Technical Note 1.

1 Energy and Power (S 10) by Marvin Antonoff, (October, 2006; revised September, 2008 and January, 2010) READ ME: Preliminary Comment: This Tech Note contains some history and some physics and math. Upon reading it you may wonder: What have I signed up for? PLEASE DONT BE SCARED OFF, especially by the math. The content of the course is not about solving math problems! But sometimes math is important. A famous scientist once claimed that you dont really understand something until you put some numbers on it. What is it that I want you to learn as you read this Tech Note? 1. First, Ive begun with a brief history of the development of the ideas of energy and power. Galileo, Newton and others played major roles in the development of these concepts and I hope you will find the history interesting and worthy of some further study. 2. Concepts of Energy and Power: To understand the definitions of energy and power and the units in which these quantities can be expressed. (Please do not memorize conversion factors between units.) When we talk about wind power or solar power, it is necessary to be able to express the power output of a wind or solar facility and to understand how many households the power will serve. We may want to calculate the cost of the energy we obtain from a power plant and then calculate how many power plants we will need to build to serve our needs. This may require some math, but at a level that you should be able to handle. The math often sheds light on a question. 3. Planning Energy for the Future: If we wish to plan the future of power generation, it will often come down to the question of cost. How much will we have to pay for electricity generated by solar power? How does it compare to the cost of wind or geothermal power? Energy users want it to be affordable. Investors wont build generators to supply energy that users wont buy. The public might have to pay for subsidies to develop desirable but expensive forms of power. That leads to the realm of politics and economics. You can see that many complex issues arise and becoming well informed will require some math. So bear with me as we get started. I hope you will read the examples that I have put together in the last part of this Note to clarify ideas and to see how math is useful in arriving at interesting results. This Note has more information than can be read in one sitting, and there is no need to master it all now. You can use the contents as a reference, so do not memorize facts that you can look up. Finally, I expect you to make a serious attempt in this course and to be able to say at the conclusion of the semester: I learned a great deal.

A Brief History of Energy The term energy is used freely in common discourse and in the media, and it is safe to say that most people have a general idea of what energy is, even if they cant define it as a scientist might. Although the concept of energy may generally be understood, it took more than 100 years for it to be clarified. It required the development of terminology and mathematical tools, as well as observation of physical phenomena, for a clear understanding of the concept to emerge. The branch of physics in which energy first arises is called mechanics, the study of the motion of objects. Galileo Galilei (15641642) was the first of the modern scientists to make significant mathematical advances in the study of the field now known as kinematics, the description of motion. Isaac Newton (1642-1727), born in the year Galileo died, built upon Galileos work and initiated the field of dynamics, the study of how things move under the action of forces. Newtons comprehensive theory of mechanics was published in his famous work, Principia, in which he was able to give a mathematical description of the motion of the suns planets. For a fuller history of the work of the scientists who made important contributions to the theory of mechanics, I recommend additional readings on the subject, much of which can be found in libraries or online. It should leave you with a wellwarranted appreciation of the intellectual achievements the scientists of the 17th and 18th centuries. Concepts of Energy and Power; Principle of Conservation of Energy The modern concept of energy emerged in the 18th century in Newtons theory of mechanics. Force multiplied by distance moved is equal to the work done by the force. By applying a force to an object on a frictionless table, the work done produces an acceleration of the object and invests it with a quality of motion known in Newtonian mechanics as kinetic energy. The faster an object moves, the greater is its kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed. Alternatively, work is done on an object in lifting it above a table. The raised object has been invested with a quality known as potential energy. The potential energy is stored energy, and, in this case, referred to as gravitational potential energy, since the work done to raise the object was against the gravitational force. Classifying energy as kinetic or potential is generally useful. It was a triumph of physics to recognize that energy may be transformed from one form into another and that in the process the total energy remains constant. This idea has a special place in the history of physics and its known as the Principle of Conservation of Energy. Consider a child on a swing moving through an arc. The swing will have its maximum speed at the bottom of the arc and at that instant possesses a maximum amount of kinetic energy. At the highest point of its motion, the swing will be instantaneously at rest so that its kinetic energy will be zero. Its potential energy will have increased by virtue of its rise. If no energy has been added or removed from the swing, e.g. by the push of an adult or by air resistance, it will be found that the potential energy at the top of the swing is exactly equal to the kinetic energy at the bottom. Indeed, at any point in the motion, the total

energy, i.e. the sum of the kinetic and potential energies, has the same total value. Thus, energy may be transformed back and forth, from one form to another, like a fixed amount of water distributed in two buckets. In the absence of transfers of energy to or from the system, the principle of conservation of energy is obeyed. Applying our water analogy, we might consider two buckets, one labeled Kinetic and the other labeled Potential. We may transfer water (energy) from one bucket to another, but the total amount of water (energy) is unchanged (constant). A remarkable fact is that potential energy has many forms other than the gravitational potential energy just discussed. A chemical compound like gasoline may, upon ignition, explode releasing a surge of hot gases. The released energy is said to have been stored in the gasoline in a form called chemical potential energy. The molecules in the food we eat store chemical energy which is released during digestion. Compressing or stretching a spring requires that work be done. The work done increases the mechanical potential energy of the spring. This mechanical energy may be recovered when the spring is released. Energy is stored in the electronic devices called capacitors and inductors. In the case of the capacitor, electric charge within the device creates an electric field. It requires work, perhaps supplied by a battery, to charge the capacitor, resulting in an increase of its potential energy. The energy may be referred to as the potential energy of the electric field. Similarly, the inductor is an electronic device in which a magnetic field is produced by the current in a coil. Again, it requires work to establish the magnetic field and the resulting potential energy is referred to as the potential energy of the magnetic field. Energy from the sun or solar energy, is in a form called radiant energy or electromagnetic energy. It is energy contained in the electromagnetic field. Radiant energy powers photosynthesis, the process in which carbon dioxide and water are combined to form sugars. In this case, radiant energy is converted into chemical energy. Light, radio waves, microwaves, X-rays are electromagnetic waves and are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thermal Energy is another form which requires detailed description. Weve said that energy may be transformed from one type to another. For example, when the sun formed, gases (mostly hydrogen) collected under the influence of gravity. As this occurred, the gravitational potential energy of the gases when the gases were dispersed was traded in for the kinetic energy and internal excitation energy of the particles that make up the sun. I will use the term thermal energy in referring to this energy of motion and internal excitation. The increase in thermal energy is generally accompanied by an increase in temperature. Because of the increase in temperature, we sometimes say (incorrectly) that the gravitational energy has been converted to heat, when we really should say that the gravitational energy has resulted in an increase in thermal energy. In the case of the sun, some of the thermal energy can be radiated away and some of it can be carried off by high velocity particles ejected from the sun.

A similar, yet different, process occurs in the earth. Radioactive elements, contained in the matter that condensed to form the earth, have nuclei which are storing internal potential energy. Eventually, the nuclei will decay, releasing the potential energy which will be absorbed by the surrounding matter and result in an increase in the temperature of the surrounding matter. This process is responsible for the molten core of the earth. I suggest that we call the energy of the molten core thermal energy or geothermal energy. Most remarkable is the energy that is stored in mass itself. Einsteins famous equation states that E=mc2, where m is the mass of an object and c is the speed of light! In a nuclear transformation a change in the total nuclear mass occurs, and the energy released can properly said to have been stored in the form of potential energy of the nuclear mass. For additional information on potential energy, refer to Appendix A., Forces of Nature and Potential Energies. For additional information on energy, see the Energy Information Agency, Department of Energy (DOE) site at http://www.eia.doe.gov/

Energy and Power On the basis of these ideas, textbooks often define energy as follows: Definition: Energy is the capacity to do work. Examples of Energy used to do Work y y y y y The kinetic energy of motion of the head of a hammer can be used to drive a nail into a beam. The gravitational potential energy of a raised iron block can be used to drive a steel pile into the ground. The chemical potential energy in gasoline can be released to push the pistons of an automobile engine, causing the wheels to turn. The mechanical potential energy stored in a compressed spring can be used to launch a projectile, imparting kinetic energy to the projectile. The gravitational potential energy of water at the top of a dam can be used to turn a turbine used to generate electrical power.

Units of Work and Energy Since work can increase energy, the quantities have the same units. In the SI system of units (from the French Le Systeme International dUnites), the base units of some quantities are given in the following table: Quantity Name Symbol

Length Mass Time Force Work or energy

meter kilogram second Newton Joule

m kg s N J

Work is equal to the product of force and distance. The work done by a force of one Newton (1.0 N) moving through a distance of one meter (1.0 m) is one Joule (1.0 J). Thus, 1.0 J = (1.0 N) (1.0 m) = 1.0 N-m.

Power: Concept and Definition The concept of power arises when we consider the time involved in doing work. Suppose an object is raised to some height above the ground. Work is done. The amount of work which is done is independent of the time it takes to raise the object, whether it takes one second or one hour. Although the amount of work done is the same, the rate at which the work is done is different. Definition: Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. The unit of power is the Watt (W) (named after James Watt, the inventor of the steam engine). One Watt is the power delivered when the rate of doing work is one Joule per second. 1.0 W = 1.0 J/s. Prefixes Symbol Name micro milli kilo mega giga tera peta exa Power of Ten 10-6 10-3 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018

m k M G T P E

Units; Conversion of Units The units of energy are the same as the units of heat, heat being a way to transfer energy. The units of heat are sometimes expressed in terms of calories (cal) or British thermal units (Btu).

y y y

The calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1.0 gm of water by 1.0oC. (Note: 1.0 kg = 103 gm.) The Btu is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1.0 lb of water by 1.0oF. The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the amount of energy delivered in one hour at a rate of one kilowatt. Energy 1.0 cal = 4.18 J 1.0 kcal = 4.18 kJ = 3.968 Btu 1.0 kWh = 3600 kJ = 860 kcal Quadrillion Btu, QBtu, 1.0 Quad = 1015 Btu 1.0 tonne of oil equivalent (toe) = 42,000 MJ = 42 GJ [ This is the average energy content (chemical potential energy) of 1000 kg of oil.] 1.0 tonne of oil = 7.33 barrels of oil 1.0 barrel of oil (boe) = 5.71 GJ A commonly used unit is millions of barrels of oil daily, Mbd. In 2000, the world oil consumption was 73.9 Mbd. The total U.S. energy consumption is approximately 100 Quads. Power 1.0 Watt (W) = 1.0 Joule/sec (J/s) 1.0 horsepower (hp) = 746 W = 550 ft-lb/s Additional Units and Conversions: See the Energy Information Agency site at http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=about_energy_units.

Examples involving energy and power: The following examples are intended to elucidate and utilize some of the concepts of energy, power and conservation of energy. I trust you will find them as interesting and informative as Ive intended them to be. Please be assured that the contents of these examples are not representative of the work we will be doing in this course, Energy for the Future. 1. Transformations of Energy; Conservation of Energy: Riding a Bike As you pedal your bike, consider the energy transformations involved in the process. Even before you start off on that ride, the energy you will expend comes from your food (chemical energy). The food required sunlight (radiant energy) to grow it. Once eaten, the food is digested and metabolized to sugars and proteins (chemical energy) and carried in your bloodstream to organs, muscles and tissues of the body. These chemicals allow the muscles in your legs to exert forces the forces required to rotate the pedals (work is done), which in turn speeds up the bike and you (kinetic energy increases). By the way, work is a means of transferring energy, in this case from your muscles to

the rotational motion (kinetic energy) of the pedals and, subsequently, to the kinetic energy of you and the bike. As you climb a hill, your gravitational potential energy increases. If you coast up the hill, the bike will slow as your kinetic energy is traded in for gravitational potential energy. Eventually, you will come to a stop when all your kinetic energy has been converted to gravitational potential energy. If you now coast down the hill, your speed (kinetic energy) will increase as your gravitational potential energy decreases. At the base of the hill you might find that your speed (kinetic energy) is somewhat less than it was when you first began coasting up the hill. That is, in the course of your round trip up and down the hill, you will not have lost some kinetic energy. Why? Isnt energy conserved? What is responsible for the energy deficit? The answer: air resistance, a force of friction. Because of air resistance, you will be doing frictional work on the air, transferring energy to the air. This is the major reason for the loss of your kinetic energy. Suppose the road levels off at the base of the hill and you continue to coast. The bike will slow as kinetic energy is tapped to do frictional work on the air. In this process, the energy transferred to the air results in an increase in the temperature (thermal energy) of the air. Weve followed the transformation of energy from its original radiant form through its chemical, kinetic and gravitational potential forms to its final disposition: an increase in the thermal energy of the air. Obviously, the process is more complex than described here, but its the idea that counts: Energy is Conserved. 2. Pumping iron: The force of the earths gravity on a 10 kg (22 lb) object is equal to product of the mass (10 kg) and the acceleration of gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2. The force is then 98 N. (Well call it 100 N for the purposes of this calculation.) The work required to raise the object to a height of 2 m is Work = force x distance = (100 N) x (2 m) = 200 J. The work done can be expressed in food calories as follows: 200 J = 0.2 kJ = (0.2 kJ)(1.0 Cal/4.18 kJ) = 0.048 Cal Thats approximately 1/20 of a Calorie. You might like to calculate the number of repetitions that youll need to do to burn up 100 Calories. What is the power required to perform the task in 2 seconds? Power = work / time = 200J/ 2s = 100 W, (1.0W = 1.0 J/s)

This is the same power required to light a 100 W light bulb. 3. Light bulb: What is the energy consumed by a 100W light bulb operating for 4 hours? The energy is power multiplied by time. Therefore, the energy consumed is Energy = Power x time = 100W x 4 hrs = 400Wh = (400 J-h/s) x 3600 s/h = 1.44 x 106 J = 1.44 MJ That is equivalent to the approximately one percent of the chemical potential energy in a gallon of gasoline. (See example 5.) 4. Human basal power: Consider a person who consumes 2500 Calories per day. (Note that these are food Calories, with an upper case C, and 1.0 Cal = 1000 cal = 1.0 kcal.) What is the persons average power requirement? Average Power = energy / time = 2500 kcal / 1.0 day Energy = (2500 kcal) (4.18 kJ/ 1.0 kcal) = 10,450 kJ Time = (24 hr/day)(3600 s/hr) = 86.400 sec = 10,450 kJ / 86,400 s = 0.121 kJ/s = 0.121 kW = 121 W. This is approximately the power consumed by a 120 W light bulb. 5. Automotive power: Suppose a car has a mass of 1200 kg (equivalent to a weight of 2620 lbs) and gets 25 mpg on the highway. What is its power consumed at 60 mi/hr? Solution: The chemical energy stored in a gallon of gasoline is 130 MJ. At 60mph, or 1.0 mi/min, the time required to travel 25 mi is 25 minutes or 1500 seconds. Average power = energy/time = 130 MJ/25 min = 130 MJ/1500s = 0.0867 MW = 86.7 kW = 86.7 kW x 1.0HP/746W = 116.2 HP This is the average power consumed while traveling at constant speed. Notice, that this calculation did not involve the weight of the car, so it applies to all cars which get 25 mi/gal. It takes more hp to accelerate and consequently, more gasoline is consumed in the process. You might wonder where the energy, originally stored as chemical potential energy in the fuel, ends up as the car rides at constant speed (constant kinetic energy) along a level highway (constant gravitational potential energy). Some of it goes out the tailpipe in the form of a heated gas. Some of it is heat removed from the hot engine and disposed of by the cooling system (radiator).

The rest of it is lost to air resistance (heating the air), friction in the wheel bearings and friction between the tires and the road. Thats why cars should be aerodynamically sleek and the tires maintained at proper pressure to increase fuel efficiency. And, of course, the engine efficiency should be increased to maximize the work obtained from the fuel (mpg). 6. Comparison of the cost of heating with oil to the cost of heating with electricity: During the winter, heating a home with oil may require 1 gallon of oil every 5 hours. The amount of chemical potential energy stored in one gallon of heating oil is approximately 130 MJ. This is the amount of energy released as heat during combustion. The price of heating oil in this coming winter season (2009-2010), according to the Energy Information Administration of the DOE, is projected to be approximately $2.80 per gallon. Compare the cost of heating with oil to the cost of heating with electricity. Solutions: Heating oil: Average daily cost of the heating oil = 5 gal/day x $2.80/gal = $14.00/day Average hourly cost of the heating oil is $14.00/day/ 24 hrs/day = $0.56/hr Electricity: First, using the energy content of oil, calculate the rate of power generation (energy consumed per second) by dividing the energy content of 5 gallons of heating oil (130 MJ/gal x 5 gal/day = 650 MJ/day) by the number of seconds in a day (24hrs/day x 3600sec/hr) = 86,400 sec/day. Power = (650 M J)/( 86,400sec ) = (650 x 106 J)/(86.4 x 103sec) = 7.52 kW. Daily Energy usage is = (7.52 kW) (24 hrs/day) =180.56 kWh/day Assume the cost of electricity this winter to be $0.18 per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Based on this projection, the cost of heating by electricity can be estimated. Average daily cost of electricity = (180.56 kWh/day) ($0.18/kwh) = $32.50/day The above calculation shows that the estimated daily cost of winter heating with oil ($14.00 )is significantly less than heating with electricity ($32,50). Note that we have not taken into account the efficiency of heating with oil compared to the efficiency of electric heat. The latter is much more efficient since the former sends hot gases up the chimney. Also, the actual costs will, of course, depend upon what the actual prices of heating oil and electricity turn out to be during the winter.

Appendix A. Forces of Nature and Potential Energies There are four fundamental forces of nature, and to each force there is an associated form of potential energy. One of the most remarkable qualities about energy is the variety of ways it manifests itself in nature. Each means of storage can be associated with a distinct form of potential energy. Several forms are listed below: Forces/Potential Energy Gravitational Manifestation in Nature Attractive force between masses. The acceleration of a falling object. Formation of stars. The combined effect of electric charges and currents. Forces between electric charges and magnets. Forces between atoms in molecules. Chemistry. The energy of the electromagnetic radiation field. Radiant energy from a light bulb or from the sun. Force of interaction between nucleons, particles of atomic nuclei. Binding of particles to form the atomic nucleus. Fusion process in the sun and stars. Force involved in the transmutation of nuclei in the radioactive decay of unstable nuclei.

Electromagnetic

Strong

Weak