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Implementation of delta modulation and demodulation and observe effect of slope Overload using matlab/simulink Implementation of pulse data coding techniques for various formats using matlab/simulink.. Implementation of Data decoding techniques for various formats using matlab/simulink.. Implementation of amplitude shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink... Implementation of Time Division Multiplexing system using matlab/simulink. Implementation of pulse code modulation and demodulation using matlab/simulink. Study of microwave components and instruments Measurement of klystron characteristics and Measurement of VSWR Measurement of Directivity and coupling coefficient of a directional coupler. Determination of the phase-shift of a phase shifter. Implementation of frequency shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink.. Implementation of phase shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink.
PRACTICAL NO 1
OBJECT
Implementation of delta modulation and demodulation and observe effect of slope Overload using matlab/simulink
Mtalb Code:
% *** Function for Delta Modulation*********** % (deltamod.m) function s_DMout=deltamod(sig_in,Delta,td,ts) % usage % s_DMout=deltamod(xsig,Delta,td,ts) % Delta-step size % sig_in-input signal vector % td-original signal sampling period of sig_in % NOTE: td*fs must be a positive integer; % S_DMout -DM sampled output % ts-new sampling period if (rem(ts/td,1)==0) nfac=round(ts/td); p_zoh=ones(1,nfac); s_down=downsample(sig_in,nfac); Num_it=length(s_down); s_DMout(1)=Delta/2; for k=2:Num_it xvar=s_DMout(k-1); s_DMout(k)=xvar+Delta*sign(s_down(k-1)-xvar); end s_DMout=kron(s_DMout,p_zoh); else warning('Error! ts/t is not an integer!'); s_DMout=[]; end end
%********Delta Modulation **********************************% % togenerate DM signals with different step sizes, % Delta1=0.2,Delta2=Delta1,Delta3=Delta4 clc; clear; clf; td=0.002; % original sampling rate rate 500 hz t=[0:td:1.]; % time interval of 1 sec xsig=sin(2*pi*t)-sin(6*pi*t); % 1hz +3 hz sinusoidals Lsig=length(xsig); ts=0.02; % new sampling rate =50 hz Nfact=ts/td; % send the signal through a 16-level uniform quantiser Delta1=0.2; s_DMout1=deltamod(xsig,Delta1,td,ts); % obtaind the DM signal % plot the original signal and DM signal in time domain figrue(1); figure(1); subplot(311); sfig1=plot(t,xsig,'k',t,s_DMout1(1:Lsig),'b'); set(sfig1,'Linewidth',2); title('Signal {\it g}({{\it t}) and its DM signal') xlabel('time(sec.)'); axis([0 1 -2.2 2.2]); % Apply DM again by doubling the Delta Delta2=2*Delta1; s_DMout2=deltamod(xsig,Delta2,td,ts); subplot(312); sfig2=plot(t,xsig,'k',t,s_DMout2(1:Lsig),'b'); set(sfig2,'Linewidth',2); title('Signal {\it g}({\it t}) and DM signal with doubled stepsize') xlabel('time(sec.)'); axis([0 1 -2.2 2.2]); %*********** Delta3=2*Delta2; s_DMout3=deltamod(xsig,Delta3,td,ts); subplot(313); sfig3=plot(t,xsig,'k',t,s_DMout3(1:Lsig),'b'); set(sfig3,'Linewidth',2); title('Signal {\it g}({\it t}) and DM signal with quadrupled stepsize') xlabel('time(sec.)'); axis([0 1 -2.2 2.2]);
Results:
Signal {\it g}({{\it t}) and its DM signal 2 1 0 -1 -2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 time(sec.) Signal g( t) and DM signal with doubled stepsize 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2 1 0 -1 -2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 time(sec.) Signal g( t) and DM signal with quadrupled stepsize 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2 1 0 -1 -2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 time(sec.) 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
PRACTICAL NO 2
OBJECT
Implementation of pulse data coding techniques for various formats using matlab/simulink.
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit
In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ
The neutral zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages. Same as AMI, but 1 bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages.
Pesudotenary :
Multilevel Schemes:
The desire to increase the data speed or decrease the required bandwidth has resulted in the creation of many schemes. The goal is to increase the number of bits per baud by encoding a pattern of m data elements into a pattern of n signal elements. Different types of signal elements can be allowing different signal levels. n If we have L different levels, then we can produce L combinations of signal patterns. The data element and signal element relation is mBnL coding, where m is the length of the binary pattern, B means binary data, n is the length of the signal pattern, and L is the number of levels in the signaling. B (binary, L=2), T (tenary, L=3), and Q (quaternary, L=4). In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal m n elements in which 2 L
8B6T:
Eight binary, six ternary (8B6T) This code is used with 100BASE-4T cable. Encode a pattern of 8 bits as a pattern of 6 signal elements, where the signal has three levels (ternary). 8 6 2 =256 different data patterns and 3 =478 different signal patterns. (The mapping is shown in Appendix D.) There are 478-256=222 redundant signal elements that provide synchronization and error detection. Part of the redundancy is also used to provide DC (direct-current) balance. + (positive signal), - (negative signal), and 0 (lack of signal) notation. To make whole stream DC-balanced, the sender keeps track of the weight
4D-PAM5 :
Four-dimensional five-level pulse amplitude modulation (4D-PAM5) 4D means that data is sent over four wires at the same time. It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2. The level 0 is used only for forward error detection. If we assume that the code is just one-dimensional, the four levels create something similar to 8B4Q. The worst signal rate for this imaginary one-dimensional version is Nx4/8, or N/2. 4D-PAM5 sends data over four channels (four wires). This means the signal rate can be reduced to N/8. All 8 bits can be fed into a wire simultaneously and sent by using one signal element. Gigabit Ethernet use this technique to send 1-Gbps data over four copper cables that can handle 1Gbps/8 = 125Mbaud
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Matlab code:
function [U P B M S]=nrz(a) % 'a' is input data sequence, % U = Unipolar, P=Polar, B=Bipolar, M=Mark and S=Space %Wave formatting, %Unipolar U=a; n= length(a); %POLAR P=a; for k=1:n; if a(k)==0 P(k)=-1; end end %Bipolar B=a; f = -1; for k=1:n; if B(k)==1; if f==-1; B(k)=1; f=1; else B(k)=-1; f=-1; end end end %Mark M(1)=1; for k=1:n; M(k+1)=xor(M(k), a(k)); end %Space S(1)=1; for k=1:n S(k+1)=not(xor(S(k), a(k))); end %Plotting Waves subplot(5, 1, 1); stairs(U) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('Unipolar NRZ') grid on subplot(5, 1, 2); stairs(P) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('Polar NRZ') grid on subplot(5, 1, 3); stairs(B) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('Bipolar NRZ') grid on subplot(5, 1, 4); stairs(M) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('NRZ-Mark') grid on subplot(5, 1, 5); stairs(S) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('NRZ-Space') grid on
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4 Polar NRZ
4 Bipolar NRZ
4 NRZ-Mark
4 NRZ-Space
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RACTICAL NO 3
OBJECT
Implementation of Data decoding techniques for various formats using matlab/simulink Matlab Code: function [Ur Pr Br Mr Sr]=nrzRx(U,P,B,M,S) % 'a' is input data sequence % U = Unipolar, P=Polar, B=Bipolar, M=Mark and S=Space %Wave formatting %Unipolar Ur=U; n= length(P); %POLAR Pr=P; l=find(Pr<0); Pr(l)=0 %Bipolar n= length(B); Br=B; l=find(Br<0); Br(l)=1; %Mark n= length(M); for k=1:n-1; Mr(k)=xor(M(k), M(k+1)); end %Space n= length(S); S(1)=1; for k=1:n-1 Sr(k)=not(xor(S(k), S(k+1))); end %Plotting Waves n= length(Ur); subplot(5, 1, 1); stairs(Ur) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('Unipolar NRZ Decoded') grid on n= length(P); subplot(5, 1, 2); stairs(P) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('Polar NRZ Decoded') grid on n= length(Br); subplot(5, 1, 3); stairs(B) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('Bipolar NRZ Decoded') grid on n= length(Mr); subplot(5, 1, 4); stairs(M) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('NRZ-Mark Decoded') grid on n= length(Sr); subplot(5, 1, 5); stairs(S) axis([1 n+2 -2 2]) title('NRZ-Space Decoded') grid on
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*******************************end*********************************** Input U = 1 P = 1 B = 1 M = 1 S = 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 0 0 1 1
Output
Pr = 1 Ur = 1 Pr = 1 Br = 1 Mr = 1 Sr = 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
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PRACTICAL NO 4
OBJECT
Implementation of amplitude shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink.
15
Matlab Code :
% program for amplitude shift keying % clc; clear all; close all; s= [1 0 1 0]; f1=20; a=length (s); for i=1:a f=f1*s (1,i); for t=(i-1)*100+1:i*100 x(t)=sin(2*pi*f*t/1000); end end plot(x); xlabel('time in secs'); ylabel('amplitude in volts'); title('ASK') grid on;
Results:
ASK 1 0.8 0.6 0.4
amplitude in volts
50
100
150
250
300
350
400
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PRACTICAL NO 5
OBJECT
Implementation of Time Division Multiplexing system using matlab/simulink
THEORY
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital or (rarely) analog multiplexing in which two or more signals or bit streams are transferred apparently simultaneously as sub-channels in one communication channel, but are physically taking turns on the channel. The time domain is divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during timeslot 1, sub-channel 2 during timeslot 2, etc. One TDM frame consists of one timeslot per sub-channel plus a synchronization channel and sometimes error correction channel before the synchronization. After the last sub-channel, error correction, and synchronization, the cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc For multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the total bandwidth. The current techniques that can accomplish this include Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) Time division multiplexing (TDM)-Synchronous vs statistical1 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) Code division multiplexing (CDM)
Multiplexing:
Two or more simultaneous transmissions on a single circuit
Figure 5 Multiplexing
Multiplexor (MUX) Demultiplexor (DEMUX)
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ISDN multiplexing SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork) The T1 (1.54 Mbps) multiplexor stream is a continuous series of frames of both digitized data and voice channels. The ISDN multiplexor stream is also a continuous stream of frames. Each frame contains various control and sync info SONET massive data rates
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% TDM of both quantize signal tdmsig=reshape(sig,1,2*l1); % Display of TDM Signal figure stem(tdmsig); title('TDM Signal'); ylabel('Amplitude--->'); xlabel('Time--->'); % Demultiplexing of TDM Signal demux=reshape(tdmsig,2,l1); for i=1:l1 sig3(i)=demux(1,i); % Converting The matrix into row vectors sig4(i)=demux(2,i); end % display of demultiplexed signal figure subplot(2,1,1) plot(sig3); title('Recovered Sinusoidal Signal'); ylabel('Amplitude--->'); xlabel('Time--->'); subplot(2,1,2) plot(sig4); title('Recovered Triangular Signal'); ylabel('Amplitude--->'); xlabel('Time--->');
Results:
Sinusoidal Signal 10
Amplitude---> Amplitude--->
Triangular Signal 8 6 4 2 0
5 0 -5 -10
30
10
Amplitude---> Amplitude--->
8 6 4 2 0
5 0 -5 -10
10 20 Time--->
30
10 20 Time--->
30
19
TDM Signal 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8
Amplitude--->
10
20
30 Time--->
40
50
60
5 0 -5 -10
10
25
30
8
Amplitude--->
6 4 2 0
10
15 Time--->
20
25
30
20
PRACTICAL NO 6
OBJECT
Implementation of pulse code modulation and demodulation using matlab/simulink
Sampling:
Analog signal is sampled every TS secs. Ts is referred to as the sampling interval. fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency. There are 3 sampling methods:
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Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude value The process is referred to as pulse amplitude modulation PAM and the outcome is a signal with analog (non integer) values
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal.
Quantization:
Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying amplitude values ranging between two limits: a min and a max. The amplitude values are infinite between the two limits. We need to map the infinite amplitude values onto a finite set of known values. This is achieved by dividing the distance between min and max into L zones, each of height = (max - min)/L
Quantization Levels:
The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L-1 (resulting in L values) Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to the value of the midpoint.
Quantization Error:
When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - the coded signal is an approximation of the actual amplitude value. The difference between actual and coded value (midpoint) is referred to as the quantization error. The more zones, the smaller which results in smaller errors. BUT, the more zones the more bits required to encode the samples -> higher bit rate
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PCM Decoder:
To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal we follow the following steps: We use a hold circuit that holds the amplitude value of a pulse till the next pulse arrives. We pass this signal through a low pass filter with a cutoff frequency that is equal to the highest frequency in the pre-sampled signal. The higher the value of L, the less distorted a signal is recovered.
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% sampandquant.m function executes both sampling and uniform quantization %sampandquant.m function [s_out,sq_out,sqh_out,Delta,SQNR]=sampandquant(sig_in,L,td,ts) % usage % [s_out,sq_out,sqh_out,Delta,SQNR]=sampandquant(sig_in,L,td,ts) % L-no. of uniform quantization levels % sig_in-input signal vector % td-original signal sampling period of sig_in % ts- new sampling period % NOTE: td*fs must be +ve integef % function outputs: % s_out-sampled output % sq_out-sample and quantized output % sqh_out-sample, quantized and hold output % Delta- quantization interval % SQNR-actual signal to quantization ratio if rem(ts/td,1)==0 nfac=round(ts/td); p_zoh=ones(1,nfac); s_out=downsample(sig_in,nfac); [sq_out,Delta,SQNR]=uniquan(s_out,L); s_out=upsample(s_out,nfac); sqh_out=upsample(sq_out,nfac); else warning('Error! ts/td is not an integer!'); s_out=[]; sq_out=[]; sqh_out=[]; Delta=[]; SQNR=[]; end end %********generation of PCM *****************************% clc; clear; clf; td=0.002; % original sampling rate rate 500 hz t=[0:td:1.]; %time interval of 1 sec xsig=sin(2*pi*t)-sin(6*pi*t); %n1hz +3 hz sinusoidals Lsig=length(xsig); Lfft=2^ceil(log2(Lsig)+1); Xsig=fftshift(fft(xsig,Lfft)); Fmax=1/(2*td); Faxis=linspace(-Fmax,Fmax,Lfft); ts=0.02; % new sampling rate =50 hz Nfact=ts/td; % send the signal through a 16-level uniform quantiser [s_out,sq_out,sqh_out1,Delta,SQRN]=sampandquant(xsig,16,td,ts); % obtaind the signal which is % - sampled,quantiser,and zero-order hold signal sqh_out % plot the original signal and PCM signal in time domain figrue(1); figure(1); subplot(211); sfig1=plot(t,xsig,'k',t,sqh_out1(1:Lsig),'b'); set(sfig1,'Linewidth',2); title('Signal {\it g}({{\it t}) and its 16 level PCM signal') xlabel('time(sec.)');
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% send the signal through a 16-level unifrom quantiser [s_out,sq_out,sqh_out2,Delta,SQNR]=sampandquant(xsig,4,td,ts); % obtained the PCM signal which is % - sampled,quantiser,and zero_order hold signal sqh_out % plot the original signal and the PCM signal in time domain subplot(212); sfig2=plot(t,xsig,'k',t,sqh_out2(1:Lsig),'b'); set(sfig2,'Linewidth',2); title('Signal {\it g}({\it t}) and its 4 level PCM signal') xlabel('time(sec.)'); Lfft=2^ceil(log2(Lsig)+1); Fmax=1/(2*td); Faxis=linspace(-Fmax,Fmax,Lfft); SQH1=fftshift(fft(sqh_out1,Lfft)); SQH2=fftshift(fft(sqh_out2,Lfft)); % Now use LPF to filter the two PCM signal BW=10; %Bandwidth is no larger than 10Hz. H_lpf=zeros(1,Lfft);H_lpf(Lfft/2-BW:Lfft/2+BW-1)=1; %ideal LPF S1_recv=SQH1.*H_lpf; s_recv1=real(ifft(fftshift(S1_recv))); s_recv1=s_recv1(1:Lsig); S2_recv=SQH2.*H_lpf; s_recv2=real(ifft(fftshift(S2_recv))); s_recv2=s_recv2(1:Lsig); % plot the filtered signal against the original signal figure(2); subplot(211); sfig3=plot(t,xsig,'b-',t,s_recv1,'b-.'); legend('original','recovered') set(sfig3,'Linewidth',2); title('signal{\it g}({it t}) and filtered 16-level PCM signal') xlabel('time(sec.)'); subplot(212); sfig4=plot(t,xsig,'b-',t,s_recv2(1:Lsig),'b'); legend('original','recovered') set(sfig1,'Linewidth',2); title('signal{\it g}({it t}) and filtered 4-level PCM signal') xlabel('time(sec.)');
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Results:
Signal {\it g}({{\it t}) and its 16 level PCM signal 2 1 0 -1 -2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5 0.6 0.7 time(sec.) Signal g( t) and its 4 level PCM signal
0.4
0.8
0.9
2 1 0 -1 -2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5 time(sec.)
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 time(sec.) signal g(it t) and filtered 4-level PCM signal
0.3
0.4
0.9
2 1 0 -1 -2 original recovered
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.8
0.9
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PRACTICAL NO 7
OBJECT
Study of microwave components and instruments
Junctions:
Microwave Source:
Semiconductor Source:
Microwave Amplifier:
Switches: Waveguides:
A waveguide is a structure which guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound waves. There are different types of waveguide for each type of wave. The original and most common meaning is a hollow conductive metal pipe used to carry high frequency radio waves, particularly microwaves. Waveguides differ in their geometry which can confine energy in one dimension such as in slab waveguides or two dimensions as in fiber or channel waveguides. In addition, different waveguides are needed to guide different frequencies: an optical fiber guiding light (high frequency) will not guide microwaves (which have a much lower frequency). As a rule of thumb, the width of a waveguide needs to be of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the guided wave.
Principal of operation:
Waves in open space propagate in all directions, as spherical waves. In this way they lose their power proportionally to the square of the distance; that is, at a distance R from the source, the 2 power is the source power divided by R . The waveguide confines the wave to propagation in one dimension, so that (under ideal conditions) the wave loses no power while propagating. Waves are confined inside the waveguide due to total reflection from the waveguide wall, so that the propagation inside the waveguide can be described approximately as a "zigzag" between the walls. This description is exact for electromagnetic waves in a rectangular or circular hollow metal tube.
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Rectangular Waveguide:
It consists of a rectangular hollow metallic conductor. The electromagnetic waves in (metal-pipe) waveguide may be imagined as travelling down the guide in a zig-zag path, being repeatedly reflected between opposite walls of the guide.
Need to find the fields components of the em wave inside the waveguide Ez Hz Ex Hx Ey Hy Well find that waveguides dont support TEM waves
Modes of propagation:
TEM (Ez=Hz=0) cant propagate. TE (Ez=0) transverse electric In TE mode, the electric lines of flux are perpendicular to the axis of the waveguide TM (Hz=0) transverse magnetic, Ez exists In TM mode, the magnetic lines of flux are perpendicular to the axis of the waveguide. HE hybrid modes in which all components exists
When or f c
Dominant mode- T10
2 c
m a 1
n b
2
then n b
2
1 2
m a
Circular waveguide:
It consists of a circular hollow metallic conductor. For same cutoff frequency the cylindrical waveguide longer then rectangular waveguide in crosssectional area so it is more bulky Dominant mode- T11
Microstrip Line:
Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which can be fabricated using printed circuit board [PCB] technology, and is used to convey microwave-frequency signals. It consists of a conducting strip separated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer known as the substrate. Microwave components such as antennas, couplers, filters, power dividers etc. can be formed
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from microstrip, the entire device existing as the pattern of metallization on the substrate. Microstrip is thus much less expensive than traditional waveguide technology, as well as being far lighter and more compact.
Cross-section of microstrip geometry, Conductor (A) is separated from ground plane (D) by dielectric substrate (C). Upper dielectric (B) is typically air. The disadvantages of microstrip compared with waveguide are the generally lower power handling capacity, and higher losses. Also, unlike waveguide, microstrip is not enclosed, and is therefore susceptible to cross-talk and unintentional radiation It is behave as a parallel wire.
Strip line:
A stripline circuit uses a flat strip of metal which is sandwiched between two parallel ground planes, The insulating material of the substrate forms a dielectric. The width of the strip, the thickness of the substrate and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the characteristic impedance of the strip which is a transmission line. As shown in the diagram, the central conductor need not be equally spaced between the ground planes. In the general case, the dielectric material may be different above and below the central conductor To prevent the propagation of unwanted modes, the two ground planes must be shorted together. This is commonly achieved by a row of vias running parallel to the strip on each side. Like coaxial cable, strip line is non-dispersive, and has no cut off frequency. Good isolation between adjacent traces can be achieved more easily than with microstrip.
Cross-section diagram of strip line geometry. Central conductor (A) is sandwiched between ground planes (B and D). Structure is supported by dielectric (C).
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The basic construction of the waveguide junction shows the three port waveguide device. Although it may be assumed that the input is the single port and the two outputs are those on the top section of the "T", actually any port can be used as the input, the other two being outputs. To see how the waveguide junction operates, and how the 180 phase shift occurs, it is necessary to look at the electric field. The magnetic field is omitted from the diagram for simplicity.
Waveguide E-type junction E fields It can be seen from the electric field that when it approaches the T junction itself, the electric field lines become distorted and bend. They split so that the "positive" end of the line remains with the top side of the right hand section in the diagram, but the "negative" end of the field lines remain with the top side of the left hand section. In this way the signals appearing at either section of the "T" are out of phase. These phase relationships are preserved if signals enter from either of the other ports.
Waveguide H-type junction To see how the waveguide junction operates, the diagram below shows the electric field lines. Like the previous diagram, only the electric field lines are shown. The electric field lines are shown using the traditional notation - a cross indicates a line coming out of the screen, whereas a dot indicates an electric field line going into the screen.
Waveguide H-type junction electric fields It can be seen from the diagram that the signals at all ports are in phase. Although it is easiest to consider signals entering from the lower section of the "T", any port can actually be used - the phase relationships are preserved whatever entry port is ised.
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Magic T waveguide junction The diagram above depicts a simplified version of the Magic T waveguide junction with its four ports. To look at the operation of the Magic T waveguide junction, take the example of whan a signal is applied into the "E plane" arm. It will divide into two out of phase components as it passes into the leg consisting of the "a" and "b" arms. However no signal will enter the "E plane" arm as a result of the fact that a zero potential exists there - this occurs because of the conditions needed to create the signals in the "a" and "b" arms. In this way, when a signal is applied to the H plane arm, no signal appears at the "E plane" arm and the two signals appearing at the "a" and "b" arms are 180 out of phase with each other.
Magic T waveguide junction signal directions When a signal enters the "a" or "b" arm of the magic t waveguide junction, then a signal appears at the E and H plane ports but not at the other "b" or "a" arm as shown. One of the disadvantages of the Magic-T waveguide junction are that reflections arise from the impedance mismatches that naturally occur within it. These reflections not only give rise to power loss, but at the voltage peak points they can give rise to arcing when sued with high power transmitters. The reflections can be reduced by using matching techniques. Normally posts or screws are used within the E-plane and H-plane ports. While these solutions improve the impedance matches and hence the reflections, they still reduce the power handling capacity.
31
Multicavity klystron:
Gain of about 10-20 dB are typical with two cavity tubes. A higher overall gain can be achieved by connecting several two cavity tubes in cascade, feeding the output of each of the tubes to the input of the succeeding one. With four cavities, power gains of around 50 dB cab be easily achieved. The cavities are tuned the same frequency.
Reflex klystron:
In the reflex klystron (also known as a 'Sutton' klystron after its inventor), the electron beam passes through a single resonant cavity. The electrons are fired into one end of the tube by an electron gun. After passing through the resonant cavity they are reflected by a negatively charged reflector electrode for another pass through the cavity, where they are then collected. The electron beam is velocity modulated when it first passes through the cavity. The formation of electron bunches takes place in the drift space between the reflector and the cavity. Thevoltage on the reflector must be adjusted so that the bunching is at a maximum as the electron beam re-enters the resonant cavity, thus ensuring a maximum of energy is transferred from the electron beam to the RFoscillations in the cavity. The voltage should always be switched on before providing the input to the reflex klystron as the whole function of the reflex klystron would be destroyed if the supply is provided after the input. The reflector voltage may be varied slightly from the optimum value, which results in some loss of output power, but also in a variation in frequency. This effect is used to good advantage for automatic frequency control in receivers, and in frequency modulation for transmitters. The level of modulation applied for transmission is small enough that the power output essentially remains constant. At regions far from the optimum voltage, no oscillations are obtained at all. This tube is called a reflex klystron because it repels the input supply or performs the opposite function of a klystron.
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Magnetron:
A cross-sectional diagram of a resonant cavity magnetron. Magnetic lines of force are parallel to the geometric axis of this structure All cavity magnetrons consist of a hot cathode with a high (continuous or pulsed) negative potential by a high-voltage, direct-current power supply. The cathode is built into the center of an evacuated, lobed, circular chamber. A magnetic field parallel to the filament is imposed by a permanent magnet. The magnetic field causes the electrons, attracted to the (relatively) positive outer part of the chamber, to spiral outward in a circular path rather than moving directly to this a node. Spaced around the rim of the chamber are cylindrical cavities. The cavities are open along their length and connect the common cavity space. As electrons sweep past these openings, they induce a resonant, high-frequency radio field in the cavity, which in turn causes the electrons to bunch into groups. A portion of this field is extracted with a short antenna that is connected to a waveguide (a metal tube usually of rectangular cross section). The waveguide directs the extracted RF energy to the load, which may be a cooking chamber in a microwave oven or a high-gain antenna in the case of radar.
Cutaway view of a TWT (1) Electron gun; (2) RF input; (3) Magnets; (4) Attenuator; (5) Helix coil; (6) RF output; (7) Vacuum tube; (8) Collector.
Backward oscillator:
A backward wave oscillator (BWO), also called carcinotron (a trade name for tubes manufactured by CSF, now Thales) or backward wave tube, is a vacuum tubethat is used to generate microwaves up to the terahertz range. It belongs to the traveling-wave tube family. It is an oscillator with a wide electronic tuning range.
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An electron gun generates an electron beam that is interacting with a slow-wave structure. It sustains the oscillations by propagating a traveling wave backwards against the beam. The generated electromagnetic wave power has its group velocity directed oppositely to the direction of motion of the electrons. The output power is coupled out near the electron gun. It has two main subtypes, the M-type, the most powerful, (M-BWO) and the O-type (O-BWO). The O-type delivers typically power in the range of 1 mW at 1000 GHz to 50 mW at 200 GHz. Carcinotrons are used as powerful and stable microwave sources. Due to the good quality wavefront they produce, they find use as illuminators in terahertz imaging.
Gunn Diode:
A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron device (TED), is a form of diode used in high-frequency electronics. It is somewhat unusual in that it consists only of Ndoped semiconductor material, whereas most diodes consist of both P and N-doped regions. In the Gunn diode, three regions exist: two of them are heavily N-doped on each terminal, with a thin layer of lightly doped material in between. When a voltage is applied to the device, the electrical gradient will be largest across the thin middle layer. Conduction will take place as in any conductive material with current being proportional to the applied voltage. Eventually, at higher field values, the conductive properties of the middle layer will be altered, increasing its resistivity and reducing the gradient across it, preventing further conduction and current actually starts to fall down. In practice, this means a Gunn diode has a region of negative differential resistance. The negative differential resistance, combined with the timing properties of the intermediate layer, allows construction of an RF relaxation oscillator simply by applying a suitable direct current through the device. In effect, the negative differential resistance created by the diode will negate the real and positive resistance of an actual load and thus create a "zero" resistance circuit which will sustain oscillations indefinitely. The oscillation frequency is determined partly by the properties of the thin middle layer, but can be tuned by external factors
IMPATT Diode :
An IMPATT diode (IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time) is a form of high power diode used in high-frequency electronics and microwave devices. They are typically made with silicon carbide owing to their high breakdown fields. They operate at frequencies between about 3 and 100 GHz or more. A main advantage is their high power capability. These diodes are used in a variety of applications from low power radar systems to alarms. A major drawback of using IMPATT diodes is the high level of phase noise they generate. This results from the statistical nature of the avalanche process. Nevertheless these diodes make excellent microwave generators for many applications.
Tunnel Diode:
A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode which is capable of very fast operation, well into the microwave frequency region, by using quantum mechanical effects. It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known as Sony. In 1973 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Brian Josephson, for discovering the electron tunneling effect used in these diodes. Robert Noyce independently came up with the idea of a tunnel diode while working for William Shockley, but was discouraged from pursuing it.
These diodes have a heavily doped pn junction only some 10 nm (100 ) wide. The heavy doping results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the n-side are more or less aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side. Tunnel diodes were manufactured by Sony for the first time in 1957 followed by General Electric and other companies from about 1960, and are still made in low volume today. Tunnel diodes are usually made from germanium, but can also be made in gallium arsenide and silicon materials. They can be used as oscillators, amplifiers, frequency
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PIN Diode:
A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, lightly doped 'near' intrinsic semiconductor region between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and n-type regions are typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts. The wide intrinsic region is in contrast to an ordinary PN diode. The wide intrinsic region makes the PIN diode an inferior rectifier (the normal function of a diode), but it makes the PIN diode suitable for attenuators, fast switches, photodetectors, and high voltage power electronics applications.
Microwave instruments:
Power Dividers/Combiners, Isolators/Circulators, Attenuators, Couplers, Terminations, Power Amplifiers, Hybrids, Oscillators, Switches,
Power Dividers/Combiners:
Strip line Power Dividers and Combiners Lumped Element Power Dividers and Combiners
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9,11,12-Way Power Divider and Combiner (PS9, PS11, and 10-Way Power Divider and Combiner (PS10 Series) PS12 Series)
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5,6-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and Combiner (PL5 and PL6 Series)
8-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and Combiner (PL8 and PM8 Series)
10,11,12,16-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and Combiner (PL10, PL11, PL12, and PL16 Series)
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Connectorized-Narrow Band Isolators and Circulators Drop-In Isolator and Circulator (DI Series)
Attenuators:
Directional Couplers:
Directional Coupler Broadband Model, SMA (CB Series) Directional Coupler Octave Model-NF (C-NF Series)
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Terminations:
Coaxial Terminations
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Amplifiers:
Amplifiers
Hybrids:
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Oscillators:
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Directional Detectors:
Filters:
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PRACTICAL NO 8
OBJECT
Measurement of klystron characteristics and Measurement of VSWR .
Performance Characteristics:
Frequency:250Mhz to 100GHz Power: 10kw-500kw (CW), 30 MW (Pulsed) Power gain: 15 dB to 70 dB (60 dB nominal ) Bandwidth: 10 60 MHz-generally used in fixed frequency applications. Noise Figure: 15-20dB Theoretical efficiency: 58% (30-40 %)
Multicavity Klystron:
Gain of about 10-20 dB are typical with two cavity tubes. A higher overall gain can be achieved by connecting several two cavity tubes in cascade, feeding the output of each of the tubes to the input of the succeeding one. With four cavities, power gains of around 50 dB cab be easily achieved. The cavities are tuned the same frequency.
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is a complex number that describes both the magnitude and the phase shift of the reflection. The simplest cases, when the imaginary part of is zero, are: = 1: maximum negative reflection, when the line is short-circuited, = 0: no reflection, when the line is perfectly matched, = + 1: maximum positive reflection, when the line is open-circuited. For the calculation of VSWR, only the magnitude of , denoted by , is of interest.
Therefore, we define =||. At some points along the line the two waves interfere constructively, and the resulting amplitude Vmax is the sum of their amplitudes: At other points, the waves interfere destructively, amplitude Vmin is the difference between their amplitudes: The voltage standing wave ratio is then equal to: and the resulting
As , the magnitude of , always falls in the range [0,1], the VSWR is always +1. The SWR can also be defined as the ratio of the maximum amplitude of the electric field strength to its minimum amplitude, i.e. Emax / Emin
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PRACTICAL NO 9
OBJECT
Measurement of Directivity and coupling coefficient of a directional coupler
Usually the isolated port is terminated within the coupler casing. In such case, the coupler appears to be a three port device. In ideal case no power is delivered to port 4 (the isolated port). Directional couplers are described by three specifications: Coupling (C) - The ratio of input power to the couple power. Directivity (D)- The ratio of coupled power to the power at the isolated port. Isolation (I) The ratio of input power to power out of the isolated port.
C 10 log
P 1 P3
D 10 log
P3 P4
I 10 log
P 1 P4
D C dB
Ideally Directivity should be infinite but is mostly between 30-35 dB If all ports matched (S11=S22=S33= S44=0), symmetry and S14=S23=0 to be satisfied The equations reduce to 6 equations:
S12
S13
* S12 S 24
* S13 S 34
0
* S 24 S 34
S12 S13 S 24
S 24 S 34 S 34
1 1 1
* S12 S13
0
S13 S 24
S 34
0 S12 S13 0
S12 0 0 S 24
S13 0 0 S 34
0 S 24 S 34 0
Results:
S/N P1 P2 P3 P4 C D I
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PRACTICAL NO 10
OBJECT
To determination of the phase-shift of a phase shifter
A microwave (6 to 18 GHz) Phase Shifter and Frequency Translator The theory of operation is to divide the input signal into two equal signals 90 degrees apart, I (inphase) and Q (Quadrature). This allows the magnitude of each signal to be re-located along its vectors' axis. The two signals are then combined. Using The Pythagorean Theorem, the sum of the vectors produces the resultant output signal.
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Passive:
Applications: passive electronically scanned array Loss: the phase shifter attenuates while phase shifting NF: NF = loss Reciprocity: reciprocal Analog phase shifters provide a continuously variable phase shift or time delay Digital phase shifters provide a discrete set of phase shifts or time delays. Discretization leads to quantization errors. Digital phase shifters require parallel bus control.
Observation: Results:
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PRACTICAL NO 11 OBJECT
Implementation of frequency shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink.
Applications:
Most early telephone-line modems used audio frequency-shift keying to send and receive data, up to rates of about 300 bits per second. Matlab Code: %*********FSK**************% clc; clear all; close all; s= [1 0 1 0]; f1=10; f2=50; a=length (s); for i=1:a if s(1,i)==1 freq=f1*s(1,i); for t= (i-1)*100+1:i*100 x(t)= sin(2*pi*freq*t/1000); end elseif s(1,i)==0 b=(2*s(1,i))+1; freq=f2*b; for t=(i-1)*100+1:i*100 x(t)= sin(2*pi*freq*t/1000); end end end plot(x); xlabel('title in secs'); ylabel('amplitude in volts') title ('FSK') grid on;
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Results
FSK 1 0.8 0.6 0.4
amplitude in volts
50
100
150
250
300
350
400
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PRACTICAL NO 12
OBJECT
Implementation of phase shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink
Matlab Code: Initializing Variables: The first step is to initialize variables for number of samples per symbol, number of symbols to simulate, alphabet size (M) and the signal to noise ratio. The last line seeds the random number generators. nSamp = 8; numSymb = 100; M = 4; SNR = 14; seed = [12345 54321]; rand('state', seed(1)); randn('state', seed(2));
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Generating Random Information Symbols Next, use RANDSRC to generate random information symbols from 0 to M-1. Since the simulation is of QPSK, the symbols are 0 through 3. The first 10 data points are plotted. numPlot = 10; rand('state', seed(1)); msg_orig = randsrc(numSymb, 1, 0:M-1); stem(0:numPlot-1, msg_orig(1:numPlot), 'bx'); xlabel('Time'); ylabel('Amplitude');
Phase Modulating the Data Use MODEM.PSKMOD object to phase modulate the data and RECTPULSE to upsample to a sampling rate 8 times the carrier frequency. Use SCATTERPLOT to see the signal constellation. grayencod = bitxor(0:M-1, floor((0:M-1)/2)); msg_gr_orig = grayencod(msg_orig+1); msg_tx = modulate(modem.pskmod(M), msg_gr_orig); msg_tx = rectpulse(msg_tx,nSamp); h1 = scatterplot(msg_tx);
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Creating the Noisy Signal Then use AWGN to add noise to the transmitted signal to create the noisy signal at the receiver. Use the 'measured' option to add noise that is 14 dB below the average signal power (SNR = 14 dB). Plot the constellation of the received signal.
Recovering Information from the Transmitted Signal Use INTDUMP to downsample to the original information rate. Then use MODEM.PSKDEMOD object to demodulate the signal, and detect the transmitted symbols. The detected symbols are
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plotted in red stems with circles and the transmitted symbols are plotted in blue stems with x's. The blue stems of the transmitted signal are shadowed by the red stems of the received signal. Therefore, comparing the blue x's with the red circles indicates that the received signal is identical to the transmitted signal. close(h1(ishandle(h1)), h2(ishandle(h2))); msg_rx_down = intdump(msg_rx,nSamp); msg_gr_demod = demodulate(modem.pskdemod(M), msg_rx_down); [dummy graydecod] = sort(grayencod); graydecod = graydecod - 1; msg_demod = graydecod(msg_gr_demod+1)'; stem(0:numPlot-1, msg_orig(1:numPlot), 'bx'); hold on; stem(0:numPlot-1, msg_demod(1:numPlot), 'ro'); hold off; axis([ 0 numPlot -0.2 3.2]); xlabel('Time'); ylabel('Amplitude');
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