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UNIT 2, 3 & 4 1. Give names of three chemical admixtures for repair.

y y y y y Accelerators Retarders Water-reducing agents Super plasticizers Air entraining agents.

2. What is Ferro cement Ferro cement is a composite material consisting of cement mortar reinforced by number of layers of steel wire mesh. 3. What is permeability coefficient? The rate at which the water flows or percolates for a unit cross sectional area through a unit distance of the material under a unit hydraulic gradient and standard temperature usually 200C. 4. What are the properties of Fresh concrete? Following are the important properties of fresh concrete 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Setting Workability Bleeding and Segregation Hydration Air Entrainment a

5. What are the properties of hardened concrete? Following are the properties of hardened concrete: 1.
Strength of concrete y Paste strength: y Interfacial bonding: y Aggregate strength: Concrete Creep Shrinkage (Early Volume Change) Modulus Of Elasticity Water tightness (impermeability) Rate of Strength gain of Concrete

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

6. What are the tests on Fresh concrete? Slump, air content, unit weight and compressive strength tests are the most common tests on Fresh concrete. Slump is a measure of consistency, or relative ability of the concrete to flow. If the concrete cant flow because the consistency or slump is too low, there are potential problems with proper consolidation. If the concrete wont stop flowing because the slump is too high, there are potential problems with mortar loss through the formwork, excessive formwork pressure, finishing delays and segregation. Air content measure the total air content in a sample of fresh concrete, but does not indicate what the final in-place air content will be, because a certain amount of air is lost in transportation Consolidating, placement and finishing. Three field tests are widely specified: the pressure meter and volumetric method are ASTM standards and the Chace Indicator is an AASHTO procedure. Unit weight measures the weight of a known volume of the fresh concrete. Compressive strength is tested by pouring cubes of fresh concrete and measuring the force needed to break the concrete cubes at prescribed interval as they harden. According to Building Code Requirements for reinforced concrete (ACI 318) as long as no single test more than 500 psi below the design strength and the average of three consecutive tests equals or exceed the design strength then the concrete is acceptable. If the strength tests dont meet these criteria, steps must be taken to raise the average. 7. List four various factors which influence the strength the concrete.

Factors affecting Strength of concrete:


1. Water-Cement ratio 2. Type of cementing material 3. Amount of cementing material 4. Type of aggregate 5. Air content 6. Admixtures 8. List out the tests on Hardened concrete Tests performed on hardened concrete are: y Compressive strength test (most common) DT y Modulus of Elasticity NDT y Split-tension test DT y Flexural strength test DT y Rebound hammer test NDT y Penetration resistance test NDT y Ultrasonic pulse velocity test NDT y Maturity test NDT

9. What is the effect of permeability on hardened concrete? Permeability affects the durability of hardened concrete y Allows water and chemicals to penetrate its surface y Cause reduced resistance to frost, alkali-aggregate reactivity and other chemicals, corrosion of steel rebars y Air voids that affect permeability are obtained from incomplete consolidation of fresh concrete and evaporation of mixing water that is not used for hydration of cement y Increasing the water/cement ratio has strong effects on permeability Other factors affecting permeability: y age of concrete, fineness of cement particles, air entraining agents 10. List the factors affecting permeability of hardened concrete. y Water/cement ratio y Air voids y age of concrete y fineness of cement particles y air entraining agents 11. What is NDT? Non-destructive testing (NDT) is used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddy-current testing, and low coherence interferometry. 12. List some of the Non Destructive Testing Methods a. Modulus of Elasticity b. Rebound hammer test c. Penetration resistance test d. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test e. Maturity test 13. What is the difference between Destructive and non destructive testing? a. Destructive testing will render the part unusable for its intended purpose (e.g. it is cut up for analysis, or fatigue tested for life). b. Non destructive testing will, after testing, allow the part to be used for its intended purpose (e.g. test for leakage, flow, or resistance

14. What are the advantages of ultrasonic test? The major advantages of ultrasonic testing are: y Detects surface and subsurface defects y Depth of penetration vs. other test methods is superior y Only single sided access is required with a pulse-echo technique y High accuracy regarding estimating discontinuity size and shape y Minimal specimen preparation is required y Instantaneous results produced by using electronic equipment y Detailed images can be produced with automated systems 15. What are the applications of ultrasonic test? Some of the most common Ultrasonic applications are: y y y y y Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity etc.) Erosion/Corrosion thickness gauging Assessment of bond integrity Estimation of grain size in metals Estimation of void content in composites and plastics

16. What are the limitations of ultrasonic test? Major limitations of ultrasonic testing are: y y y y y y y Surface must be accessible Skill training is more extensive that with some other methods Normally requires couplant to promote sound transfer Surface roughness, complex geometries, small parts or exceptionally thin materials are difficult to inspect Coarse grained materials i.e. cast iron are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam go undetected Reference standards are required for equipment calibration

17. What is plastic shrinkage? Plastic Shrinkage occurs due to water loss from fresh paste by evaporation or from suction by dry surface. 1% Volume decrease when the paste is still plastic. It is prevented by controlling water loss. 18. Define Creep y Creep is the gradual increase in strain, with time, under sustained load. It is a long term process (several years) and varies with the type of structure. It involves y Increased deflection and increased stress in steel

y y

Gradual transfer of load from concrete to steel Losing some of the pre stress force in pre stressed concrete

19. What is meant by freezing and thawing? Deterioration of concrete from freeze thaw actions may occur when the concrete is critically saturated, which is when approximately 91% of its pores are filled with water. When water freezes to ice it occupies 9% more volume than that of water. If there is no space for this volume expansion in a porous, water containing material like concrete, freezing may cause distress in the concrete. Distress to critically saturated concrete from freezing and thawing will commence with the first freeze-thaw cycle and will continue throughout successive winter seasons resulting in repeated loss of concrete surface. 20. What are the properties of hardened concrete concrete? Following are the properties of hardened concrete: 1.
Strength of concrete

The strength of concrete is basically referred to compressive strength and it depends upon three factors. 1- Paste Strength 2- Interfacial Bonding 3- Aggregate Strength 1. Paste strength: It is mainly due to the binding properties of cement that the ingredients are compacted together. If the paste has higher binding strength, higher will be strength of concrete. 2. Interfacial bonding: Interfacial bonding is very necessary regarding the strength. Clay hampers the bonding between paste and aggregate. The aggregate should be washed for a better bonding between paste and aggregate. 3. Aggregate strength: It is mainly the aggregate that provide strength to concrete especially coarse aggregates which act just like bones in the body. Rough and angular aggregate provides better bonding and high strength. Hardening is the process of growth of strength. This is often confused with 'setting' but setting and hardening are not the same. Setting is the stiffening of the concrete after it has been placed. Hardening may continue for weeks or months after the concrete has been mixed and placed.

2.

Concrete Creep Creep is o the gradual increase in strain, with time, under sustained load o Long term process (several years) o Vary with type of structure o Increased deflection and increased stress in steel o Gradual transfer of load from concrete to steel o Losing some of the prestress force in prestressed concrete

3.

Shrinkage (Early Volume Change) Shrinkage may result in cracking Plastic Shrinkage Due to water loss from fresh paste by evaporation or from suction by dry surface y Volume decrease ~ 1% when the paste is still plastic y How to prevent: control water loss Drying Shrinkage Due to loss of water and/or cooling. y 15-30% of dry shrinkage occurs in the first 2 weeks, 65-85% in first year Can be induced by - lack of curing - high water-cement ratio - high cement content - low coarse aggregate content - existence of steel reinforcement y Depends on size and shape of concrete structure y May be non-uniform due to non-uniform loss of water Swelling may occur if concrete is cured continuously in water after setting. Its effects are relatively small and does not cause significant problems. Modulus Of Elasticity y Concrete is not perfectly elastic y Rate of loading affects the E value (Non-Linear) - Aggregate and cement paste individually show a linear stress-strain, but concrete is nonlinear - Why? Micro-cracking between the aggregate and cement paste interface y For structural design, we need compressive strength (fc) and modulus of elasticity (E)

4.

5. Water tightness (impermeability) Permeability affects the durability of hardened concrete

Allows water and chemicals to penetrate its surface y Cause reduced resistance to frost, alkali-aggregate reactivity and other chemicals, corrosion of steel rebars y Air voids that affect permeability are obtained from incomplete consolidation of fresh concrete and evaporation of mixing water that is not used for hydration of cement y Increasing the water/cement ratio has strong effects on permeability Other factors affecting permeability: y age of concrete, fineness of cement particles, air entraining agents
y

6.

Rate of Strength gain of Concrete To determine the rate of gain of strength of concrete, there is a need to select period shorter than 28 day, as 28 day is considered to be the reference time. In concrete practice, it is accepted that after 28 days concrete usually gains most of its strength. Strength determined at an early stage say after 7th day of placing of concrete can be compared to strength determined after 28 days, which is considered to be the reference time. In this way, rate of gain of strength of concrete can be determined.

18. Write short notes on Rebound hammer A rebound hammer is an instrument to determine the strength of rock or concrete. Since this is an essential element of structural design and is specified for compliance purposes, it is vital to know the strength of the concrete. This hammer is also known as the Schmidt Hammer in honor of its inventor Ernst O. Schmidt who invented this measuring device in the 1950s. The rebound hammer test is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against which the mass impinges. When testing the impact bolt of the rebound hammer strikes the surface of the concrete with a defined force. After the impact, a metal body, the so-called hammer rebounds. The rebound distance is measured by a sensor and passed on to the display unit as an electrical signal. 19. Steps to measure the strength of concrete with a rebound hammer: 1. Use a grinding stone to smoothen the test surface. 2. Perform a few test impacts with the rebound hammer on this smooth, hard surface before taking any measurements which you are going to evaluate. Perform a consistency check on the test anvil. 3. Ensure all settings are correctly done. 4. Position the hammer perpendicular to and against the test surface. Push the concrete test hammer against the surface at a moderate speed until the impact is triggered. Be aware that the plunger generates a recoil when it deploys. Therefore it is recommended to hold the rebound hammer with both hands, perpendicular to the test surface, before triggering the impact. 5. Each test surface should be tested with at least 12 impacts dropping the highest and the lowest and then take the average of the remaining. The individual impact points must be

spaced at least 25 mm apart. The British Standard BS 1881: Part 202 advices to test on a grid pattern with a spacing of 20 to 50 mm. 6. Interpret the test results. 21. Explain the role of fiber reinforced concrete. When fibers are added in concrete, the following properties of concrete are improved. y y y tensile strength, impact resistance, wear resistance

22. Define Micro-Concrete. A concrete formed from graded small aggregate (about 6 mm size), sand, Portland cement and water. 23. What is Autogenous Healing? Fine cracks appear in concrete in the initial stage due to shrinkage and temperature. If these cracks are allowed to close without lateral displacement under moist conditions, they tend to heal completely due to hydration of the cement that had not hydrated so far. This phenomenon is called autogenous healing of concrete. The width of cracks that can undergo this type of healing is 0.1mm 0.2mm. 24. What is guniting? A process of applying a cement mortar with or without coarse aggregate at a high velocity to a surface under pressure with the help of a special pump and gun. 25. What is shotcreting? Shotcreting is a method of conveying a mixture of cement or concrete through a hose and pneumatically projecting it at a high velocity to a receptive surface (walls). Shtcreting is used in repair works, tunnel-lining operations etc. 26. Difference between guniting and shortcreting. Guniting : is mostlu used for pneumatic application of mortar of less thickness. Shotcreting : is used for pneumatic application of mortar/concrete for achieving greater thickness with a small coarse aggregates.

27. Give names of three chemical admixturtes used for repair. Or Name any four admixtures used in concrete? y Chemical Admixtures 1. Plasticizers 2. Super Plasticizers 3. Accelerators 4. Set Retarders

28. Give names of mineral admixturtes used for repair. a. Mineral Admixtures i. Cementitious ii. Pozzolanic iii. Blast Furnace Slag iv. Flyash v. Silica Fume vi. Rice Husk

1. Write a short notes on the manufacturing process and applications of the following: a. Bacterial concrete Researchers have designed bacteria that can produce a special glue to knit together cracks in concrete structures. This could make the construction material more durable and therefore more sustainable. The genetically modified microbe has been programmed to swim down fine cracks in concrete and once at the bottom it produces a mixture of calcium carbonate and a bacterial glue. This glue combines with the filamentous bacterial cells, ultimately hardening to the same strength as the surrounding concrete and essentially "knitting" the building back together. The bacterium tweaked (fine-tuning or adjusting a complex system) by the researchers is called Bacillus subtilis and is commonly found in soil. Accordingly, the research team calls its building-healing agent "BacillaFilla." The agent was developed with the goal in mind of prolonging the life of structures that are environmentally costly to construct. Around 5 percent of all man-made carbon dioxide emissions are from the production of concrete, making it a significant contributor to global warming, Finding a way of prolonging the lifespan of existing structures means we could reduce this environmental impact and work towards a more sustainable solution.This could be particularly useful in

earthquake zones where hundreds of buildings have to be flattened because there is currently no easy way of repairing the cracks and making them structurally sound." The BacillaFilla spores start germinating only when they make contact with concrete, triggered by the very specific pH of the material and they have a built-in self-destruct gene that prevents them from proliferating (reproduce rapidly) away from the concrete target. Once the cells have germinated, they swarm down the fine cracks in the concrete and are able to sense when they reach the bottom because of the clumping of the bacteria, or socalled quorum sensing. This clumping activates the concrete repair process and the cells differentiate into three types: y y y cells which produce calcium carbonate crystals, cells which become filamentous - acting as reinforcing fibers and thirdly cells that produce a glue that acts as a binding agent and fills the gap.

b. Vacuum concrete This is concrete which includes high water content to allow sufficient workability to enable it to be placed into complicated moulds or around extensive reinforcement. The concrete is then subject to a vacuum which removes significant quantities of water resulting in a stronger concrete on hardening. Pumped concrete needs to include higher water content to improve the flow characteristics. If a high strength concrete is required then special additives are use in place of the additional water. Concrete pumping stations may be static or mobile c. High Performance Concrete

1. High Performance Concrete


This mix has the following main properties:
        

High strength. High workability. High durability. Ease of placement. Compaction without segregation. Early age strength. Long-term mechanical properties. Permeability. Density.

   

Heat of hydration. Toughness. Volume stability. Long life in severe environments.

Preparation High strength concrete mix can be prepared with careful selection of ingredients and optimization of mix design.


High workability is attained by super plasticizers, they lower the water cement ratio to 0.25 which is the amount required only for hydration process. High durability is attributed to fly ash and silica fume which modify the mineralogy of the cement; it enhances the compatibility of ingredients in concrete mass and reduces the CH amount. Fly ash also causes ball bearing effect increasing workability. The admixtures are 20-25% fly ash of partial replacement of cement and rest 70% is Ordinary Portland Cement. As it is not usually durable against freezing and thawing so air entrained agents can also be utilized.

Properties of high performance concrete mix


 

Strength of high performance concrete ranges from 10000 psi - 15000 psi Water cement ratio can be reduced to 0.25

1. What is Cold Weather Concreting? What are the Objectives, effects and precautionary Measures of cold weather concreting? Cold Weather Concreting defines cold weather concreting as a period when for more than three (3) consecutive days, the following conditions exist:
 

The average daily air temperature is less than 5C (40F) and, The air temperature is not greater than 10C (50F) for more than one-half of any 24 hour period.

Concrete placed during cold weather will develop sufficient strength and durability to satisfy intended service requirements only if it is properly produced, placed and protected. What Happens When Concrete Freezes? 1. Pore water in concrete starts to freeze around -1C (30F)

2. As some water freezes the ion concentration in the unfrozen water goes up, further depressing the freezing point. 3. At around -3 to -4C (25 to 27F), enough of the pore water will freeze so that hydration will completely stop, and depending on the extent of hydration, and thus the strength of the concrete, the forces generated by the expansion of ice (ice occupies ~9% more volume than water) may be detrimental to the long term integrity of the concrete. Objectives of Cold Weather Concreting The objectives of cold weather concreting are to:
  

Prevent damage to concrete due to freezing at early ages Assure that concrete develops the required strength for the safe removal of forms Maintain curing conditions that foster normal strength development without using excessive heat Limit rapid temperature changes in the concrete to prevent thermal cracking

For every 10C (18F) reduction in concrete temperature, the times of setting of the concrete double, thus increasing the amount of time that the concrete is vulnerable to damage due to freezing. Concrete that is protected from freezing until it has attained a compressive strength of at least 3.45 Mpa (500 psi) will not be damaged by exposure to a single freezing cycle. Concrete that is protected and properly cured will mature to its potential strength despite subsequent exposure to cold weather. Except in heated, protective enclosures, little or no external supply of moisture is required for curing during cold weather. Deleterious Effects: Following deleterious effect may occur due to cold weather concreting 1. Hydration will be hampered 2. Setting time will be prolong 3. Disruption of freshly placed concrete because of freezing 4. Low workability 5. Freezing and thawing effect 6. Improper curing

7. Workmanship is affected 8. Deicing effect Precautionary Measures for concrete in cold weather 1. Using hot water 2. Providing enclosures i.e. covered area 3. Using air entraining agents 4. Scheduling concreting 5. Using admixtures Accelerators 6. Type III or high early strength cement 7. Using amount of cement 7. Explain Hot Weather Concreting Hot Weather Concreting defines hot weathers as any combination of the following conditions that tends to impair the quality of the freshly mixed or hardened concrete:
    

High ambient temperature High concrete temperature Low relative humidity Wind speed Solar radiation

The success of many hot-weather concreting operations depends on the steps taken to slow the cement hydration reactions within the concrete and to minimize the rate of evaporation of moisture from the freshly mixed concrete. Potential concrete problems in hot weather are likely to include:
     

Increased water demand Increased rate of slump loss Increased rate of setting Increased tendency for plastic-shrinkage cracking Increased difficulty in controlling entrained air content Decreased 28-day and later strengths

  

Increased tendency for differential thermal cracking Greater variability in surface appearance Increased permeability

High temperatures accelerate the hardening of concrete and more water is generally required to maintain workable consistencies. If the water-cement ratio is not maintained by adding additional cement, strength and durability will be reduced. For example, if the temperature of concrete is increased from 50 degrees F (10C) to 100 degrees F (38C), about 33 pounds (roughly 15 liters) of additional water is needed per cubic yard of concrete to maintain a threeinch slump. If the water content of concrete is increased without increasing the cement content, the strength and other properties of concrete are adversely affected. High water contents also mean greater drying shrinkage. Furthermore, setting is accelerated which shortens the time within which the concrete can be handled and finished. Curing concrete requires that it be kept damp so that hydration can be completed, therefore, it cannot be allowed to dry too rapidly. Keeping equipment such as mixers, chutes, wheelbarrows, etc. in the shade or covered with wet burlap will reduce the effect of the sun's heat. Forms, reinforcing steel, and subgrade should be sprinkled with cool water just before the concrete is placed. Wetting down the area cools the surrounding air and increases the relative humidity. This not only reduces the temperature but also minimizes the evaporation of water from the concrete. Aggregates have a pronounced effect on fresh concrete temperature because they represent 60 to 80 percent of the total weight of concrete. Stockpiles should be shaded from the sun and kept moist by sprinkling. Since evaporation is a cooling process, sprinkling provides effective cooling, especially when the relative humidity is low. Cement temperature has only a minor effect on the temperature of freshly mixed concrete because it represents a relatively small percentage of the total mixture. Concrete Curing is a hydration process and requires water to be present. Forms should be sprayed with water to keep them damp, or they will absorb part of the mixing water. As soon as the concrete has set sufficiently to prevent marring the surface, it should be covered with straw, burlap, or other materials such as sand and kept moist for several days. Covering with polyethylene plastic sheets or using curing compounds helps in preventing evaporation by air or wind. Anything to prevent rapid dehydration will be helpful. High ambient temperature cause low relative humidity due to which loss of water from concrete is very high which result in high water requirement for mix preparing.

Precautions in hot weather concreting:

To control the high concrete temperature following steps may be taken: 1. Schedule concreting. The concrete can be scheduled to time when the temperature is not high e.g. in summer it can be schedule to night or early morning 2. Material and mix proportions: use material and mix design proportion having good weather resistance e.g. select sand having low specific heat. 3. Covered environment: The concrete can be done in a covered environment. 4. Chilling: The chilling of aggregate can be done by watering or keeping them covered. 5. Efficient work force: employ efficient workforce and machinery to improve the handling. 6. Use of low heat cement: Use low heat cement.

Temperature of Concrete:
To decrease the temperature of concrete by 1 C, decrease the temperature of any one of the following : Cement or Water or Aggregate Sometimes ice is used to decrease the temperature of concrete

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