Jet - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - May 2010 - Za Internet

JOURNAL OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
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VOLUME 3 / Issue 2 RevijaJournalofEnergyTechnology(JET)jeindeksiranavnaslednjihbazah:INSPEC,Cambridge Scientific Abstracts: Abstracts in New Technologies and Engineering (CSA ANTE), ProQuest's TechnologyResearchDatabase. The Journal of Energy Technology (JET) is indexed and abstracted in the following databases: INSPEC, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts: Abstracts in New Technologies and Engineering (CSA ANTE),ProQuest'sTechnologyResearchDatabase.
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JOURNAL OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

Ustanovitelji/FOUNDERS Fakultetazaenergetiko,UNIVERZAVMARIBORU/ FACULTYOFENERGYTECHNOLOGY,UNIVERSITYOFMARIBOR Izdajatelj/PUBLISHER Fakultetazaenergetiko,UNIVERZAVMARIBORU/ FACULTYOFENERGYTECHNOLOGY,UNIVERSITYOFMARIBOR Izdajateljskisvet/PUBLISHINGCOUNCIL Zasl.Prof.dr.DaliONLAGI, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija,predsednik/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia,President Prof.dr.BrunoCVIKL, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.ddr.DenisONLAGI, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.DaniloFERETI, SveuiliteuZagrebu,Hrvaka/UniversityinZagreb,Croatia Prof.dr.RomanKLASINC, TechnischeUniversittGraz,Avstrija/GrazUniversityOfTechnology,Austria Prof.dr.AlfredLEIPERTZ, UniversittErlangen,Nemija/UniversityofErlangen,Germany Prof.dr.MilanMARI, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.BranimirMATIJAEVI, SveuiliteuZagrebu,Hrvaka/UniversityinZagreb,Croatia Prof.dr.BorutMAVKO, IntitutJoefStefan,Slovenija/JozefStefanInstitute,Slovenia Prof.dr.GregNATERER, UniversityofOntario,Kanada/UniversityofOntario,Canada Prof.dr.EnrikoNOBILE, UniversitdegliStudidiTrieste,Italia/UniversityofTrieste,Italy Prof.dr.IztokPOTR, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.AndrejPREDIN, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.JoeVORI, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.KoichiWATANABE, KEIOUniversity,Japonska/KEIOUniversity,Japan Odgovorniurednik/EDITORINCHIEF AndrejPREDIN
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Uredniki/COEDITORS JurijAVSEC GorazdHREN MilanMARI IztokPOTR JanezUSENIK JoeVORI JoePIHLER Urednikiodbor/EDITORIALBOARD Prof.dr.JurijAVSEC, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.ddr.DenisONLAGI, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.RomanKLASINC, TechnischeUniversittGraz,Avstrija/GrazUniversityOfTechnology,Austria Prof.dr.JurijKROPE, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.AlfredLEIPERTZ, UniversittErlangen,Nemija/UniversityofErlangen,Germany Prof.dr.BranimirMATIJAEVI, SveuiliteuZagrebu,Hrvaka/UniversityofZagreb,Croatia Prof.dr.MatejMENCINGER, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.GregNATERER, UniversityofOntario,Kanada/UniversityofOntario,Canada Prof.dr.EnrikoNOBILE, UniversitdegliStudidiTrieste,Italia/UniversityofTrieste,Italy Prof.dr.IztokPOTR, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.AndrejPREDIN, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.AleksandarSALJNIKOV, UniverzaBeograd,Srbija/UniversityofBeograd,Serbia Prof.dr.BraneIROK, UniverzavLjubljani,Slovenija/UniversityofLjubljana,Slovenia Prof.ddr.JanezUSENIK, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.JoeVORI, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Doc.Dr.PeterVIRTI, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Doc.dr.TomaAGAR, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Doc.dr.FrancERDIN, UniverzavMariboru,Slovenija/UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia Prof.dr.KoichiWATANABE, KEIOUniversity,Japonska/KEIOUniversity,Japan
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Doc.dr.AndrejTRKOV, InstitutJoefStefan,Slovenija/JoefStefanInstitute,Slovenia Dr.IvanAleksanderKODELI InstitutJoefStefan,Slovenija/JoefStefanInstitute,Slovenia Tehnikapodpora/TECHNICALSUPPORT JankoOMERZU, TamaraBREKO, SonjaNOVAK; Izhajanjerevije/PUBLISHING Revijaizhajatirikratletnovnakladi300izvodov.lankisodostopninaspletnistranirevije www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html. Thejournalispublishedfourtimesayear.Articlesareavailableatthejournalshomepage www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html. Lektoriranje/LANGUAGEEDITING TerryT.JACKSON Produkcija/PRODUCTION VizualnekomunikacijecomTECd.o.o. Oblikovanjerevijeinznakarevije/JOURNALANDLOGODESIGN AndrejPREDIN
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Zelenaenergetika?
V kolikor elimo na planet ohraniti naslednjim generacijam taken, da jim bo omogoal izkusitiivljenjevnaravnemokoljunapodobennain,kotsmogadoivljalimi,jeodgovorna naslovnovpraanjezagotovopritrdilen.aljepodrojeenergetike,kotgospodarskapanoga, ena najbolj okoljsko obremenjujoih panog, ki neposredno in posredno izredno vpliva na okolje. Neposredno pri sami proizvodnji elektrine energije, posredno pa pri potratnem izkorianjupraktinovsehenergetskihinsurovinskihvirovinneuinkovitiuporabienergije. Uinkovitarabaenergetskihvirovelevzadnjemasuzarespridobivanapomenu,koteden od neposrednih ukrepov zmanjanja onesnaevanja okolja, predvsem pri nianju izpustov toplogrednih in drugih plinov ter pranih delcev v okolje. Izpusti ogljikovega dioksida in drugeemisijeizjemnovplivajonapodnebnespremembetakoglobalnokotlokalno. VtejtevilkiJETasozbranistrokovniprispevkispodrojaekologije,fotovoltaikeinmonosti korienja obnovljivih energetskih virov ter znanstveni prispevek s podroja analize trdnih delcevvvodiinnjihovvplivnavzgonskosiloprofiliranelopaticevkavitacijskemtunelu. Obnovljivi energetski viri so kljunega pomena pri zagotavljanju nijih izpustov. Za trajno stabilnost oskrbe Republike Slovenije z elektrino energijo je nujno potreben trajen in stabilen energetski vir, kot je na primer jedrska elektrarna, ki ob normalnem obratovanju nimanobenihtoplogrednihplinskihizpustovinpraktinonobenegavplivanaokolje.
Greenenergytechnology?
Ifwewanttopreserveourplanetforfuturegenerations,allowingthemtoexperiencelifein thenaturalenvironmentaswedid,theresponsetothetitlequestioniscertainlypositive. Unfortunately, the energy production is one of the most environmentally burdensome industries,withextraordinaryimpactontheenvironment,directlyandindirectlydirectly with the electricity production and indirectly with wasteful exploitation of resources, accompaniedbytheinefficientuseoftheenergy.Theefficientuseofenergyresourceshas just recently become an issue and is gaining importance as a means of directly reducing environmental pollution, particularly in reducing greenhouse emissions, other gases and dust particles in the environment. Emissions of carbon dioxide and other emissions are recognisedashavinganexceptionalimpactonclimatechange,bothgloballyandlocally. InthisissueofJET,thepublishedprofessionalcontributionscomefromthefieldsofecology, solar and renewable energy sources and the scientific contribution from the field of the analysis of solid particles in water and their impact on the profiled blade lift force in a cavitationtunnel.
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Renewable energy sources are crucial in our efforts to enable lower emissions. For a permanent and stabile energy supply in the Republic of Slovenia, the electricity source neededissustainedandstable,suchasanuclearpowerplant,i.e.onewithnogreenhouse gasemissionsandnoimpactontheenvironmentduringitsnormaloperationregime. Krko,May2010 AndrejPREDIN
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Table of Contents / Kazalo

Projections and development projection of photovoltaics in solarpowered electricity generation/ Projekcijeinrazvojnipotencialfotovoltaikepripridobivanjuelektrineenergijeizsonca VladimirMalenkovi,UroMerc,EvgenDervari.....................................................................11 alekvalleyandreducingtheGHGfootprint/ alekadolinainzmanjevanjeokoljskegaodtisa Natalijapeh,VilmaFece........................................................................................................... 5 2 Theimpactofinvestmentinrenewableenergysourcesonthenationaleconomy/ Narodnogospodarskiuinkiinvesticijvobnovljivevireenergije SebastijanRepina,MejraFesti.................................................................................................37 Possibleusesofrenewableenergysourcesinthealekvalley/ Monostirabeobnovljivihenergetskihvirovvalekidolini LukaZajec,Natalijapeh............................................................................................................ 3 5 Particleinfluenceoncavititationdevelopmentatbladeprofile(NACA4418)/ Vplivdelcevnarazvojkavitacijenalopatinemprofilu(NACA4418) BotjanGregorc,AndrejPredin.................................................................................................67 Instructionsforauthors..............................................................................................................83
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JETVolume3 (2010),p.p.1124 Issue2,May2010 http://www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html
PROJECTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTION OF PHOTOVOLTAICS IN SOLAR-POWERED ELECTRICITY GENERATION PROJEKCIJE IN RAZVOJNI POTENCIAL FOTOVOLTAIKE PRI PRIDOBIVANJU ELEKTRINE ENERGIJE IZ SONCA
VladimirMalenkovi,UroMerc,EvgenDervari Keywords: photovoltaics, photovoltaic module, solar photovoltaic power plants, environmentalcare,energysource.
Abstract
One of the most serious issues of modern society is the question of the strategic energy potential of individual electricity sources, which should combine accessibility, reliability, technologicalacceptabilityand,aboveall,acceptabilitywithregardstosustainableenvironment development.Inthelightofincreasinglypressingclimatechanges,amodernelectricitysource should comply with the most current economic, social and natural norms. Photovoltaics are consideredtobeoneofthefastestdevelopingglobaleconomicindustries.Thesun,beingbyfar the largest renewable (inexhaustible, actually) energy source, has potential unlike any other energysource.Fromthehistoricalpointofview,weareapproachingtheendofanerathathas beenmarkedwithanexceptionallyshortbutextremelyintenseuseoffossilfuels.Theperiod ahead of us is bringing us back to nature, with technological development facilitating that return. Photovoltaics are considered to be the most acceptable renewable energy sources, distinct in their modularity, dispersion, robust design, silent operation, environmental dr. Vladimir Malenkovi, HSEHolding Slovenske elektrarne, d.o.o., Koprska ulica 92, 1000 Ljubljana,tel:+38614704110,vladimir.malenkovic@hse.si dr. Uro Merc, Bisol, d.o.o., Latkova vas 59a, 3312 Prebold; tel. +38641918806, uros.merc@bisol.si doc.dr.EvgenDervari,UniversityofLjubljanaFacultyofNaturalSciencesandEngineering, Akereva12,1000Ljubljana,tel.+38641650575,evgen.dervaric@ntf.unilj.si
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VladimirMalenkovi,UroMerc,EvgenDervari
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soundnessandpricecompetitiveness.Europe'sobjectiveistoensurea12%shareofelectricity generatedfromsolarenergybytheyear2020.
Povzetek
Enoizmednajpogostejezastavljenihvpraanjsodobnedrubesenanaanastratekienergetski potencial posameznih elektroenergetskih virov, ki morajo zdruevati tako njihovo dostopnost, zanesljivost,tehnolokosprejemljivostinpredvsemsprejemljivostzvidikatrajnostnegarazvoja okolja. V lui vse bolj pereih podnebnih sprememb mora sodoben elektroenergetski vir zadostovatinajsodobnejimnormamekonomskega,drubenegatersocialnegaokoljalovekain narave.Fotovoltaikaveljazaenoizmednajhitrejerazvijajoihsesvetovnogospodarskihpanog. Sonce, kot dale najveji, obnovljiv ter za loveka neomejen energetski vir, predstavlja potencial, kakrnega nima noben drug energetski vir. Obdobje, katerega koncu se nezadrno pribliujemo, je zgodovinsko gledano zaznamovano z izjemno kratko, a hkrati izjemno intenzivno rabo fosilnih goriv. Obdobje, ki je pred nami, nas vraa nazaj k naravi, vrnitev pa omogoatehnolokirazvoj.Fotovoltaikaveljazanajboljsprejemljivobnovljivivir,kigaodlikuje njegova modularnost, razprenost, robustnost, neslinost delovanja, ekolokost ter cenovna konkurennost. Kot visokotehnoloki vir je sonce znatno po svojem deleu in potencialu. Cilj Evropejedoleta2020zagotoviti12%elektrineenergijeizsoncavcelotnemnaboruelektrine energije.
INTRODUCTION
Inthefirsthalfofthe21stcentury,civilizationisrapidlyapproachingadeclineoftheperiodof fossilfuelsandoildomination.Theoilpriceintheglobalmarketisincreasingrapidly(withthe exception of the recessionary period) and a decrease of its quantities can be expected in the nextfewyears.Atthesametime,theburningoffossilfuelsdrasticallyincreasescarbondioxide emissionsandtheatmospherictemperatures,severelyendangeringthechangeoftheplanet's chemical composition and global climate, and bringing fatal consequences to the future of human civilisation and the planet's ecosystem. The world needs a new, strong economic stimulation that will give a fresh impetus to discussions on climate change and oil reserve shortages,andturneconomiclimitationsintoneweconomicopportunities.Thesegoalsarenow being realised as various industries around the world are laying the groundwork for a post carbonthirdindustrialrevolution. InthelightofthereportbytheleadingAmericanclimatologistJamesHansen,thedirectorof NASAs Goddard Institute for Space Studies, a large demand for new and modified economic visions is very much present. Hansen and his colleagues claim that the goal of EU (which is consideredtobethemostenvironmentallyconsciousandambitiousgoverningbody)shouldbe toreduceCO2emissionsto350ppm,ifhumanitywishestopreservetheplanetinacondition similartotheonethatenabledthedevelopmentofcivilisationandtowhichthelifeonEarth hasadapted.Newdiscoveriesbasedonsamplescollectedfromtheoceanfloorshowthatifthe CO2levelrisesto550ppm,theplanet'stemperaturewillriseby6C,whichisdifferentfromthe estimatedtemperaturegrowthratefortheendofthecenturyamountingto3C,representing catastrophicconsequencesforlifeonEarth.
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ProjectionsandDevelopmentProjectionofPhotovoltaicsinSolarPowered ElectricityGeneration
AsolutionforEuropeandtherestoftheworldliesinanunbeatablenewcombinationofsocial andeconomicvision.Thethirdindustrialrevolutionprovidesaframeworkforthebirthofanew socialworldinthefirsthalfofthe21stcentury.Justasthewidespreadinformationtechnologies andinternetcommunicationhavehadarevolutionaryimpactonchangesinsocialcontextand economic parameters of business operations in modern society, a revolution of widespread production of energy from renewable sources will have a major impact on Europe and the world. Thesameplanningmethodsandsmarttechnologiesthatenabledthedevelopmentofinternet and widespread global communication connections are currently being used in the transformation of global energy grids. Individual grid users can produce electricity from renewable sources and share it (in the same way as information) with other grid users, thus commonly creating a new method of decentralised, widespread electricity generation and consumption. We need to realise the vision of connecting millions of individuals producing energylocally,intheirhomes,offices,factoriesandvehicles,storingitinformofhydrogenand sharingitwithotherusersthroughasmartelectricitygridthroughoutEuropeandtheentire world.Thereisafrequentlyaskedquestionastowhethertherenewableenergysourcescan,in thelongrun,providesufficientenergyfortheoperationofanationalorglobaleconomy.Justas the new generation of system technologies of information grids enables the operation of several thousands of interconnected desktop computers, which generate much greater widespread computing power compared to the largest central computer, millions of local producers of energy from renewable sources with access to smart grids can potentially produceandsharemuchmoreelectricitycomparedtoobsoletecentralisedformsofelectricity generation from oil, coal, natural gas or nuclear technology, upon which we are currently all dependent.
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2.1
SOLAR POWER PLANTS

Construction of solar power plants
The basic elements of solar photovoltaic power plants consist of two segments. The first segment,comprisingsolarphotovoltaicmodules,representsthecentralelementofeverysolar power plant, and whose role is to convert solar electromagnetic radiation into direct current and voltage. The second segment consists of electrical elements used in the utilisation of the generated electricity for several purposes. They include inverters, loadbearing construction, connectioncables,DCandACjunctionpoints,regulators,accumulators,switchandprotection devices and other installation materials. A crosssection of the construction of a solar photovoltaicmodulewithcrystallinesiliconsolarcellsisshowninFigure1. A solar photovoltaic module is built of solar cells enclosed from all sides with special EVA (EthyleneVinylAcetate)foilforimpermeableencapsulationofthecellsbetweenalayerofTPT (TedlarPolyesterTedlar)foilatthebacksideofthemoduleandglassatthefrontsideofthe module. The TPT foil provides electrical and mechanical protection, and highly permeable tempered glass offers high resistance to mechanical shock, including hail, and simultaneously provideshighlightpermeability,thusenhancingtheefficiencyrateofsolarcells. One of the most important properties of photovoltaic modules is their long operating life, ensuringlongtermreturnoninvestmentinasolarpowerplant.Theoperatinglifeguaranteed byhighqualitymanufacturersofphotovoltaicmodulesis25years,andthefirstcommercially
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manufactured modules have been in service for over 40 years. Due to the reliability of operation that has been well tested in practice, and the general cost effectiveness of the crystallinesiliconphotovoltaicmoduletechnology,thetechnologywillcontinuetooccupythe leadingpositionamongphotovoltaictechnologiesforatleast20years. Other technologies, such as thinfilm and other new generation technologies will remain as complementaryproductsandarenotlikelytoreplacethecrystallinesilicontechnologyforthe nextfewdecades.Thereisageneralassumptionthatbytheyear2030,over40%oftheentire technological share of photovoltaics will still be represented by the technology that currently hasa95%share.Despitethefactthatthepriceofthinfilmmodulesisexpectedtobelower thancrystallinesiliconsolarcellmodulesintheyear2030(0,71perWpcomparedto0,95per Wp),theproductionpriceperkWhincaseofcrystallinesiliconwillstillremainbelowtheprice perkWhofelectricitygeneratedbythinfilmtechnologies.Accordingtoforecasts,thepricein caseofcrystallinesilicontechnologywill,bytheyear2030,decreasetovaluesbetween0,10 and 0,16 per kWh, and in case of thinfilm technologies the price will range from 0,11 to 0,16perkWh.
Figure1:Crosssectionoftheconstructionofacrystallinesiliconphotovoltaicmodule Themaincharacteristicsofhighqualitycrystallinesiliconphotovoltaicmoduleinclude:
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outstandinglongtermperformance, highvoltageoperation(1.000VDC), 5yearproductwarranty, 12yearwarrantyon90%poweroutput, 25yearwarrantyon80%poweroutput, CertificateIEC61215:Ed.2, CertificateIEC61730, heavyloadupto5.400Pa, thelowestpossibleNOCT(NominalOperatingCellTemperature)value(merely44C) excellentforsoutherncountriesandtrackingsystems, presortingaccordingtoPMPPandIMPP.
Figures2and3showtwostateoftheartconceptsofconstructingthesolarphotovoltaicpower plants which are considered to be aesthetically acceptable and require practically no maintenancefortheiroperation.
Figure2:ProtocolandcongresscentreinBrdopriKranjuwitha43kWpsolarpowerplant
Figure3:ThefacadeoftheheadquartersofthecompanyBISOL,d.o.o.thefirstfacadein Sloveniawithbuiltinphotovoltaicmodules
2.2
Compliance of solar power stations with the requirements of the state-of-the-art energy sources
In order to comply with the requirements of the most modern energy sources, an individual energysourcemustmeetthestandardsofthesocietywhichhasaresponsibilitytoencourage technologicalprogressandencouragementofitsfurtherdevelopment.Theaspectsaccordingto whichwetrytoevaluatethesuitabilityofanindividualenergysourceincludethefollowing:the reproducibility of the energy source, the potential of its use, ecological acceptability, accessibility, reliability, the type of the technology used, dispersion, aesthetics, modularity, robust design, the complexity of its maintenance, the manner of operation and price
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competitiveness.Regardingtheabovecriteria,letusattempttoevaluatesolarpowerplantsas themostmodernelectricitysources. Solarpowerplantsusetheenergyofthesun,whichisthemainpowerenergysourceonEarth. Due to its consistent presence and inexhaustibility, the sun is the primary renewable energy source. The solar radiation available on the Earth exceeds the total primary energy needs of civilizationby8.000times.Inotherwords,everyhourthesunsendstotheEarththeamountof energyusedbyhumanityinoneyear.Thesun'spotentialsubstantiallyexceedsthetotalenergy needsofhumanity. From the ecological point of view, solar power plants are considered to be clean and environmentallysound,withoutcausinganygreenhouseandothergasemissions.Forexample, an annual production of a 1 MWp solar power plant is 1,1 GWh of electricity, which is an equivalent of consumption in 320 average Slovene households. Compared to electricity production from lignite, a 1 MWp solar power plant in Slovenia would mean saving of 1.100 tonnesofCO2everyyearofitsoperation.Atthesametime,itisanannualsavingof580tonne oflignite,totallingover11.000tonneoflignitein20yearsofoperation.SuchareductioninCO2 dischargeistheequivalentto1.200newlyplantedtrees.Theoperationofsolarpowerplantsis safeandenvironmentallysound. ThesunisanaccessibleenergysourceallacrosstheEarth,whichisofexceptionalimportancein decisive strategic geopolitical issues in which energy industry is considered to be one of the mostimportantstrategiccommonsofthehumanrace. Regardingoperationalreliability,thesunhasadoublerole.Ifadisadvantageliesinthefactthat thesunshinesonlyduringdaytimeandthatsolarpowerplantsproducelesselectricityintimes ofbadweather,itisextremelyimportantthatsoonerorlater,thesunwillshineagain.Byusing modernmethodsofmeteorologicalforecastingandwiththedevelopmentofelectricitystorage systems providing longer periods of autonomous operation for users, solar power plants can, together with other complementary energy sources, be exceptionally successful in providing unhinderedandreliableenergysupply. Solar power plants are a highly technological product with high added value, creating high qualityjobs.Photovoltaicmodulesareaproductofstateoftheartsemiconductortechnologies whichhave,instrivingforreductionsinproductioncosts,beenasubjectofhighlevelresearch anddevelopmentactivities. Being aesthetically acceptable, green and renewable energy sources, solar power plants can, thanks to their modular design, be used for the construction of solar power plants with the productionrangingfromafewmillitoseveralmegawatts.Thisfacilitatestheirspread,which cruciallyinfluencesthereductionoflossesintheelectricalgridandprovidesenergyautonomy andindependenceofsolarpowerplantusers. Inessence,solarpowerplantsareexceptionallyrobustenergysources.Theycanbeusedina widetemperaturespectrum,rangingfrom60Candlowertoover90C.Inthehighestquality products, the tested mechanical load of photovoltaic modules reaches up to 5.400 Pa and facilitates theuse of modules in the regions with large quantities of snow. The modules have also been tested and certified for hail impact resistance. The exceptionally robust design of photovoltaicmodules minimises the need for maintenance, and theoperation of solar power plantsisextremelyreliableandentirelysilent.
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Consequently, it can be established that, (with an exception of price competitiveness mentioned previously) solar power plants are considered to be the most promising modern energy source. Questionsregarding the often alleged high production costs remain, however. As the calculations in this paper will show more accurately, photovoltaics are already at the thresholdofcompetitiveness.
2.3
Photovoltaics at the threshold of price competitiveness
In evaluating the price competitiveness of solar power plants, one should keep in mind that photovoltaicsisasectorthathasonlyrecentlymovedfromthelaboratorytomassindustryand, as it is the case with all other commercially competitive sectors, a certain amount of time is necessary for the technology to improve,develop and reach the necessary economy of scale. However, attention should be brought to the fact that numerous currently commercial technologiesstillreceivenumeroussupports,e.g.nonreimbursablestimulationtodevelopthe activitiesofutilisationofcoalornuclearenergy,rangingfromdirectstateguarantees,softloans toothervariousdirectandindirectnonreimbursablefunds.Itshouldbenotedthatthecostof adverse impact on the environment is not taken into account at all when calculating the production costs for electricity production from conventional, environmentally unfriendly technologies, and its adverse impact on the environment is not settled in any way. Initial stimulations in the development of photovoltaics are important because it is a revolutionary technology with the highest technological and commercial potential and will become competitive to conventional energy sources in a matter of few years. With every doubling of globalproduction,thepriceofphotovoltaicmodulesisreducedby20%.Inthecurrentgrowth of the sector, this means that the production price of electricity production from the sun decreasesby7%to9%everyyear,whichistheveryfactorthatpropelsthecompetitivenessof photovoltaics.
Figure4:Therelationofgridpriceofelectricityandproductioncostsofphotovoltaics Today, photovoltaics are already at the threshold of price competitiveness. The analysis of DeutscheBankrecentlyshowed,inthecaseofGermany(Figure4)thatwithstandarddecreases inthepricesofelectricitygeneratedfromthesunandwithconstantincreasesinthecostsof
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gridelectricitygeneratedfromconventionalenergysources,photovoltaicswillreachthebreak even point and convergence by the year 2014 at the latest. However, based on future expectationsregardingtherelationofsupplyanddemand,numerousindustrialanalystsexpect thebreakevenpointtobereachedevenbeforetheyear2012. Toprovidereliableandrapiddevelopmentofpricecompetitivenessofsuchanelectricitysource andthusanintegratedimplementationofphotovoltaicsintohumandailylife,nonreimbursable stimulationsarestillnecessary,butlimitedtoanextremelyshorttimeperiod.Itwilltakeonlya fewmoreyearstofacilitatethedevelopmentofthemostpotentialelectricitysourceintermsof price,withalongtermpotentialofmerely0,04perkWh.
2.4
Factors of production cost reduction
The photovoltaic industry is in full bloom. By the end of the year 2007, global cumulative installedcapacityofphotovoltaicsystemsamountedtomorethan9.200MW;attheendofthe year2000,only1.200MWhadbeeninstalled.Thegrowthofthesolarelectricityindustryhas beensostrongthatitscurrentvaluealreadyexceeds13billioneveryyear.Clearcommercial and political commitments to support the expansion of photovoltaics indicate that all current activitiesofthephotovoltaicsectorclearlyforecastamasstransformationandexpansionofthe sectorinthefuture.Thegoalthatthephotovoltaicindustrystrivestoachieveistherealisation ofcommoneffortsforasignificantincreaseinshareofsolarelectricityintheglobalelectricity mixandasimultaneousreductionofgreenhousegasemissions.Figure5illustratesthegrowth ofthephotovoltaicssectorbetweentheyears2000and2008,andpredictsanupwardtrendof thesectortotheyear2012.Betweentheyears2000and2008,theaverageannualgrowthrate ofphotovoltaicsamountedto46%,andtheexpectedannualgrowthratefrom2008to2012 amounts to no less than 59 %, meaning that considering the predictions, the average annual growthrateofthesectorbetweentheyears2000and2012wouldamountto50%.
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 6,3 5 0,3 0 ProdajavGWp Letnarast 2000 0,3 0,4 2001 0,4 33% 0,5 2002 0,5 25% 0,6 2003 0,6 20% 1,0 2004 1,0 67% 1,6 2005 1,6 60% 2,5 2006 2,5 56% 4,2 67% 60% 56% 50% 21,6 33% 25% 20% 19% 7,5 11,7 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 68% 84% 85% 39,8 90% 80% 70% 56% 60%
ProdajavGW
2007 4,2 68%
2008 6,3 50%
2009 7,5 19%
2010 11,7 56%
2011 21,6 84%
2012 39,8 85%
Figure5:Growthinglobalsalesofphotovoltaicmodulesbyyear
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Beside the economy of scale as the most important production cost reduction factor, technologicalimprovementsleadphotovoltaicsonthewaytopricecompetitivenessinrelation to conventional energy sources. In the technological point of view, the most essential cost factors are the amount ofmaterial usedfor the production of 1 wattof power (by solar cells becomingthinner,theamountofusedmaterialisbeingreduced)andtheincreasingfactorof solarcellconversionefficiency.Bothparameters,byyearofdevelopment,areshowninFigure 6. With a successful combination of all cost potentials, the possible rate of production cost reductionbytheyear2012amountstoover60%ofcurrentcosts.Inthisamount,25%ofcost reductionistobefacilitatedbycostreductionatthelevelofplanningandconstructionofthe photovoltaicsystem,10%byreducingproductioncostsatthelevelofproductionofsolarcells and photovoltaic modules, 10 % at the level of silicon production, and the remaining 15 % resultingfromanincreasedefficiencyrateofsolarcellsbyafewpercentagepoints.
Figure6:Reductionofmaterialrequiredtoproduceonewattofsolarcellpowerandthefactor ofsolarcellconversionefficiency
2.5
Photovoltaics market potential by the year 2020
When studying the price competitiveness of solar power plants in comparison with conventionalelectricitysources,ananalysisshouldbedoneinthelightofthediagramshownin Figure 4. With the constant growth of prices of conventional electricity resulting from the decline of nonrenewable resource reserves and from the constant growth of electricity consumption,andwiththeconstantdecreaseofproductioncostsofelectricityproductionfrom the sun, it is possible to recognise breaks points of solar power plant competitiveness in individualmarketsandthusdeterminethesizeoftheendmarketforphotovoltaicsregarding commercialsegmentandregion.Knowingthegeneralmarketlimitationsregardingcommercial acceptability, general grid limitations and known demands for substitute capacities of the existingproductioncapacities,onecandefinenewindustrygoalsforphotovoltaics,determining theshareofelectricitygeneratedfromthesunandtheshareofsolarpowerplantsinthetotal amountofnewlyconstructedproductioncapacitiesforelectricityproduction.
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Considering the predicted longterm upward trends of conventional electricity prices and an annual8%decreaseofproductioncostsinsolarpowercells,whichisalsoconsideredbythe German legislation to promote the development of photovoltaics, itpossible that by theyear 2020,photovoltaicswill,intheEuropeanelectricitymarketamountingto3.446TWh,represent adirectcompetitivenessintheamountof3.133TWh,equallingmorethan90%oftheentire Europeanmarket,includingnortherncountriessuchasGreatBritainaswellasScandinavia. Inabsoluteterms,nolessthan66%ofelectricityisusedduringthelightpartoftheday,which determines the upper level of power plants' usefulness in providing electricity supply. Due to increased electricity consumption, 40 % of electricity production capacities will have to be replacedoradditionallyconstructedinEuropebytheyear2020.Thegoalofphotovoltaicsisto cover 12 % of electricity demand in Europe by the year 2020 despite the electrical grid limitations, which is already commercially feasible with currently available technology. With additional implementation of advanced electricity storage systems and the development of advancedsmartenergygrids,thepotentialofphotovoltaicsmaybeevengreater.Nevertheless, a12%shareofphotovoltaicsintheentireelectricityproductionwouldrepresenta25%share of all investments in the production capacities by the year 2020, which would make photovoltaics the main new source of electricity in Europe, annually producing 420 TWh of electricityfromthesun;thetotalcapacityofinstalledpowerplantswouldamountto350GWp. Altogether, it would mean a 40 % average annual growth of the sector by the year 2020, by takingintoaccountthatintheyear2007,atotalamountof4,5GWpofsolarpowerplantswere installedinEuropeandthat1GWpofinstallerpowergenerates1,2TWhofelectricity. Theassumptionsstatedinthesetambitiousgoalsareveryrealisticandarebasedonmeeting certainpreconditions.Byaccomplishingthegoals,photovoltaicsmaybecomethemainsource ofelectricityinEurope;however,itwillrequiresubstantialindustrialsupportandpoliticalwill collaborating closely and striving for the common goal. The explicit task of the industry is to continue its efforts to reduce production costs, to encourage innovation and technological development, to invest in production capacities, research and development, and to educate newhighlyqualifiedhumanresources.Thetasksofpoliticiansaretoprovide,withappropriate legislation,supportfordevelopmentintheperiodpriortocompetitiveness,topromotepublic consciousness,toarrangeregulatoryconditionssuchasgridaccessandpricecompetitiveness, andtocooperatewiththeindustryininvestmentsineducation,researchanddevelopment.The positiveeffectsofclosecooperationprovidethefollowing: aleadingpositionofEuropeanphotovoltaicindustryintheworld, 2millionnewworkplacesinproduction,assemblyandmaintenance greaterenergyindependenceandsecurityofenergysupplyinEurope, environmentallysoundelectricityforoverabillionofpeopleallovertheworld, 900 million tons of saved CO2 emissions all over the world (1,6 million tons of CO2 savingsplannedbytheyear2030,equallingtheCO2emissionsof450coalfiredthermal powerplants, slowdownofenvironmentalchanges, slowerincreaseinpricesofconventionalenergysources.
An investment in a solar photovoltaic power plant from mid2009 in Slovenia, without considering state supports and with the presumed discount rate, will return the net of the currentvalueof6,5%onlyafter39years.Thecalculationalsotakesintoaccountthatinsuch period,spentinvertersmustbereplacedwithnewonestwice,a0,5%annualdegradationofa
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solarpowerplantand,duetosecurityfactors,areplacementof50%oftheentiresolarpower plantafter25yearsofitsoperation,althoughcurrentsolarpowerplantshavebeenoperating for 40 and more years. In the calculation,the relation of foreign sources and owncapital has been taken into account, in a 70:30 ratio at a 6 % interest rate for a 15year period. The maintenance and insurance costs have been estimated at an annual amount of 0,7 % of the investment's initial value with a 2 % annual cost growth rate. The market price of green electricityonthefreemarkethasbeenpresumedat0,110perkWhandisincreasingata7% annual growth rate. The main disadvantage of such investments is that the investment is not liquid for the first 14 years, so the payment of obligations required borrowing. Therefore, an investmentwithoutstatesupportiscurrentlynotyetrationalandefficient. Figure7showsanexamplecalculationoftheprofitabilityofinvestmentinsolarpowerplantsin Sloveniaintheyear2012,consideringthepresumeddecreaseincostsandpricesofsolarpower plants.Thecalculation(excludingstatesupports)showsthatthenetpresentvalue(NPV)ofthe investmentwitha6,5%discountratewillbepositiveafter15yearsofoperation.Theinternal rate of return (IRR) per period exceeding 30 years amounts to more than 15 %. All other calculationparametersusedareequaltothosepresumedinthepreviousparagraph,onlythe original market price of electricity amounts to 0,135 per kWh, which is equivalent to 7 % annual price growth rate from the year 2009. The investment is liquid and provides covering financing obligations and other costs directly from the profit of the solar power plant's operation.TheprofitabilitycalculationshowsveryclearlythatinSloveniathepriceofelectricity generated from the sun might become competitive to market prices of conventional energy sourcesbytheyear2012,withoutensuredredemptionpricesorotherstatesupports.Thelatter actuallyreflectsthetruepricecompetitivenesstoconventionalelectricitysources.
Figure7:Anexamplecalculationof20yearprofitabilityofaninvestmentintoa100kWpsolar powerenergyinSloveniain2012,tosetanexamplewithoutstatesupports
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CONCLUSION
Climate change and declining reserves of fossil fuels enhance the concern for global warming andstrengthentheeffortstoachieveenergyindependence.Togetherwithincreasingpricesof fossil fuels, they are a strong motivation for the efficient and immediate use of renewable energy sources. The sun represents the most promising and an unlimited means of using renewable sources. For their numerous features, such as the reproducibility of the energy source, the potential of use, ecological acceptability, accessibility, reliability, the type of the technology used, distribution, aesthetics, modularity, robust design, the complexity of its maintenance and the manner of operation, solar photovoltaic power plants prove to be the most modern electricity source. However, they should fulfil the conditions of price competitiveness, which can be achieved by further enhancing the economy of scale and reducingtheproductioncosts.Aninvestmentinasolarphotovoltaicpowerplantisalowrisk factor investment and is considered to be a very predictable and acceptable highly profitable investment.Theprimarygoalofphotovoltaicsistoprovidehumanitywithoneofthemostbasic primarygoods:greenelectricity.Theunderlyingadvantages ofinvestinginsolarpowerplants arethefollowing: knownelectricitypriceinthelongterm,fortheperiodof20yearsandlonger, environmentallysoundinvestment, positiveliquidityoftheinvestment, acquisitionofnewtechnologicalandbusinessknowledge, newhighqualityandhightechnologicalworkplaces, investments can be intended for longterm annuity savings scheme providing more secureandfinanciallylessdependentfuture, due to reliable longterm profitability of solar power plants guaranteed by state contracts,itisthepensionfundsthatoftendecidetoinvestinsolarpowerplants, an interesting modern architectural solution from both aesthetic and technological pointofview. possibilityofdirectsalesofelectricityinthemarket, useofasolarpowerplantlongaftertheexpiryoftheperiodofexpectedprofitability.
References
[1] BISOLwebsite:www.bisol.si [2] ernivec, G., Jagomagi, A., Decock, K., Kauk ,M., Altosaar, M., Varema, T., Raudoja, J., and Merc, U.: Numerical modelling of Cu2SnZn(Se,S)4 monograin layer solar cells, Proc. 24thEUPVSEC,Hamburg,p.p.30243030,2009 [3] Dervari, E., Fotovoltaika vir prihodnosti, Delo MAG(Ljubljana), t. 36, p.p. 38 41, 2009 [4] Deutsche Bank: Analysis of PV Market Development, Photon Investment Conference, March2007 [5] EPIAwebsite:www.epia.org
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[6] Eurostat:ElectricityConsumption2007 [7] ISET:KasselforGermanMarket [8] Merc, Uro,Annual business report of thecompany BISOL, d.o.o., BISOL, d.o.o., Prebold, 2008 [9] PhotonConsultingwebsite:www.photonconsulting.com [10] RWE:Facts&figures,May2008 [11] Terna:ItalianElectricityDemandForecast1stSeptember2008,07:0021:00vs.fullday [12] VBGPowertech:Needfor300GWconventionalcapacityreplacement [13] ZSFIwebsite:www.zsfi.si
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JETVolume3(2010),p.p.2536 Issue2,May2010 http://www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html
ALEK VALLEY AND REDUCING THE GHG FOOTPRINT ALEKA DOLINA IN ZMANJEVANJE OKOLJSKEGA ODTISA
Natalijapeh,VilmaFece Keywords:sustainabledevelopmentevaluation,ecologicalfootprint,economicindicators, investments,currentexpenditure,Slovenia,alekValley
Abstract
GHG(greenhousegas)ecologicalfootprintasasustainabledevelopmentindicatorisformedby the data connected to management of landscape, materials and energy in the selected landscapeunit. Ecologicalfootprintaccountingisamethodofsustainabledevelopmentevaluation,whichcould becarriedoutbydifferentmodels.Theecologicalfootprintevaluationmodelpresentsaholistic assessment. It depends on the availability of the indicators and the data which represent the characteristics of the state and the trends of the sustainable evaluation. The relation to the economicdevelopmentisstressedandperformedbytheeconomicindicatorsintheecological footprintevaluationofthediscussedarea. alekValleyisoneoftheleadingSloveneregionsregardingtheindicatorsofinvestments'value andvalueofcurrentexpenditureconnectedtotheenvironmentprotection. The presented ecological footprint model of alek Valley is a transparent method also applicabletothesmallerlandscapeunits,e.g.communities,settlements,whichmakesiteven more useful. It would be interesting to compare the researched area with the ecological footprint models of the similar landscapevulnerable areas, which used to be or still are degraded and polluted as the result of the postSecond World War intensive industrialization and urbanization processes; these include the Zasavje region, Mea Valley, Celje basin, and Jesenicearea. Correspondingauthor:Assist.Prof.Natalijapeh,Tel.:+38638986410,Fax:+38638986413, Mailing address: Environmental Protection College, Trg Mladosti 2, 3320 Velenje, Slovenia, E mailaddress:natalija.speh@guest.arnes.si
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Natalijapeh,VilmaFece
Povzetek
Okoljski odtis kot kazalec trajnostnega razvoja predstavimo s podatki, ki se nanaajo na upravljanjesprostorom,snovmiinenergijovizbranipokrajinskienoti. Ekoloko sledenje je ena od metod vrednotenja trajnostnega razvoja, ki jo lahko izvajamo z razlinimi modeli. Zasnova modela ocenjevanja okoljskega odtisa, ki predstavlja celostno (holistino) presojo, je odvisna od razpololjivosti kazalcev oz. podatkov, s katerimi predstavljamo lastnosti stanja ter smernice trajnostnega (uravnoteenega) in sonaravnega razvoja.Privrednotenjuokoljskegaodtisaizbranepokrajinskeenotespoudarkomnaodnosudo gospodarskegarazvojalahkoletegaizraamozekonomskimikazalci. alekadolinajemedtistimislovenskimiregijami,kivpozitivnempomenuizstopajopokazalcih vrednostiinvesticijintekoihizdatkov,namenjenihzavarstvookolja. Priujoiprimerjeenaodmonihinterpretacijokoljskegaodtisazaobmojealekedoline,kije preverljiva oziroma jo je mono aplicirati tudi na manje pokrajinske enote, npr. lokalne skupnosti, naselja, kar poveuje njeno uporabno vrednost. Zanimiva bi bila primerjava preuevanega obmoja z okoljskimi odtisi podobnih pokrajinsko ranljivih obmoij, tj. s posledicami intenzivne industrializacije in urbanizacije v povojnem asu preteklega tisoletja obremenjenihpokrajin,kotsoZasavje,Meikadolina,Celjskakotlina,ireobmojeJesenic.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability indicators provide a roadmap for public policy. An effective set of indicators highlightscriticalsocial,economic,andenvironmentalproblemsandprovidesawaytomeasure the effectiveness of programs designed to alleviate these problems. The choice of indicators reflectshowagivenpopulationdefinesprogress.Traditionalindicatorssuchasgrossdomestic product (GDP) or corporate profits reflect a faith in growth and efficiency as the primary mechanismsforimprovingpublicwelfare,[8]. Since alek Valley was thoroughly transformed because of the exploitation of underground lignite,especiallyinitslowerparts,significanteffortshavebeenmadetoimproveandrenew thelandscapeanditssources.Wehavepresentedtheenvironmentalcostsinthispaperusing the analysis of the quantitative estimations within the method of sustainable indicators. EstimatingthealekValleyecologicalfootprint,weperformtheinvestments(indicatorA)and thecurrent expenditure(indicator B), regardingtheenvironmentalprotection. As the starting point,weconsiderthatalekValleyhasanimportantshareofthetheregionalenvironmental costs.
LANDSCAPE CAPITAL
Contemporarydefinitionsdistinguishbetweennonrenewableandrenewablenaturalsources, thelandscape(Haggett2001)andtheecosystemsservices(thenutrientcycles,thebalanceof gases,climateandwater).Thus,theconceptofnaturalsourcesincludesalltheenvironmental sources(Plut,2004).Wecanalsotalkaboutenvironmentalcapitalwhichforms,togetherwith themanmadeandhumancapital,thecomplexityoflandscapestructure.

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(2.1)
Where:
alekvalleyandreducingtheGHGfootprint
LS=landscapestructure;alllandscapesources/capitals EC=environmentalcapital(biodiversity,water,ground,materialgoods) MC=manmadecapital(buildings,machines,infrastructure) HC=humancapital(knowledge,skills) The nonrenewable sources are environmental components that take shape slowly over geological history. When we consider them anthropocentrically (from the aspect of their usefulnesstoman)wecantalkofstock,i.e.quantitativelylimited(finite)sources. The area researched had the mineral raw material lignite naturally present in it. It became a naturalsourceattheendofthe19thcenturywhenitwasdiscoveredandstartedtobeusedin energy production. However, the awareness of the nonrenewable characteristics of the underground natural source appeared only recently, when, on a global scale, nature and its sourceshavebeenexploitedsointensivelythattheselfpurifyingcapabilitiesoftheecosystems structure have been exceeded. According to Plut (2004), humanity had become a geological powerandwecanalreadyseethecatastrophicconsequencesofnaturaldegradation,because the ecosystems benefits (goods and services) have not been considered and evaluated properly.Theyusedtoberegardedasselfevidentlyavailableandfreeofcharge. Figure1:Thecomplexityoflandscapestructure(Pearceetal,1994)
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
Ecological Footprint Accounts enable moving from the sustainability concept to a measurable goal. They compute sustainability in specific and understandable terms by using the best available scientific data. They allow individuals, policy analysts and governments to measure andcommunicatetheeconomic,environmentalandsocial(distributionalandsecurityimpacts) ofnaturalresource(capital)use. A populations Ecological Footprint presents humanitys demands on nature and can be compared to the biological capacity (ecological supply or the productive area needed to producetheresourcesusedandabsorbthewastegeneratedbythechosenpopulation).When humandemandsexceedecologicalproduction,thenaturalcapital(assetsonwhichcurrentand future generations depend) declines. The situation is called overshoot or the global ecologicaldeficit(RedefiningProgress,2000). AccordingtoRedefiningProgresslatestfootprintanalysis,humanityisexceedingitsecological limits by 39%. Or, put another way, we would need to have over one third more than the presentbiocapacityofEarthtomaintainthesamelevelofprosperityforfuturegenerations,[5]. Ecological Footprint Accounts also determine the area required to produce the biological resources a country uses and to absorb its wastes, and compare this with the area available. This area is reported in global hectares (global acres), hectares (acres) with worldaverage productivity, for each year from 1961 through 2005. We intended to place Slovenia on the
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world scale regarding the Ecological Footprint and the Biocapacity indicators with the figures below.
Figure2:Tracks,inabsoluteterms,theaverageperpersonresourcedemand(Ecological Footprint)andperpersonresourcesupply(Biocapacity)intheWorldsince19611*.Biocapacity varieseachyearwithecosystemmanagement,agriculturalpractices(suchasfertilizeruseand irrigation),ecosystemdegradation,andweather,[6].
Figure3:Tracks,inabsoluteterms,theaverageperpersonresourcedemand(Ecological Footprint)andperpersonresourcesupply(Biocapacity)inSloveniasince1961*.Biocapacity varieseachyearwithecosystemmanagement,agriculturalpractices(suchasfertilizeruseand irrigation),ecosystemdegradation,andweather,[6].

Unfortunately,thedataforSloveniaenablethecomparisonoftheFigures2and3onlyafterthe1991whenSlovenia became an independent state. According the red line, which shows Ecological Footprint data, Slovenia with over 4.0 global hectares per person and greatly exceeds the World average of approximately 2.5 global hectares per person. Regarding the indicator of Biocapacity, the wood area must be in favour in Slovenia: the data keep the value of 2.0 globalhectaresperpersonintheresearchedperiod,whereastheworldaveragehasbeendecreasingfrom2.5in1991 to2.0in2005;thevaluewasalmost4.5globalhectaresperpersonatthestudybeginintheyear1961.Figure4data offerafurtherexplanationontheSloveneEcologicalFootprintchanges.
*
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Figure4:ThecomponentsoftheaverageperpersonEcologicalFootprintinSloveniasince1961. Table1:BasicdataaboutEcologicalFootprintandBiocapacity(calculatedbyGlobalFootprint Network) and the Human Development Index (calculated by the United Nations Development Programme)in2005.
State/data SLOVENIA AUSTRIA CROATIA USA SWITZERLAND Area (mioofha) 2.0 7.8 10.0 995.9 3.1 Population (mio) 2.0 8.2 4.6 298.2 7.3 Ecological footprint 8.8 40.8 14.6 2.809.7 36.3 Human Biocapacity Development (mioofglobalha) Index 4.3 23.4 10.0 1.496.4 9.2 0.92 0.95 0.85 0.95 0.96
Source:[6]
ECOLOGICALFOOTPRINTusesyieldsofprimaryproducts(fromcropland,forest,grazinglandandfisheries)tocalculate
theareanecessarytosupportagivenactivity. BIOCAPACITYismeasuredbycalculatingtheamountofbiologicallyproductivelandandseaareaavailabletoprovide theresourcesapopulationconsumesandtoabsorbitswastes,given currenttechnologyandmanagementpractices. Countriesdifferintheproductivityoftheirecosystems,andthisisreflectedintheaccounts. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI) combines normalized measures of life expectancy, literacy, educational attainment, and GDP per capita for countries worldwide. It is claimed as a standard means of measuring human developmentaconceptthat,accordingtotheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP),referstotheprocessof widening the options of persons, giving them greater opportunities for education, health care, income, employment, etc. The basic use of HDI is to measure a country's development, [9]. After the data, published annually by the UN, th SloveniabelongedtothesecondbestcategoryofHDIandwasthe26 mostliveablecountryintheworldin2006, [5].
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TheaboveperformeddataofSloveniaandanotherthreeEuropeanstatesshowalmostsimilar state according the HDI indicator. Croatia is exceptionally low. Checking the Biocapacity and Ecological Footprint indicators, the data shows Slovenia as a much less consuming state comparedtheotherssincebothvaluesarehalfoftheCroatiavalues.AustriaandSwitzerland have almost four times higher Ecological Footprints. The Biocapacity value of Austria is five timeshigherthanSlovene,whileSwitzerlandsBiocapacityindicatorwasonlytwiceashighasin Slovenia.TheUnitedStatesbelongtoaquitespecialcategory.
SLOVENE STATISTICAL REGIONAL INVESTMENTS (INDICATOR A) AND THE CURRENT EXPENDITURE (INDICATOR B) CONCERNING ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Table2:Investments(indicatorA)andcurrentexpenditures(indicatorB)forenvironmental protectionintheSavinjaStatisticalRegionincomparisontootherStatisticalRegionsinSlovenia (Source:[11])

REGION/ indicator
YEAR 2001
A
2006 2001 (%)
Share
2006 (%) 2001
B
2006 2001 (%)
Share
2006 (%)
IndexA
IndexB
2006/2001 2006/2001
Pomurje Podravje Koroka Zasavje Spodnje Posavska Jugovzhodna Slovenija Osrednje Slovenska Gorenjska Notranjsko Kraka Gorika Obalna Savinjska Slovenija
939 27.779 5.229 3.472 7.106 4.553 26.494 6.664 9.205 5.746 9.902 65.669 172.767
23.656 40.778 19.517 18.415 5.258 8.079 58.116 23.164 2.641 11.776 13.007 67.814 292.222
0.5 16.1 3.0 2.0 4.1 2.6 15.3 3.9 5.3 3.32 5.7 38.0 100
8.1 13.9 6.7 6.3 1.9 2.7 19.9 7.9 0.9 4.0 4.4 23.2 100
3.993 11.730 7.524 3.138 24.412 11.893 31.022 10.724 2.207 5.725 7.799 29.407 149.574
9.439 97.672 11.576 2.041 7.073 15.573 92.785 16.913 3.768 11.830 11.133 48.752 328.555
2.7 7.8 5.0 2.1 16.3 7.9 20.7 7.2 1.51 3.8 5.2 19.7 100
2.9 29.79 3.59 0.69 2.19 4.79 28.29 5.19 1.1 3.6 3.4 14.8 100
25.2 1.5 3.7 5.3 0.7 1.8 2.2 3.5 0.3 2.0 1.3 1.0 1.7
2.4 8.3 1.5 0.6 0.3 1.3 2.9 1.6 1.7 2.0 1.4 1.6 2.2
TheindexofindicatorA(Investmentsforenvironmentalprotection)showsthePomurjeregion as the prominent region with the value 25.2 in the period 2001/2006. The region of Zasavje followswithanindexof5.3,thentheKoroka(3.7)andtheGorenjska(3.5)regions.Thelowest indexwasintheNotranjskoKraka(0.7)andtheSpodnjePosavskaregions(0.3).Theaverage Sloveneindexvalueforthesameperiodwas1.7.(Figure5) Regarding the index of indicator B for the same period, the highest increase of current expenditures for environmental protection occurred in the Podravska region (index 8.3). The OsrednjeSlovenska(2.9)andthePomurska(2.4)regionfollow.Thelowestindexwasperformed
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in the Zasavska (0.7) and again the Spodnje Posavska region (0.3). The average Slovene index valueforthesameperiodwas2.2(Figure6).
Figure5:SlovenestatisticalregionsaccordingtotheindexofindicatorA(investmentsin environmentalprotection)
Figure6:SlovenestatisticalregionsaccordingtotheindexofindicatorB(currentexpenditurefor environmentalprotection)
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THE ALEK VALLEY SHARE IN THE SAVINJA STATISTICAL REGION
Discussing the investments for the environmental protection (indicator A), the share of alek ValleyintheSavinjaStatistical Regionwasthelowestin2004(8,4%).However,thevaluehas significantlyincreasedinthelastyearofthestudyperiodwith31.4%ofthetotalinvestmentsin theregion.Otherwise,theaverageshareintheperiodstudiedwas20%. Table3:Theshare(in%)ofinvestments(indicatorA)andthecurrentexpenditure(indicatorB) fortheenvironmentalprotectionofthealekValleyincomparisontothetotalexpenditureof SavinjaStatisticalRegion Indicator/year A B Concerningtheindicatorofcurrentexpenditure(indicatorB)inthestudiedperiod,theaverage share of the alek Valley was around 33% of the total current expenditure for the environmentalprotectionintheSavinjaStatisticalRegion.Thesharewasextremelyhighin2003 (43.9%),butthelowestoneneverdecreasedbelow30%.
15000 12000 v 1000 t 9000 6000 3000 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2006 2008
Slovenija aleka dolina
2001 26.0 34.7
2002 14.1 30.1
2003 22.1 43.9
2004 8.4 38.2
2005 19.0 36.5
2006 31.4 33.8
(Source:StatisticalOfficeoftheRepublicofSlovenije,2009)
Leto
Figure7:CO2emissionsinSloveniaandthealekValleyintheperiod19802006 (Source:Bilte,[9]) TheemittedvalueofcarbondioxideinthealekValleyin1990was3,782,023tonnesor94,551 kgpercapita.Inthesameyear,theSloveneaveragevaluewas6,800kg,andEuropeanonewas 9216 kg per capita (Rode, uteri, 1997). In 2008, alek Valley had still very high value of around120,000kgpercapita.
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Table4:SomeactionsinalekValleytowardsregionalecological(carbon)footprintreducing ACTOR ACTIVITY

Minegasesintheprocessofcoalexploitation, Origin,transportandaccumulationofcarbongasesintheVelenjebasin, ResearchingoftheVelenjelignitesaturatedwithCO2 andregardingvarious stressstates, CO2inCH4drainageandutilization. otanjThermal PowerPlant ERICo Environmental Researchand Industrial Cooperation Buildinggasturbines, DesignofsystemforCO2capturingatorigin Measurements of the air emissions at the TPP and other companies (ash, airflux,temperatureandmoisture) Researching the concentrations and possibilities of the Velenje Coal Mine gasuse
VelenjeCoalMine PROGRAMMEFORHANDLINGWITHGHG:
HoldingofSlovene Emissions'trading PowerStations AdaptationofSloveneenergyproductionactivitiestotheEUClimateEnegy Packetdemands Velenje Community Ecologicalinternetsystem(EIS), Public Urban Traffic Project (In partnership with Institute for Remote Heating,ESOTECH,d.d.,PublicUtilitiesCompanyVelenje) CentralEnergyStationVelenje, RemoteCoolinginVelenjeCommunity.(InpartnershipwithEnergyAgency ofSavinja,alekandKorokaRegion) StreetlightinVelenjeCommunity GORENJEd.d. ImplementationofBAT(IPPCcommitment) EnergyReviewmade CECED Energyreducedhouseholdappliances(A,A+andA++class) (Source: Mine GreenHouse Gases CO2 in CH4, Mine Safety, Prevention, Managing and Utilization, InternationalWorkshop,Velenje,2008;Bilte2007,AnnualReportTE,[11])

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CONCLUSIONS
GHGemissionsincreasedby0.6%in2006,over2005.AccordingtotheEnvironmentalAgencyof theRepublicofSloveniadata,therewere20.591miooftonnesemitted(inCO2 Ggequivalents) inSloveniainthe2006.Thatmeans1.2%emissionsmorethaninthebaseyear.Themostarein the energy production sector, which includes fossil fuels consumption. Together with manufacturing, construction, transport and other sectors, this area contributed 81% of all emissionsandwasfollowedbyagricultureat10%,industrialprocessesat6%andwasteat3%. Table5:Totalgreenhousegasemissions,Slovenia,2006
CO2(Gg)equivalent Totaldeductions Totalnodeductions CO2reductions CO2reductionswithout MethaneCH4 NitrousoxideN2O PartlyhydrofluorocarbonsHFCs CompletehydrofluorocarbonsPFCs SulphurhexafluorideSF6

19861) 18.751 20.340 14.704 16.294 2.384 1.376 276 10
2002 14.541 20.037 10.764 16.259 2.257 1.336 50 116 17
2003 14.455 19.773 10.742 16.061 2.212 1.299 64 119 18
2004 14.449 20.092 10.784 16.427 2.186 1.261 80 120 18
2005
2006
15.037 15.858 20.468 20.591 11.329 12.145 16.759 16.878 2.191 1.280 96 124 19 2.158 1.309 112 116 19
nooccurence 1)thebaseyear Source:EnvironmentalAgencyoftheRepublicofSlovenia
Figure8:Greenhousegasemissionsbysource,Slovenia,2006(Total20,284GgCO2equivalent) *Theconceptofenergyinclude:theuseoffuelsinenergyproduction,inmanufacturingandconstruction, transportandothersectors.Source:[12].

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Greenhouse gas emissions in 2006 have the largest contribution to carbon dioxide [CO2] (82.0%),producedmainlyfromthecombustionoffuels,followedbymethane[CH4](10.5%)and N2O (6.4%), which are primarily made in the agriculture and landfill, and emissions of hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs),perfluorocarbons(PFCs)andsulphurhexafluoride(SF6),whichare verysmall(1.1%),butimportantbecauseoftheirhighgreenhouseeffect. SincetheindicatoroftheDirectMaterialInput(DMI)dataofStatisticalOfficeofSlovenia,[13] proves the continuous increase of the energy sources use, both renewables and nonrenewables,andincreasingmaterialimport,ourfootprint(individual,national,global)hasa verylowpotentialtomeettheenvironmentallimitsofourplanet.TheDMIindicatorin2005in Sloveniawas26tonnespercapitaandwasthehighestintheperiod20002005. TheabovepresentedfootprintanalysisofalekValleyisonlyanexampleinwhichtheregional economicfactorsareevidentlyrecognizedassociallyveryresponsible.alekValleycanbeseen as very environmentally conscious, when we look at the researched indicators of the share (in%) of investments (indicator A) and the current expenditure (indicator B) for the environmentalprotectionofthealekValleyincomparisontothetotalexpenditureofSavinja StatisticalRegion ItwouldbeaninterestingtoprepareaComparativeFootprintAnalysisfortheSloveneregions that used to be (or are still) quite environmentally burdened, eg. Zasavje, Mea Valley, the JeseniceareaandtheCeljebasin.Ofcourse,moreprecise(takingintoaccountmoreindicators, also social and environmental) municipal and regional footprint analysis research, for all the SloveneregionswouldperformmorerelevantconclusionsontheGHGfootprint.Theanalysis would enable the measurement of the amount of renewable and nonrenewable ecologically productivelandrequiredtosupporttheresourcedemandsandabsorbthewastesofacityor region.Althoughtherealsoexistexplanationsonthenonanthropogenicoriginsregardingthe globalwarmingprocess,athoroughchangeofourlifestyleisabsolutelynecessary.
References
[1] Pearce,D.,Turner,R.,K.,O'Riordan,T.,Adger,N.,Atkinson,G.,Brisson,I.,Brown,K., Dubourg,R.,Fankhauser,S.,Jordan,A.,Maddison,D.,Moran,D.,Powell,J:Blueprint3, MeasuringSustainableDevelopment,EarthscanPublications,LtdLondon,224s.,1994 Plut,D.:Zeleniplanet?,Population,energyandenvironmentin21stcentury,Didakta. Radovljica,s.239,2004 StatisticalOfficeofRepublicofSlovenia,2009. Redefiningprogress,2000. http://www.rprogress.org/ecological_footprint/about_ecological_footprint.htm (accessed26.5.2009) http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/trends/slovenia/(accessed 26.5.2009) http://www.rprogress.org/sustainability_indicators/about_sustainability_indicators.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0778562.html
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[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]
[10] [11]
http://www.tesostanj.si/default.asp?id=31 Investicijezavarstvookoljapostatistinihregijah(1000EUR),Slovenija,letno,Investicije zavarstvookoljapostatistinihregijah(1000EUR),Slovenija,letno http://www.stat.si/novica_prikazi.aspx?id=1881 http://www.stat.si/pxweb/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=2724703S&ti=Sestava+neposrednega+ vnosa+snovi++NVS+(v+1000+ton)%2C+Slovenija%2C+letno&path=../Database/Okolje/ 27_okolje/07_Okoljski_racuni/01_27247_rac_snovnih_tokov/&lang=2
[12]
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THE IMPACT OF INVESTMENT IN RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES ON THE NATIONAL ECONOMY NARODNOGOSPODARSKI UINKI INVESTICIJ V OBNOVLJIVE VIRE ENERGIJE
SebastijanRepina1andMejraFesti2 Keywords:renewablesources,investment,macroeconomiceffects.
Abstract
RenewableenergysourcestechnologiescontributetoGDPgrowth,valueaddedandincreasein employment. Large hydropower plants contribute significantly to research and development and they are from the point of view of economic criteria the most acceptable electricity plants.Theanalysisisbasedontheinputoutputmodelandtheeffectsarerelatedtotheperiod ofbuildingandconstructionofenergyplants. Thetargetvaluefortheproductionofelectricityfromrenewableresourcesincreasesto3,146 GWhby2020.Fortherealizationofthistarget,additionalinvestmentactivityintheamountof 3,045 million euros is needed. If we suppose that equal amount of investment is put into differentrenewablesourcestechnologies,largehydropowerstationswillcontributethemost totheimprovementofmacroeconomicindicators(exceptatamortizationandimport,where the impact is expected to be average). In contrast, wind power stations are expected to contribute to the improvement of macroeconomic indicators the least. Photovoltaics is expectedtocontributethemosttoadditionalresearchanddevelopmentexpenditures. 1 Sebastijan Repina, BS (econ.), researcher, EIPF Economic Institute, Ljubljana, 00386 1 252 1688,fax:0038612121688.seba.repina@gmail.com;sebastijan.repina@eipf.si 2 Mejra Festi, PhD. (corresponding author), EPF UM Faculty of Business and Economics UniversityofMariborandEIPFEconomicInstitute,Ljubljana.0038622355381,fax:003862 2355266.mejra.festic@unimb.si;mejra.festic@eipf.si
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SebastijanRepina,MejraFesti
Povzetek
Tehnologije OVE prispevajo k rasti bruto domaega proizvoda, dodani vrednosti in rasti zaposlenostivnarodnemgospodarstvu.Kraziskavaminrazvojunajboljprispevajovelikehidro elektrarne, ki so tudi z vidika ekonominosti najbolj sprejemljive elektrarne OVE. Vsi uinki inputoutputanalizesoanaliziranizaasgradnjenovihenergetskihobjektovOVE. Ciljnavrednostdol.2020zapridobivanjeelektrineenergijeizOVEsepoveaza3.146GWhza kar je potrebnih 3.045 mio EUR investicij. e bi v vsako tehnologijo OVE vloili enak znesek investicij,bikizboljanjumakrokazalnikovnajveprispevalevelikeHE(razenpriamortizacijiin uvozu, kjer je vpliv povpreen). Po drugi strani pa bi k izboljanju makrokazalnikov najmanj prispevalevetrneelektrarne.
INTRODUCTION
Renewable sources technologies (RST) contribute towards the increase of gross domestic product, value added and employment growth in the national economy. A substantial contribution of RST can be observed in research and development growth. The contribution maydifferinaccordancewithdifferenttechnologies.Largehydropowerstations,whicharethe mosteconomicalRSTpowerstations,contributethemosttowardsresearchanddevelopment. Thetargetvalueforproductionofelectricityfromtherenewableresourcesincreasesis3,146 GWhby2020.Forsuchanincrease,3,045millionEurosininvestmentsisneeded.Largehydro power stations will contribute the most (1,299 GWh) for which 618.3 million Euros in investments will be needed; wind power stations will contribute 567 GWh, which can be reached through investments in the amount of 345.6 million Euros; photovoltaics will contribute an additional 469 GWh, for which 1,641.5 million Euros of investment is needed; biomass will contribute 267 GWh and require 11.3 million Euros of investment; small hydro powerstationswillcontribute194GWhandrequire148.8millioneurosofinvestment;natural gas will contribute 191 GWh and require 95.5 million Euros of investment. The smallest contributiontowardsachievingtheRSTgoalin2020isbymeansofgeothermalpowerstations, whichwillcontribute150GWhandrequire93.8millionEurosofinvestment. IfanequalamountofinvestmentisputineachRSTtechnology,largehydropowerplantswould contributethemosttotheimprovementofmacroeconomicindicators(exceptatamortization andimport,wheretheimpactisexpectedtobeaverage)andtheleasttowardsresearchand developmentinthenationaleconomy.Incontrast,windpowerstationswouldcontributethe least towards the improvement of macroeconomic indicators (except at amortization). Photovoltaicswouldcontributethemosttowardsadditionalresearchanddevelopment,which would lead towards increased involvement of universities and research institutes in developmentalprocessesofthesetechnologies.Itcanbeconcludedthatthedomesticeconomy profitstheleastfromwindpowerstations(exceptadditionalelectricity).
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Theimpactofinvestmentinrenewableenergysourcesonthenationaleconomy
1. 1 Econometric analysis of investments in RST

1. 1. 1 Methodology Inputoutput analysis served as the basic quantitative analytical tool for the analysis of the macroeconomiceffectsofbuildingplannedRSTinvestments,throughwhichwequantifiedits influence on production, value added, financial resources for employees (employee salaries), taxes,useoffixedcapital,businessprofit,costofR&Dandimport.Directandindirect(through suppliers of reproduction material and appropriate services and through further reproduction enquiriesofthesesuppliers)influenceofRSTinvestmentswasassessedbyinputoutputanalysis oninputoutputmatrixdataforSlovenianeconomyin2007.3Theaggregatevalueofindividual economicvariablesin2007wastakenintoaccount. Directandindirectinfluenceofinvestmentsduringconstructionwasassessedby: M=(IAd)1*Y G=Au*(IAd)1*Y Y represents the value of planned RST investment. This value is distributed to sectors or providersofinvestmentgoods,accordingtotheiraverageshare(onthenationaleconomylevel) intheofferfrom2007.Theimportpartoftheofferisaddedtothetotalinfluenceofinvestment onimport. Mrepresentsglobalinfluenceoneconomicactivities,whileitssumrepresentstheinfluenceon theentireeconomy;Adrepresentsthematrixoftechnicalquotientsthecolumnofdomestic input in a given sector divided by its production; I is a single matrix, (IAd)1 is a matrix multiplier,whichshowsglobal(directandindirectthroughsuppliersofintermediategoodsand appropriateservices)influenceofplannedRSTinvestments. HrepresentsglobalinfluenceofplannedRSTinvestments(Y)ongrossaddedvalue,wherediag BDP/X represents diagonalised matrix of direct quotients of gross domestic product or its individual components (financial resources for employees, use of fixed capital, etc.), GDP is gross domestic product, and X represents the production of an industry. G shows global influence of planned RST investments (Y) on import. Au is the import component of technologicalmatrixacquiredbydividingtheimportofindustrieswiththeirproduction. ZrepresentsglobalinfluenceofplannedRSTinvestments(Y)ontheemploymentofproduction factors (work and developmental activities measured by costs for R&D); diag F/X is a diagonalisedmatrixofdirectquotientsofproductionfactorFinindustrialproduction(X). TheassessmentoftheinfluenceofplannedRSTinvestmentsonactivities,valueadded,financial resourcesforemployees,netbusinessprofit,nettaxes,import,employmentandcostofR&Dis based on Leonti's production function and assumes constant yield of production factors,
Thefollowingwastakenintoconsiderationinoursimulations: IOtableofSlovenianeconomyin2007(SURS2008). Numberofemployees(SURS2008). - Researchanddevelopmentcosts(SURS2008).
(1.1) (1.2) (1.3) (1.4)
H=(diagBDP/X)*(IAd)1*Y Z=(diagF/X)*(IAd)1*Y
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elasticity of substitution that equals 0 and homogeneity of production within sectors. The results of the inputoutput analysis can be considered as initial tendencies with an indicated direction. The first part of the analysis shows the effects of investments for individual technologies in national economy, by taking into account target values for year 2020; the second part of the analysisrepresentstheeffectsoftheseinvestmentsinaccordancewiththeRSTpotential. 1. 1. 2 The influence of investments in individual technologies on national economy
Table1:Macroeconomiceffectsduringtheconstructionofbiogas Effectsonthenationaleconomy %from m. aggregate level Production 146.906 0.206 Valueadded(GDP) 53.570 0.155 Grossemployeecost(salaries) 31.396 0.183 Usepermanentcapital(amortization) 9.075 0.202 Businessprofit 12.341 0.259 Numberofemployees(jobs)4 1,783 0.185 CostofR&D 0.596 0.123 Directandindirectimport 47.230 0.170 Totalpublicfinanceincome (withoutemployer 17.980 0.137 contributions)
OfwhichDirectImport:5.300
EffectsshowninTable1: Influenceoneconomicactivity(line2):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillleadto anincreaseofSlovenianproductionintheamountof146millionEuros.Thisrepresents0.21% oftotalSlovenianproduction. Influenceongrossdomesticproduct(line3):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwill have influence on almost 54 million Euros of gross domestic product in Slovenia, which represents0.16%ofSloveniasgrossdomesticproduct. Influence on financial resources for employees (line 4): the planned investment will have influenceonalmost32millionEuroslargergrossemployeepayments.Thisrepresents0.19%of grosspaymentsofemployeesinSlovenia. Influenceonuseoffixedcapital(line5):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillhave influenceonalmost9millionEurosofwrittenamortizationandthusontheincreaseoffunds forreconstructioninvestments.Thisrepresentsalmost0.20%oftotalSlovenianamortization.
4
Employmentinthecasethatallinvestmentactivitywillbedoneinoneyear.
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Influenceonbusinessprofit(line6):thescopeandstructureofinvestmentwillleadtoalmost 13 million Euros of business profit in Slovenian companies. This represents 0.26% of total businessprofitinSlovenia. Influenceonemployment(line7):theincreaseineconomicactivityofSloveniaseconomydue totheplannedinvestmentwillenableindirectanddirectinvolvementof1,783employees.This will not necessarily represent the creationof new jobs, but will productively influence people who may already have a job. Total work force involvement for the planned investment represents0.19%oftheworkingpopulationinSlovenia. Influenceondevelopmentalactivity(line8):theconstructionofplannedpowerlineswilllead to 0.6 million Euros of additional cost for development and research activity. This represents almost0.12%oftotalcostsforR&DintheSlovenianeconomy. Influenceonimport(line9):theplannedinvestmentwillleadto47millionEurosofindirectand directimportrequiredforequipmentandconstructionwork,whichrepresentsalmost0.17%of Slovenianimportofgoodsandservicesin2007. Influence on public finance income (line 10): due to the construction of planned RST investment,increasedactivitiesintheSlovenianeconomywillhaveaninfluenceonincreased public finance income. The total effect will amount to 18 million Euros. This will represent a considerable increase of Slovenian budget, as well as health and pension funds. Total public financeincomewillincreasebyalmost0.14%(theinfluenceoftaxreformin2007hasnotbeen takenintoaccount).
Table2:Macroeconomiceffectsduringtheconstructionofhydrosmalltechnology Effectsonthenationaleconomy Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Usepermanentcapital(amortization) Businessprofit Numberofemployees(jobs) CostofR&D Directandindirectimport Total public finance income (without employer contributions)

m. 206.887 75.927 44.448 13.276 17.132 2,477 0.820 82.245 25.081
%from aggregatelevel 0.290 0.220 0.259 0.295 0.359 0.257 0.169 0.262 0.191
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Table3:Macroeconomiceffectsduringtheconstructionofhydrobigtechnology Effectsonthenationaleconomy Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Usepermanentcapital(amortization) Businessprofit Numberofemployees(jobs) CostofR&D Directandindirectimport Total public finance income (without employer contributions)
m. 1,023.350 370.370 211.321 58.642 94.976 12,443 2.531 295.565 128.777
%from aggregate level 1.435 1.074 1.231 1.302 1.991 1.293 0.523 1.006 0.982
EffectsshowninTable2andTable3: Influenceoneconomicactivity(line2):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillleadto anincreaseofSlovenianproductionintheamountof207/1.023millionEuros.Thisrepresents 0.29/1.43%oftotalSlovenianproduction. Influenceongrossdomesticproduct(line3):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwill have influence on almost 76/370 million Euros of gross domestic product in Slovenia, which represents0.22/1.07%ofSloveniasgrossdomesticproduct. Influence on financial resources for employees (line 4): the planned investment will have influence on almost 44/211 million Euros larger gross employee payments. This represents a 0.26/1.23%ofgrosspaymentsofemployeesinSlovenia. Influenceonuseoffixedcapital(line5):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillhave influence on almost 13/58 million Euros of written amortization and thus on the increase of funds for reconstruction investments. This represents almost 0.29/1.3% of total Slovenian amortization. Influenceonbusinessprofit(line6):thescopeandstructureofinvestmentwillleadtoalmost 17/95 million Euros of business profit in Slovenian companies. This represents 0.36/2.00% of totalbusinessprofitinSlovenia. Influenceonemployment(line7):theincreaseineconomicactivityofSloveniaseconomydue to the planned investment will enable indirect and direct involvement of 2,477/12,443 employees. This will not necessarily represent the creation of new jobs, but will productively influence people who may already have a job. Total work force involvement for the planned investmentrepresentsa0.26/1.29%oftheworkingpopulationinSlovenia.
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Influenceondevelopmentalactivity(line8):theconstructionofplannedpowerlineswilllead to 0.82/2.53 million Euros of additional cost for development and research activity. This representsalmost0.17/0.52%oftotalcostsforR&DintheSlovenianeconomy. Influence on import (line 9): the planned investment will lead to 82/295 million Euros of indirect and direct import required for equipment and construction work, which represents almost0.26/1.00%ofSlovenianimportofgoodsandservicesin2007. Influence on public finance income (line 10): due to the construction of planned RST investment,increasedactivitiesintheSlovenianeconomywillhaveaninfluenceonincreased publicfinanceincome.Thetotaleffectwillamountto25/129millionEuros.Thiswillrepresenta considerable increase of Slovenian budget, as well as health and pension funds. Total public finance income will increase by almost 0.2/1.0% (the influence of tax reform in 2007 has not beentakenintoaccount). Table4:Macroeconomiceffectsduringtheconstructionofbiomasstechnology Effectsonthenationaleconomy %from m. aggregatelevel Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Usepermanentcapital(amortization) Businessprofit Numberofemployees(jobs) CostofR&D Directandindirectimport Total public finance employercontributions)
173.661 63.316 37.644 11.038 13.750 2,104 0.823 48.023 income (without 20.910
0.243 0.184 0.219 0.245 0.288 0.219 0.170 0.195 0.159
EffectsshowninTable4: Influenceoneconomicactivity(line2):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillleadto anincreaseofSlovenianproductionintheamountof173millionEuros.Thisrepresents0.24% oftotalSlovenianproduction. Influenceongrossdomesticproduct(line3):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwill have influence on almost 63 million Euros of gross domestic product in Slovenia, which represents0.18%ofSloveniasgrossdomesticproduct. Influence on financial resources for employees (line 4): the planned investment will have influenceonalmost38millionEuroslargergrossemployeepayments.Thisrepresents0.22%of grosspaymentsofemployeesinSlovenia. Influenceonuseoffixedcapital(line5):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillhave influenceonalmost11millionEurosofwrittenamortizationandthusontheincreaseoffunds forreconstructioninvestments.Thisrepresentsalmost0.24%oftotalSlovenianamortization.
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Influenceonbusinessprofit(line6):thescopeandstructureofinvestmentwillleadtoalmost 14 million Euros of business profit in Slovenian companies. This represents 0.29% of total businessprofitinSlovenia. Influenceonemployment(line7):theincreaseineconomicactivityofSloveniaseconomydue totheplannedinvestmentwillenableindirectanddirectinvolvementof2,104employees.This will not necessarily represent the creationof new jobs, but will productively influence people who may already have a job. Total work force involvement for the planned investment represents0.22%oftheworkingpopulationinSlovenia. Influenceondevelopmentalactivity(line8):theconstructionofplannedpowerlineswilllead to0.82millionEurosofadditionalcostfordevelopmentandresearchactivity.Thisrepresents almost0.17%oftotalcostsforR&DintheSlovenianeconomy. Influenceonimport(line9):theplannedinvestmentwillleadto48millionEurosofindirectand directimportrequiredforequipmentandconstructionwork,whichrepresentsalmost0.19%of Slovenianimportofgoodsandservicesin2007. Influence on public finance income (line 10): due to the construction of planned RST investment,increasedactivitiesintheSlovenianeconomywillhaveaninfluenceonincreased public finance income. The total effect will amount to 21 million Euros. This will represent a considerable increase of Slovenian budget, as well as health and pension funds. Total public financeincomewillincreasebyalmost0.16%(theinfluenceoftaxreformin2007hasnotbeen takenintoaccount). Table5:MacroeconomiceffectsduringtheconstructionofPhotovoltaics Effectsonthenationaleconomy
Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Usepermanentcapital(amortization) Businessprofit Numberofemployees(jobs) CostofR&D Directandindirectimport Total public finance income contributions) OfwhichDirectImport:70.174
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m. 2,241.988 818.088 527.746 141.640 137.427 32,281 30.889 893.586 (without employer 269.696
EffectsshowninTable5: Influenceoneconomicactivity(line2):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillleadto anincreaseofSlovenianproductionintheamountof2,242millionEuros.Thisrepresents3.1% oftotalSlovenianproduction. Influenceongrossdomesticproduct(line3):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwill have influence on almost 818 million Euros of gross domestic product in Slovenia, which represents2.4%ofSloveniasgrossdomesticproduct. Influence on financial resources for employees (line 4): the planned investment will have influenceonalmost527.7millionEuroslargergrossemployeepayments.Thisrepresents3.07% ofgrosspaymentsofemployeesinSlovenia. Influenceonuseoffixedcapital(line5):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillhave influenceonalmost142millionEurosofwrittenamortizationandthusontheincreaseoffunds forreconstructioninvestments.Thisrepresentsalmost3.2%oftotalSlovenianamortization. Influenceonbusinessprofit(line6):thescopeandstructureofinvestmentwillleadtoalmost 137 million Euros of business profit in Slovenian companies. This represents 2.9% of total businessprofitinSlovenia. Influenceonemployment(line7):theincreaseineconomicactivityofSloveniaseconomydue to the planned investment will enable indirect and direct involvement of 32,281 employees. This will not necessarily represent the creation of new jobs, but will productively influence peoplewhomayalreadyhaveajob.Totalworkforceinvolvementfortheplannedinvestment represents3.35%oftheworkingpopulationinSlovenia. Influenceondevelopmentalactivity(line8):theconstructionofplannedpowerlineswilllead to30.9millionEurosofadditionalcostfordevelopmentandresearchactivity.Thisrepresents almost6.4%oftotalcostsforR&DintheSlovenianeconomy. Influenceonimport(line9):theplannedinvestmentwillleadto893millionEurosofindirect anddirectimportrequiredforequipmentandconstructionwork,whichrepresentsalmost3.4% ofSlovenianimportofgoodsandservicesin2007. Influence on public finance income (line 10): due to the construction of planned RST investment,increasedactivitiesintheSlovenianeconomywillhaveaninfluenceonincreased publicfinanceincome.Thetotaleffectwillamountto269millionEuros.Thiswillrepresenta considerable increase of Slovenian budget, as well as health and pension funds. Total public financeincomewillincreasebyalmost2.1%(theinfluenceoftaxreformin2007hasnotbeen takenintoaccount).
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Table6:Macroeconomiceffectsduringtheconstructionofwindtechnology Effectsonthenationaleconomy %from m. aggregatelevel Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Usepermanentcapital(amortization) Businessprofit Numberofemployees(jobs) CostofR&D Directandindirectimport Total public finance income (without employer contributions)
309.717 119.487 67.579 20.774 29.471 3,863 1.623 383.361 39.681
0.434 0.347 0.394 0.461 0.618 0.401 0.335 0.918 0.303
EffectsshowninTable6: Influenceoneconomicactivity(line2):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillleadto anincreaseofSlovenianproductionintheamountof307millionEuros.Thisrepresents0.43% oftotalSlovenianproduction. Influenceongrossdomesticproduct(line3):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwill have influence on almost 119 million Euros of gross domestic product in Slovenia, which represents0.34%ofSloveniasgrossdomesticproduct. Influence on financial resources for employees (line 4): the planned investment will have influenceonalmost67.5millionEuroslargergrossemployeepayments.Thisrepresents0.4%of grosspaymentsofemployeesinSlovenia. Influenceonuseoffixedcapital(line5):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillhave influenceonalmost21millionEurosofwrittenamortizationandthusontheincreaseoffunds forreconstructioninvestments.Thisrepresentsalmost0.46%oftotalSlovenianamortization. Influenceonbusinessprofit(line6):thescopeandstructureofinvestmentwillleadtoalmost 29.5 million Euros of business profit in Slovenian companies. This represents 0.62% of total businessprofitinSlovenia. Influence on employment (line 7): the increase in economic activity of the nations economy duetotheplannedinvestmentwillenableindirectanddirectinvolvementof3.869employees. This will not necessarily represent the creation of new jobs, but will productively influence peoplewhomayalreadyhaveajob.Totalworkforceinvolvementfortheplannedinvestment represents3.35%oftheworkingpopulationinSlovenia.
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Influenceondevelopmentalactivity(line8):theconstructionoftheplannedpowerlineswill lead to 1.6 million euros of additional cost for development and research activity. This representsalmost0.33%oftotalcostsforR&DintheSlovenianeconomy. Influenceonimport(line9):theplannedinvestmentwillleadto383millionEurosofindirect and direct import required for equipment and construction work, which represents almost 0.92%ofSlovenianimportofgoodsandservicesin2007. Influence on public finance income (line 10): due to the construction of planned RST investment,increasedactivitiesintheSlovenianeconomywillhaveaninfluenceonincreased public finance income. The total effect will amount to 40 million Euros. This will represent a considerableincreaseintheSlovenianbudget,aswellashealthandpensionfunds.Totalpublic financeincomewillincreasebyalmost0.3%(theinfluenceoftaxreformin2007hasnotbeen takenintoaccount). Table7:Macroeconomiceffectsduringtheconstructionofgeothermaltechnology Effectsonthenationaleconomy Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Usepermanentcapital(amortization) Businessprofit Numberofemployees(jobs) CostofR&D Directandindirectimport Total public finance income (without employer contributions) OfwhichDirectImport:14.297
m. 136.511 49.957 28.730 8.189 12.320 1,664 0.458 58.090 17.071
%from aggregate level 0.191 0.145 0.167 0.182 0.258 0.173 0.094 0.178 0.130
EffectsshowninTable7: Influenceoneconomicactivity(line2):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillleadto anincreaseofSlovenianproductionintheamountof136millionEuros.Thisrepresents0.2%of totalSlovenianproduction. Influenceongrossdomesticproduct(line3):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwill have influence on almost 50 million Euros of gross domestic product in Slovenia, which represents0.14%ofthenationsgrossdomesticproduct. Influence on financial resources for employees (line 4): the planned investment will have influenceonalmost29millionEuroslargergrossemployeepayments.Thisrepresents0.17%of grosspaymentsofemployeesinSlovenia.
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Influenceonuseoffixedcapital(line5):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillhave influence on 8.2 million Euros of written amortization and thus on the increase of funds for reconstructioninvestments.Thisrepresentsalmost0.18%oftotalSlovenianamortization. Influenceonbusinessprofit(line6):thescopeandstructureofinvestmentwillleadtoalmost 12.3 million Euros of business profit in Slovenian companies. This represents 0.26% of total businessprofitinSlovenia. Influenceonemployment(line7):theincreaseineconomicactivityofSloveniaseconomydue totheplannedinvestmentwillenableindirectanddirectinvolvementof1,664employees.This will not necessarily represent the creationof new jobs, but will productively influence people who may already have a job. Total work force involvement for the planned investment representsa0.17%oftheworkingpopulationinSlovenia. Influenceondevelopmentalactivity(line8):theconstructionofplannedpowerlineswilllead to0.46millionEurosofadditionalcostfordevelopmentandresearchactivity.Thisrepresents almost0.1%oftotalcostsforR&DintheSlovenianeconomy. Influenceonimport(line9):theplannedinvestmentwillleadto58millionEurosofindirectand directimportrequiredforequipmentandconstructionwork,whichrepresentsalmost0.18%of Slovenianimportofgoodsandservicesin2007. Influence on public finance income (line 10): due to the construction of planned RST investment,increasedactivitiesintheSlovenianeconomywillhaveaninfluenceonincreased public finance income. The total effect will amount to 17 million Euros. This will represent a considerable increase of Slovenian budget, as well as health and pension funds. Total public financeincomewillincreasebyalmost0.13%(theinfluenceoftaxreformin2007hasnotbeen takenintoaccount). Table8:MacroeconomiceffectsfortheconstructionofallRSTtechnologies EffectsofpotentialRSTinvestmentsonthenationaleconomy Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Usepermanentcapital(amortization) Businessprofit Numberofemployees(jobs) CostofR&D Directandindirectimport Total public finance income (without employer contributions)
m. 4,239.020 1,550.715 948.864 262.634 317.417 56,615 37.740 1,808.100 519.196
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EffectsshowninTable8: Influenceoneconomicactivity(line2):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillleadto anincreaseofSlovenianproductionintheamountof4.239millionEuros.Thisrepresents6%of totalSlovenianproduction. Influenceongrossdomesticproduct(line3):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwill have influence on almost 1.551 million Euros of gross domestic product in Slovenia, which represents4.5%ofthenationsgrossdomesticproduct. Influence on financial resources for employees (line 4): the planned investment will have influenceonalmost949millionEuroslargergrossemployeepayments.Thisrepresentsa5.53% ofgrosspaymentsofemployeesinSlovenia. Influenceonuseoffixedcapital(line5):theconstructionoftheplannedinvestmentwillhave influenceonalmost263millionEurosofwrittenamortizationandthusontheincreaseoffunds forreconstructioninvestments.Thisrepresentsalmost5.83%oftotalSlovenianamortization. Influenceonbusinessprofit(line6):thescopeandstructureofinvestmentwillleadtoalmost 317 million Euros of business profit in Slovenian companies. This represents 6.65% of total businessprofitinSlovenia. Influenceonemployment(line7):theincreaseineconomicactivityofSloveniaseconomydue to the planned investment will enable indirect and direct involvement of 56,615 employees. This will not necessarily represent the creation of new jobs, but will productively influence peoplewhomayalreadyhaveajob.Totalworkforceinvolvementfortheplannedinvestment represents5.9%oftheworkingpopulationinSlovenia. Influenceondevelopmentalactivity(line8):theconstructionofplannedpowerlineswilllead to 38 million Euros of additional cost for development and research activity. This represents almost7.8%oftotalcostsforR&DintheSlovenianeconomy. Influenceonimport(line9):theplannedinvestmentwillleadto1,808millionEurosofindirect anddirectimportrequiredforequipmentandconstructionwork,whichrepresentsalmost6% ofSlovenianimportofgoodsandservicesin2007. Influence on public finance income (line 10): due to the construction of planned RST investment,increasedactivitiesintheSlovenianeconomywillhaveaninfluenceonincreased publicfinanceincome.Thetotaleffectwillamountto519millioneuros.Thiswillrepresenta considerableincreaseoftheSlovenianbudget,aswellashealthandpensionfunds.Totalpublic finance income will increase by almost 4% (the influence of tax reform in 2007 has not been takenintoaccount).
CONCLUSION
The indicator of the ratio between invested funds and produced RST electricity is quite interesting.Onaverage,theratiobetweenthevalueofinvestmentandtheamountofproduced electricity is 0.97 million Euros/GWh, which means that (on average) 0.97 million Euros of investmentinRSTtechnologiesisneededfortheproductionof1GWh.Themosteconomical are the ratios for biomass (0.42 million Euros/GWh), large hydropower plants (0.48 million Euros/GWh), biogas (0.50 million Euros/GWh), windpower plants (0.60 million Euros/GWh), geothermal energy (0.63 million Euros/GWh) and small hydropower plants (0.77 million
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Euros/GWh). The most expensive is photovoltaics, which requires 3.50 million Euros of investmentfor1GWhofelectricity. CANMET,: Class 43.1 Technical Guide and Technical Guide to Canadian Renewable and ConservationExpenses(CRCE),Ottawa,NaturalResourcesCanada,1998/revised2007. DENA, (DENA Grid study): Energiewirtschaftliche Planung fr die Netzintegration von WindenergieinDeutschlandanLandundOffshorebiszumJahr2020,DeutschenEnergie Agentur(DENA),Kln,Germany,24February2005,availableatwww.dena.de. Dunlop,J:WindpowerprojectreturnsWhatshouldequityinvestorsexpect?;Journalof StructuredFinance,Spring2006,p.8189. Ernst & Young: Impact of banding the Renewable Obligation costs of electricity production. Study for UK Department of Trade and Industry, URN 07/948, London UK, April2007. IEA Bioenergy: Potential Contribution of Bioenergy to the Worlds Future Energy Demand;IEABioenergyExCo:2007:02,2007. IEA PVPS: Trends in photovoltaic applications. Survey report of selected IEA countries between1992and2006;IEAPhotovoltaicPowerSystemsProgramme,ReportIEAPVPS T116:2007,2007. Kamp, L.M: Learning in wind turbine development A comparison between the Netherlands and Denmark; Thesis, Utrecht University, Utrecht, ISBN 903933174X (2002):. KPMGInternational:KPMGsCorporateTaxRateSurvey2006;Publicationnumber301 261,April2006(www.kpmg.com). Lewis, J.I. and Wiser, R.H.: Supporting Localisation of Wind Technology Manufacturing through Large Utility Tenders in Qubec: Lessons for China. Preparedbythe Centrefor Resource Solutions for the Energy Foundations China Sustainable Energy Program, 2006. NREL:Projectedbenefitsoffederalenergyefficiencyandrenewableenergyprograms FY2007budgetrequest;NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory,2006a. NREL:PowertechnologiesenergydatabookFourthedition;NationalRenewableEnergy Laboratory,J.Aabakken(ed.),NREL/TP62039728,GoldenColorado,USA,August2006, 2006b. NREL/TP62039684,GoldenColorado,USA,March2006. Ragwitz, M., C. Huber, G. Resch, and S. White: Dynamic costresource curves. Work Package 1 of the GreenX project Deriving Optimal Promotion Strategies for Increasing theShareofRESEinaDynamicEuropeanElectricityMarket;FhGISI,EEG,andITPower, August2003. RogierCoenraads:RENEWABLEENERGYCOUNTRYPROFILES.EcoFys,February2008,no. TREN/D1/422005/S07.56988etal.2008..
References
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[3] [4]
[5] [6]
[7]
[8] [9]
[10] [11]
[12] [13]
[14]
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Appendix to calculations in Tables 1-8: TableA:Acomparisonoftechnologiesandtheirmacroeconomicindicatorsduringthe constructionofindividualRSTenergyplants,bytakingintoaccounttargetvaluesin2020(with regardtotherequiredinvestment)

HELarge Technicalpotential(GWh) Investment(mio) Investment(mio/GWh) 1,299.0 618.3 0.476 HESmall 194.0 148.8 0.767 Photovolt 469.0 1,641.5 3.500 Wind 576.0 345.6 0.600 Biomass 267.0 111.3 0.417 Geothermal 150.0 93.8 0.625 Biogas 191.0 95.5 0.500 Sum 3,146.0 3,054.8 0.971
Sharerelatedtoinvestment(v%) Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Useofpermanentcapital Businessprofit Numberofemployees ExpendituresforR&D Directandindirectimport

Totalpublicfinanceincome(withoutemployer contributions)
165.51 59.90 34.18 9.48 15.36 20.1 0.41 47.80 20.83
139.04 51.03 29.87 8.92 11.51 16.6 0.55 55.27 16.86
136.58 49.84 32.15 8.63 8.37 19.7 1.88 54.44 16.43
89.62 34.57 19.55 6.01 8.53 11.2 0.47 110.93 11.48
156.03 56.89 33.82 9.92 12.35 18.9 0.74 43.15 18.79
145.53 53.26 30.63 8.73 13.13 17.7 0.49 61.93 18.20
153.83 56.09 32.88 9.50 12.92 18.7 0.62 49.46 18.83
138.77 50.76 31.06 8.60 10.39 18.5 1.24 59.19 17.00

TableB:Targetvaluesin2020andthescopeofinvestmentaccordingtoRSTtechnologies
Technicalpotential Targetvalues2020(GWh) Investment(vmio) LargeHE SmallHE PHOTOVOLTAICS WIND BIOMASS GEOTHERMAL BIOGAS Sum: 1,299.0 194.0 469.0 576.0 267.0 150.0 191.0 3,146.0 618.3 148.8 1,641.5 345.6 111.3 93.8 95.5 3,054.8 Investment (mio/GWh) 0.476 0.767 3.500 0.600 0.417 0.625 0.500

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POSSIBLE USES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN THE ALEK VALLEY MONOSTI RABE OBNOVLJIVIH ENERGETSKIH VIROV V ALEKI DOLINI
LukaZajec,Natalijapeh1 Keywords:renewableenergysources,mobilemeteorologicalstation,useofrenewable sources,ThealekValley
Abstract
TheenergysupplyinthealekValleyhas,sincetheendofthe19thcentury,traditionallyrelied upon exploitation of nonrenewable fossil fuel, mainly originating from coal. This article will revealapossiblepathwaytowardsprospectiverenewableenergysourcessuitableforthelocal environment.Withtheintroductionofrenewableenergysourcestothelocalelectricitymarket, individualhouseholdsandsmallerlocalcommunitieswouldbenefitthemost. Renewableenergysourcesarethemostpromisingnaturalsources,especiallyinregardtothe ambitious Kyoto Protocol goals, which need to be met, yet seem difficult to achieve. The technologiesforCarbonCaptureandStorage(CCS)aretooexpensiveandhaveyettobeproved successful.Bytheyear2030,theywillnotplayanimportantroleinreducingthegreenhouse gasesemissions.Thisiswhyitiswisertoinvestinrenewableenergysources(Hozjan,2009).The CCS technology opens many issues, among them reliability, sustainability and consequently security. One of the possible pathways for syngas production for microturbine electricity productionortransportfuelisthroughgasificationorpyrolysis. The alek Valley has a great potential for the exploitation of renewable energy sources, but unfortunatelytheyarenotexploitedtoasuitableextent.Thepurposeofthisresearchpaperis
Luka Zajec, M.Sc. Slovenian Forest Service, Voranev trg 1, SI2380 Slovenj Gradec, Tel.: +386(0)41 363 533, luka.zajec@gmail.com 1 Natalijapeh,PhD,EnvironmentalProtectionCollege,Trgmladosti2,SI3320Velenje,+386(0)38986410;f:+386(0)3 8986413,natalija.speh@erico.si
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LukaZajec,Natalijapeh
toevaluatethepossibilityofharnessingrenewableenergysourcesonseveralselectedplacesin thealekValley.Afurtherdataanalysisshouldindicatetheoptimalrenewableenergysources fortheselectedsiteswiththeeconomicalandtechnicalriskanalyses. The data were collected through a classic mobile weather station. The station was upgraded withsolarandthermalcollectors,photovoltaiccellsandwindspeedmeters.Thegatheredsolar radiationdatafromtheselectedsiteswerealsotestedwiththeHomerRETScreensoftware. Ourgoalwastodesignaportabledataacquisitionstationthatwouldbesimultaneouslycapable of gathering several different parameters from the field and sending them to a data centre usingthecommercialmobilenetwork. Weassumethatthegapbetweenthepotentialandthecurrentexploitationoftherenewable energysourcesissubstantial.ItisencouragingthattheoldestfinancialinstitutionintheEU,the European Investment Bank (EIB) obliged itself to extend the loans and warrants for the electricityproducedfromtherenewablesourcesfromthecurrent15%to50%by2010.Within theboundariesofenvironmentalprotection,theEIBhasgrantedaloanof30millioneurosto Ekosklad for financing the investments in reducing the water and air pollution, including reduction of greenhouse gases. Currently, Slovenia is behind schedule in producing facilities usingrenewableenergysources(Hozjan,2009).
Povzetek
Energetskaoskrbavalekidolinijetradicionalnovezananaizkorianjeneobnovljivihfosilnih virovenergije(premog)eodkonca19.stoletja.Priujoiprispevekrazkrivamonostiuporabe nekaterihobnovljivihvirovenergije,primernihzaojo,lokalnopotronjo,simerbisepopestril obstoje nain oskrbe z elektrino energijo posameznih gospodinjstev oz. manjih lokalnih skupnosti. Obnovljivi viri energije predstavljajo vedno bolj pomemben naravni kapital in soustvarjajo temeljzadoseganjeambicioznihkyotskihciljev,kisenamtakouspenoizmikajo.Tehnologijeza zajeminshranjevanjeogljika(CarbonCaptureandStorageCCS)sopredrageinnepreverjenein do leta 2030 gotovo ne bodo pomembno vplivale na zmanjevanje uinkov izpuanja toplogrednihplinov.Takojeverjetnosmotrnejevlagativobnovljivevireenergije(Hozjan,2009). eposebejpaostajaodprtovpraanjenjihovezanesljivosti,trajnostiinposledinovarnosti.Ena izmedmonostizaproizvodnjosintetinegaplinazapogonmikroturbinpriproizvodnjielektrike alitransportnihgorivjeskoziuporabouplinjevalcevalipirolizatorjev. aleka dolina ima velik potencial za izkorianje obnovljivih virov energije, ki pa se v dolini premaloizkoriajo.Namenraziskavejebilizmeritirazpololjivostobnovljivihvirovenergijena izbranihmerilnihmestihalekedolineinugotovititeoretinemonostizanjihovoizkorianje. S kasnejo analizo podatkov smo eleli izvedeti, kje bi lahko optimalno uporabljali izbran obnovljivivirenergijeinkaknabibilatehnolokainekonominaupravienostizvedbetaknega projekta. Zaradipomanjkljivihinlokalnovariabilnihklimatskihpodatkov,kisonujnopotrebniprianalizi upravienosti posameznih obnovljivih virov energije, smo eleli dopolniti mreo lokalnih klimatskihpostajzaurnimivremenskimipodatkizrazlinihmerilnihmest,razirjenihpocelotni aleki dolini, z namenom poiskati najprimernejo mikrolokacijo za izkorianje posameznega obnovljivega vira energije. V ta namen smo zgradili merilni sistem, ki je bil zasnovan kot
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Possibleusesofrenewableenergysourcesinthealekvalley
avtonomna mobilna klasina meteoroloka postaja. Merili smo temperaturo, vlago, zrani pritisk,hitrostinsmervetraterosonenost.Kotnadgradnjometeorolokepostajesmopostavili zbiralce obnovljivih virov energije: toplotni kolektor, modul sonne celice ter merilnik vetra. Merilniki so bili dinamini in so spreminjali lego glede na poloaj najveje osvetljenosti. Z merilnim sistemom, ki je mobilen, smo zajemali podatke na izbranih merilnih mestih ter med primerjanjemugotavljalimonostizaoptimalnoraboobnovljivihvirov. Izmerjeni parametri s terena so bili poslani po telekomunikacijskih omrejih v zbirni center v oblikiSMSsporoil,kjersobilishranjenizanadaljnjoanalizo.Izmerjenepodatkeoosonenju na izbranih merilnih lokacijah smo preizkusili na Nasinem programskem modulu Homer RETScreen. Sodimo, da je vrzel med potenciali in dejansko izkorienostjo obnovljivih virov energije precejnja. Vzpodbuden pa je podatek, da se je najstareja finanna ustanova EU, Evropska investicijskabanka(EIB),zavezala,dabovokviruproizvodnjeelektrineenergijeizobnovljivih virov do leta 2010 poveala dele posojil in garancij s sedanjih 15 na 50 odstotkov. V okviru varovanja okolja je EIB tudi Ekoskladu odobrila posojilo v vrednosti 30 milijonov evrov za financiranjemajhnihinsrednjihinvesticij,povezanihzzmanjanjemonesnaenjavodeinzraka, vkljuno z izpusti toplogrednih plinov. Slovenija zaenkrat zaostaja pri izgradnji proizvodnih napravnaobnovljivevireenergije(Hozjan,2009).
INTRODUCTION
Theworldpopulation(6.75billionpeoplein2008)hasdoubledinthepastfourdecades;inthe pastthreedecades,theworldsenergyconsumptionhasmorethandoubled.Inthefuture,we canexpectaninflatedconsumptionofenergyonaglobalscaleiftheworld'spopulationreaches nearly 9 billion by the year 2040; which it will, according to some projections (U.S. Census Bureau,2008). The world economy requires enormous amounts of energy, most of which comes from fossil fuels(oil,naturalgas,methaneandcoal). Inparticular,itisenvisagedthatinthecomingthreedecades,thistypeoffuelwillcover85%of theenergyneeds.However,inrelationtothisview,twoimportantconcernsemerge: Accessibilityofresourcesandenergysecuritywithitsprice; Greenhouse gases emitted from the use of fossil fuels, changing the global climate system. The energy sector is mostly responsible for the production of socalled greenhouse gases (GHG).Therefore,alternativeenergysourcesneedtobeutilizedtoreducetheemissionofthese harmfulgases.Aseriesofparallelactionsneedstobetakenforimprovingenergyefficiencyin therelevantsectorsoftheeconomy: Anincreaseinconversionefficiency; Protectionanddevelopmentofmechanismsforcollectionandremovalofgreenhouse gases; Promotionofsustainableforestmanagement,afforestationandreforestation;
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Adoptionofmeasurestolimitandreducegreenhousegasemissionsinthetransport sector; Limiting methane emissions through recovery and use of gas in the area of waste management; Research,promotion,developmentandincreaseduseofrenewableenergy. Renewablesourcesofenergyinthecontextofthethreatoftheglobalclimatechangeareone of the best means of resolving the issue of future energy demand and protection of the environment. Renewable energy is generated from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermalheat.Thesesourcesarenaturallyreplenished.Currently,variousformsoffinancial incentivesissuedbytheEuropeanUnion,individualstatesorlocalauthoritiesexist. Among the technologies for the conversion of renewable resources are hydro power, geothermalenergy,windandwaveenergy,photovoltaicsandbiomass. Biomass,suchasforestresiduesandagriculturalcropscan,undercertainconditions,providea viable renewable source for electricity generation and heat. It can supply local communities close to production areas or offer products (biodiesel, biogas) that can replace some of the currentfuelsusedforheatingandtransportation. Particularlyinterestinginthiscontextareenergycrops,whichareintendedtoprovidebiomass toproduceelectricityorheat.Themoderntechniquesofcultivation(ShortRotationForestry) have maximized the yield per hectare by using fertilizers, pesticides and genetically modified treespecies.Thespeciesusedinenergyproductionshouldhaveimportantagronomicvaluesof highgrowthratesandincreasedbiologicalandclimateresistance. Currently, electricity production from biomass is achieved through the technology of thermal incineratorsandenergyrecoveryfromthefluegasofsteamcycles.Higherefficienciescanbe achievedthroughtechnologiessuchasgasificationandpyrolysis.Thesetechnologieshavenot yet reached the industrial level of technological development needed for the production of syntheticgasofmediumtolowheatcalorificvalue,whichcanbeusedininternalcombustion engines and gas turbines. An interesting perspective is that the use of syngas from biomass, given the optimal performance with minimal environmental impact, is based on the use of microgaspowerintherangeof30500kW(Zajec,2009).
RENEWABLE ENERGY
TheInternationalEnergyAgencyincludesinthetermrenewableenergythefollowingenergy sources:combustiblerenewablesandwastes(CRW),hydropower,wind,solar,geothermaland oceanenergy(IEA,2007). Combustiblerenewablesandwastesareinturndefinedas:solidbiomass,biogas,liquidbiofuels andmunicipalwastes.

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Combustiblerenewablesandwastes: CRWconstitutethemainpartoftodaysrenewableenergywithashareof11%oftheworlds energy supply. They are made up mainly of wood and charcoal used by poor populations for cookingandheating. Inrecentyears,liquidbiofuelshaveriseninpopularitytosupplementtheuseoffossilfuelsin transportation. Brazil (from sugar cane) and United States (from maize) extensively use bio ethanoltoreplacegasoline.InEurope,biodiesel(transesterificationfromvegetableoils)isused asablendtocommondiesel.TheEuropeanUnionhasanobjectiveofsubstituting20%ofthe traditionalfuelsinroadtransportwithbiofuelsbefore2020. Hydropower: Hydropoweristhesecondlargestrenewableenergysource,withashareof2%oftheworlds total energy supply. It accounts for 16% of global electricity production. Hydropower has the uniquefeatureofbeingtheonlylargescalemeansofstoringelectricitythroughthecollection of water into large reservoirs for later reconversion into electricity. Hydropower growth is limitedasthemostviablesitesaregenerallyalreadyinuse. Wind,solar,geothermalandoceanenergysources: Thesealternativeenergysourcesarestillnegligibleintermsofenergyproductioncomparedto classicalenergysources,buttheywillgaintheimportanceinthefutureduetothehealthand climatecare.Todaytheyrepresentlessthan0.5%oftheworldstotalenergysupply.However, thereisarealmarketforthem,especiallyindevelopedcountries. Windpower production hasnotably quadrupled worldwide since 1995 and in some countries has become a significant part of electricity generation, as in Denmark, where it accounts for 23% of national energyproduction.Wind power can also be designed as an independent off gridsystem.
2.1
Renewal of interest in wood in developed countries
Wood as an energy source is the focus of a renewed interest in developed countries. In the EuropeanUnion,woodenergysharesgrewfrom3%to3.2%ofthetotalenergyconsumptionin 2003. Woodcannottotallyreplacefossilfuels.However,itmaybeapartialanswertotheproblemsof CO2 emissions and oil dependency. Wood is a CO2neutral fuel, provided trees are grown as muchastheyareburned,andwoodisavailableinalmostallcountries. Furthermore, harvesting, transforming and converting wood into thermal energy requires manpower. The development of the wood energy industry benefits local employment and contributestosustainingsocialandeconomicactivityinruralandforestedareas.
2.2
Wood compared to coal
Table 1 presents a comparison between the physical properties of wood and its fossil counterpart,coal.
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Table1:Typicalpropertiesofwoodandcoal(Bellais,2007)
Woodisacleanerfuelcomparedtocoal.Ithaslowsulphurcontent;thereisusuallynoneedfor DeSOx treatment of the flue gas in wood combustion (IEA, 2002). The fuelbound nitrogen is typically1%incoalandthecombustiontemperatureisalsolowerduetoalowerHHV,which reduces the fuel and thermal NOx formation. However, a DeNOx installation might still be necessary. TheproductofHHVanddensitygivestheenergydensity.CalculationsfromdatainTable1give energydensityforcoalthatisthreetofivetimesgreaterthanforwood. Hence,forwoodtobecostcompetitive,itisimportanttolimitfueltransportationandstorage needs. As a result, wood power plants are usually considered in forested areas. The volatile contentinwoodismuchhigherthanincoal,typicallyfourtimes.Coalpowerplantsproduceup to 1,000 MW, while wood plants are usually of smalltomedium size, from small domestic burnersstoves to ca. 45 MW facilities. Because of the low combustion intensity of wood and thecostlytransportofbulkymaterial,woodislimitedtolocalharvestingrange.Typicalfacilities that use wood systems are schools, colleges, hospitals, public buildings, hotels and motels, commercial buildings, greenhouses, largescale agricultural operations and manufacturing plants(Maker,2004).
POSSIBLE USES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN THE ALEK VALLEY
3.1. Current Climate Data

ThealekValleyissurroundedwithmountainsandsmallhillsintheNWSEexposition.Through thevalleytwomajorriverswithanaveragecapacityof2.9m3/s(2.5m3/sPaka)flow(ARSO, 2009).Therearethreelakesinthevalleythatwerecreatedbyimmersionoftheground inthe miningarea. ThespecificorographiclandscapeofthealekValleyrequiresdetailedonsitemeasurementsof various climate data in order to optimize specific renewable energy sources, exact micro locationandextractiontechnology.
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The climate data from the meteorological station (Velenje Gorenje) presented in Table 2 showstheaveragenumberofsunnyandcloudydayspermonth. Table2:VelenjeClimatedate(19611990)*
Average temperature JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN 1.0 1.1 4.6 JUL AVG SEP OCT NOV DEC YEAR 9.8 4.5 0.3 9.2
9.1 13.9 17.0 18.8 18.0 14.7 0.3 3.5 5.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.4 7.6
no.ofdayswith 26.5 20.5 14.0 3.0 temp<=0.0C no.ofdayswith 0.0 temp.>=25C no.ofcleardays 4.9 (cloudy<2/10) 0.0 5.2 0.0 5.6 0.3 4.6
2.7 11.8 23.1 101.9 0.3 7.9 0.0 5.6 0.0 49.0 5.1 72.7
9.8 16.4 13.2 4.9 7.6 8.4
no.ofcloudy days(cloudy 12.5 11.4 11.6 10.6 >8/10) no.offoggy days 3.8 2.9 1.9 1.0
8.5
8.6
5.6
6.0
6.9
9.6 11.6 12.7 115.6
0.5
0.2
0.3
1.4
4.3
6.3
4.2
3.1 29.9
*MinistryoftheEnvironmentandSpatialPlanning|AGENCIJAREPUBLIKESLOVENIJEZAOKOLJE,
www.arso.gov.si/vreme/napovediinpodatki/velenje.htm
Thesedatadonottakeinconsiderationthespecificorographiclandscapeofthevalley,where weather conditions frequently change. For sufficient climate data, specific measurements are requiredinordertoplanandoptimizethemostsuitablemicrolocationforaspecifictechnology forharnessingarenewableenergysource.
3.2
Mobile Meteorological Station
Aclassicmobileweatherstationwasbuilt(Koroec,Tran,2006)toevaluatethepossibilityof harnessing renewable energy sources on several selected sites in the alek Valley. The data analysisshouldindicatetheoptimalrenewableenergysourcesfortheselectedsites.
Figure1:Establishingthemobilemeteorologicalstationonahighschoolroof(Koroec,Tran, 2006.)
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The measured parameters were temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, speed and directionofwindandsolarradiation.Theweatherstationwasupgradedwithsolarandthermal collectors,photovoltaiccellsandwindspeedmeters. The gathered solar radiation data from the selected sites were also tested with the Homer RETScreensoftware. Ourgoalwastodesignaportabledataacquisitionstationthatwouldbesimultaneouslycapable of gathering several different parametersfrom the fieldand sending them to thedata centre usingthecommercialmobilenetwork. The gathered data from the exact location of the meteorological station were transmitted to thecomputerbyamobilephone.Thissystemenabledlivestreamingoftheweatherdatausing theshortmessagesservice(SMS)onthecellphone.
Figure2:Electronicpartofthemeteorologicalstation(KoroecL.,TranS.)
4
4.1
RESULTS
Wind Energy
Thewinddata,takeninthecentreofVelenje,showthatwindenergyrarelyexceeds1.5m/s2in ashortperiodoftime.Practicefromabroadandaliteraturestudyshowtheoptimalwindspeed forharnessingthewindenergyshouldbeintherangeof525m/s2.
Figure3:AveragewindspeedinthecentreofVelenjeinthewinterof2006 Additional measurements are required throughout the year on different locations around Velenje for a technical analysis. The mobile meteorological station can be of help. Small turbines can be tested in the mountain region. Wind energy is one of the most promising renewableenergysourcesinEuropebutitisoflimiteduseinSlovenia,especiallyinthealek Valley.
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4.2
Geothermal Energy
High temperature sources with temperatures higher than 150C, mostly for electricity productioninIceland,Hawaii(USA),Japan Low temperature sources, water temperature lower then 150C, mostly for heating spacesandelectricityproductionthroughtheKalinacycle.
Thecommercialuseofgeothermalenergyisdividedinto:
InSlovenia,onlylowtemperaturegeothermalsourceswerefound.Thefieldanalysishasshown thattheprospectivegeothermalregionsofSloveniaare: thePanonianbasin(>100l/slowtemp.watersources4070C). theRogakaCeljeotanjregion(area450km2,totalover250l/swaterwithtemp.18.5 48C). thePlaninaLakoZagorjeregion(>150l/s,temp.ofwater2143C), theKrkoBreiceregion(>240l/s,temp.ofwater1564C), theLjubljanadepression(150l/s,temp.ofwater1830C) A test drill near Topolica found water with the temperature of 42.5C and was deemed unsuitableforspaceheatingandpoolheatinginTermeTopolica.
4.3
Geothermal Energy / Heat Pumps
Apartofgeothermalenergyuseindomesticapplicationsisusingheatpumps.Widelyspread vertical and horizontal geothermal collectors can significantly increase energy independence anddecreasetheimportofforeignfossilfuelproducts.Heatpumpsaredesignedforsmallscale applicationsforspaceheating. Regarding soil structure, different heat extractions are expected from 20 W/m (sandy soil) to 100W/m(groundwateranduseofwater/waterheatpumps).
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Figure4:Differentapplicationsofwatersourceheatpumps(McQuay,2009) Water Source Heat Pump (WSHP) systems are one of the most efficient and environmentally friendly ways of heating and cooling buildings, with better control of energy use and lower seasonaloperatingcosts.Thesystemsarecommonlyappliedtoawiderangeoffacilitiesfrom domestichomestolargerfacilities(officebuildings,hotels,healthcarefacilities,banks,schools, condominiumsandapartments). ThespecificlocationofthealekValleywiththreelakesnearthecitycentrehasgreatpotential forwatersourceheatpumps.
4.4
Solar Energy
Solarenergyistheultimaterenewableenergysource.Forcommercialpurposes,anindirectuse ofsolarenergyisusedinformsofsolarcollectorsorPV. Solarcollectorsarecommonlyusedforwaterheating,spaceheatingorpoolheating. Figure5:Solarcollectorswithathermosyphonsystemandsolarcells(PVPhotovoltaics)

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Photovoltaics(orPV)isthefieldoftechnologyandresearchrelatedtotheapplicationofsolar cellsbyconvertingsolarenergy(sunlight,includingultravioletradiation)directlyintoelectricity (solar electricity), suitable for grid and offgrid applications. The average energy efficiency is between12and18%.ThephotovoltaicsolarelectricitypotentialintheEUisthehighestinthe SWMediterraneanregionwithglobalirradiationof2,100kWh/m2/year.InSlovenia,thesumof globalirradiationincidenceisbetween1,0001,400kWh/m2/yearandinthealekregion1,250 kWh/m2/year (JRC European Commission, 2006). Each EU member state offers different subsidiesfortheinstallationofPVorsolarcollectors. Table3:MonthlyaverageinsolationincidenceonahorizontalsurfaceinthealekValley (kWh/m2/day)*
JAN FEB 2.44 MAR 3.51 APR MAY 4.24 5.16 JUN 5.32 JUL 5.39 AVG 4.81 SEP 3.56 OCT NOV 2.24 1.47 DEC 1.17
VelenjeGorenje 1.51
*NASASurfacemeteorologyandSolarEnergy:HOMERData(2009)
In the alek region, the use of solar collectors is economically feasible and can present an importantsourceofenergyforspaceandwaterheatingthroughouttheyear.Theuseofthem inthealekregionisquestionablewithoutstatesubsidies,butcanbeimportantforsmalleroff gridapplications.
4.5
Hydro-energy
Twomajorriversflowthroughthevalleyandtherearethreelakes.Nomajordevelopmentis expectedinhydropowerproductionsinceallpromisingsiteshavealreadybeenoccupied.The hydropotentialcanbeimportantonlyformicrohydroplantsonsmallerstreams.
4.6
Biogas
Inthelastdecade,amajorstepforwardwasmadeinwastewatertreatment.Thecentralwaste water treatment plant (WWTP) was upgraded with a sewage sludge purification and simultaneousproductionofbiogasforcogeneration(productionofelectricalandheatenergy). Landfillgasesshouldbetreatedaswellbylimitingmethaneemissionsthroughtherecoveryand useofgasintheareaofwastemanagementforcogenerationortransportbiogas.
4.7
Biomass
Slovenia is one of the mostforested countries in Europe, just after Finland andSweden;1.17 million ha of forests cover more than half of its territory (forestation amounts to 57.7%). Sloveniahasalongtraditionofsustainable,environmentallyfriendlyandmultipurposeforest management.Intotal,over300millionm3ofwoodisstoredinSlovenianforestswithannual growthover7.6millionm3andpossiblecuttingof4.4millionm3ofwood/year.Thetotalannual
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cut is 3.3 million m which leaves over 1.1 million m3 of wood for accumulation per year (Slovenian Forest Service, 2005). Consequences are severe: loss of forest stability, changing landscape,forestfires,augmentationofpredatorsandbarkbeetles,etc.
Figure6:Over50%ofthealekValleyiscoveredwithforest(GoogleEarthMap,2009) Woodwasanimportantdomesticenergysourceinthepastandwillcertainlyremainsointhe future. Over 50% of the alek region is covered with forest (50% GGN Velenje and 71% GGN Bele Vode). According to the data of the forest management plans created by the Slovenian Forest Service, the growing stock of the alek Valley forests amounts to two million cubic metresor370m3 perhectare,whichishigherthantheSlovenianaverageof257m3/ha.With annual growth of 10.1 m3 ofwood per hectare, forests inthe alek Valley present oneof the fastest growing forests in the country. On average, one forest owner owns 1.7 ha of forest whichmakesitdifficulttouseforestproductseconomically.Theresultisanumberofdeserted forests with many withered trees that pose a serious risk to the economical and ecological stabilityoftheforests. Solutions can be found in collaboration of forest owners, the Slovenian Forest Service and different forest management organisations. Traditionally, forest wood was used for many different purposes including construction timber, house heating and cooking. Wood and coal stoves that are commonly in use are technically and energetically inefficient. Modern wood logs,woodchipsorpelletstovesareuserfriendlyandoftenreachefficiencyover91%. Forestwoodshouldhavemultiplefunctions(furniture,constructiontimberetc.)beforeitends asfirewood.Onlyapartofforestresidualsandbranchesshouldendupasfirewoodinprimary production.Sloveniahashighqualityforestwoodresourcesthatarecapableofsuccessonthe woodmarket.CofiringwoodresidualsorwasteconstructiontimberinaseparateboilerinTE (Thermoelectricpowerplantotanj)isoptionalandtemporary.
CONCLUSIONS
The alek Valley has been paying a high (too high) ecological burden for its rapid industrializationandurbanizationinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.Intensiveunderground exploitation of coal as a nonrenewable natural source for electrical and distanceheating
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productioninTE(Thermoelectricpowerplantotanj)andotherintensivebusinesses,anda fastgrowing population have been a tremendous environmental burden (peh, 2006). The alekValleywasoneofthemostanthropogenicallydamagedregionsinthecountry.People's awarenessforahealthierandcleanerenvironmentin1989forcedthelocalgovernmenttoact towards a sustainable and environmentally friendly path. An environmental institute (ERICo) was established for ecological researches, emission filters (SO2, Nox) were installed at TE, a waste water treatmentplant was built, and natural rehabilitation of deserted and intoxicated soil from the waste and coal ash was put in motion. Development continues towards a sustainableandmorerenewablefuture. ThealekValleyhasgreatpotentialforexploitationofrenewableenergysources.Thespecific location of the valley, with three lakes near the city centre holds a great potential for water source heat pumps. Solar energy extraction (solar collectors, PV) is mostly limited to summer months.Usingsourcesofbiomassorwastes(landfill,WWTP)canbevitalforspaceheatingor forproductionoftransportfuels.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Bellais,M.(2007)Modellingofthepyrolysisoflargewoodparticles,doctoralthesis,KTH RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,Sweden CIA(2008)The2008worldfactbook.CentralIntelligenceAgency (www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworldfactbook/,13.02.2009) Demirbas,A.andArin,G.(2002)Anoverviewofbiomasspyrolysis.EnergySources, 24(5):471482. EuropeanEnergyAgency.(2007)Glossary. http://glossary.eea.europa.eu/EEAGlossary/F/fossil_fuelWebpage19.02.2009. InternationalEnergyAgency(2002)Biomasscombustionandcofiring:anoverview. Technicalreport,IEABioenergy.http://www.ieabioenergy.com/LibItem.aspx?id=140 Webpage25.03.2009. InternationalEnergyAgency.(2007)Keyworldenergystatistics. (http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/key2006.pdf)PDFfile,13.02.2010. IPCC.ClimateChange(2001)TheScientificBasis.ContributionofWorkinggroupItothe ThirdAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.Cambridge UniversityPress,Cambridge,UnitedKingdomandNewYork,USA. Koroec,L.,Tran,S.(2006)Izdelavamobilnemeteorolokepostajemonostiuporabe obnovljivihvirov.Raziskovalnanaloga,olskicenterVelenje,Poklicnaintehnikaelektro inraunalnikaola. Maker,T.M.(2004)WoodChipHeatingSystems:Aguideforinstitutionaland commercialbiomassinstallations.BiomassEnergyResourceCenter, (http://www.biomasscenter.org/pdfs/WoodChipHeatingGuide)PDFfile,23.11.2008. Oreskes,N.(2004)Beyondtheivorytower:Thescientificconsensusonclimatechange. Science,306:1686.
[6] [7] [8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
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[12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] Nomenclature t OPEC HHV Mtoe DeSOx time OrganisationofthePetroleumExportingCountries HigherHeatingValue Milliontonnesofoilequivalent Denitrification
McQuayInternational(2009)(www.mcquayfactoryservice.com)Webpage, 08.03.2009. JRCEuropeanCommission(2006)PhotovoltaicGeographicalInformationSystem(PVGIS) (http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/index.htm)Webpage,07.11.2008. SlovenianForestService(2005)ForestManagementPlan,VelenjeUnit,Belevode. peh,N.(2006)Sonaravnoupravljanjespokrajinskimivirivalekidolini,Geografijav oli,nr.2:6167 U.S.CensusBureau(2008)Internationaldatabase,WorldPopulationTrends, (http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/worldpopgraph.html)Webpage,11.03.2009. Zajec,L.(2009)Slowpyrolysisinarotarykilnreactor:Optimizationandexperiment. M.Sc.thesis.REStheSchoolforRenewableEnergyScience,Akureyri,Iceland
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PARTICLE INFLUENCE ON CAVITITATION DEVELOPMENT AT BLADE PROFILE (NACA 4418) VPLIV DELCEV NA RAZVOJ KAVITACIJE NA LOPATINEM PROFILU (NACA 4418)
BotjanGregorc,AndrejPredin1 Keywords:particles,cavitation,noise,torque,measurements;
Abstract
This paper deals with torsion torque and noise changes as a consequence of cavitation development with a blade with a NACA 4418 profile. Measurements were performed in a cavitation tunnel, where the cavitation development and torque change were observed. The noise measurements set the state of occurrence of cavitation. Based on the measurements results data, the ratio of torque differences was set as a function of three different concentrationsofparticlesinliquidsandintwodifferentslopeanglescovered.Byreducingthe cavitationnumber(relativepressuresystemdecrease)inordertoenhancethevapourphaseon thebladesuctionside,torquestartsandthenoiseincrease.
Povzetek
Prispevek obravnava spremembo torzijskega momenta in hrupa v odvisnosti od razvitosti kavitacijenakriluNACA4418.Meritvesopotekalenakavitacijskemtunelu,kjersmoopazovali razvojkavitacijeinvplivnaspremembotorzijskegamomenta.Zmeritvamihrupasmodoloevali asovnotokonastankakavitacije.Napodlagimeritevsmodoloilirazlikerazmerjatorzijskega momenta v odvisnosti od treh razlinih koncentracij delcev v kapljevini ter pri dveh razlinih naklonskih kotih krila. Z zmanjevanjem kavitacijskega tevila (zmanjanje relativnega tlaka v sistemu)sezaradipoveanjaparnefazenasesalnistranikrilaprinetatorzijskimomentinhrup poveevati. BotjanGregorc,PhDstudent,DravskeelektrarneMaribor,Emaill:bostjan.gregorc@dem.si 1 Prof. Andrej Predin, PhD, Faculty of Energy Technology, University of Maribor, Email: andrej.predin@unimb.si
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BotjanGregorc,AndrejPredin
INTRODUCTION
Model testing and research laboratories provide results only for certain controlled boundary conditions. In actual operating conditions, the boundary conditions can only be partially matched in some cases. In the case of hydropower operation, the physical and biological characteristics of water (temperature, viscosity, surface tension, the content of dissolved and undissolved air content of impurities) are changing. When the flow of rivers and streams changes,theamountofimpurities(particles)inwaterisalsochanging.Astrongerlocalrainfall causes an increase of impurities in water up to 30 times, depending on the underlying conditions. Changing the content of particles in the water can also lead to an increase in the likelihood of occurrence of abrasion and cavitation in hydraulic machinery. Cavitation represents a loss of energy according to the optimal operating conditions. In the case of the operation ofwater turbines, the cavitation effect on reducingutilization damagesthe turbine driverandotherexposedareas. Determinationofchangesinyieldonprototypesofimpuritiesinthewaterisdifficulttoachieve from the perspective of performance measurement. Constantly changing various parameters (oscillation generating power pulsation pressure, difference in altitude, temperature, air contentandsmallconcentrationsofparticles)affectthecredibilityoftheresults.Thechangein turbine efficiency is detected only at the stage of major cavitation erosion and abrasion of particlesinwater.Forthesevariationsofparametersinthecaseoftheprototypes,weinfluence material in the water on the development of cavitation in an isolated blade studied in the laboratory. Due to the controlled conditions of entry in the execution of the measurements, particleswithknowndiameters,densitiesandconcentrationswereusedinthetunnel.
INFUENCE OF MULTI-PHASE FLOW (LIQUID-VAPOUR-SOLIDS) ON HYDRAULIC MACHINES OPERATING
Changingtheconcentrationofsolidphase(particles)inwateraffectstheefficiencyofhydraulic machines.Researchrelatedtothemovementofliquidsandparticlesinthetransitionthrough the pump and turbinehavebeen investigated many authors [9,13,14].For research,different materials, particle concentrations, and various basic material surfaces are used. For the evaluationofdevelopmentsandimplicationsintheprocessofcavitationandabrasion,authors used different CCD camerasvisualization [4,5,6], PIV Technology, methods of weighing, and vibrationmethods.Inthecaseofservicestations,byincreasingtheconcentrationofparticlesin thewater,flowisreducedandsoisefficiency.Italsoreducestheamountofpumppressureand NPSH(Q)[9].Intests,itwasfoundthatthelargestdifferencesariseinthecaseofNPSHasa function of increasing pressure level ( H sk ). By increasing the concentration, the resistance of liquid particles at the stationary surface is increased. Multiphase flow (liquidvapoursolids) alsocausesachangecoefficientofbuoyancy. Whenthecavitationnumberdecreasesandwhenthevapourphaseoccurs(multiphaseflow), particlesactincombinationwithcavitation,erosionandabrasion[9,16].Particlesinliquidsare alsocausedbytherapidformationofinitialcavitation.Initialcavitationinthemultiphaseflow of liquidvapour occurs 1015% earlier as in the case with operating with pure water [9]. Particlesinliquidsactastheinitiatoroftheformationoftheemergenceofthevapourphase, alsoknownascavitationcores[11].
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Particleinfluenceoncavitationdevelopmentatbladeprofile(NACA4418)
The impact of faster creation of cavitation due to particles in water also affects the rapid decreaseoftheefficiencyofthepumporturbine.Withinthisarea,thiscouldrepresentathreat conditionwithcavitationerosion.Inreality,thisresultsinahighlyerosivematerials,andcostly repairs. It indirectly increases the overall density of liquids and particles, which hasa positive impact on the increase in driver torque. Erosion damage influenced on the roughness of the surface and creating the conditions for the formation of additional turbulence at the surface flow.
2.1
Cavitation cores
Thepresenceofimpurities(particles)formsthebasisfortheformationofsocalledcavitation cores.Coresreducethetensilestrengthofwaterasaresultofchangesinsurfacetensionliquid [3,11]. The dependence of the tensile strength n of surface tension and the distance betweenmolecules d isshowninthefollowingdependence:
n = 2 / d
(2.1)
Theformationofagaseousphaseinaliquidisdirectlytiedtoovercomeintermolecularforces. Inthecaseofliquidswithoutparticles,thetheoreticaltensilespinoutwateris750MPa.When particlesandgasimpuritiesarepresentinthewater,thewatertensilestrengthdecreases.The resulting decrease in the tensile strength of water affects the formation of vapour phase at higher cavitation numbers. Particles in water can be considered as sort of bud, which takes placewherethevapouriscollapsedintoliquid.Theseareplaceswherethevapourphasearises andchangesitsaggregatephase.
2.2
Cavitation development
Theformationofcavitationisbasedonseveralimportantcriteria:bodysize,surfaceroughness, turbulence flow, temperature, influence of liquid volume content of gas and particles (impurities). In the event that the local static pressure falls below the value of the vaporising pressure, liquids and particles create a multiphase flow (liquidvapourparticles), which is increased in the static (reference) pressure condenses and becomes a liquid twophase flow with particles. This means that by reducing the pressure in the system, or by increasing fluid flow speed, we change point of emergence of the vapour phase. With nodimensional number , the dependency of hydraulic parameters of cavitation appearance could be determined.
pk pmu (Tk ) 2 m vm 2
(2.2)
where pk representsthereferencesystempressure, pmu isthefluidvapourpressure, m is fluid (mixture) density and vm is the flow velocity. With cavitation number decrease, the possibility of cavitation development increases. Hydrodynamic cavitation causes a change of resistance, change hydromechanics flow, thermal, lighting effects and erosion in areas of
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surfaceflows.Duringtheoperationofhydraulicmachinery,themostsignificantcavitationisin theformofacloud.Itcausesadecreaseofefficiencyofmachineryandmechanicaldamagedue tohighlocalpressuresinthevapourimplosions(afewtensofMPa). In water turbines and pumps, the unequal operating noise is present. The released pressure waveatthecollapseofvapourphaseisspreadingthroughthefluidandisdrawnfromawide rangeofnoisefrequencies.Thenoiseisaccompaniedwithincreasedvibrationintheoccurrence ofcavitation.Vibrationornoiseisperceivedasconsequencesoftheshockwavearespreading inspaceandstrikingthesurroundingarea.Thenoisegeneratedatthecollapseofthebubbleis located in the high frequency band. Capturing cavitation noise is highly dependent on the positionofthesensoraswellasinthemeasurementsofthecurrentaroundtheobservedbody. Thesoundspeedalsoaffectsattenuationinthefieldofmultiphaseflowandtheratiobetween thevapourphaseparticlesandliquidphase.
2.3
Forces on profiled blade in cavitation tunnel
Therearechangingforceswiththecreationofmultiphaseflowinflowingliquid(water)around the observed wings or hydraulic shovels. Flow field around hydraulic shape is generally a functionofbodysize,flowattackangle,flowvelocities,andmatterpropertiesofliquid[3].The dimensionless numbers used to describe the external flow situation are: Froude Fr = vk / gl , Reynolds Re = vk l / andMach M a = vk / c number.
Figure1:Influentialparametersonvapourphasedevelopment. Inamixtureofwater,attheobservedbladeprofile,themovementofparticlesatbladesurface are observed, and the lift and resistance force are determined. At appropriate conditions pk pmu , on the suction side of blade, at appropriate flow velocities, the vapour phase develops.Theimpactofthevapourphaseisreflectedinliftforce,whichincreasesdependingon the development of the vapour phase. Particles in the mixture are moving slowly in the continuousphaseleadingtoalteredpressureparticletracks.
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This paper presents the determination of the change in torque applied to a NACA 4418 hydraulicwingshape.Basedonthegeometryandtakingintoaccounttheclampingblade,we setthecoefficientoftorqueas:
ct =
12M t 2 3 m vm A(l13 l2 )
(2.3)
Where M t istorque, m ismixturedensity, vm isaveragevelocityofmixtureinthetunnel, A ischaracteristicarea, l1 islengthbetweenfixingpointandtrailingedgeofblade, l2 isthelength between the fixing point and leading edge of blade profile. The equation (2.3) considers the resistancemomentofareaanditsgravitycenterlength.
EXPERIMENT
Theimpactofthechangeinparticletorqueandthedevelopmentofcavitationwereobserved ontheblade(NACA4418).Testingwascarriedoutonasmallcavitationtunnelthatisdesigned toresearchthedevelopmentofcavitationinvariousformsofhydraulicblades.Themeasuring line is made in accordance with the recommendations for the implementation of cavitation tests following the ISO 2548 standard. The test rig is closed and allows flow velocities in the tunnelupto5m/s.Thecavitationnumberchangewasperformedbythecontrolledapplication ofpressureinthesystem. The flow rate was changed with frequency regulation (rotating speed) of the driving pump motor.Measurementofflowratesandflowvelocitiesarepreformedusingventurenozzle,and theultrasonicflowmeter.
Figure2:Cavitationtunnelwiththebladeatintakepumpside. Thelengthofthebladeis104mmandwidthis64mm,withoveralllengthcavitationplaneis partofthetunnelatlength l = 17 L .ThebladematerialisCuZn40.Thebladeisaflexible spanning with two ball bearings. The blade is observed through the Plexiglas on the two perpendicular sides. Measurement of the torque is via the shaft cover and the chassis dynamometer accuracy is 0.1% (Alborn K 25). The connection to dynamometer shaft and is implementedwithcantileverhandlelength94.5mm.Capturingcavitationnoise,wefollowthe
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sensor (Cirrus Research plc CR: 800B) mounted above the plexiglass and isolated from its surroundingswithStyrofoam.Thesensorissetawayfromtheoccurrenceofcavitationonthe bladefrom11to13mm.Pressureinthechannelwasmeasuredbeforeandaftertheopening. Thecavitationchannelisseparatefromtherestmeasuringlineswithrubberdampers.
Anti-noise material Mesuring of noise Plexiglas Measuring of pressure
Measuring of pressure
Cavitation cloud Indication of cavitation Direction of flow
Measurement of torque Angle Lx
Figure3:Schematicofafoiledblade(NACA4418). Measurementswereperformedatdifferentflowvelocitiesinthetunnel(2.6m/s,2.9m/s,3.3 m/sand3.6m/s).Theflowvelocityattheminimumintersectionbetweenbladeandbodyofthe tunnel was between 6.6 m/s and 9.1 m/s, which means that the Reynolds number ( Re = vm l / )isbetween 2 105 and 3.5 10 5 .Measurementsareperformedattwodifferent bladeanglessettings(16and20).Slopeangleispositiveifintakeangleislargerthanouttake angleattheoutput.Torquehasapositivesignwhenthehydraulicpowerpushesuptheleading edgeoftheblade.Thereferencestaticpressurewithamixtureofparticlesisdesignated pk in thecaseofcleanwaterandisusedtodeterminethecavitationnumber.Torquemeasurement tookplacewithouttakingintoaccounttherelativefrictioninthebearings.Cavitationnoisewas included in the various frequency bands (from 25 Hz to 16 kH), and at various cavitation numbers. Visual monitoring of initial cavitation was monitored at a metal initiator that is locatedinthemiddlepartoftheinputbladepart(initiatorissquare4mmx2mmx6mm).The initiator is set away from the leading edge of the blade at a distance 12 mm. Measurements were started with pure water (tap water), then a certain concentration of particles in the systemwasaddedthreetimes.
3.1
Preparation of water mixture
Formeasuringtheimpactonthedevelopmentofcavitation,weusedparticles(sand)material FR240/F.Thedensityofparticleis = 1700 kg / m3 ,whichareinsolubleinwater,inertanddo notoxidize. Determination of particle size for testing was chosen on the basis of measurements of the actualsizeoftheparticlesintheDravaRiver.Measurementsofparticlesize,surfaceareaand concentration in different annual periods and at different flow rates were determined with a microscope,byfiltering,andbyweighing.Thesizeofparticlesinriverwaterwasdeterminedby means of a Nikon SMZ 2T stereoscopic microscope, Sony highresolution CCD video camera and Lucia M software package. The average density of particles in the Drava River is approx. = 2200 kg / m3 [7].
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Figure4:Sizeofparticlesdetermination,dependingofDravaflowrates Onthebasisofcertainrealsizeofriverparticulates(Figure4)throughscreens,weobtainthe corresponding procedure for the testing of comparable particles in the cavitation tunnel. Particlesizeisclassifiedanddeterminedonthebasisofanalysisdiameters.Formeasurements inthecavitationtunnel,weusedthreedifferentconcentrationsofparticles.Allmeasurements were performed at the same conditions (flow rates, the reference pressure in the system, temperature).
Cleanwater Concentration1(Con1) Concentration2(Con2) Concentration3(Con3) Particles density 3 [kg/m ] 0 1,1 1,6 3,22
[%]
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0,9 1,5 2,6 4,3 7,5 12,5 21 36 60 103 Particle size [m]
Grain of sand
Figure5:DeterminationofparticlesizeclassesFR240/Fofthesievinganalysisandthe concentrationusedfortestinginthecavitationtunnel.
Figure6:Cavitationtunnelsketchwithembeddedblade
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3.2
Results and data analyses
Torquechangeisgivenbythedimensionlessratioofthetorqueappliedtotheconditionofthe referencepressure M t 0 / M t (2.9m/s,=16)or M t / M t 0 (2.6,3.6m/s,=20and3.3m/s, = 16). Torque varies with the change of the reference pressure in the system. The resulting noise,asaresultofthecavitationdevelopment,isgivenindB.Torqueandthenoiseareshown relative to a reference pressure in the system, the concentration of particulate matter, the averagespeedofthemixtureinthechannel,andbladeangle().Standarddeviationisshown asafunctionofthereferencepressureinthesystemanddependingonthetorque. By increasing the reference pressure in the system (Figure 7) the torque decreases to a minimum.Byloweringthereferencepressureinthesystem,noiseincreasesby30%(developed vaporphase).Onthebasisofmeasurementnoiseandtorque,wenotethatachangeofnoiseis detectedmuchearlierthanthetorquechange. Noise amplitude fluctuations as well as increased torque monitor increased vibrations. Increasingtheconcentrationofparticlescausesafasterchangeinmomentumaswellasnoise incomparisonwithpurewater.
1,3
1,2
1,1
Mt0/Mt [-]
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
,4
,3
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,2
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Reference Pressure [bar]

2,8 m/s 16st. Clean Water 2,8 m/s 16st. Con2 P4 (2,8 m/s 16st. Con3) P4 (2,8 m/s 16st. Con1) 2,8 m/s 16st. Con1 2,8 m/s 16st. Con3 P4 (2,8 m/s 16st. Clean Water) P4 (2,8 m/s 16st. Con2)
-0
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110
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95
90
85 2,8 m/s 16 st. Clean Water 80 2,8 m/s 16 st. Con1 2,8 m/s 16 st. Con2 2,8 m/s 16 st. Con3 75
0 0 0 0 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,3 ,3 ,3 ,2 ,3 ,3 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 ,4 ,3
b)
Reference Presure [bar]
Figure7:(a)Torqueand(b)noiseindependencyofparticlesinwaterconcentration,and referencecleanwater(2.6m/s,=16o)
2,2
1,8
Mt/Mt0 [-]
1,6
1,4
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0 0 0 0 0 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,3 ,3 ,3 ,3 ,3 ,3 ,4 ,2 ,2 ,1 ,1 ,2 ,1 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0
Reference Pressure [ba r]

2,6 m/s 20st. Clean Water 2,6 m/s 20st. Con1 P3 (2,6m/s 20st. Clean Water) P3 (2,6m/s 20st. Con2) 2,6 m/s 20st. Con2 2,6 m/s 20st. Con3 P3 (2,6m/s 20st. Con3) P3 (2,6m/s 20st. Con1)
Figure8:Characteristictorqueindependencyofconcentrationchange,regardingcleanwaterat 2.6m/s,=20o.
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Byincreasingthegradientbladeangle(Fig.8),thedistributionofvapourphasesfollowingthe suction side blade surface changes. From the measurements, it is clear that regardless of the underlyingvalueoftorque,inallcasesthetorquefallsslightlyasaresultoftheformationofthe vapourphaseonthesurfaceoftheblade.Byreducingthereferencepressureinthesystem,the torque does not change linearly with regard to a change in pressure but exponentially. The largest change in momentum can also be seen in the maximum concentration of particles in water,whileincomparisonwithpurewateritchangesby60%(referencepressure0.4bar). Byincreasingtheflowrateandreducingthepressureofthereferencemixtureinthecavitation tunnel, torque increased inall cases of different concentrations (up to2 to 3 times regarding basic value M t 0 ). The difference between pure water and the maximum concentration of particles is 70%. By increasing the angle of the blade, cavitation occurs in a smaller absolute changeinpressureinthesystem.ThegreatestchangeinmomentumwascausedbyCon3atthe referencepressure0.4bar.
3,5
2,5
Mt/Mt0 [-]
1,5
0,5
0 0 0 0 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,1 ,2 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,3 ,3 ,1 ,3 ,3 ,3 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 ,4 ,4

3,6 m/s 16st. Cleen Water 3,6 m/s 16st. Con2 P3 (3,6 m/s 16 st. Con3) P3 (3,6 m/s 16 st. Clean Water) 3,6 m/s 16st. Con1 3,6 m/s 16st. Con3 P3 (3,6 m/s 16 st. Con2) P3 (3,6 m/s 16 st. Con1)
Figure9:Characteristictorqueindependencyofconcentrationchange,regardingcleanwaterat 3.6m/s,=20o.
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1,8
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-0
-0

3,3 m/s 20st. Clean Water 3,3 m/s 20st. Con2 P4 (3,3 m/s 20 st. Con1) P4 (3,3 m/s 20 st. Con2) 3,3 m/s 20st. Con1 3,3 m/s 20st. Con3 P4 (3,3 m/s 20 st. Con3) P4 (3,3 m/s 20 st. Clean Water)
-0
-0
,3
,4
a)
118 117 116 115
N ois e [dB ]
114 113 112 111 110
b)
3,3 m/s 20 st. - Con3 3,3 m/s 20 st. - Con2
-0 ,1 -0 ,1 -0 ,1 -0 ,1 -0 ,2 -0 ,2 -0 ,2 -0 ,2 -0 ,2 -0 ,3 -0 ,3 -0 ,3 -0 ,3 -0 ,3 -0 ,3 -0 ,4 -0 ,4
Reference Presure [bar]

3,3 m/s 20 st. - Con1 3,3 m/s 20 st. - Clean w ater
Figure10:(a)Torqueand(b)noiseindependencyofparticlesinwaterconcentration,and referencecleanwater(2.6m/s,=16o) Stronglydevelopedvapourphaseonthesuctionsideofbladehasanimpactonreducingnoise. The vapour phase leads to increased sound damping in the field of sound propagation. The dampingofsoundisalsopartlyinfluencedbyparticlesinamultiphaseflow.Weanticipatethat thedevelopedcavitationisnolongerintheplaceofvapourimplodingatthesuctionbladeside surface,butinthecourseofliquidsandparticles.Apronounceddecreaseinnoiseoccursinthe rangeoftheoccurrenceofthedevelopedsupercavitation.
JET 77
0,012 0,01
Stan d ard d eviatio n
Clean Water Con1 Con2 Con3
0,008 0,006 0,004 0,002 0

t
0s
0s
6s
-2
-2
/s
/s
/s
6m
8m
3m
2,
2,
3,
3,
6m
/s
-1
-1
6s
Figure11:Standarddeviationoftorqueindependencyofparticleconcentrationchangeinwater at3.3m/s,=20o.
6
Con3 Con2 Con1 Clean Water
Standard deviation
0
0 ,2 ,3 -0 ,1 -0 -0 -0 ,4
Figure12:Standarddeviationofnoiseindependencyofparticleconcentrationchangeinwater at3.3m/s=20o.
78 JET
115 105 95 Noise [dB]

2,6 m/s, 20 st. - Con3 3,3 m/s, 20 st. - Con3 3,3 m/s, 20 st. - Clean water One cavitation - Clean water
85 75 65 55
25 H 31 z H 40 z H 50 z H 63 z H 80 z 10 Hz 0 H 12 z 5 H 16 z 0 H 20 z 0 H 25 z 0 H 31 z 5 H 40 z 0 50 Hz 0 H 63 z 0 H 80 z 0 H 1 z 1. k H 25 z k 1. H z 6 kH 2 z k 2. H z 5 3. k H 15 z kH 4 z kH 5 z k 6. H z 3 kH 8 z k 10 H z 12 k H .5 z kH 16 z kH z
The Fre que ncy range of me asure me nt noise
Figure13:Noisepowerindependencyoffrequencyband,atdifferentparticlesconcentrationin water. Themaximumdeviationvariesinproportiontotheincreaseingradientangleblades,andpartly byincreasingthespeedofthemixtureinthecavitationchannel.Derogationstandarddeviation isincludedintheoverallreductioninthereferencepressure.Pronounceddeviationisobserved atallconcentrations,aswellascleanwaterintheareaof3.3m/sand=20o. Standard deviation of noise data for a given reference pressure is shown in Figure 12. The maximumdeviationofthenoiseisobservedinthezoneoftheoccurrenceofthevapourphase. Reducingthereferencepressureinthesystemdecreasesthestandarddeviation. The measurement noise as a function of frequency spectrum and the state of liquid (pure water, concentration 3), the maximum noise occurs at a frequency of 1 kHz. It is also at a frequency of 315 Hz where increased noise was detected, which may be due to a cavitation cloudtearing[3].Theimpactofparticlesonthestrengthofthenoiseispronouncedoverthe frequency 4kH where the noise is increased. The increase in noise is also observed at a frequencyof12.5kHz.
CONCLUSIONS
Inthecavitationtunnel,weexploredtheeffectofparticlesinthewatertochangetherelative ratioofliftforcesandtherelativeintensitynoiseonabladefoiledwiththeNACA4418profile, inthreedifferentconcentrationsofparticlesinwater.Inexaminingtheimpactofparticleson lift force and noise, we compared the measured relative securities of clean water free of particles.Fromthemeasuredvalues,wehavecometothefollowingconclusions:
JET 79
A) On a small corner of the inclined blade ( =16o), the developed vapour phase change producesagreaterliftforce,asinthecaseofalargegradientangle( = 20o).Changeinthelift forcedependsonthesurfaceofthedevelopedvapourphase,orthedistancefromthecentreof shrinkagebladeprofile.Whencavitationincreases,vapourcloudcoveroverthecentreaxisof thetrappedthetorsiontorqueincreases. B) By reducing the reference system pressure, increases develop in the multiphase flow of liquid, particle and vapour phase across the "intake" to the airfoil surface, which in turn increases the ratio of lift forces. The experimental measurement shows that the lift force increaseswithanincreasingconcentrationofparticlesinwater. C) Increasing the speed of the mixture over the cavitation tunnel formation causes increased intensityofthevapourphase;thisinturn,increasestheratioofliftforces. D)Thedevelopedcavitationcloudisunstableanddoesnothaveacompactform.Breakageof the cloud causes the pressure and lift force pulsations. Most pulsating lift forces occur in an areawheretheclouddoesnot"falloff"fromtheinletsuctionsurfacecover. E) Standard deviation ratio of lift forces is most pronounced for all levels, including for clean water,at3.3ms1atangleof20. F)Theformationofcavitationonthebladeisrapidlydetectedbyincreasednoiseintherangeof theoccurrenceofvapourphase.Noiseincreasesindevelopedcavitationby35%,incomparison tothestatewithoutcavitation.Fornoisemeasurements,wedependonvisualcreationofthe vapour phase. Determination of the emergence of the vapour phase by measurement of the relativenoisegivessatisfactoryresults.Thenoiseisdetectedindependentlyofthevisualforms ofthevapourphaseinthepresenceofincreasingconcentrationsofdispersedparticles. H) Standard deviation of noise is pronounced at the stage of the emergence of the vapour phasethatrecordedthelargestdeviations.Noisemeasurementquicklydetectstheemergence ofthevapourphaseinthesystem,asinthecaseofmeasurementsofbuoyancyforces. I)Thevaluesofmaximumamplitudeofnoiseinsomefrequencyareasarereachedintherange of 1 kHz. The effect of concentration of particles on the strength of noise appears markedly higherthan4kH.Inthisarea,thenoiseisgreaterthaninthecaseofcleanwater,i.e.freeof particles.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] E.Xavier,E.Egusquiza,M.Farthat,F.Avellan,M.Coussirat:Detectionofcavitationin hydraulicturbines,MechanicalSystemsandSignalProcessing20(2006)9831007 L.kerget:Mehanikatekoin,UniverzavMariboru,Tehnikafakulteta,1994 B.irok,M.Dular,B.Stoffel.;Kavitacija,i2,Ljubljana,2006, M. Dular: Razvoj metode napovedi kavitacijske erozije v hidravlinih strojih, doktorsko delo,Ljubljana,2005 B. irok, M. Dular, B. Stoffel: Vpliv koliine plinov v vodi in hitrosti na erozivnost kavitacijskeerozije,Strojnikivestnik,2005
80 JET
[6]
B.irok,M.Dular,B.Stoffel,M.Novak,M.Hoevar,G.Ludwig,BBachert:TheInfluence ofCavitationStructuresontheErosionofaSymmetricalHydrofoilinaCavitationTunnel, Strojnikivestnik,2002 M. etina, M. Krzyk: Dvodimenzijski matematini model transporta lebdeih plavin, Strojnikivestnik,marec,2003 D. Florjani: Troubleshooting, Handbook for Centrifugal Pumps, Turbointitut, Ljubljana,2008 Duan, Karelin: Abrasive Erosion & Corrosion of Hydraulic Machinery, International ResearchCenteronHydraulicMachinery,Beijing,China,MoscowStateUniversityofCivil Engineering,Russia,2003 C.Brennen:CavitationandBubbledynamics,OxfordUniversityPress,1995 C.Brennen:HydrodynamicsifPumps,OxfordUniversityPress,ConceptsNREC,1995 D.Wang,M.Atlar,R.Sampson:Anexperimentalinvestigationoncavitation,noise,and slipstream characteristics of ocean stream turbine, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, NewcastleuponTyne,UK2006 J. Hengyun, Z. Fengzhen, l. Shiyun, H. Chenzhao: The Role of Sand Particles on Rapid Destruction of the Cavitation Zone of Hydraulic Turbines, Institute of Metal Research, AcademiaSince,Shenyang(China)1986 E. Xavier, E. Egusquiza, M. Farthat, F. Avellan: Cavitation Erosion Prediction in Hydro Turbines from Onboard Vibrations, IAHR Symposium on Hydraulic Machinery and Systems,Stockholm(Sweden)2004 M.Farthat,F.Avellan:OntheDetachmentofaLeadingEdgeCavitation,LaboratoryFor HydraulicMachines,SwissFederalInstituteofTechnology,Lausanne(Switzerland)2001 L. Shengcai: Cavitation Enhancement in Silt erosion: Obstacles & Way forward, Fluid DynamicsResearchCentre,WarwickUniversity,UK2003 B. Gregorc, A. Predin: Comparison of measurement shaft displacement, bearing casing vibrations and axial forces in three different Kaplan turbines, Journal of Energy Technology,March2009,vol.2.p.924 A. Predin, I. Bilu, I., B. Gregorc: Cavitation swirl at the entrance of centrifugal pump, JournalofEnergyTechnology,August2009,vol.2.p.8597 A.Predin,I.Bilu:Numericalandexperimentalapproachtocavitationsurgeobstruction inwaterpumps,InternationalJournalofNumericalMethodsforHeat&FluidFlow,vol. 19,2009,p.818834
[7] [8] [9]
[10] [11] [12]
[13]
[14]
[15] [16] [17]
[18] [19]
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82 JET
InstructionstoAuthors http://www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html
AUTHOR INSTRUCTIONS (MAIN TITLE) SLOVENIAN TITLE

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JET 83
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84 JET
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JOURNAL OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

JOURNAL OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

Table of Contents / Kazalo

JETVolume3 (2010),p.p.1124 Issue2,May2010 http://www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html

SOLAR POWER PLANTS

Photovoltaics at the threshold of price competitiveness

Factors of production cost reduction

2007 4,2 68%

2008 6,3 50%

2009 7,5 19%

2010 11,7 56%

2011 21,6 84%

2012 39,8 85%

Photovoltaics market potential by the year 2020

JETVolume3(2010),p.p.2536 Issue2,May2010 http://www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html

Figure2:Tracks,inabsoluteterms,theaverageperpersonresourcedemand(Ecological Footprint)andperpersonresourcesupply(Biocapacity)intheWorldsince19611*.Biocapacity varieseachyearwithecosystemmanagement,agriculturalpractices(suchasfertilizeruseand irrigation),ecosystemdegradation,andweather,[6].

Figure3:Tracks,inabsoluteterms,theaverageperpersonresourcedemand(Ecological Footprint)andperpersonresourcesupply(Biocapacity)inSloveniasince1961*.Biocapacity varieseachyearwithecosystemmanagement,agriculturalpractices(suchasfertilizeruseand irrigation),ecosystemdegradation,andweather,[6].

Table2:Investments(indicatorA)andcurrentexpenditures(indicatorB)forenvironmental protectionintheSavinjaStatisticalRegionincomparisontootherStatisticalRegionsinSlovenia (Source:[11])

THE ALEK VALLEY SHARE IN THE SAVINJA STATISTICAL REGION

2001 26.0 34.7

2002 14.1 30.1

2003 22.1 43.9

2004 8.4 38.2

2005 19.0 36.5

2006 31.4 33.8

Table4:SomeactionsinalekValleytowardsregionalecological(carbon)footprintreducing ACTOR ACTIVITY

19861) 18.751 20.340 14.704 16.294 2.384 1.376 276 10

2002 14.541 20.037 10.764 16.259 2.257 1.336 50 116 17

2003 14.455 19.773 10.742 16.061 2.212 1.299 64 119 18

2004 14.449 20.092 10.784 16.427 2.186 1.261 80 120 18

nooccurence 1)thebaseyear Source:EnvironmentalAgencyoftheRepublicofSlovenia

Figure8:Greenhousegasemissionsbysource,Slovenia,2006(Total20,284GgCO2equivalent) *Theconceptofenergyinclude:theuseoffuelsinenergyproduction,inmanufacturingandconstruction, transportandothersectors.Source:[12].

[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

JETVolume3(2010),p.p.3752 Issue2,May2010 http://www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html

1. 1 Econometric analysis of investments in RST

(1.1) (1.2) (1.3) (1.4)

m. 206.887 75.927 44.448 13.276 17.132 2,477 0.820 82.245 25.081

m. 1,023.350 370.370 211.321 58.642 94.976 12,443 2.531 295.565 128.777

0.243 0.184 0.219 0.245 0.288 0.219 0.170 0.195 0.159

309.717 119.487 67.579 20.774 29.471 3,863 1.623 383.361 39.681

0.434 0.347 0.394 0.461 0.618 0.401 0.335 0.918 0.303

m. 136.511 49.957 28.730 8.189 12.320 1,664 0.458 58.090 17.071

m. 4,239.020 1,550.715 948.864 262.634 317.417 56,615 37.740 1,808.100 519.196

Appendix to calculations in Tables 1-8: TableA:Acomparisonoftechnologiesandtheirmacroeconomicindicatorsduringthe constructionofindividualRSTenergyplants,bytakingintoaccounttargetvaluesin2020(with regardtotherequiredinvestment)

Sharerelatedtoinvestment(v%) Production Valueadded(GDP) Grossemployeecost(salaries) Useofpermanentcapital Businessprofit Numberofemployees ExpendituresforR&D Directandindirectimport

165.51 59.90 34.18 9.48 15.36 20.1 0.41 47.80 20.83

139.04 51.03 29.87 8.92 11.51 16.6 0.55 55.27 16.86

136.58 49.84 32.15 8.63 8.37 19.7 1.88 54.44 16.43

89.62 34.57 19.55 6.01 8.53 11.2 0.47 110.93 11.48

156.03 56.89 33.82 9.92 12.35 18.9 0.74 43.15 18.79

145.53 53.26 30.63 8.73 13.13 17.7 0.49 61.93 18.20

153.83 56.09 32.88 9.50 12.92 18.7 0.62 49.46 18.83

138.77 50.76 31.06 8.60 10.39 18.5 1.24 59.19 17.00

JETVolume3(2010),p.p.5366 Issue2,May2010 http://www.fe.unimb.si/si/jet.html

TheInternationalEnergyAgencyincludesinthetermrenewableenergythefollowingenergy sources:combustiblerenewablesandwastes(CRW),hydropower,wind,solar,geothermaland oceanenergy(IEA,2007). Combustiblerenewablesandwastesareinturndefinedas:solidbiomass,biogas,liquidbiofuels andmunicipalwastes.

Renewal of interest in wood in developed countries

Wood compared to coal

POSSIBLE USES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN THE ALEK VALLEY

3.1. Current Climate Data

9.8 16.4 13.2 4.9 7.6 8.4

9.6 11.6 12.7 115.6

Mobile Meteorological Station

Thewinddata,takeninthecentreofVelenje,showthatwindenergyrarelyexceeds1.5m/s2in ashortperiodoftime.Practicefromabroadandaliteraturestudyshowtheoptimalwindspeed forharnessingthewindenergyshouldbeintherangeof525m/s2.