 1068 1030 1130 1068 1110 1068 1068 1080
fine aggregate 705 630 647 745 745 659 700 593 593 685
water reducer L/m
3
4 0.98 - - 0.9 - - - - -
retarder L/m
3
1.0 - 1.12 4.5 1.8 1.04 4.5 1.51 1.47 -
superplasticizer
L/m
3

3 - 11.61 11.25 5.9 11.61 14 16.45 20.12 15.7
w/cementious ratio 0.4 0.35 0.28 0.37 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.23 0.22 0.25
fc 28-day (MPa) -
moist cured
59 65 78.6 80 83 88.5 42.5 107 118.9 119
fc 91-day (MPa) -
moist cured
66 79 86.5 87 93 100.4 106.5 119.3 131.8 145

1. La Grande Arche, Paris 6. HSC mixture 2 in the Chicago area
2. Water Tower Place (1975) 7. Scotia Plaza, Toronto (1987)
3. HSC mixture 1 in the Chicago area 8. HSC mixture 3 in the Chicago area
4. Joigny Bridge, France (1989) 9. HSC mixture 4 in the Chicago area
5. La Laurentienne Building, Montreal (1984) 10.Two Union Square, Seattle (1988)

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Table 1.1 B Specification Requirements for Concrete and Achieved Field Performance for Century Tower
Sydney
Mix Constituent Lower Columns and Core Level 9 Transfer Slab
or Property Specification
Requirement
Achieved Field
Performance
Specification
Requirement
Achieved Field
Performance
Strength Data (fc) 80 MPa 105 MPa 60 MPa 72 MPa
90 Day Ec (GPa) 45 48 - -
56 Day Drying
Shrinkage ( strain)
500 650 500 - 530
Creep (AS 1012) 15 qc/MPa @ 3
months
- -
Temperature Control - - 10C reduction
in concrete
temp
Liq. nitrogen cooled
Target - 14 2C
at time of discharge
Total binder - 640 kg/m
3
- 440 kg/m
3

Binder Type - SL cement ,
Micropoz
& fly
ash
- SL cement,
Micropoz
& fly ash

Aggregate inclusion 10 mm max
Basaltic
aggregates*
10 mm max
Penrith Crushed
River Gravels
Penrith Crushed
River Gravels
Admixture inclusion Use of
superplasticisers
Water
reducer/retarder
and
superplasticiser
Water red./retarder
and
superplasticiser
Max. W:B - 0.25 to 0.28 -
Initial slump (mm) - < 30 - 60
Final slump (mm) - 120-180
(depending on
element)
- 120
*This table was taken from the document A guide for Designers and Specifiers CSR Constrcution
Materials, NSW Project Case Study 1
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1.3.7 Tensile strength

The tensile strength of HSC is significantly greater than that of NSC, though to a lesser extent
than the compressive strength. Fracture surfaces are smooth, indicating the homogeneity of
the material. The densification of the concrete matrix and the aggregate-matrix transition zone
explains the improvement of the tensile strength. Tensile strength of concrete is highly
dependent on the specimen conditioning and the method of test. The tensile strength is
determined either by direct tensile tests or by indirect tensile tests such as flexural, also
known as modulus of rupture, and split cylinder tests. The direct and indirect methods for
evaluating the tensile strength in accordance with the appropriate parts of AS1012- Methods
of Testing Concrete are adequate for the tensile testing of HSC specimens.

AS3600-2009 recommends a lower and upper bound values of the characteristic flexural (f
cf
)
and uniaxial tensile (f
ct
) strength of concrete in the absence of more accurate data. The lower
characteristic flexural tensile strength and the lower characteristic uniaxial tensile strength of
concrete are given by Eq. (1.1) and Eq. (1.2) respectively.
f f
cf c
' . ' = 0 6 (1.1)
c ct
f f ' 36 . 0 ' = (1.2)
The mean and upper characteristic values can be estimated by multiplying these lower bound
values by 1.4 and 1.8 respectively.

1.3.8 Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity (E
c
) of HSC is dependent on parameters such as the volume of
aggregates, the modulus of the paste and the modulus of the aggregates. Complex equations
incorporating these factors and as suggested by various researchers are reviewed by
Setunge (1994). These equations are not easily or readily applied and are therefore not
suitable for a design office. Previous versions of AS3600 suggested a simplified, empirical
formula to predict the elastic modulus.

Setunge (1993) has shown that the existing AS3600-2001 formula of:
E
cm
= 0.043
1.5
cm
f ' 20% (1.3)
has the tendency to overestimate the elastic modulus of HSC.
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AS3600-2009 code recommends Eq. (1.3) to estimate the mean modulus of elasticity of
concrete up to 40 MPa. However, for concrete strength greater than 40 MPa, the code
recommends Eq. (1.4) to predict the elastic modulus of concrete.
E
cm
=
1.5
(0.024
cm
f ' + 0.12) 20% (1.4)
Mendis (2001) proposed that the following expression is appropriate to predict the elastic
modulus of all grades of NSC and HSC concretes with various types of aggregates:
E
c
= 0.43q1.5
c
' f 20% (1.5)
where, q = 1.1-0.002f
c
s 1.0
The term q has the value of 1 for NSC and is less than 1 for HSC. This formula was derived
by calibrating experimental results and comparing them with the widely used Carrasquillo et
al. (1981) formula given in Eq. (1.6).
( )
2320
6900 3320
5 1.
c
c c
' f E |
.
|
\
|
+ = (1.6)

Results from standard elastic modulus tests on samples taken from site delivered concrete to
World Tower in Sydney and Q1 Tower on the Gold Coast are shown in Figure below. The
results indicate that both the Gilbert (2002) and Mendis (2001) equations perform
satisfactorily at different levels. Equation (1.4) gives good elastic modulus prediction of World
Tower data particularly for concretes greater than 65 MPa, but seems to under-predict Q1
data between 60 and 90 MPa. Equation (1.5) gives a good average elastic modulus prediction
of Q1 data for concrete strengths great than 60 MPa, but seems to overestimate World Tower
data. It is clear that the previous AS3600 equation over-predicts and therefore a justification of
modification for higher strengths is obvious. Importantly, further analysis of the data shown in
Fig 1.1 has shown an age effect on modulus versus strength where a higher rate of stiffening
occurs after 28 days when compared with corresponding increases in compressive strength.
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Fig 1.1 Elastic Modulus results of World Tower and Q1 concretes

1.3.9 Shrinkage and Creep in HSC

Shrinkage

Shrinkage in concrete comprises three distinct components viz. Plastic shrinkage,
Autogenous shrinkage and Drying shrinkage. Most codes and procedures do not differentiate
between the three types of shrinkage. The empirical procedures laid out in most codes
determine the total shrinkage at the end of a stipulated time or design period.

For HSC, which is expected to be produced with low w/b ratios and better aggregates, the
total shrinkage should decrease in comparison with NSC specimens. Because of the high
paste content in HSC, autogenous shrinkage is expected to be higher, and in some cases
doubled (De Lallard et. al., 1994). However, since the specimens contain very little water, the
drying shrinkage will be significantly reduced. All experimental results point to the fact that the
total shrinkage values for HSC specimens are less than those obtained for NSC specimens.

Although several potential benefits such as improved surface abrasion resistance, reduced
chloride penetrability, and improved resistance to freezing and thawing damage are
associated with the use of HSC, these mixtures may exhibit increased sensitivity to early-age
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
f
cm
(MPa)
E
c

(
M
P
a
)
World Tower
Q1
AS3600
Mendis (2001)
Gilbert (2002)
Kandy, Sri Lanka
18
shrinkage cracking. Inclusion of silica fume at high replacement levels significantly increases
the autogenous shrinkage of HSC due to refinement of pore size distribution that leads to a
further increase in capillary tension and more contraction of the cement paste, whereas
decreases its drying shrinkage Sato et al. (1999) found that at early age the autogenous
shrinkage strains develop more rapidly in concrete without any admixtures, and in concrete
containing silica fume, than in concrete containing blast-furnace slag. One of the ways to
minimize autogenous shrinkage of high-strength concrete is to add not more than 10% silica
fume to the mix. Also shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA) may be used to decrease the
potential for early-age shrinkage cracking in HSC while sustaining the advantageous
mechanical and durability properties associated with HSC.

Autogenous shrinkages occur with the loss of water used in hydration of cementitious
materials. This shrinkage occurs in the short term. Since the autogenous shrinkage is higher
for HSC, the early shrinkage in HSC is higher, and this aspect should be carefully considered
by the structural engineer. In particular, this behaviour is important in the design of
indeterminate structures consisting of many restraints at supports and also has implications
for prestress losses in prestressed concrete design. If adequate precautions are not taken,
shrinkage cracking in the structure is liable to occur. The structural engineer should consider
incorporating the support restraints after the high early shrinkage has occurred. Loukili et al.
(1999) believe that autogenous shrinkage in very high-strength concrete stops after 10 days.
Swamy (1986) reported that for HSC 20 - 50% of the total 700 day shrinkage occurred in the
first 7 days. De Larrard and LeRoy (1992) have carried out measurements of autogeneous
shrinkage of HSC mixes and proposed a relationship between the composition of the mix and
the autogeneous shrinkage. Some results are presented in Table 1.2. As can be seen, HSC
specimens show high early shrinkage and a lower final shrinkage.

Table 1.2 Comparative shrinkages in NSC and HSC test specimens [23]
Mixes No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cement, kg/m
3
350 450 456 453 453 421
Silica Fume, kg/m
3
- - 36 36 36 42
Super-plasticizer, l/m
3
- 4.5 7 6.6 3.6 7.9
Retarder, l/m
3
- 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.5 -
Water, kg/m
3
195 168 151 175 188 112
W/C ratio 0.56 0.37 0.33 0.39 0.42 0.27
Kandy, Sri Lanka
19
fc (MPa) 40 78 94 83 74 101
Autogeneous Shrinkage
(at 1 yr)x10
-6

90 90 290 200 140 150
Drying Shrinkage (at 1 yr)x10
-6
290 90 120 190 260 110
Total Shrinkage (at 1 yr)x10
-6
380 180 410 390 400 260

Investigations by Yue and Taerwe (1993) indicate that the lower limit of 600x10
-6
is a
reasonable estimate of the basic shrinkage strain of HSC. However, caution must be
exercised in using the basic shrinkage strain values in design of structural elements which are
sensitive to differential settlement (like columns in tall buildings). Every HSC mix has different
characteristics and if the project is sufficiently important and sensitive to shrinkage,
appropriate tests and monitoring should be carried out to determine the actual shrinkage
values.

Gilbert (1998) has suggested basic shrinkage versus concrete strength relationships for
normal and high-strength concrete. The AS3600-2001 procedure assumed a tolerance of
40% for the basic shrinkage strain, c
cs.b
, of 850x10
-6
. AS 3600-2009 modifies the existing rules
of design shrinkage strain for HSC. The newly proposed rules consider the design shrinkage
strain c
cs
, to be the sum of autogenous shrinkage c
cse
and drying shrinkage c
csd
. The
autogenous shrinkage is taken as Eq. (1.7)
( ) e - 1.0
-0.1t
=
-
cse cse
c c (1.7)
Where t is the time (in days) after setting and
-
cse
c is the final autogenous shrinkage given by
Eq (1.8).
( )
6
10 50 0 . 1 06 . 0
-
' =
c cse
f c (1.8)

The basic drying shrinkage
b csd.
c is given by Eq (1.9).
( )
-
' =
b csd c b csd
f
. .
008 . 0 0 . 1 c c (1.9)
where
-
b csd.
c has been considered to be 800x10
-6
for Sydney and Brisbane, 900x10
-6
in for
Melbourne and 1000x10
-6
elsewhere depending on the quality of the local aggregates. It is
recommended in the code that in the absence of any other data, a value of 1000x10
-6
be used
Kandy, Sri Lanka
20
as the final drying shrinkage strain to determine the typical design shrinkage strain within a
tolerance of 30%. However from studying actual data, the author is convinced that these
values can be lower with the incorporation of present quality control measures.

The shrinkage strain at time t measured from the start of drying (after 7 days for moist cured
concrete), as recommended by ACI 209R-92 is

t
t
t
sh sh
*
35
) ( c c
+
=
(1.10)

where
sh
*
c is the final shrinkage strain at time infinity and depends on the following
parameters: relative humidity; size and shape of member; slump; aggregate, air and cement
content; and period of initial moist curing. Huo et al. (2001) recommends a modification to the
shrinkage strain to cover HSC which depends on the concrete compressive strength. A
correction factor was also introduced in the proposed modification to consider the lower
ultimate shrinkage strain due to HSC.

The treatment of shrinkage in MC90 is almost identical to that of EC2 and appears to cover
the high-strength concrete. The code procedure for calculation of shrinkage takes into
account the increase in shrinkage with reduction in compressive strength. The total shrinkage
strain is calculated from;
) ( ) , (
s s cso s cs
t t t t = | c c
(1.11)

where,
s
is the coefficient to describe the development of shrinkage with time
t = age of concrete
t = age of concrete at the beginning of shrinkage

cso
= basic shrinkage coefficient

After analysing the shrinkage of standard specimens taken from site delivered concrete at
three locations in Melbourne, Fragomeni and Baweja (2008) concluded that the updated
shrinkage model in AS3600-2009 gives better prediction of shrinkage compared to the current
code shrinkage model.

Kandy, Sri Lanka
21
Creep

Creep is defined as the increase in strain under a sustained constant stress. Basic creep is
the creep encountered when no drying is involved and the drying creep is the additional creep
that occurs with simultaneous drying of concrete. Aggregates in concrete do not creep at the
stress levels encountered in concrete.

Creep decreases with an increase in strength of concrete. Thus, it is expected and
experiments confirm that HSC creeps to a lesser degree than NSC. A resulting advantage is
that higher proportions of the maximum stress can be endured by HSC for similar values of
specific creep.

The single most significant factor that affects creep is the stress level. The higher the stress
level, the higher will be the creep strains. At 0.3f
c
, 50% higher creep strains were observed as
compared to 0.2f
c
, and at 0.6f
c
the creep strains were 3 times of those at 0.2f
c
. Other than
the compressive strength, the creep coefficients for concretes of varying strengths also
depend on the mix components and proportions; water/cement ratio; supplementary
cementitious materials and other additives. In an experimental study, Suksawang et al. (2005)
concluded that while fly ash increases the compressive creep of HSC, silica fume decreases
it. Mendis et al.(1997), while reviewing the work carried out by others, reported that a
reduction in w/c ratio in the HSC mix will lead to a reduction in creep.

The basic creep coefficient is defined as the ratio of total long term strain and initial elastic
strain at a particular level of stress. In AS3600-2001 values of basic creep co-efficient (|
cc.b
)
are given for concrete with compressive strengths up to 65 MPa and for a stress level of 0.4fc
(Cl. 6.1.8). AS3600-2009 recommends a modified equation for the design creep coefficient,
|
cc,
which is applicable for concrete up to 100 MPa within a tolerance of 30% (Cl. 3.1.8).
Based on an experimental and analytical study Setunge and Padovan (1997) proposed basic
creep factors for HSC (Fig 1.2). Gilbert (1998) has suggested slightly higher creep factors
(compared to Setunge and Padovan) for high-strength concrete. Suggestions of Setunge and
Padovan (1997) and Gilbert (1998) are given in Table 1.3. It must be noted that the creep
coefficients for concretes of varying strengths depend on many factors other than the
compressive strength, including mix components and proportions, water/cement ratio,
supplementary cementitious materials and other additives.
Kandy, Sri Lanka
22

Fig 1.2 Basic Creep Factor [25]

Table 1.3 Basic creep factors
Characteristic Compressive
strength (MPa)
20 25 32 40 50 60 80 100
Basic creep factor
-AS3600-2001
5.2 4.2 3.4 2.5 2.0 1.7 (at 65
MPa)
- -
Basic creep factor
AS3600-2009
5.2 4.2 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.0 (at
65 MPa)
1.7 1.5
Basic creep factor
-Setunge and Padovan (1997)
5.2 4.2 3.4 2.5 2.0 1.5 0.9 0.5
Basic creep factor
-Gilbert (1998)
5.2 4.2 3.4 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Compressive Strength MPa
B
a
s
i
c

C
r
e
e
p

F
a
c
t
o
r
AS3600
Setunge & Padovan
(1997)
Other reported data
Proposed
Kandy, Sri Lanka
23
The basic creep coefficient for moist cured concrete as recommended by the ACI 209R-92
does not depend on the concrete strength. The code allows for the following variation to the
standard conditions: concrete composition, age at loading, ambient relative humidity, size
factor, and ambient temperature. Huo et al. (2001) found that creep coefficients of HSC were
lower than those of conventional concrete resulting in over-estimation of those values of HSC
by ACI 209. He suggested a modification to the creep coefficient given in ACI 209 to cover
HSC

The methods given for calculating the creep coefficient in MC90 and Annex B.1 of EC2 are
almost identical. The relations to calculate the creep coefficient are empirical and calibrated
on the basis of laboratory tests subjected to stress levels below 0.4f
c
. These two codes only
take into account parameters that are generally known to the designers in the design stage.
The parameters those are required to predict creep coefficient are: mean or design strength of
the concrete, member dimensions, mean relative humidity RH of the ambient atmosphere,
age at loading and duration of loading. The creep coefficient (t,t
0
) in MC90 and EC2 may be
calculated from:
(t,t
0
) =
0
.
c
(t,t
0
) (1.12)
where, t is the age of concrete and t
0
is the age of concrete at loading and,
0
=
RH
(f
c
) (t
0
)

1.3.10 Stress Strain Models

The stress-strain behaviour of HSC differs from that of NSC [Fig 1.3]. The reasons for the
variance in behaviour are as follows:
- For HSC, the stress-strain curve remains linear up to the highest value of the
stress/ultimate stress ratio. The internal microcracking that occurs in concrete as load
is applied is delayed until a large proportion of the ultimate load is reached. Therefore
the elastic response to compression is extended.
- the strain at the peak stress increases with strength
- the post peak branch becomes steeper as the strength increases (or reduced
ductility). The extensive ductility exhibited by lower strength concretes beyond
maximum stress, caused by the spreading of microcracks which form an
interconnected network with large redundancies to dissipate the energy is not
observed in HSC.
- the typical ultimate compressive strain decreases as the strength increases
Kandy, Sri Lanka
24
- the typical fracture surface of an ordinary concrete is rough. The fracture occurs along the
aggregate-matrix interface; the aggregates are not broken. For HSC, a typical fracture surface
is smooth and the cracks pass without any discontinuity through both the matrix and
aggregates. The fracture mode of HSC is more sudden than that for NSC

Fig 1.3 Uniaxial stress-strain curve for concrete (Pendyala et. al., 1997)

It is important to know the details of stress-strain behaviour of HSC in order to determine the
full-range moment-curvature behaviour of HSC columns and beams. Various stress-strain
relationships for HSC have been proposed in the literature. A model developed at the
University of Melbourne is described below.

Modified Scott Model (Pendyala et. al., 1997 and Mendis et. al., 2000)

The Modified Scott Model has been based on the model for confined concrete developed by
Scott et al. (1982) for NSC members. Mendis (1986), based on an experimental and
theoretical investigation, recommended the Scott Model as being the most suitable to predict
the full range stress-strain behaviour of concrete beams. In order for the model to be
applicable for both NSC and HSC appropriate modifications were made to the Scott Model.
The Modified Scott model has been experimentally validated for HSC members (Pendyala et.
al., 1997 and Kovacic, 1995).

The proposed Modified Scott Model is described by Eqs (1.13) - (1.22) and Fig 1.4.
Kandy, Sri Lanka
25
For confined concrete:
The equation which defines the parabolic ascending portion of the curve is:
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
2

2

cc cc
c ' f K f for c c s cc (1.13)
The equation for the linear descending portion is:
( ) | |
res
cc m c f Z ' f K f > c c = 1 for c c > cc (1.14)
But not less than
res c
f f K '
Where,
c
l
' f
f
K 3 1+ = (1.15)
And,
0
002 0
4
3
1000 145
29 0 3
5 0
>
+
+
=
K .
s
h
f
' f .
.
Z Z
h
"
s
'
c
c
m
(1.16)

( ) c
*
c cc K . K . c c + = c = 76 0 24 0
3
, and (1.17)

( ) 0 0032 0 28 0 > = c
c
res ' f . . ' Kf f (1.18)

where:
f
l
= the confinement pressure (MPa) using the Mander method

s
= volumetric ratio of hoop reinforcement to concrete core measured to outside
of the hoop
h'' = width of concrete core measured to outside of peripheral hoop (mm)
s
h
= centre-to-centre spacing of hoop sets (mm).
c
c
=
4 26
4
.
'
'
f
f
E c
c
c
, where E
c
is the Modulus of Elasticity of concrete
Kandy, Sri Lanka
26
f
c
Kf
c
c
cc
K f
c
f
res
Z
m
Confined
Unconfined
0.004 c
c
f
c
cr
f
c
f
res
Z
m

Fig 1.4 The Modified Scott Model

For unconfined concrete:
The equation which defines the parabolic ascending portion of the curve is:
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
2

2

c c
c ' f f for c c s c (1.19)
the equation for the linear descending portion is:
( ) | |
res
c m c ' f ' Z ' f f > c c = 1 for c c > c (1.20)
but not less than
res c
f f '
where:
0

1000 145
29 0 3
0.5
>
c
+
=
c
c
c
m
' f
' f .
Z ' Z (1.21)
Z = 0.018f
c
+ 0.55 (1.22)

[Note: ,
' f
' f .
c
c
0
1000 145
29 0 3
c
s c
+
indicates a very steep slope beyond the ultimate load,
hence a very large value (e.g. 1x10
5
) should be allocated to m ' Z .

Kandy, Sri Lanka
27
Application of the Modified Scott model for high-strength concrete columns is presented in
detail by Mendis (2001).

1.3.11 Fire Resistance of High-Strength Concrete

Fire resistance of concrete members is normally accomplished by structural adequacy and
insulation for a specified fire resistance period (C & CA, 2010). Several researchers have
concluded that with the exception of spalling, which is defined as the detachment of pieces of
concrete when a concrete member is exposed to fire; there is no apparent reason to treat
high-strength concrete differently from lower strength concrete. Adverse effects of HSC in fire
have been described by Sanjayan (2011). The pieces can be large or small and detachment
can either occur explosively or pieces may dislodge and subsequently fall (Fig 1.5). Spalling
can take place over the whole surface area of a member or in localised areas (Sanjayan,
1994). The risk of spalling is higher in high-strength concrete due to the following reasons:

(i) Low permeability of HSC retains the moisture inside the concrete resulting in a high
moisture content being present for prolonged periods.
(ii) Low porosity of HSC creates higher pore pressure.
(iii) HSC tends to be subject to higher compressive stresses than lower strength concrete.

Fig 1.5 Behaviour of HSC in Fire (Breitenbucker, 1996)

Sudden burst due to the
steam-pressure
Water bound chemically and
physically in cement paste
Sudden burst due to the
steam-pressure
Water bound chemically and
physically in cement paste
Kandy, Sri Lanka
28
Conflicting observations have been reported in the literature on spalling of HSC. Some tests
have shown explosive spalling of HSC, while others have reported no difference to the
behaviour of NSC. In 1996, a comprehensive investigation was conducted at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology, on experimental and analytical studies on fire
performance of HSC. The key findings and a literature review are given by Phan (1996). Of
the ten materials test programs reviewed by Phan (1996), five reported explosive spalling. Of
the five element test programs reviewed, three reported spalling. Also, it was observed that
explosive spalling does not occur for every specimen tested under identical conditions. The
reported temperature range when explosive spalling occurs is between 300C to 650C.
Concrete with dense pastes resulting from the addition of silica fume are more susceptible to
explosive spalling. HSC made with lightweight aggregate appears to be more prone to
explosive spalling than HSC made of normal weight aggregate concretes. Chan et al. (1999)
showed that moisture content and strength are the two main factors governing explosive
thermal spalling of concrete. Spalling in all their specimens occurred between 480-500C.
Also, HSC specimens heated at higher heating rates, such as hydrocarbon fire which
occurred in WTC collapse on September 11, and larger specimens are more prone to spalling
than specimens heated at lower rates and of smaller size. Ta (2010) showed that, for HSC,
hydrocarbon fire produces explosive spalling compared to standard fire.

The effectiveness of polypropylene fibres and carbonate ;aggregates in order to improve fire
resistance has been reported in the literature [Phan, 1996, Ta, 2010]. Sanjayan (1994)
suggests the following methods to reduce the risk of spalling in HSC:
(i) Reduction of concrete covers (20 - 25 mm) where possible;
(ii) Where it is not possible to provide small cover for structural steel, sacrificial steel with
small concrete covers (20-25 mm) may be provided to prevent spalling of cover to the
main steel bars. The sacrificial steel is not to be considered in structural design for
carrying loads; and
(iii) Use of fibre reinforcement to prevent spalling [see also Breitenbucker, 1996]. The
length of fibres may be of importance. Short fibres, combined with a high fibre
content may even give adverse spalling effects.

According to the review by Phan (1996), the material properties of HSC vary differently with
temperature as compared to those of NSC. The differences are more pronounced in the
temperature range of between 25C to about 400C, where higher strength concretes have
higher rates of strength loss than lower strength concretes. These differences become less
significant at temperatures above 400C. Compressive strengths of HSC at 800C decrease
to about 30% of the original room temperature strengths. The difference between the
compressive strength versus temperature relationships of normal weight and lightweight
Kandy, Sri Lanka
29
aggregate appears to be insignificant, based on the limited amount of existing test data. The
tensile strength versus temperature relationships decreases similarly and almost linearly with
temperature for HSC and NSC. HSC mixtures with silica fume have higher strength loss with
increasing temperatures than HSC mixtures without silica fume. The failure of HSC is more
brittle than NSC at temperatures up to 300C. With further increase in temperature,
specimens exhibit a more gradual failure mode.

Phan and Carino (1998), by considering several experimental results on mechanical
properties of concrete when exposed to rapid heating as in a fire showed that Eurocode
provisions and the CEB design curves are unsafe for HSC. They also measured the elastic
modulus and compressive strength of HSC by heating 100 x 200 mm cylinders at 5C/min to
temperatures of up to 600C. The properties were measured at elevated temperatures as well
as after cooling to room temperature. Results indicated that losses in relative strength due to
high-temperature exposure were affected by the test condition and w/c ratio, but there were
significant interactions among the main factors that resulted in complex behaviours. The
presence of silica fume did not appear to have a significant effect. Measurements of
temperature histories in the cylinders revealed complex behaviours that were believed to be
linked to heat-induced transformations and transport of free and chemically combined water.

There are only a few studies reported recently on the structural behaviour of HSC members
subjected to fire. Meda et al. (2002) studied the ultimate behaviour of HSC sections at high
temperature and after cooling subjected to several fire durations. They concluded that HSC
sections are more temperature-sensitive than NSC sections. However, it is not significant.
Kodur (2003) recommended design guidelines for mitigating spalling and enhancing fire
endurance of HSC columns. A recently concluded project at the University of Melbourne
investigated the behaviour of HSC members under hydro-carbon fire conditions. In this project
10 large-scale concrete wall panels were tested. Four walls were of normal strength concrete
(NSC), two of which were axially loaded at an eccentricity of 10 mm (0.39 in.) and two with no
load, and exposed to either standard or hydrocarbon fires. Four identically dimensioned high
strength concrete (HSC) walls were also tested using these variables. A further two HSC
walls, with polypropylene fibres added, were tested under hydrocarbon fire conditions only. All
walls were tested in a vertical position in a large furnace, and supported top and bottom only.
The results indicate that all concrete wall panels exposed to the standard fire tests survived
the 120 minute fire period, with low to moderate spalling evident. The NSC walls exposed to
hydrocarbon fires also survived the 120 minute test whereas the HSC walls experienced
severe spalling under these fire conditions with failure at 31 minutes. The Addition of
polypropylene fibres in the concrete improved the fire resistance of HSC walls in hydrocarbon
fire to 65 minutes.
Kandy, Sri Lanka
30
The performance of concrete structures in fire has become increasingly significant in the past
decade. This is due in part to the increased incidence of accidental fires, explosions and
terrorist attacks. The increased use of high strength concrete (HSC) with concrete strengths
more than 50 MPa, which is perceived to have less adequate fire performance compared to
normal strength concrete (NSC), has necessitated dedicated research in this area.

According to the results of laboratory focused fire tests conducted recently, there are
remarkable differences between the properties of HSC and NSC in terms of;
the loss of cross-section
the timing of loss of strength; and
the degrees of deformation and spalling at elevated temperatures
The most notable finding is that HSC is considered to suffer more seriously from spalling due
to fire than NSC.

Rules for High-strength Concrete in Eurocode
(Although AS3600-2009 is based on this code, this latest clauses are not included in
AS3600-2009)

Section 6 of EN1992-1-2 2004 gives additional rules for high strength concrete. Structural
elements shall be designed at elevated temperature with the properties of that type of
concrete and the risk of spalling shall be taken into account. Strength properties are given in
three classes and recommendations against spalling are given for two ranges of HSC. Where
the actual characteristic strength of concrete is likely to be of a higher class than that specified
in design, the relative reduction in strength for the higher class should be used for fire design.
A reduction in strength, f
c
,q/ f
ck
, at elevated temperature should be made according to the
value given in following Table.
Class 1, fc between 50 and 70 MPa
Class 2, fc between 70 and 90 MPa
Class 3, fc is equal to 90 MPa

Note: Simplified Calculation Method presented in Appendix B (500 degree isotherm method,
zone method, curvature method) can be applied for high-strength concrete with some
modification factors.

Kandy, Sri Lanka
31
Table 1.4 Reduction of strength at elevated temperature

Spalling
(1) For concrete strengths between 55 to 80 MPa, fire design rules provided for normal
strength concrete apply if the maximum content of silica fume is less than 6% by weight of
cement. For higher contents of silica fume the rules given in (2) apply.
(2) For concrete strengths between 80 and 90 (and can be assumed to extrapolate up to 100
MPa) spalling can occur in any situation for concrete exposed directly to the fire and at least
one of the following methods should be provided:
Method A: A reinforcement mesh with a nominal cover of 15 mm. This mesh should have
wires with a diameter 2 mm with a pitch 50 x 50 mm. The nominal cover to the main
reinforcement should be 40 mm.
Method B: A type of concrete for which it has been demonstrated (by local experience or by
testing) that no spalling of concrete occurs under fire exposure.
Method C: Protective layers for which it is demonstrated that no spalling of concrete occurs
under fire exposure.
Method D: Include in the concrete mix more than 2 kg/m3 of monofilament propylene fibres.

Kandy, Sri Lanka
32
1.4 HSC in Other Standards

1.4.1 HSC in Bridge Code (AS 5100, 2004)

Traditionally the AS5100 and the AS3600 codes have contained many equivalent provisions
and it is anticipated that AS5100 will be revised in due course to be compatible with AS3600.

In the interim, specifications in many road authorities mention that most up to date information
should be used for bridge design and consequently the requirements in AS3600-2009 and not
the equivalent section in AS5100 are to be utilised.

The applications of HPC in bridges have been discussed in different forums around the world.
For example, as early as in October 1997, the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI)
organized the PCI/FHWA Symposium on HPC in New Orleans, Louisiana.

Mendis et al. (2000) studied the use of high performance concrete in precast, prestressed
concrete Super-T highway bridge beams. Jenkins (2011) has reviewed the international use
of high performance concrete in bridge decks including reported benefits and problems,
restrictions placed on strength grade, and special design provisions required for higher
strength grades. He has also presented some Case studies comparing the design benefits
under Australian conditions, of using the current maximum strength grade permitted under the
Bridge Code AS5100 (2004), and higher strength grades that may be introduced in the future.
Finally he has given some recommendations for situations in which the use of high
performance concrete is likely to be of overall benefit to the quality and economy of the
structure.

A parametric study is given in Chapter 6 to show the advantages of using HSC for super-T
beams in Bridges. It is shown that as concrete strength increases, the prestressing level can
be increased. This can reduce the cost of steel as well as decrease the mass of the section,
because prestressing steel requires less space to provide the same tensile force as passive
reinforcing steel and hence, the bottom flange thickness is reduced
Kandy, Sri Lanka
33
1.4.2 HSC in Piling Code (AS 2159, 2009)

The piling code (AS2159, 2009) requires that where a bending moment exists, the pile be
designed in accordance with the principles of AS3600. However, the pile may be designed as
an unreinforced section below the level where the bending moments become zero.

It also requires that when concrete strength exceeds 65 MPa, the requirements of AS 3600
shall be considered, together with any confining action provided by the soil or rock around the
pile shaft, when calculating the lateral reinforcement.

Precast concrete piles are frequently used in the footings of buildings, bridges and marine
structures and are known for their toughness, durability and economy. Precast prestressed
piles are designed to safely support vertical loads together with bending moment arising from
lateral loads such as wind, waves and earthquake. The level of prestress is chosen to ensure
crack-free performance is achieved for the service load. Piles can be designed for aggressive
soil or marine applications.

Prestressed concrete piles are widely used as deep foundation elements. The perception still
exists that there is little advantage of increasing concrete strength since the existing design
loads are usually much less than code allowable loads in piles. Two examples were given by
Goble and Hussein (2000) to show possible advantages of the use of high-performance
concrete, particularly high-strength concrete in driven piles. It was shown that design loads
are usually limited by driving stresses. Therefore if higher strength concrete is used,
increased driving stresses could produce higher design loads with associated reduced
installed cost.

In substructural applications (e.g., deep foundations), construction materials such as concrete
are subjected to deterioration due to environmental impacts. Using innovative and new
materials for foundation applications makes the AASHTO objective of 75 years service life
achievable (TR 558, 2008). Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) with compressive
strength of 180 MPa and excellent durability has been used in superstructure applications but
not in geotechnical and foundation applications. This study by CTRE (TR 558, 2008) explored
the use of precast, prestressed UHPC piles in future foundations of bridges and other
structures. An H-shaped UHPC section, which is 250 mm deep with weight similar to that of
an HP1057 steel pile, was designed to improve constructability and reduce cost. In this
project, instrumented UHPC piles were cast and laboratory and field tests were conducted.
Kandy, Sri Lanka
34
Laboratory tests were used to verify the predicted analytical response of UHPC pile section.
In the field, two UHPC piles were successfully driven in glacial till clay soil and load tested
under vertical and lateral loads. Test results, durability, drivability, and other material
advantages over normal concrete and steel indicate that UHPC piles are a viable alternative
to achieve the goals of AASHTO strategic plan (TR 588, 2008).

1.4.3 Maritime Structures

Marine structures are those structures built on sea or near it, properly designed to withstand
internal, external loads and aggressive environmental exposures both physical and chemical
in order to prolong service-life.

Reinforced concrete structures as part of marine structures are exposed to severe physical
and chemical exposure such as wave impact, sulphate and chloride exposure. A combination
of above deleterious effects may cause severe defects in a concrete structure only in very few
years.

In order to delay these detrimental effects, high durability, chloride and sulphate resistant
high-performance concrete become a necessity in constructing marine structures. The use of
silica fume with a high water reducing admixture with retarding effect then become
increasingly popular to produce a low permeability concrete and high sulphate resistant
concrete.

Marine structures are subjected to very severe exposure conditions and their durability is
directly related to the quality of concrete used. Concrete must possess low to very low
permeability characteristics for these applications and its durability can be assured with the
use of proper mix compositions. Since high-strength concrete has low permeability such a
concrete grade is needed to achieve high-performance in a marine environment. In order to
withstand the extremely hostile environment, compressive strength of concrete above 60MPa
is required, although this level of strength may not be required to satisfy the design loads.

The cement paste matrix in high-strength concretes is dense owing to the absence of large
capillary voids and a relative strong aggregate-cement paste interfacial zone, which has a
much lower tendency for micro-cracking. As discussed previously HSC has relatively high
binder material content, a superplasticiser, and very low water content to achieve the water to
Kandy, Sri Lanka
35
binder ratio below 0.30, by weight. They are capable of achieving a discontinuous capillary
pore structure and low permeability within a few days of hydration of cement.

Design Considerations in Maritime Structures Code (AS 4997, 2005)

Section 6.1 of in Maritime Structures Code (AS 4997, 2005) describes the requirements for
Durability. Maritime structures are generally sited in very aggressive environments for normal
structural materials, and the design of maritime structures should include consideration of the
requirements to withstand the aggressive environment while the structure remains
serviceable.

The effect of extreme events on the structures durability should also be considered. For
example, the effect on concrete structures, which may be heavily stressed and cracked in an
extreme event early in the life of the structure, should be considered, where such cracking
may then lead to accelerated corrosion of steel reinforcement.

Design life is defined as the period for which a structure or a structural element remains fit for
use for its intended purpose with appropriate maintenance. The design life of maritime
structures will depend on the type of facility and its intended function. This design life will
depend on the owners requirements.

As well as determining loads for a facility, it is necessary to decide on a realistic design life for
the structure. This design life should be based on consideration of capital and maintenance
expenditure. Durability is to be realized either by a maintenance program, or, in those cases
when maintenance cannot (or is not expected to) be carried out, by design such that
deterioration will not lead to failure. In the latter case the initial capital cost is expected to be
high.

The designer should determine an appropriate maintenance regime consistent with the
adopted design and materials that will achieve the design life. Particular care should be taken
when considering design life and maintenance regimes for inaccessible members. Sections or
components of the structure that have limited access or are inaccessible after construction
should have a design life (with no maintenance) equal to the design life of the structure.

Kandy, Sri Lanka
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At the end of the design life, the structure should have adequate strength to resist ultimate
loads and be serviceable, but may have reached a stage where further deterioration will result
in inadequate structural capacity.

Material Considerations in AS 4997

According to AS4997, the following items should be considered when selecting concrete as a
material in the design of a maritime structure:
(a) Concrete deterioration is usually a result of corrosion of reinforcing steel due to chloride
ingress.
(b) Reinforced concrete may not be a lifetime maintenance-free material. Reinforced
concrete structures require regular condition inspection and maintenance of deteriorated
sections. Recent history has shown some maritime concrete structures experiencing
significant premature deterioration as a result of an inappropriate selection of materials for
the required design life.
(c) Improved performance of concrete structures will be achieved by a combination of the
following:
(i) Limiting design stresses in reinforcing steel.
(ii) Appropriate selection of member sizes, shapes and detail.
(iii) Using high performance concrete and reinforcement
(v) Closely controlled construction methods.

Specifications for Concrete Work in Marine Structure Projects

(Note: This is an example only. The specifications vary with individual project requirements)
a) Objective:
- High Performance Concrete including High strength concrete and durable concrete
b) Design Criteria:
- Sulphate and chloride resistance
- Low W/C ratio (splash & atmospheric zone < 0.40, submerged < 0.45) target 0.3
0.38 W/C
- High strength
- Abrasion resistance
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- Low permeability
- Durability
c) Concrete Production:
- Objectives: Produce high strength concrete (HSC) & durable concrete (HPC)
- Targets: Maximization of concrete density
- Actions: Adherence to good construction practices
d) Concrete Mix Design:
- Performance for both fresh & hardened
- Maintenance free during design life
- Proper selection of material
- High binder content
- Use of supplementary cementitious materials
- Use of superplasticiser or other chemical admixtures required for construction
e) Concrete Curing:
- For HSC and other concrete structures, proper curing is essential. In order to
maintain a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in concrete during its early
stages so that desired properties may develop. The strength and durability of
concrete will be fully developed only if it is cured.
- Failure to prevent such excessive evaporation frequently causes plastic shrinkage
and loss of strength in the material near the concrete surface.

As mentioned earlier, marine environment requires the use of a very low permeability
concrete for the construction of durable concrete structures. Mix compositions as well as the
binder material type influence the permeability of concrete. Use of blended cements with
pozzolanic materials is known to reduce the permeability. Ravindrarajah et al. (2000)
presented the results on an investigation into the effects of cement replacement with fly ash or
ground granulated blast furnace slag with and without silica fume on the properties of high-
strength high-performance concrete. Cement replacement reduced the early age strength and
no serious effects were noted beyond 28 days. The use of silica fume to replace part of either
fly ash or slag helped to improve the strength at all ages. The 90-day free drying shrinkage of
high-strength concrete varied between 370 and 460 microstrains. The results showed that
high-performance concrete suitable for marine environment can be economically produced by
replacing 25% of the cement by weight with either fly ash or slag and no significant long-term
advantage is achieved by using more expensive silica fume.

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Technical Note 4 of Ash Development Association of Australia (ADAA) (2009) states that for
marine or high chloride environment (Classification C per AS 3600) HPC should possess:
- The concrete strength grade shall not be less than 50 MPa.
- The binder shall consist of Portland cement, fly ash, and one or a combination of
additional supplementary cementitious materials conforming to AS 3582 to provide
the high concrete resistivity characteristics that will ensure improved resistance to
chloride induced corrosion of steel.
- Cover to reinforcement shall be appropriate for the design life, and as per the
requirements of AS 3600, or other relevant standard or specification.
- The curing treatment shall be equivalent to at least seven days of wet curing at 23
o
C
without loss of moisture from the concrete.

1.4.4 HSC in Other International Standards

Most national and international standards, rules and regulations for concrete structures have
raised the upper limit of the concrete strengths to take into account the higher strength of
modern concrete. A number of different standards and national codes have been examined
and compared with respect to maximum concrete strength and application of high strength
concrete. A summary of major codes of practice, including the allowable concrete strengths
and comments on proposed extensions to cover HSC, is presented in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Summary of Major Codes of Practice
Code Year Country Maximum
Strength (MPa)
Notes
EC2 2004 European
Standard
105 (200 mm cube)
90 (cylinder)
EC2 replaced BS8110 in 2010
ACI 318 2011 USA Not specified
(150/300 mm or
100/200 mm cylinders)
AC I 318-2014 will be reorganized
to move from the behavior based
format to a member based format.
AS3600 2009 Australia 100 (150/300 mm
cylinder)
Limitation for clause on concrete
contribution to shear and on bond
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(65 MPa)
CEB-FIP
MC90
1993 International 80 (150/300 mm
cylinder)
Extensions proposed in new draft
version 2010

1.5 Applications of HSC

A significant cost saving can be achieved by utilizing High-strength Concrete since member
sizes can be reduced. Table 1.5 presents typical applications of HSC in recently constructed
infrastructure.

Table 1.5 Typical Applications of High-strength Concrete
Type of
Structure
Applications Advantages of HSC
High Rise
Buildings
- Columns in parking bays/high rise
buildings
- High rise frames
- Residential buildings
- Deck slabs and beams
- Service cores
- Shear walls and outriggers
- Strength, workability and pumpability
- Reduction of cross-sectional dimensions
- Greater rigidity of the frames
- Overall economy and faster construction,
most cost effective building material in
many cases
- Reduced wall and column thickness
results in a larger rentable area
- Shallower floor system leading to reduced
height of building
- Reduced column size leads to reduced
dead load and reduced total load on the
foundation system
- Increased punching shear resistance in
slabs
- Reduction in the amount of steel
reinforcement
Precast/
Prestressed
industry
- Spun transmission poles
- Prestressed roof elements
- Allows for a higher degree of prestress
- Reduction in weight; improved handling
Kandy, Sri Lanka
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- Precast beam and column elements
- Prestressed piles and sheet piles
- Precast tube elements for sewerage
- Tunnel lining
- Micro-tunneling segments
- Tiltup panels

- Very low permeability of spun concrete
reduce the risk of corrosion of
reinforcement
- Higher cracking loads
- Reduced stripping time for removal of
formwork and reduced time for transfer of
prestress, reduced time for lifting, etc.
- Improved durability in aggressive
environment (sewerage and allied
applications)
- Improved punching shear resistance in
slabs
- Higher radial pressure capacity
- Case studies show that HSC is more cost
effective than cast iron hoops or normal
strength concrete in the case of tunnel
lining
Slabs and
Pavements

- Residential slabs on ground
- Road/ Highway pavement slabs
- Garage floors
- Heavy duty industrial floors
- Foundries
- Warehouses

- Provides a low relative humidity due to
self-desiccation to avoid moisture damage
- Shorter period of drying
- Low maintenance needs; improved
durability
- Better abrasion resistance
- Increased wear resistance to steel studed
tires
- Improved resistance to chemical attack
- Improved freeze-thaw durability
- Overall a more favourable life cycle cost
Bridges

- 17 - 35 m span beam girders and
super-structure of multiple span
bridges, in precast, insitu and
prestressed HSC
- Submerged concrete bridges for
underwater pipelines
- Cable stayed bridges 150 - 465m span
- Case studies show that precast -
pretensioned bridges are more economical
than steel-concrete composite girders
- Low permeability and improved durability
- The use of HSC results in smaller cross-
sections and savings in foundations and
material handling costs
- Ability to increase span and spacing of
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41

- Highway overpasses
- Repairs (strengthening of bridge piers)
girders
- Higher torsional strength and cracked
stiffness
- Low creep and shrinkage
Marine
structures and
other structures
in contact with
water
- Offshore oil production platforms
- Floating bridge (pontoon)
- Sea-wall panels
- Slabs and walls of sludge digesters
- Water tanks
- Tunnels
- Increased strength, durability and
buoyancy (in case of offshore platforms
and pontoons)
- Reduced wave and wind loading by virtue
of reduced dimensions
- Low shrinkage (reduced shrinkage cracks)
Earthquake
resistant design

- Frames
- Walls
- Reduced inertial loads due to reduced
dimensions
- Enhanced ductility under flexure
- Higher stiffness for sway control
Blast and
Impact
resistant design

- Blast wall barriers
- Protective structures subject to
projectile or aircraft impact
- Transportation structures subject to
vehicle crash impact
- Offshore structures exposed to ice
impact
- Enhanced resistance against dynamic
impact loads
- Higher energy absorption capacity
- Ultra HSC panels do not break into
fragments when subject to blast
- Can eliminate the risk of injury or damage
caused by concrete debris

Kandy, Sri Lanka
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Fig. 1.1 The Petronas twin towers at construction stage (up to 80 MPa concrete was used for these
columns)

Fig 1.2 A typical application of High-strength Concrete in early 1990s
(Core structure of Telecom Corporate Building in Melbourne)
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Fig 1.3 A typical application of High-strength Concrete in high-rise structures
(Core shaft of 300 m tall Eureka Tower in Melbourne under construction)

Fig 1.4 Joigny Bridge in France (80 MPa concrete was used to construct the bridge)

Fig 1.5 Annacis Bridge in British Columbia (55 MPa concrete was used in precast concrete deck panels)
Kandy, Sri Lanka
44

Fig 1.6 The precast superstructure and column segments of the Roslyn Viaduct, USA used 70 MPa
concrete

Fig 1.7 The Confederation Bridge in Canada used HSC for both durability and strength

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Fig 1.8 HSC used for durability and strength for the Coal Loader Wharf Kooragang Island, Newcastle

1.5.1 Precast Applications of HSC/HPC

Precast applications are described in various sections of this document. High strength,
factory produced, long life prestressed/precast concrete offers the ultimate outcome with
minimal maintenance. For example, factory-produced precast concrete is better able to satisfy
the very rigid specifications required for the durability of marine structures. Precast concrete
offers a very durable, low-maintenance product, benefiting from fabrication in a controlled
factory environment, use of quality materials and proven manufacturing techniques.
Sophisticated mix designs characterised by low water-cement ratios, good compaction and
adequate curing (all associated with durable concrete) are synonymous with precast products.

HSC is an obvious choice for precast concrete as listed in Table 1.5. Some innovative
additional applications are given below.

Light Weight Concrete (LWC) Panels

The density of concrete can be reduced by using lightweight aggregates, with strengths as
high as 105 MPa (15 ksi). LWC has a lower unit mass, saving costs in handling, transporting,
Kandy, Sri Lanka
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placing and in the foundations. In-situ LWC is used mainly for cantilever, cable-stayed
bridges.

An aerated cellular LWC with a density of 300 1000 kg/m
3
and strength of less than 10 MPa
could not be used in structural applications since they are mainly produced for non-load-
bearing purposes. New technologies that allow the production of high strength lightweight
cellular concretes without the need for autoclaving could provide significant advantages by
increasing the functionality of cellular concrete whilst potentially reducing manufacturing and
construction costs. In particular, the capital cost of establishing autoclaves and the operational
energy requirements can be very significant.

Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology Division of CSIRO has developed an advanced
non-autoclaved cellular concrete product (HySSIL). This Load-Bearing Cellular Concrete
(LBCC) technology is being used to produce pre-cast panel elements. The LBCC technology,
commercially named HySSIL, is a pore-graded cellular material system manufactured using a
patented low energy non-autoclaved process. The unique pore gradation characteristic of this
material means that the product has very dense near surface zones and a relatively porous
core zone, all in one monolithic element, i.e. without the need for layering or laminating
materials of varying densities. The presence of this very dense cover zone provides important
advantages in providing the superior strength and durability. The compressive strength of the
cellular material for load-bearing applications typically ranges between 15 30 MPa over a
dry density range of 1270 1620 kg/m3. A joint PhD project was conducted between CSIRO
and University of Melbourne (with Dr Mak and Prof Mendis as Supervisors) to investigate the
load bearing properties of this innovative product.

In general, the composition of the LBCC includes fine graded sand, type GP (general-
purpose) cement, silica fume, water and chemical admixtures. The main difference between
LBCC and normal density concrete is that there is no coarse aggregate in LBCC. Aluminium
powder is used as the gas-forming agent, generating bubbles from chemical reactions to
create the porous structure of LBCC.

Many studies have been carried out to investigate the relationship between porosity and
strength of cellular concrete (CC), in which CCs strength was expressed as a function of its
bulk porosity and the theoretical strength at zero porosity.

This study showed a new approach in determining strength of CC on the basis of its own
properties; that is, matrix properties and relative porosity. Polystyrene beads were used to
Kandy, Sri Lanka
47
simulate air bubbles inside CC, such that size composition of bubbles was easily monitored.
The results on strength of lightweight concrete, made of 60, 80 and 100 MPa mortars mixed
with polystyrene beads, were reported (Phan et al., 2008). This study showed that the
compressive strength of cellular concrete increases with reduction in moisture content, and
tends to stabilize when moisture content level reaches either upper or lower limits.

Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC)

RPC is an ultra-high-strength concrete (UHSC) patented jointly in 1990. It is usually heavily
dosed with special steel or organic fibres, along with Portland cement, silica fume, quartz
flour, fine silica sand, high-range water reducer, and it contains no coarse aggregate. It
possess a very high compressive strength, ranging from 200-800 MPa; high flexural strength
ranging from 45-140 MPa; high resistance to abrasion and acids and to freezing and/thawing;
very little sensitivity to creep and shrinkage, with enhanced durability, sea-water and low
water permeability, and it facilitates faster construction.

Ultra High-strength Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC) is an ideal material for precast
applications. APTES group at the University of Melbourne worked with VSL Ltd. to explore
and test, precast applications of this material for protective structures starting in 2004 (Ngo et
al., 2007). Other applications in Bridges etc. are described in a paper presented by VSL in
UHPFRC conference (2009).

Compact High-Strength Composite Concrete (CHSC)

CHSC is a derivative of Compact Reinforced Composite (CRC), which is a very dense silica
particle (DSP) cement high performance concrete with fibre reinforcement, developed by
Aalborg Portland in Denmark in 1986. The CRC concrete consists of a large volume of steel
fibres (from 4% to 12%) in a dense silica particle cement matrix. A typical CHSC mix includes
high quantities of superplasticisers, high volumes of microsilica, and water/binder ratios of
typically 0.16 or lower. The resulting composite possesses very high compressive strength
ranging from 140-400 MPa, high flexural strengths ranging from 50-100 MPa, as well as
toughness and ductility.

The addition of steel fibres and a large content of microsilica makes the material more
homogeneous with a very high bond strength, and transforms it from a brittle to a more ductile
material. The CRC panels can be used as protective layers in protecting buildings and critical
Kandy, Sri Lanka
48
structures in confined city centres, where it is not feasible to increase the stand-off distance.
CRC concrete is only half of the weight of steel, so it can also be used effectively to protect
the underside of military and civilian vehicles (such as those used in peace-keeping
operations) against mine blasts. The high-strength of CRC, with its mortar-like consistency,
and the fact that it does not contain coarse aggregates, allows for very close rebar spacing,
making it possible to precast thin, lightweight structural elements for structures such as
balcony slabs and slender staircases. A collaborative project between University of Melbourne
and Denmark Technical University explored the application of CRC in Australia.

1.5.2 High Performance Concrete Pavements

The Test and Evaluation Project 30 (TE-30) on High Performance Concrete Pavement
(HPCP), conducted by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is exploring the
applicability of innovative Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement design and construction
concepts in USA. These innovative concepts, ranging from the use of trapezoidal cross
sections to alternative dowel bar materials to fiber-reinforced concrete, all share the same TE-
30 goal of providing long lasting, economical, PCC pavements that meet the specific
performance requirements of their particular application.

Several innovation areas for the program have been suggested:
- Increasing pavement service life.
- Decreasing construction time.
- Lowering life-cycle costs.
- Lowering maintenance costs.
- Constructing ultra-smooth riding concrete pavements.
- Incorporating recycled or waste products while maintaining quality.
- Utilizing innovative construction equipment or procedures.
- Utilizing innovative quality initiatives.

In each of these applications, emphasis is given to an integrated design approach in which
site influences (traffic loading, climate, and subgrade), concrete mix design, structural design,
joint details, and construction are considered together to develop the appropriate pavement
design. Consequently, the term high performance does not necessarily refer to high strength
concrete, but rather to any of the materials and mix design, structural design, or construction
components of the pavement that are expected to contribute to long-term performance.

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49
High-performance concrete with high durability featuring low permeability, improved curing,
high air content, well-graded aggregate, high-quality aggregate, low w/c ratio (less than 0.40),
and ground granulated blast furnace slag cement have been used for pavements. A
significant amount of additional research is currently underway to optimize concrete mix
designs for the wide variety of individual site conditions. A number of projects looked at the
effect of adding fibers to improve PCC (Portland Cement Concrete) pavement performance. A
complete list of projects is given in the report (FHWA 32, 2006).

Another application in HPC is, the Next Generation Concrete Surface (NGCS) low noise
diamond ground surface. The NGCS, resembling a manufactured surface, provides its low
noise benefits when initially constructed and does not require a wear in period to break the
fins down.

1.5.3 Other Types of HPC

Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC)

This type of concrete, originally invented in Japan, has been used in a number of projects in
Australia. SCC is based primarily on the properties of the concrete during placement. They
can be compacted into the formwork by means of its own weight and without vibration.
Despite high flowability there is no segregation. The mix may incorporate steel, polycarboxilic-
based superplasticisers with mineral/chemical admixtures and microsilica. With proper quality
control, 30-40 MPa (4.35-5.8 ksi) overnight strengths can be achieved for SCC, whereas the
2-day strengths can break the 100 MPa (14.5 ksi) barrier. Experience has shown that a high
degree of quality control is required, but there are benefits, especially where access is
difficult; where noise of vibration is undesirable; and where labour savings for placing,
compacting and finishing can be achieved. The high quality finish is possible with virtually no
bug holes, making it particularly suitable for quality architectural exposed finishes.

Geopolymer Concrete (Inorganic Polymer Concretes-IPC)

Inorganic polymer concretes (IPCs) can be made predominantly from industrial waste
materials such as fly ash (a coal combustion by-product), granulated blast furnace slag
(GBFS), mine tailings and contaminated soil. These materials are also commonly referred to
as geopolymer concretes or alkaline cements. While pozzolanic cements generally depend on
the presence of calcium, inorganic polymers do not utilise the formation of calcium-silica-
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hydrates (CSH) for matrix formation and strength. Instead, IPCs utilise the polycondensation
of silica and alumina precursors and a high alkali content to attain structural strength. Details
are given elsewhere (Lukey et al., 2006).

As in the case of OPC concrete, the aggregates occupy about 75-80 % by mass, in
geopolymer concrete. The silicon and the aluminium in the low-calcium (ASTM Class F) fly
ash react with an alkaline liquid that is a combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide
solutions to form the geopolymer paste that binds the aggregates and other unreacted
materials. An example of a Geopolymer concrete mix (Lloyd and Rangan, 2010) is given
below. Hardjito and Rangan (2005) have shown the following:
- Higher concentration (in terms of molar) of sodium hydroxide solution results in higher
compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.
- Higher ratio of sodium silicate solution-to-sodium hydroxide solution ratio by mass,
results in higher compressive strength of geopolymer concrete.
- The slump value of the fresh geopolymer concrete increases when the water content
of the mixture increases. Superplasticisers may assist in improving workability.
- As the H
2
O-to-Na
2
O molar ratio increases, the compressive strength of geopolymer
concrete decreases. Figure below shows the compressive strength vs.
water/Geopolymer solids ratio. The test specimens were 100x200 mm cylinders, heat-
cured in an oven at various temperatures for 24 hours. The mass of geopolymer
solids is the sum of the mass of fly ash, the mass of sodium hydroxide solids used to
make the sodium hydroxide solution, and the mass of solids in the sodium silicate
solution (i.e. the mass of Na
2
O and SiO
2
).

Fig 1.9 Effect of Water-to-Geopolymer Solids on Compressive Strength

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Table 1.6 Geopolymer Mix proportions

The main environmental benefits of geopolymer concrete lie in its novel manufacturing
process, which reduces the CO
2
emissions into the atmosphere caused by the cement
industries by about 80%. It can achieve a high early strength of around 80 MPa during the first
2 days of curing with several benefits, such as low thermal conductivity and water
permeability, high durability and fire resistance, acid and chemical resistance and a high
capacity for toxic metal immobilization. One of the main drawbacks of Geopolymer Concrete
is the low early-age strength and the need for heat curing (Vijai et al., 2010). Low flexural
tensile strength is another problem.

The engineering properties of inorganic polymer (geopolymer) concretes (IPCs) having a
design compressive strength of 50 MPa have been studied by Sofi et al. (2007). The study
includes the determination of static chord modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio, compressive
strength, splitting tensile strength and flexural strength of IPCs formulated using three
different sources of Class-F fly ash. The results showed that these engineering properties of
the IPC mixes compare favourably with the models presented by the standards for OPC
based concretes. Elastic Modulus was closer to the lower limit provided by AS3600.
Kandy, Sri Lanka
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Fig 1.10 Elastic Modulus for Geopolymer Concrete Mixes

Structural applications of reinforced IPC depend on the bond performance of the material to
the reinforcement. Due to their difference with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) based
concrete in terms of chemical reaction and matrix formation it is not known whether IPC
exhibit different bonding performance with the reinforcement. Simply relying on compressive
strength of the material and extrapolating models and equations meant for OPC based
concrete may lead to unsafe design of structural members. To that end, 27 beam-end
specimens, 58 cubic direct pullout type specimens and number of laboratory test specimens
were tested at the University of Melbourne by Sofi et al. (2007) to evaluate bonding
performance of IPC with reinforcement. The results of beam-end specimens and direct pullout
type specimens correlated favourably, although the results of direct pullout tests are in
general more conservative than those of beam-end specimens. Overall, it was concluded that
bond performance of IPC mixes are comparable to OPC based concrete and therefore IPC
and steel can be used as a composite material to resist tension in addition to compression.
Performance of geopolymer concrete under elevated temperatures has been studied by Kong
et al. (2008). The work conducted on Geopolymer Concrete at CSIRO is described by
Steveson and Sagoe-Crentsil (2005).

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REFERENCES
.
1. ACI 318. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary, Americal
Concrete Institute, Michigan, 2011.
2. ACI Committee 209, "Predictions of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete
Structures (ACI 209R-92)", American Concrete Institute, Framington Hills, Mich., 1992, 47 pp.
3. ACI Committee 363, "State-of-the Art Report on High Strength Concrete", Farmington Hills
(MI), ACI, 2010.
4. Aitcin, P.C., High-performance Concrete, E & FN Spon, UK, 1998.
5. Aitcin, P.C., How to Make High-Performance Concrete, Presented at the High-Performance
Concrete Seminar, National University of Taiwan, Taipei, 1992.
6. Aitcin, P.C., Improving the sustainability of high performance concrete, 9th International
Symposium on High Performance Concrete: Design, Verification and Utilisation, 9-11 August
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Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................1
1.1 High-strength Concrete (HSC) and High-Performance Concrete (HPC) -
Background.......................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Advances in Concrete Technology....................................................................................4
1.2.1 Concrete materials.......................................................................................................4
1.2.2 Use of recycled materials in concrete.......................................................................4
1.2.3 Concrete mixture proportioning..................................................................................5
1.2.4 Concrete durability properties....................................................................................5
1.2.5 Concrete tests...............................................................................................................5
1.2.6 Concrete construction control.....................................................................................6
1.2.7 Specifications................................................................................................................6
1.3 Engineering Properties........................................................................................................6
1.3.1 Compressive Strength.................................................................................................6
1.3.2 Curing.............................................................................................................................7
1.3.3 Water/binder (w/b) ratio and cement content...........................................................8
1.3.4 Influence of Mineral Admixtures on Compressive Strength...................................8
1.3.5 Superplaticizers............................................................................................................9
1.3.6 Coarse Aggregates....................................................................................................11
1.3.7 Tensile strength..........................................................................................................15
1.3.8 Modulus of Elasticity..................................................................................................15
1.3.9 Shrinkage and Creep in HSC...................................................................................17
1.3.10 Stress Strain Models..................................................................................................23
1.3.11 Fire Resistance of High-Strength Concrete...........................................................27
1.4 HSC in Other Standards....................................................................................................32
1.4.1 HSC in Bridge Code (AS 5100, 2004)....................................................................32
1.4.2 HSC in Piling Code (AS 2159, 2009)......................................................................33
1.4.3 Maritime Structures....................................................................................................34
Design Considerations in Maritime Structures Code (AS 4997, 2005)..............................35
Material Considerations in AS 4997........................................................................................36
1.4.4 HSC in Other International Standards....................................................................38
1.5 Applications of HSC...........................................................................................................39
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1.5.1 Precast Applications of HSC/HPC...........................................................................45
1.5.2 High Performance Concrete Pavements................................................................48
1.5.3 Other Types of HPC...................................................................................................49

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1.1 High-strength Concrete (HSC) and High-Performance Concrete (HPC) -

1.3.1 Compressive Strength

Enhanced compressive strength is the most important of HSCs functional properties.

& fly ash

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