BONE

Bones are rigid organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Bones come in a variety of shapes and have a complex internal and external structure, are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiplefunctions. One of the types of tissue that makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue, also called bone tissue, that gives it rigidity and a honeycomblike three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum and periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage. There are 206 bones in the adult human body and 270 in an infant. The largest bone in the human body is the femur

Functions
Bones have eleven main functions:

Mechanical


Protection Bones can serve to protect internal organs, such as the skull protecting the brain or the ribs protecting the heart and lungs. Shape Bones provide a frame to keep the body supported.

Movement Bones, skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space. The interaction between bone and muscle is studied inbiomechanics. Sound transduction Bones are important in the mechanical aspect of overshadowed hearing.

Synthetic


Blood production The marrow, located within the medullary cavity of long bones and interstices of cancellous bone, produces blood cells in a process called haematopoiesis.

Metabolic


Mineral storage Bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably calcium and phosphorus. Growth factor storage Mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, bone morphogenetic proteins and others. Fat Storage The yellow bone marrow acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids. Acid-base balance Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts. Detoxification Bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released for excretion.[citation needed] Endocrine organ Bone controls phosphate metabolism by releasing fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), which acts on kidneys to reduce phosphate reabsorption. Bone cells also release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar(glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulinproducing cells and reducing stores of fat

 

Types

There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid.


Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much longer than it is wide. They are made up mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of marrow, located within the medullary cavity, and spongy bone. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The exceptions are those of the wrist, ankle andkneecap. Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones, as are the sesamoid bones. Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum. Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. The bones of the spine and hips are irregular bones. Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform.

Formation
The formation of bone during the fetal stage of development occurs by two processes: Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.

Intramembranous ossification
Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull but also the mandible, maxilla, and clavicles; the bone is formed from connective tissue such as mesenchyme tissue rather than from cartilage. The steps in intramembranous ossification are: 1. Development of ossification center 2. Calcification 3. Formation of trabeculae 4. Development of periosteum

Endochondral ossification

Endochondral ossification, on the other hand, occurs in long bones and most of the rest of the bones in the body; it involves an initial hyaline cartilage that continues to grow. The steps in endochondral ossification are: 1. Development of cartilage model 2. Growth of cartilage model 3. Development of the primary ossification center 4. Development of the secondary ossification center

5. Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). When the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure).

[edit]Footnotes

1.

^ Steele, D. Gentry; Claud A. Bramblett (1988). The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press. p. 4.ISBN 0890963002.

2.

^ Schmiedeler, Edgar; Mary Rosa McDonough (1934). Parent and Child: An Introductory Study of Parent Education. D. Appleton-Century. p. 31.

3.

^ Lee, Na Kyung; et al. (10 August 2007). "Endocrine Regulation of Energy Metabolism by the Skeleton". Cell 130 (3): 456469.doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.047. PMC 2013746.PMID 17693256. Retrieved 2008-03-15.

4.

^ Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut (1984). Scaling: Why is animal size so important?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-521-319870-0

5.

^ Turner, C.H.; Wang, T.; Burr, D.B. (2001). "Shear Strength and Fatigue Properties of Human Cortical Bone Determined from Pure Shear Tests". Calcified Tissue International 69 (6): 373 378.doi:10.1007/s00223-001-1006-1. PMID 11800235.

6. 7.

^ ^

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Hall, Susan. (2007) Basic Biomechanics. Fifth Edition. p. 88ISBN 0071260412 Legros, R; Balmain, N; Bonel, G (1987). "Age-related changes in mineral of rat and bovine cortical

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bone". Calcified tissue international 41 (3): 13744. PMID 3117340. 8. ^ Field, RA; Riley, ML; Mello, FC; Corbridge, MH; Kotula, AW (1974). "Bone composition in cattle, pigs, sheep and poultry". Journal of animal science 39 (3): 4939. PMID 4412232. 9. ^
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Bertazzo, S. & Bertran, C. A. (2006). "Morphological and dimensional characteristics of bone mineral

crystals". Bioceramics309311 (Pt. 1, 2): 310.

10. ^ Bertazzo, S.; Bertran, C.A.; Camilli, J.A. (2006). "Morphological Characterization of Femur and Parietal Bone Mineral of Rats at Different Ages". Key Engineering Materials 309-311: 11 14.doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.309-311.11. 11. ^ Salentijn, L. Biology of Mineralized Tissues: Cartilage and Bone,Columbia University College of Dental Medicine post-graduate dental lecture series, 2007 12. ^ Netter, pp. 187189, A scholarly review of the subject. 13. ^
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Boulpaep, Emile L.; Boron, Walter F. (2005). Medical physiology: a cellular and molecular approach.

Philadelphia: Saunders. pp. 10891091. ISBN 1416023283. 14. ^ WHO (1994). "Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group". World Health Organization technical report series843: 1 129. PMID 7941614. 15. ^ Hans J. Rolf; Alfred Enderle (1999). "Hard fallow deer antler: a living bone till antler casting?". The Anatomical Record 255 (1): 6977. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(19990501)255:1<69::AID-AR8>3.0.CO;2R. PMID 10321994. Retrieved 2008-08-20.

[edit]References

Katja Hoehn; Marieb, Elaine Nicpon (2007). Human Anatomy & Physiology (7th Edition). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.ISBN 0805359095. Netter, Frank H. (1987). Musculoskeletal system: anatomy, physiology, and metabolic disorders. New Jersey, Summit: Ciba-Geigy Corporation. ISBN 0-914168-88-6 Bryan H. Derrickson; Tortora, Gerard J. (2005). Principles of anatomy and physiology. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471689343.

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