Automotive Brakes

by

Dr. Amr Ibrahim

 Friction force is used in most of brakes to slow or stop the vehicle During braking, the kinetic energy is converted into heat

 Automotive brake types:

Service brakes Parking (or emergency) brakes

Most automotive service brakes are hydraulic brakes The service brakes on many trucks and buses are air brakes

Brake fluid
petroleum products such as oils damage rubber seals and hoses in the braking system Petroleum products are rapidly and selectively absorbed by brake system rubber parts, resulting in a high degree of softening and general deterioration of the functional properties of these rubber parts the main types of brake fluids are glycol (whose base is alcohol) and silicone based brake fluid the brake fluid is required to have a high boiling point and to remain viscous to lubricate the pistons in the master cylinder, wheel cylinders, and calipers

 the disadvantage of glycol is that it has the tendency to attract moisture from air through rubber hoses, seals, and the vent in the master cylinder reservoir cap the moisture reduces the brake fluid boiling temperature and causes metal parts to corrode when the brake fluid gets overloaded with moisture, it must be replaced silicon brake fluid has less tendency to absorb moisture and higher boiling temperature compared to glycol brake fluid the main disadvantage of silicone brake fluid is that it aerates easily. The air remains suspended in the fluid creating foams

Principle of hydraulic brakes

PA

F 100 PB A 1

PA

F 100 PC A 1

PA

F 100 PD A 1

FB PB B 100 *1 100

FC PC C 100 * 2 200

FD PD D 100 * 0.5 50

Liquids can transmit both force and motion

 The brake pedal increases the force of the drivers foot through leverage This force can also increase further by using bigger output pistons

Fo
b= distance from Fo to the pivot a=distance from Fi to the pivot

b
FO b Fi a

a Fi

a FO F i b

 Engineers must consider the principles of force, pressure, and motion

when designing a brake system if the master cylinder piston area is too small, the developed hydraulic pressure will be very high but the pedal travel will be extremely long if the master cylinder piston area is too big, it can move a large volume of liquid but it may not develop enough pressure to exert adequate braking force at the wheels Most brake systems with front discs and rear drums have relatively large diameter master cylinder piston and a power booster to increase the input force

Dual braking system

The dual braking system is hydraulically split in two different ways: Front-rear split Diagonal split

Front- rear split

Diagonal split

Service brakes:
Disc brakes

Drum brakes

Disc brakes

Floating-caliper disc brake:

Fixed-caliper disc brake:

Disc brake shoe

Drum brakes

Return spring Brake show

Wheel cylinder

Return spring

Backing plate

Brake show Shoe hold down spring and pin hub

M 0
Fa Nb Na 0 N a 1 F a b

M 0
Fa Nb Na 0 N a 1 F a b

Leading-trailing drum brake

Trailing shoe Leading shoe

Forward direction

Anchor pins

Double-anchor double-cylinder drum brake

Duo-servo drum brake

Floating adjusting screw

Drum brake self adjuster

cable Adjusting lever Adjuster spring Adjusting screw

Parking brake linkage

Integral parking brakes (rear drum brake)

Parking brake lever Brake shoe

pivot Shoe strut or adjuster

A parking brake lever is attached to a brake shoe via a pivot One end of the shoe strut is attached both the brake shoe and parking lever

The other end of the shoe strut is attached the other brake shoe

Parking brake cable

The lower end of the parking brake lever is connected to the hand lever via a parking brake cable

Independent parking brakes

Power brakes
Most vehicles have power-assisted braking This assist is usually provided by a vacuum brake booster (or servo) The booster is located between the brake pedal and the master cylinder

Master cylinder Brake booster

Basic booster operation

Braking dynamics
The location of the car center of gravity depends on the car design The center of gravity is relatively shifted to the front when the engine is located in the front and the car is a front wheel drive

Front engine front drive

Front engine rear drive

Stationary car:
W= car weight=mg b=wheel base Rf= reaction force on the front wheels when the car is stationary= the static weight on the front wheels Rr=reaction force on the rear wheels when the car is stationary= the static weight on the rear wheels

M 0
R f b Wy Wy Rf b Rr b Wx Wx Rr b

Car during deceleration (braking):

ma=inertia force (m=car mass, a=car deceleration) Fbf= braking force on the front wheels Fbr=braking force on the rear wheels Ff=the reaction force on the front wheels during braking=the dynamic weight on the front wheels Fr=the reaction force on the rear wheels during braking=the dynamic weight on the rear wheels h=the height of the car center of gravity

M 0
Fr b mah Wx 0 F f b mah Wy 0 Wx mah mah Fr Rr b b b Wy mah mah Ff Rf b b b

mah the dynamic weight transfer b

During braking: Dynamic weight at the front wheel=static weight at the front wheel + the weight transfer Dynamic weight at the rear wheel=static weight at the rear wheel the weight transfer

Braking capacity:
when a driver applies the brakes, the shoes/pads cause the rotating wheel to slow down relative to the ground this generates slipping between the road and the tire, and this slip generates the braking force on the vehicle as the driver increases the brake force, the slip increases and generates higher braking forces if the brake force is increased above a certain limit (called the braking capacity), the wheel will lock and the tire will completely skid when the wheel locks and the tire skids, the tire-road is operating at its dynamic coefficient of friction which is lower than the static coefficient of friction which exists before the wheel locks up As a result, the car stops in a longer distance if the wheels lock

The maximum braking force that the tire-ground contact can support is determined by the coefficient of friction multiplied by the normal force:

Fbf ,max s F f
Fbr , max s Fr

Any further increase in the braking force would cause the tire to lock up Since Ff>Fr, then the maximum braking force which can be applied on the front wheels is higher than the maximum braking force which can be applied on the rear wheels This means the front wheels will have an increased capacity to provide braking force

Proportioning valve:
as less braking force is needed at the rear wheels, equal brake pressure at the four wheels could cause the rear wheels to lock and the rear tires to skid the proportioning valve has no effect on hydraulic pressure during normal braking however, hard braking causes the fluid pressure to go above a certain value called the split point the proportioning valve then reduces the amount of pressure increase to the rear drum brakes

Metering valve:

Pressure-differential valve:

Combination valve:

Anti-lock Braking System (ABS):

the purpose of the ABS system is to prevent the wheel lockup and skidding the system allows the brakes to apply until the tires are almost starting to skid then, the ABS system vary the hydraulic pressure to the brake at each wheel The ABS consists mainly of: rpm sensor for each wheel ABS control module Hydraulic actuator the ABS control module receives the electrical signals from the rpm sensors and the stop light switch, and sends signals to the hydraulic unit

Automotive Suspension Systems

by

Dr. Amr Ibrahim

The suspension system is located between the wheel axles and the vehicle body or frame

Purpose of the suspension system:

supports the weight of the vehicle maintains traction between the tire and the road (Watch video) provides a cushioning action so road shocks (resulting from road bumps and holes) have a minimal effect on the occupants in the vehicle allows the vehicle to corner with minimum body roll

Main components of suspension system:

Springs
The springs support the weight of the vehicle and its load and absorb road shocks

Dampers (shock absorbers)

spring oscillation occurs after passing bumps or holes dampers dampen the spring oscillations dampers allow the basic spring movement but quickly dampen out the unwanted oscillation that follows

Types of springs used in automotive suspension systems:

coil spring leaf spring torsion bar air spring

Coil spring:
it is made of a length of round spring steel rod wound into a coil coil springs are used widely in automotive applications due to their compact size coil springs are not capable of providing any location for the axle (control arms must be used)

Leaf spring:
Single leaf spring is made of a single plate while multi leaf spring is made of several flexible steel plates of graduated length ( called leaves) fixed rigidly by the center bolt the additional leaves make the spring stiffer allowing it to support greater loads as the spring deflects, friction is generated between the leaves, resulting in some oscillation damping capability leaf spring can provide a mounting location for the axle housing although leaf springs are simple and cheap, they tend to be heavy

The two ends of the leaf spring are attached to vehicle body the middle of the spring is attached to the axle housing by U bolts The leaf spring can be mounted below or above the axle housing

Torsion bar
the torsion bar is a circular rod made of spring steel one end of the bar is rigidly fastened to the vehicle body the other end attaches to an upper or lower control arm as the control arm swings up and down in response to wheel movement, the torsion bar twists to provide spring action Watch video

Torsion bars

A torsion bar with no load applied

A torsion bar with a load applied

 one end of the torsion bar has a hexagonal head which fits into an adjustment key the adjustment key is used to apply the twisting motion needed for vehicle suspension and ride height adjustment the amount of torque (twisting motion) is applied to the torsion bar by turning the adjusting bolt tightening this bolt will turn the key which will twist the torsion bar this extra torque will apply more force to the control arm raising the vehicle to the desired height

Cross member attached to the vehicle body

key

Torsion bar

Adjusting bolt

 torsion bars can be mounted longitudinally or transversely the main advantages of torsion bars compared to coil springs is the ease of adjusting the vehicle height and they do not occupy large volume space

Air spring

Air spring
the air spring is a rubber cylinder or air bag filled with compressed air the air spring is placed between the vehicle body and the axle housing or between the body and the lower control arm

the vehicle height can be adjusted by controlling a solenoid valve at the top of the air bag which opens to add or release air Watch video the compressed air is supplied by an air tank connected to a compressor

 air suspension systems are used to provide an adjustable suspension which allows vehicles to sit extremely low during high speed operation exceeding about 100 km/h for improved aerodynamic performance the vehicle height can be raised to a level high enough to maneuver over obstacles and inconsistencies in the roadways the air suspension system can be used with an electronic control unit to automatically control the vehicle level according to the vehicle weight failure of an air spring may result in complete immobilization of the vehicle the compressor can be damaged due to leaking air springs. The compressor will burn out trying to maintain the correct air pressure in a leaking air system

Damper (shock absorber)

shock absorbers are more accurately called dampers because they do not absorb shocks. The springs absorb shocks when one of cars wheels hits a bump, the wheel is forced up towards the car body as the wheel moves up, it compresses the spring that attaches it to the car body after driving over the bump, the spring extends pushing the wheel back onto the road with no control, the spring would extend beyond its original length and then compress again a little less than it did when the wheel first hit the bump this process of extension and compression would continue until all the energy the spring had received from that bump was dissipated by then the car would be bouncing out of control particularly if the wheels were hitting new bumps

 the shock absorber function is to damp the spring oscillations an oil damper converts the kinetic energy into heat via the friction between the oil and the damper piston holes

A= chamber above the piston, B= chamber below the piston, C=reserve cylinder

Compression

The oil in chamber B transfers to chamber A via holes in piston

The oil in chamber B transfers to chamber C via deflecting discs in the base valve

Extension

The oil transfers from chamber A to chamber B via a valve in the piston

The oil transfers from chamber C to chamber B via the base valve

 when the piston moves, its orifices resist the flow of oil, and hence, friction and heat are created wheels and suspension systems deflects at many different speeds, depending on the type and size of bump and vehicle speed the resistance of the tube (or piston) movement increases with the square of its speed for example, if the wheel deflection speed increases 4 times, the tube resistance is 16 times as great therefore, if a wheel strikes a large bump at a high speed, the wheel deflection and rebound can be effectively locked by the damper

 therefore, the base valve can be made to open in stages according to fluid pressure during fast upward wheel movement during the compression stroke, excessive pressure in the lower oil chamber forces the base valve to widely open allowing more oil to flow to the reservoir

shock absorber fade

heat is generated inside the shock absorber due to the friction between the oil and the orifices the heat is transferred through the outer tube to the outside air (shown in the photo) however, excessive heat can decrease the viscosity of the hydraulic oil the thinner the oil, the lower the resistance to piston movement, and hence, the lower the damping rate

 also, increasing the oil temperature increases the chance of oil cavitation (forming vapor bubbles) and aeration mixing gas or air with the oil creates foams which lowers the damping effect

Gas-filled damper
one method of reducing foaming is to fill the space above the oil in the shock absorber with a pressurized gas such as nitrogen (which can be placed in a bag)

Air damper
air dampers have an air bag surrounding the shock absorber which can be filled with compressed air the compressed air increases the load carrying capacity of the vehicle while maintaining proper rear end height

Suspension types
suspension systems can be classified according to position (front or rear) or type (dependent solid axle versus independent)

Dependent (solid axle) suspension

a solid axle has wheels mounted to each end of a rigid beam this system is very robust and usually used when high load carrying capability is required the main disadvantage is that the rigid connection results in a transmission of motion from one wheel the other when the suspension deflects this system is designed with several arrangements such as: leaf-spring (or Hotchkiss) suspension coil-spring (or four link) suspension Beam axle suspension

Leaf-spring (or Hotchkiss) suspension

Coil-spring suspension
two control arms on each side allow up and down movement of axle housing and prevent forward and backward motion this arrangement does not prevent the sideward movement of the axle housing

Four-link suspension system

Beam axle suspension

this arrangement is used for the rear suspension of a front-wheel drive car the beam is called dead beam or dead axle spring/shock units (struts) are bolted to both ends of the beam and seat up into the car body

 this arrangement is used for the front suspension of a rear-wheel drive car

Independent suspension
in this system, each wheel is independently suspended by one spring. This means the up and down movement of one wheel does not affect the other wheel there are several arrangements which are used with independent suspension systems such as: short-arm/long-arm (SALA) or double wishbone system MacPherson system

SALA (or double-wishbone) system

this system has 2 control arms look like the letter A.

each control arm has two attachment points in the inner end attached to the car body which allow the control arms to move up and down with little resistance each control arm has a single ball joint in the outer end which allows the steering movement for the front wheels Watch Video1 Video 2

Beam type lower control arm

MacPherson struts
a strut is a rod or tube that is acted upon compression forces in automotive suspension, the assembly that combines the shock absorber with a coil spring is often called a MacPherson strut

 the top of the strut mounts to the vehicle body while the bottom attaches to the front-wheel steering knuckle or the rear wheel housing only a lower control arm is needed

Representation of a vehicle as a spring-mass system

the sprung weight is the weight supported by springs the unsprung weight is the part not supported by springs which includes the weight of drive axle, axle shafts, wheels, and tires. the unsprung mass is kept as low as possible the roughness of ride increases as unsprung weight increases

Vehicle behavior during cornering (body roll)

When a vehicle turns a corner, a centrifugal force acts on the body and tries to push it outward

mV centrifugal force F r

 the centrifugal force, which acts at the vehicle center of gravity, tries to rotate the vehicle body (sprung mass) around a line called the roll axis the rotating torque=centrifugal force multiplied by the moment arm

 the position of the roll axis depends on the type of suspensions at the front and rear for a car having a solid axle suspension for the front and rear, the roll axis will be some distance above ground level for a car having independent suspensions at the front and rear, the roll axis will be at or near the ground level for a car having an independent suspension at the front and a solid axle suspension at the rear, the roll axis will be inclined from approximately the ground level at the front rising to about axle level at the rear

 When a centrifugal force, F, acts on the body it sets up forces f1 and f2 at the points of connection of the body and springs. their resultant is a force F1 equal and opposite to F acting at a point called the roll center (point O) located on the roll axis there is a front roll center for the front suspension and a rear roll center and a rear roll center for the rear suspension. The roll axis passes through the front and rear roll centers These two forces F and F1 constitute a couple of magnitude Fh, h being the perpendicular distance between them

For equilibrium, there must be an equal and opposite couple to balance the couple Fh. This balancing couple is supplied by an increase q in the left hand vertical reaction and a decrease of the same magnitude in the right hand one.

Fh qt Fh q t
the body roll can be resisted by either increasing the spring rate (spring stiffness) or the distance between the two springs (spring base, t) ideally, the springs should be soft enough to give a good ride to absorb most of the energy resulting from the road shocks therefore, an anti roll bar (stabilizer or sway bar) is used to increase the roll stiffness

 a stabilizer bar is a horizontal torsion bar which connects some part of the left and right sides of the suspension system on independent suspension system, the stabilizer bar connects the right and left lower control arms most cars have a front anti roll bar

The suspension system geometry of a car is designed to keep the bottom of the tire parallel with the road for maximum contact patch During body roll, the car body is no longer parallel with the road. That reduces the suspension's ability to keep the tire parallel to the road Large amounts of body roll cause the wheels to tilt away from the corner which lifts the edges of the tire and reduces the contact patch size.

 body roll causes one lower control arm to move upward, twisting the stabilizer bar however, the stabilizer bar resists being twisted. This stiffens the suspension during turns so less body roll results and helps to maintain as much of the contact patch as possible

Vehicle rollover

when a centrifugal force (F) acts on the vehicle center of gravity, reaction forces (f1 and f2) appear at the wheels the resultant of these forces (F1) are equal in magnitude and in opposite direction to F these two forces exert a torque on the vehicle (FH, H is the height of force F above the ground) this torque is balanced by an opposite torque created due the dynamic weight transfer caused by vehicle cornering

FH pT FH p T
T= wheel track when the weight transfer, p, is equal to the static weight, W, the normal force on the inner wheel becomes zero and the vehicle is at the point of incipient rollover in order to reduce the chance of rollover, the vehicle center of gravity needs to be close to the ground

Active suspension system

the active suspension system is a computer controlled-suspension system in this system, hydraulic (or penumatic) actuators are used instead of springs and shock absorbers

the oil pressure inside the actuator is regulated by an electronic control unit (ECU) by controlling the oil flow through the actuator via servo valves the ECU receives information regarding the road conditions and vehicle dynamics from sensors

 conventional suspension systems involve trade offs. Less roll in a corner requires stiffer springs, hence, a harsher ride. So, performance and comfort are at odds to each other on the other hand, the active suspension system can produce any desired suspension movement at any wheel at any time the active suspension system uses the hydraulic pressure to keep each tire pushing against the road surface with a constant force this force changes as the tire moves up and down. A load sensor in the actuator signals the ECU when the tire force changes A displacement sensor installed on the actuator to inform the ECU about the actuator relative position this enable the ECU to track the extension and compression of each actuator and to know if the wheel undergoes jounce or rebound other sensors signal changes in steering position, acceleration, deceleration, and body movement

the ECU receives these inputs and then signals the proper servo valve to control the pressure inside the actuator for example, during hard braking, the system increases the pressure in the front actuators and reduces the pressure in the rear actuators in order to minimize dive and keep vehicle height and control after braking, valves operate to equalize pressure at the front and rear actuators the rate at which the oil is bled from (or fed to) the actuator can be varied by the ECU at any point during jounce or rebound to produce a variable spring rate effect. This determines the relative softness or harshness of the ride. disadvantages include the high cost & hydraulic pump noise and power consumption