JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA Vol.71, June 2008, pp.

827-840

Geomorphic Indicators of Neotectonism from the Precambrian Terrain of Peninsular India: A Study from the Bharathapuzha Basin, Kerala
BIJU JOHN and C.P. RAJENDRAN*
Geological Survey of India, Lucknow - 226 020 *Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram - 695 031 Email: b_johnp@yahoo.co.in Abstract: Peninsular India is considered tectonically stable even though a few damaging earthquakes occurred here. Most of the causative faults are detected only after the occurrence of the earthquakes. The present study is an attempt to demarcate such active structures, from the Precambrian crystalline terrain of Peninsular India, through remote sensing, geomorphic analysis and field verification. The study area falls in the vicinity of Palghat Gap, a prominent physiographic break in the Western Ghats, where a low level seismicity is reported since 1989. Our study identified a WNW-ESE regional structure, which has influenced the drainage network of the area. The right angled turn of Bharathapuzha River at Desamangalam near this structure shows the influence of the structure to the drainage system. This structure is also characterized by the presence of a waterfall and a brittle fault dated neotectonic activity. The drainage basins lying south of this structure show anomalous values of asymmetry factors (>65 or <35). The Transverse Topographic symmetry factors also show anomalous pattern on either end of this structure and display a consistent shift in drainages towards southwest in the southern block. It is further observed that the ratio of valley floor width to valley height is very low (<8) in the river segment flowing along the WNW-ESE structure where the river might have been influenced by the on going activity of the structure. The slope induced by the reverse movement of the structure/fault results in the adjustments of drainage network in the form of channel blocks or shifts leaving paleochannels. The present study suggests that the structure, defined by the abandoned river channels, geomorphic anomalies, local seismicity and a brittle fault, is an active fault and capable of producing moderate seismic events. Keywords: Palghat Gap, Seismicity, Geomorphic indices, Active fault, Neotectonism, Bharathapuzha River, Kerala.

INTRODUCTION

An increase in seismicity in Peninsular India during the last few decades has reinforced the need for identifying seismogenic structures and their behaviour. Even though few earthquakes occurred at well defined structures many of them occurred at unexpected locations. For example, the Killari earthquake occurred in a region that had not been known for previous seismic activity. However, studies subsequent to the earthquake have led to the identification of pre-existing faults that have activated in the past (Rajendran et al. 1996 a,b). Studies elsewhere in the cratonic hinderland also show that the damaging earthquakes occur on pre-existing faults with a recurrence period of tens of thousands of year (Crone et al. 1997). However, recognizing active structures in the cratonic areas is not easy because these structures are characterized by low rates of stress accumulation and smaller slip rates as they are isolated from

plate-margin interactions (e.g. Crone et al. 1992). Such faults generally do not develop any dramatic fault scarps (Wheeler and Johnston, 1992). Furthermore, weathering and erosion would tend to destroy any remnant of physiographic evidence of faulting. However, such deformation in regard to active tectonism can be identified from careful, geomorphological studies using topographic maps, aerial photographs, satellite images and by field investigation and repeat leveling (e.g. Quennel, 1958; Nakata, 1989; Vita-Finzi, 1986). In this paper, we present our observations to suggest evidence for neotectonism near Wadakkancheri area at the western end of the Palghat Gap, which has been also the site of microseismicity in the recent past. This area remained free from any significant earthquake in the historical past, albeit the 1990 Coimbatore earthquake, (M~6.0) located about 100 km away from Wadakkancheri area (Rajendran

0016-7622/2008-71-6-827/$ 1.00 GEOL. SOC. INDIA

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BIJU JOHN AND C. P. RAJENDRAN

and Rajendran, 1996). In a region that has not generated significant earthquakes in the recent historic past, it is difficult to (i) establish relation between the morphometric and structural features with seismic events and (ii) to identify active faults from the surface in the stable continental regions, because erosional processes are faster than the rate of tectonic deformation. Further, intense cultural activity in the river banks of Kerala tend to obscure and destroy the original neotectonic features. Nevertheless, observations in regions of historic and recent earthquake activity, although sporadic, are helpful in understanding the neotectonic characteristics of such region. Although Peninsular India is considered as stable continental region there are evidence for neotectonism (King, 1950; Radhakrishna, 1968; Vaidyanadhan, 1977; Valdiya, 1998). Knick points in the river profiles are one of the features which considered as indication of neotectonic activity (Sinha-Roy and Mathai, 1979). In this paper we are discussing the geomorphic anomalies induced by the neotectonic adjustments of a WNW-ESE fault. This fault had influenced the drainage system of the area and induced a right-angled turn which otherwise was flowing in E-W direction. The brittle fault zone exposed in this area coincides with the trend of the regional structure, in which major movement impressed on the quartz grains of the loose gouge is dated at 43043 ka (Rao et al. 2002). In order to isolate

active tectonic structures from this area, we assessed the local geomorphology using topographic maps, aerial photographs and satellite images, supplemented by field investigation. The primary assumption in our study was that in those areas where the rate of deformation is low, active tectonism may reflect on geomorphic features that react to small changes of slope.
REGIONAL SETTING

The study area lies in the southern flank of the Palghat Gap (Fig. 1), a conspicuous geomorphic feature, which divides the Western Ghats (Arogyaswami, 1962; Drury et al. 1984; Subramaniam and Muraleedharan, 1985). The present undulating topography of the Gap region consists of 250-km long and 30-km wide low land (gap) bordered by ridges and hills; the westflowing Bharathapuzha River, traverses through the central part of the gap area. The structural elements in the gap region are consistent with a ductile shear zone (Palghat-Cauvery Shear zone), defined by a large E-W dextral oblique-slip component, which may have been associated with Proterozoic tectonic events (DCruz et al. 2000). The thermobarometric studies indicate large-scale exhumation of lower to mid-crustal rocks in the Palghat gap region (Ravindrakumar and Chacko, 1994). The E-W lineaments are found to be regionally the most pervasive features within the Palghat Gap. The E-W flowing

N Ootacamund Calicut Beypore River 11 N Ponnani Coimbatore 1900 earthquake M<6.0 Coimbatore1865 and 1972 earthquakes The 1994 Wadakkancheri Earthquake M 4.3 Recent Microseismicity M<2.4 1989-1996 0 Scale 50 km 76 E 77 E Trichur Periyar River Bharathapuzha R. Palghat Pollachi Coimbatore Erode

Cauvery River

Amaravati River

Bangalore Madras Study area Trichur Trivandrum

Fig.1. Map showing locations of Wadakkancheri earthquakes. Shaded portion is the Palghat Gap; study area marked in square.
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GEOMORPHIC INDICATORS OF NEOTECTONISM FROM THE PRECAMBRIAN TERRAIN OF PENINSULAR INDIA

829

segment of the Bharathapuzha River follows one such lineament. The NNW-SSE Idamalayar lineament is also prominent here, as it has disturbed the river course at Ottappalam (Fig. 2). Continuation of Idamalayar lineament in the gap overprints on the original E-W trend, and appears to have been overprinted on it (Fig. 2). These NW-SE lineament patterns are controlled by emplacement of basic dykes connected with Deccan volcanism (Krishnaswamy, 1981; Nair, 1990) and thus it is not a Quaternary feature. The region of ongoing microseismic activity falls in the southern flank of the Palghat Gap. This area is marked by a variety of rock types as shown in the Fig.3 (GSI, 1992). The charnockitic suite of rocks (consisting of granular quartz, feldspar and hypersthene) forms the basement in the area, and is characterized by well-developed foliation, at many places, striking WNW-ESE with a southward dip of 3050 (John and Rajendran 2005). A systematic joint set has also been developed at many places in the area, which follows the foliation trend. Regionally, the overall style of late Proterozoic deformation (900-550 Ma) preserved in the exhumed low-mid-crustal basement rock suggests a northsouth compression, wherein the rock exposure on the south of the river course shows indications of northward thrust coincident with the southward-dipping foliation planes (John, 2003). Quartzo-feldspathic gneiss, pink granite and hornblende biotite gneiss are the other major crystalline rocks in the region (GSI, 1992).
METHODOLOGY

The present study has three components (i) Remote sensing studies, (ii) Morphometric analysis and (iii) integration of these data with field evidence and local seismicity. Remote Sensing studies were carried out to generate lineaments, drainage pattern and identifying paleochannels. Morphometric analysis is done to the drainage system of the area to identify the anomalies in landscape. Field checks were carried out to see the ground truth for the suspected locations identified through the above analysis.
Remote Sensing Studies

through analysis of lineament pattern with the help of Landsat imagery. Lineaments trending NNE-SSW to NE-SW are identified as faults, which has disturbed the dolerite dykes in south India (Grady, 1971). In the Kerala region, Nair (1990) identified five sets of lineaments: (1) WNW-ESE, (2) NW-SE, (3) NNW-SSE, (4) NNE-SSW and ENE-WSW. In another study, three major directions of fracture zones have been identified in the Palghat region based on the magnetic and electrical resistivity surveys; these zones trend in E-W, NW-SE and NE-SW directions (Kesavamoni and Bose, 1979). Lineament patterns detected during the study are shown in Fig. 3. Multispectral data is also used here to pick up subtle difference in spectral characters of surface features such as those due to vegetation, soil, moisture, slope etc. The E-W lineaments are found to be regionally the most pervasive features within the Palghat Gap. The E-W flowing segment of Bharathapuzha River follows one such lineament. The NNW-SSE Idamalayar lineament is also prominent here, as it has disturbed the river course at Ottappalam (Fig. 2). Continuation of Idamalayar lineament in the gap disturbs original E-W trend, and appears to have been overprinted on it (Fig. 2). Even though the river makes a right angled turn near Ottappalam through the well known NNW-SSE trending lineament, it retains the same E-W direction after taking a U-turn (Fig. 2). These lineament patterns with marked kinks in the NW-SE direction is probably controlled by emplacement of basic dykes connected with Deccan volcanism (Krishnaswamy, 1981; Nair, 1990). Apart from the prominent E-W and NNE-SSE lineaments we observed a prominent set of WNW-ESE trending lineaments showing en-echelon pattern (Fig. 2). Two of these lineaments are demarcating hill ranges (Fig. 2). The central lineament can be easily identified as the river flowing approximately along it after a right angled turn towards north. We carried out detailed studies to this lineament to find out the detailed account of drainage anomalies caused by this lineament, which are described in the following sections. Drainage system: The drainage network in Kerala has been suggested to be tectonically controlled, and the frequent knick-points in the profiles are said to indicate neotectonic activity along few of such fracture controlled lineaments (Sinha-Roy and Mathai, 1979). Majority of the microtremors in Kerala are associated with the drainage courses of some of the major rivers (Rajendran and Rajendran, 1996). The analyses of drainage pattern for the study area based on the alignments of tributaries and main stream Bharathapuzha spatially indicate two distinct

The area has been studied through remote sensing satellite data, aerial photos and toposheets. Both lineaments and paleochannels has been demarcated from satellite data and aerial photos. Toposheets of 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 has been used to evaluate the geomorphology of the terrain. Lineament pattern: Drury and Holt (1980) recognised different stages of tectonic evolution for Indian craton
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830 BIJU JOHN AND C. P. RAJENDRAN

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.71, JUNE 2008

Fig.2. Satellite image of the study area. The prominent WNW-ESE reverse fault is marked. The Dashed lines in red are the other lineaments associated with the fault. Area within the square is showing signatures of neotectonic activity as described in Figs. 4a,b and c. R is the location of a waterfall and the quarry, which exposed brittle fault. Locations C, Y and N are the locations of neotectonic signatures described in the Fig.4a.

GEOMORPHIC INDICATORS OF NEOTECTONISM FROM THE PRECAMBRIAN TERRAIN OF PENINSULAR INDIA

831

? ?

Kuttipuram

10 50

Pattambi Bharathapuzha R. Desamangalam

Ottapalam

10 40'
ad W a a kk

nc

he

z ipu

ha

R.

Wadakkancheri

5 km

76 00'

Fig.3. Simplified Geological map of the area (Modified from GSI, 1992). The folded rock units are part of Palghat-Cauvery shear zone. Lineaments map generated in the present study also integrated. Lineaments within the shear zone generally show a E-W trend where as those outside the shear zone show either WNW-ESE or NW-SE trend. The prominent WNW-ESE thrust fault is marked in red. The other dashed red lines are lineaments sympathetic to this fault.

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.71, JUNE 2008

a Se

7615'

Legend
Charnockite Quartzo feldspathic gneiss Dolerite

Warkalli

Hornblende biotite gneiss

White sand

Alluvium

Pink granite

Lineament

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BIJU JOHN AND C. P. RAJENDRAN

segments. The E- W flowing segment up to Desamangalam is the first one to develop and it shows only one turn. This turn at Ottappalam is quite possibly induced by ldamalayar lineament, referred earlier (Fig. 2). In this region, tributaries from the north join the river at right angles and those from the south follow a NW-SE direction. Beyond Desamangalam, river follows a WNW-ESE direction with a number of changes in channel trend. However, the river maintains the same direction after each turn. In this second segment all the tributaries from both the sides join the main river more or less at right angle. Earlier studies in this area found that foliation is the main factor controlling the drainage trends in the area lying south of Palghat Gap (Arogyaswamy, 1962). The Bharathapuzha River takes a deviation from E-W to WNW-ESE from Desamangalam after taking an abrupt turn along NNE-SSW (Fig. 2). IRS satellite image and aerial photographs show a prominent WNW-ESE trending regional structure along which the river is flowing downstream form Desamangalam (Fig.2). The river makes few right angled turns in the down stream area through relatively small N-S to NNE-SSW lineaments and each time it comes back to the original WNW-ESE direction. It appears that the WNWESE lineament may have controlled the sinuosity exhibited by the river in this segment. Apart from such structurally controlled features the river shows no significant meandering even though the region is close to the debouching area and river gradient is very gentle. The deflection of the river towards north in the WNW-ESE segment seems controlled by the above said structure. Paleochannels: Image analysis and subsequent field verification has revealed existence of few paleochannels south of WNW-ESE structure. Paleochannels are identified as a wide channel occupied by a 2nd of 3rd order stream. This is verified from the lithounits exposed though trenching, field exposures and open wells. As shown in the Fig.4a, the channels BP and WP are the present courses of the Bharathapuzha and Wadakkancheri Rivers, whereas channels A B, C, D E and F are the paleochannels of the region. Among these channels, it may be noted that the channel BP makes an abrupt northward turn at Desamangalam (mentioned earlier) leaving the paleochannel A in the southern side. Channel B is an old channel and is shifted towards southwest. Channel C is along the WNWESE structure and at Panjal this channel blocked and new drainage divide developed. Some anomalies are also noted for the channel D, which is a wide buried channel. Longitudinal of the channel D starting from X to Z along Y is represented in Fig.4b. Two possible projections of

slope are marked in the profile (a and b of Fig. 4b) to extrapolate the upstream slope. However, elevation at point Y cannot be explained by these two projections and it is apparent that a new drainage divide have developed at point Y. As for the channel E, it shows a southward shift in its course around the middle portion. Whereas in the channel F, the original flow direction appears to have been blocked and tends to deviate toward north leaving a pond in the catchment area (Fig. 4a). This channel shows a significant indication of uplift in the channel bed. A comparison of SOI topographic maps surveyed in 1965 and 1980 gives further credence to the observation made here (Fig. 4c). A rise in elevation can be identified at the place where the channel is blocked. According to Holbrooks and Schumm (1999) lowgradient rivers are very sensitive to epirogenic movements and even very subtle deformation can alter the course of major rivers. An open question at this stage is whether the above mentioned features are a sign of active tectonic movement in the region.
Morphometric Analysis

Evidence of changes in river course and controlled deflection towards north in this very low lying area can be attributed to the neotectonic activity of the WNW-ESE structure. However for ruling out the disturbance due to nontectonic geologic influences and anthropogenic disturbances we carried out morphometric analysis and worked out some of the geomorphic indices used in the study of active tectonics. The area had been divided into 62 subbasins (Fig.5) having 3rd and 4th order streams to which the following morphometric parameters are calculated. The geomorphic indices calculated for the present studies are: (a) asymmetry factor (AF), (b) transverse topographic factor (T), and (c) ratio of valley floor width to valley height (Vf) (e.g. Keller and Pinter, 1996). Some of the morphometric data generated in this study are given in Table 1. Asymmetry Factor (AF): The AF is defined as AF=100(Ar/At), where Ar is the area of the basin to the right (facing down stream) of the trunk stream and At is defined as the total area of the drainage basin. For a stream network that developed and continues to flow in a stable setting and uniform lithology, AF should be equal to about 50, whereas unstable setting would give a deflection from normal value either <50 or >50 (Keller and Pinter, 1996). The values of asymmetry factor calculated for the 62 sub-basins are shown in Table 1. Above 60 percent of the basin analysed are found between 40 and 60; we considered this as the near normal values for the terrain whereas 25
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GEOMORPHIC INDICATORS OF NEOTECTONISM FROM THE PRECAMBRIAN TERRAIN OF PENINSULAR INDIA

Elevation in m

833

80

X
A
10 45'

RT

40

b
Desamangalam
B

BP
0

10 Km

R
C Y D

40 40

WP
10 40'
40

40 0

Wadakkancheri
F
5Km
76 10'

E
Old channel Present channel
76 20'

60 40

Fig.4. (a) The sketch showing the locations of neotectonic activity associated with the WNW-ESE fault. RT denotes the river terraces created by the northward shift of the river. R is the location of the quarry and water fall. Dashed lines are the paleochannels. Location C is buried channel and the location in this channel is the location of partly buried settlement and an old temple. XYZ are the locations along which the profiles generated in Fig.4b. Channel B has shifted towards southwest (indicated by arrow). Location N is another site of river piracy shown in Fig.4c. (b) Profile along XYZ of Fig.6a; the dashed lines are the projections of the slope to estimate the paleo river gradient in stable condition. The slope projection b seems to be more realistic than a. However, both these projections are not explaining the dome structure (anomalous elevation) at Y. (c) Comparison of 40 m contour for 15 years of the area N of the Fig.6a. Solid lines are contours from 1965 toposheet dashed lines are the contours from 1980 toposheet: arrows indicate the change in elevation deduced from the toposheets of 1965 and 1980 maps.

percent of the basins show value between 35-40 and 60-65. However, the rest of the basins (<18%) are showing very anomalous values for AF. We had demarcated these basins and are clustering in distinct zones (Fig. 6). Of these 11 basins, 8 of them are located on either side of the river in WNW-ESE direction and four of which are found as clusters close to the river shift at Desamangalam (Fig. 6). The drainage anomalies are mostly associated with WNWESE direction, whereas the 4 basins along the NNW-SSE Idamalayar lineament show normal values (50-59). Asymmetry Factor (AF) was developed for detecting tectonic tilt in a basin area (Hare and Gardner, 1985). The data generated here suggest a definite tilt in south of WNWESE structure. The anomalous values of AF located along WNW-ESE direction may be due to the movement along the probable WNW-ESE structure. Transverse Topographic Symmetry Factor (T) : The Transverse Topographic Symmetry Factor is also calculated for 62 drainage basins shown in figure 5. T is defined as T=(D a/D d), where Da is the distance from the stream
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.71, JUNE 2008

channel to the middle of its drainage basin (measured perpendicular to the median line of the basin), and Dd is the distance from the midline to the basin divide. T is a vector with a bearing and magnitude from 0 to 1 and is calculated for different segments of stream channels. These vectors indicate migration of stream perpendicular to the drainage basin axis (Cox, 1994). This method was used to suggest the direction of possible Holocene tilting of the ground in the Mississippi Embayment (Cox et al. 2001). For a perfectly symmetric basin, T= 0. As asymmetry increases, T increases and approaches a value of 1. We measured 168 basin asymmetry vectors for the entire area (Fig. 6). The data presented here show a preferred migration of drainages towards southwest in south of WNW-ESE structure. We define two distinct zones (Fig. 6) for the asymmetry vectors based on the special relation of WNW-ESE structure. Area at the northwestern end of WNW-ESE structure is showing a divergent pattern for the vectors, whereas at the southeastern end it shows a convergent pattern. The number of streams (stream density/ stream frequency) is less and the magnitudes

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BIJU JOHN AND C. P. RAJENDRAN

1100`
3 2 1 10 8 9 12 11

4 5 6 15 16 17 33 35 23 7 19 18 20 21 22

14 13

Kuttipuram
26

30

31

32 34

l k
24 25

27

29 37 38 39

36

j i
28

Pattambi

40

h
1045`
41 42 43

44 45

Bharathapuzha R.

Ottapalam
Ga y

Desamangalam
46

f
47

d
atr i pu zh aR

48

49 51 50

56 57

Wadakkancheri

52 53 54

55

58 62 59 61 60

5 km

76 00'

7615'

Fig.5. The sketch showing the drainage network of the study area. The dashed lines are the sub-basins demarcated for the calculation of asymmetry factors and transverse topographic symmetry factor. Solid lines across the main trunk of the river (d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k and l) show locations where the ratios of Valley Floor Width to Valley Floor Height are calculated.

of the vectors are low in the coastal regions south of Bharathapuzha River. However, the magnitude of the vectors of the drainages near the WNW-ESE structure at Desamangalam (Fig. 6) are higher than the values from the rest of the region. The above said zones of anomalies are compared with the geological and lineament maps of the area to check the effect of uniform and varying lithology and structures in the formation of drainage system. The basins associated with E-W lineaments even on varying lithology are very large

and seems to be in stable setting as the AF being close to 50 (Table 1). The anomalies in AF are mostly restricted to areas with uniform lithology (charnockite) except for the drainage numbers 37 and 61 of figure 6, defined by the presence of hornblende biotite gneiss (Fig. 3). The anomalies in transverse topographic symmetry factor (T) (Fig. 6) are also fall in the area where charnockites are the only rock types (Fig. 3). In the zone close to Desamangalam where the AF is showing anomalous values, values of vector T are too high (close to 0.8), which is the maximum value
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GEOMORPHIC INDICATORS OF NEOTECTONISM FROM THE PRECAMBRIAN TERRAIN OF PENINSULAR INDIA Table 1. Drainage basin parameters derived for the area Basin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 Perimeter (km) 13.0 15.0 29.0 11.5 12.0 10.2 12.0 16.5 20.0 8.0 10.0 9.5 27.5 15.0 17.5 14.5 9.5 21.0 16.5 32.5 20.3 19.0 11.0 12.5 27.0 23.5 14.0 20.0 25.0 13.5 14.0 18.5 7.5 30.0 17.0 27.0 14.0 18.5 38.5 27.0 35.0 35.0 18.0 5.0 8.5 15.0 22.5 11.0 8.5 13.0 15.0 7.0 10.5 20.8 15.0 13.0 17.0 31.5 16.0 15.0 26.0 29.0 Area of the basin (km2 ) 8.670 13.800 20.650 8.200 7.900 8.100 10.075 14.200 17.150 2.525 6.300 5.950 23.700 12.770 17.375 10.929 5.675 27.475 17.200 17.700 22.375 17.650 5.125 8.100 43.160 25.870 11.650 25.890 23.325 12.025 12.850 21.675 3.975 48.150 16.050 33.500 10.650 15.950 43.600 43.725 95.400 40.975 11.550 1.525 3.075 12.325 23.850 8.200 4.200 9.650 16.250 2.925 5.575 19.200 11.500 12.275 12.500 41.100 9.900 11.050 27.500 46.375 Area right of the main trunk (km2 ) 4.200 6.150 8.675 5.875 4.825 3.075 5.700 5.200 13.250 1.750 3.400 2.950 9.375 4.475 7.625 8.625 2.125 11.800 10.600 8.700 8.450 10.350 2.125 5.750 19.825 11.950 6.650 10.675 11.220 6.300 5.500 11.000 2.125 17.150 6.150 13.630 7.675 7.470 17.750 23.826 62.000 9.050 7.625 0.525 1.070 5.600 14.400 5.025 2.150 5.875 5.950 1.350 2.675 8.150 4.925 7.275 6.325 22.550 6.050 4.550 6.900 24.075 Total No of streams 34 56 98 47 31 15 21 55 64 11 49 30 45 31 65 38 19 39 19 11 21 4 36 14 35 95 25 31 82 22 42 20 10 10 12 15 31 64 116 11 10 51 25 7 8 9 24 10 10 34 38 14 31 62 11 11 9 39 31 33 111 8 Ruggedness No. 0.28 0.35 0.40 0.35 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.33 0.37 0.60 0.37 0.41 0.22 0.20 0.38 0.35 0.41 0.25 0.26 0.28 0.37 0.06 0.25 0.25 0.09 0.42 0.20 0.10 0.40 0.31 0.32 0.14 0.25 0.19 0.14 0.24 0.30 0.43 0.34 0.22 0.04 0.20 0.23 0.39 0.29 0.13 0.38 0.15 0.26 0.53 0.58 1.26 0.94 0.80 0.19 0.17 0.24 0.47 0.56 1.11 1.00 0.04 Stream Density 3.92 4.06 4.75 5.73 3.92 1.85 2.08 3.87 3.73 4.36 7.78 5.04 1.90 2.43 3.74 3.48 3.35 1.42 1.10 0.62 0.94 0.23 7.02 1.73 0.81 3.67 2.15 1.20 3.52 1.83 3.27 0.92 2.52 0.21 0.75 0.45 2.91 4.01 2.66 0.25 0.10 1.24 2.16 4.59 2.60 0.73 1.01 1.22 2.38 3.52 2.34 4.79 5.56 3.23 0.96 0.90 0.72 0.95 3.13 2.99 4.04 0.17 Asymmetry Factor 48.44 44.57 42.01 71.65 61.08 37.96 56.58 36.62 77.26 69.31 53.97 49.58 39.56 35.04 43.88 78.92 37.44 42.95 61.63 49.15 37.77 58.64 41.46 70.99 45.93 46.19 57.08 41.23 48.10 52.39 42.80 50.75 53.46 35.62 38.32 40.69 72.07 46.83 40.71 54.49 64.99 22.09 66.02 34.43 34.80 45.44 60.38 61.28 51.19 60.88 36.62 46.15 47.98 42.45 42.83 59.27 50.60 54.87 61.11 41.18 25.09 51.91

835

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BIJU JOHN AND C. P. RAJENDRAN

1100`

Id t an am ne Li ar ay al am

Kuttipuram

DF
Pattambi

Ottapalam
Bharathapuzha R.

1045`

Desamangalam

Ga

ya

tri

pu

zh

aR

Wadakkancheri
T = 0.8

5 km 76 00' 7615'

Fig.6. The sketch showing the drainage network and basin asymmetry vector directions with magnitudes; the shaded portions are the areas were the drainages show anomalous asymmetry factor. Dashed unfilled polygons are areas where transverse topographic symmetry factor showing anomalous pattern.

obtained for this area. We have also noticed that the stream density is high (>3) for the basins along WNW-ESE structure. Ratio of valley floor width to valley height (Vf): We had further calculated ratio of valley floor width to valley height, which differentiate between broad floored valleys and V shaped valleys. The ratio of valley floor width to valley height (Vf) may be expressed as = 2Vfw/ (Eld-Esc)+ (Erd-Esc), where Vf is the valley floor width to height ratio; Vfw is the width of valley floor; Eld and Erd are elevations of

the left and right valley divides respectively and Esc is the elevations of the valley floor (Bull and McFadden, 1977). This index differentiates between broad-floored valleys that show relatively high values of Vf, and V shaped valleys with relatively low values. High values of Vf are associated with low uplift rates, so that streams cut broad valley floors. Low values of Vf reflect deep valleys with streams that are actively incising, commonly associated with uplift (Keller and Pinter, 1996). Studies in Garlock fault show the lower values are associated with vigorous tectonic activity (Bull and McFadden, 1997).
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The Vf are calculated for the different reaches of the main trunk and a tributary of the Bharathapuzha River using 1: 25,000 toposheets. The Vf along Gayatripuzha River is calculated for a comparison of the values obtained for NNESSW lineaments to the E-W and WNW-ESE lineaments in this region. Few of the locations were Vf is calculated are shown in Fig.5 and the values are in Table 2. The values obtained for the two reaches of Gayatripuzha show relatively high values, where as the values in the E-W segment of Bharathapuzha are > 16 except for the one close to Ottappalam (Table 2 see Fig.5 for locations). However, the
Table 2. Ratio of valley-floor width to valley height (Vf) calculated for the major trunk and tributaries of Bharathapuzha River. Locations d to l are marked in the Fig.5. Spot Location No. Height of left bank (m) 160 Height of right bank (m) 220 Valley height (m) Valley width (m) Index (Vf)

values fall below 8 at three locations (g,h and i of Fig.5) along WNW-ESE structure. The low value of Vf for the Desamangalam segment (WNW-ESE) of the Bharathapuzha, in comparison with E-W segment and NNW-SSE trending tributary, probably suggests the effect of active tectonism by the WNW-ESE structure.
FIELD EVIDENCE

Gayatripuzha 10 37N and 76 38E Gayatripuzha 10 39N and 76 32E Bharathapuzha 10 41N and 76 47E Bharathapuzha 10 45N and 76 26E Bharathapuzha 10 45N and 7620E Bharathapuzha 10 45N and 7616E Bharathapuzha 10 46N and 76 14E Bharathapuzha 10 47N and 76 12E Bharathapuzha 10 48N and 76 09E Bharathapuzha 10 49.5N and 76 06E Bharathapuzha 10 50.5N and 76 05E Bharathapuzha 10 50.5N and 76 04E

80

4000

18.43

365

135

80

4600

13.52

165

150

130

850

17

207

100

60

2000

16.66

100

160

60

1200

8.571

125

160

60

4000

24.24

100

140

40

1200

7.5

100

170

20

1750

7.543

165

95

20

1000

7.832

80

60

10

2000

28.57

105

110

10

1750

16.27

83

100

10

1500

16.39

Field work was carried out to verify paleochannels and to evaluate WNW-ESE structure. Channels A and B are wide valleys presently converted into paddy fields. Riverine sediments are exposed in clay clins located along these valleys at places. Excavations in Panjal in channel C reveal a partially buried settlement, which is dated to be 680 90 years (John, 2003). By the side of this paleochannel a partially buried temple is also located. This probably indicates that this channel was active till 680 90 years BP. Channel D is another wide valley where extensive agricultural activity is going on. Examination of litho sections in open wells within the channels, reveals river sediments below a thin layer of clay. Channel E bear another misfit drainage flowing in a wide valley. The present river channel (Wadakkancheripuzha) is flowing over the laterite at this zone. Channel F seems to be perenial but the riverine sediments are found on the surface of the channel. An interesting geomorphic feature in this area is a waterfall developed in association with the WNW-ESE structure (see Fig. 2 for location). Bharathapuzha River in this region is flowing within 20 m above MSL and the waterfall is formed between 40 and 50 MSL. The drainage in which the waterfall developed show a V shaped valley in down stream, compared to a broad U shaped valley in upstream. This waterfall is very close to a brittle fault exposed in the quarry (John, 2003). The fault zone exposed in a quarry at Desamangalam on the WNW-ESE structure (see Fig. 2 for location) also aligns with a 10 km long WNW-SSE trending hill scarp. The fault zone is 6 m wide and coincides with the foliation that strikes WNW-ESE with a dip of 45S (John, 2003). The fault zone is characterized by a gouge zone in the slip plane where the most of the displacement was accommodated. Rao et al. (2002) dated the unconsolidated gouge present in this fault zone through ESR (Electron Spin Resonance) technique which yield an age of 43043 ka for the last major movement suffered by the fault. John et al. (2005) found evidence of episodic deformation in this fault zone. This fault zone may be the surface expression of a big structure at depth.

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LOCAL SEISMICITY

Among the historic and recent earthquakes of the region 1341 Malabar and 1900 Coimbatore earthquakes are significant in south India. A large number of tremors have taken place recently in the vicinity of Palghat Gap (Rajendran and Rajendran 1996). Of these, three events are located with in the WNW-ESE structure (Fig. 7). The epicenter of the 1994 Wadakkancheri earthquake (M 4.3) has been located at 10.75 N and 76.25 E (Rajendran and

Rajendran 1995) and its isoseismal elongation are spatially coincident with the WNW-ESE structure (John, 2003). This earthquake made widespread minor damages to houses around the epicentral area and are mostly confined to south of Bharathapuzha. Most of the aftershocks detected by IMD network (IMD, 1995) are also located close to the above said structure (Fig. 7). Two more tremors were reported further south of 1994 event (Fig. 7) and these are located mainly based on isoseismals. The spatial distribution of the local seismicity and after shocks of

1100`

al am Id t an am ne Li ar ay

Kuttipuram

DF
Pattambi

Ottapalam

1045`

V IV

Bharathapuzha R. Desamangalam
1994

Ga ya tri

III II
Earthquake epicenters

pu

zh

aR

Wadakkancheri

1993

1989

Aftershocks of 1994 Wadakkancheri Earthquake

5 km 76 00' 7615'

Fig. 7. The sketch showing the locations of geomorphic anomalies and WNW-ESE fault. Dashed lines are isoseismals of 1994 earthquakes. Arrows (not to scale) indicate the direction of stream anomalies (shift) deduced from drainage pattern, paleochannels and morphometric analysis.
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GEOMORPHIC INDICATORS OF NEOTECTONISM FROM THE PRECAMBRIAN TERRAIN OF PENINSULAR INDIA

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1994 event suggest that this WNW-ESE structure may be a potential seismogenic structure.
DISCUSSION

The E-W trending Palghat Gap is the most prominent regional structure with in the area. A WNW-ESE trending structure seems to have overprinted on the E-W structures and as this study shows it has influenced the drainage pattern of the area. The most significant anomaly induced by this structure is a right angled turn of Bharathapuzha River at Desamangalam. From here the river maintains a WNW-ESE trend even though a few northward turns disturb the river course. The absence of significant meanders is also an important observation here. Earlier studies indicate that the WNW-ESE structure is a reverse fault dipping south; that means the southern side of the structure is the hanging wall block (John, 2003). Analysis of satellite image combined with field verification indicate that the drainage channels in the hanging wall were shifted from their original course, forming paleochannels, to adjust with the change in slope induced by the reverse movement of the fault. The reverse movement of the fault might also result in the formation of the waterfall near the fault zone at Desamangalam (location in Fig. 2). For further quantitative evidence we employed three quantitative geomorphic parameters (AF, T and Vf ) which are widely used in the study of active tectonics. Both AF and T are generally used to detect the tilting of a region (Keller and Pinter, 1996). The present data show a preferred direction of tilt in hanging wall block towards south. The study also identifies different zones where AF shows a greater anomaly (>65 and <35) and T shows distinct patterns and high magnitudes even though the area is characterised by uniform lithology (Fig 3). The zones identified from the anomalies of AF and T are consistent with the WNW-ESE structure. The Vf calculated for different reaches indicate

that the WNW-ESE segment of the Bharathapuzha shows relatively low values in comparison to the upper reaches of the river. The low values of Vf in the WNW-ESE segment can be due to the rejuvenation of the river caused by the neotectonic adjustments of WNW-ESE structure (Keller and Pinter, 1996). Spatially these anomalies coincide with a south dipping brittle fault near a waterfall close to the right angled turn of the Bharathapuzha River (John and Rajendran, 2005). Electron spin resonance dating of the fault gouge indicates a probable seismic event around 430 ka (Rao et al. 2002). Few seismic events are also reported near this structure. Isoseismals of the 1994 M 4.3 earthquake show that the felt reports are more on the southern side of the WNW-ESE structure. Paleochannel studies show some significant disturbances in the hanging wall side of the WNW-ESE structure. Channels C, D and F are blocked its original course and presently new drainage divides developed whereas Channels A, B and E are shifted its original course. A comparison of toposheets mapped in 1965 and 1980 also show significant modifications in land forms (Fig. 4c). Spatially these anomalies coincide with the hanging wall of WNW-ESE fault. Thus it can be concluded that the above mentioned structure is neotectonically active. Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the CESS, and Kerala State Council for Science Technology and Environment. Biju John (BJ) is thankful to Deputy Director General, Geological Survey of India, Northern Region for his kind permission to publish this paper. BJ expresses his sincere gratitude to Shri. Prabhas Pande, Director, GSI for his encouragement and support. C.P. Rajendran thanks the authorities of the Centre for Earth Science Studies for their help and assistance. We are extremely grateful to the journal referee for the critical comments and suggestions that helped to improve the paper.

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(Received: 27 November 2006; Revised form accepted: 23 November 2007)

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