Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Both livestock and fish production can have integration can, through a low technology
negative impacts but if production can be approach, ameliorate the negative impacts of
integrated, benefits are likely to be more livestock intensification. Wastes that otherwise
equitable and ecologically benign. Benefits of adversely affect surface water supplies and the
productive integrated livestock-fish accrue to people dependent on them, can be treated at
producers, consumers and society in general. A relatively low cost and valuable nutrients
crop of fish, raised at little extra cost, spread risks used and retained within the farming system
and diversifies livestock production. The (Chapter 4).
production cost of the fish should be low since Livestock-fish production has been mostly
livestock waste is substituted for purchased adopted by livestock entrepreneurs, often in peri-
feeds and/or chemical fertilizers, with potential urban areas, rather than the rural poor. Better
benefit also to consumers. Moreover, their access to inputs and markets favours this group.
Marketing of a proportion of the poultry and sumption alone, but an important category of
fish raised by small-holders is typical among commercial farmer has emerged in the last
farmers in Northeast Thailand. Although such decade in response to high demand for cul-
sales constitute only a marginal source of tured fish. This minority of farmers, who are
annual income, poultry are valued for their typically resource-rich, has been very recep-
role as liquid assets as they are mainly sold tive to use of high-input inorganic fertilization
when cash expenditure of the household is and integration with feedlot livestock.
high. The social role of poultry and both wild Households that adopt aquaculture in rural
and cultured fish is particularly clear during areas of Thailand tend to consume more fish
the rice harvest season when meat consump- and other high quality food than non-adopters
tion is high as friends and relatives are enter- (Setboonsarng, 1997).
tained. Cultured fish and poultry are a con-
Poor households in Southern Viet Nam raised
venient and available high-value food used at
fish integrated with pigs primarily as a cash
this time.
crop; household consumption needs were met
More than 50 percent of households in a sur- through capture or purchase of small wild
vey of six provinces of Northeast Thailand fish.
used the fish they cultured for home con-
10
9
Wild fish
8
Quantity of meat (kg)
Cultured fish
7
6 Village chickens
5 Domestic ducks
4 Muscovy ducks
3 Geese
2 Pork/beef
1
0
upland mini-watershed lowland
Average meat consumption per household by type during the ‘feast’ period around rice
harvest time of farmers adopting intensified fish culture practices in three areas of Udon
Thani, Northeast Thailand. Source: Little et al. (1992).
The trends of intensification and specialization will grow as opportunities for livelihoods dwindle
of livestock production have been challenged on in rural areas. Increase in farm-unit size and
ecological and social grounds. Although intensifi- decline in the total number of farms will increase
cation should ultimately improve the quantity the flow of the rural poor to urban areas,
and variety of livestock products available to intensifying urban and rural social problems.
urban consumers, the proportion of urban poor These views have popularized the rationale for
BOX 7.C
urban Asia, tilapias probably have most potential
as a global commodity.
Poor quality-control hinders export Product quality and uniformity become
of value-added fish products important if distant markets are to be targeted.
Assembling enough fish of consistent quality
from small-holders to meet the needs of distant
Taiwan is the largest producer of whole tilapias
markets is a problem, as is the likelihood of poor
exported to North America. The fish are raised
bacteriological quality and off-flavours.
on livestock waste and pelleted feed but poor
Off-flavour problems have been closely
control of product quality, and a lack of
associated with freshwater fish such as channel
processing labour, results in most of the fish
catfish and tilapia raised in ponds or from wild
being sold as whole frozen fish cheaply to
stocks. Off-flavours, caused by geosmin and 2-
ethnic markets. Export quality tilapia, for which
methylisoborneol (MIB) (Dionigi et al., 1998) are
the largest potential markets exist, requires
not toxic but can cause rejection of fish by
both significant quantities of fish large enough
consumers, hinder marketing efforts, and
for processing (500-600g minimum) and
reinforce product safety concerns (Dionigi et al.,
commitment to the management of off-flavour
1998). Organoleptic testing of tilapias raised in
problems.
different systems indicates that waste-fed fish
are no more likely to suffer off-flavours than pellet-
Factors that support the production of export-
fed fish, and may be superior in terms of flesh
quality tilapia include:
quality (Eves et al., 1995). The erratic quality of
well managed pond-to-processing systems
Taiwan’s frozen tilapia exports have hindered the
that taste-tests fish just prior to harvest and
penetration of larger markets for value-added
refuses unsuitable quality;
products (Box 7.C).
facility for fattening in an intensive system
and depuration prior to slaughter reduce
incidence of off-flavour; 7.2
low processing costs to fillets and ready-to-
cook products; Nutritional benefits
frozen food storage capacity. Fish are highly nutritious, providing animal
protein containing all 10 essential amino acids in
relatively high concentrations. Low in cholesterol both birds and mammals, and reptiles and
and saturated fats, they are also rich in key fatty amphibians are key parts of the diet
acids, minerals and vitamins. (Srikosamatara et al., 1992). Foods derived from
Inclusion of fish in diets based on traditional water be they insects, molluscs, crustaceans or
high-carbohydrate staples typical of most fish contribute to a varied diet in many parts of
developing countries is particularly valuable for Southeast Asia. Typically, wild and cultured food
vulnerable groups of people such as pregnant and is used to meet day-to-day requirements and
nursing mothers, infants and pre-school children. social occasions. Rural households in Northeast
This is partly because fish are a valuable source Thailand depend heavily on poultry eggs and
of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PuFAs), now aquatic products including fish for daily
known to be essential in development of the brain consumption, whereas poultry meat is mainly
and nervous system and the proper functioning reserved as a ‘feast food’ for special occasions
of the immune system. Recent research points to
freshwater as well as marine fish having
significant levels of these essential fatty acids BOX 7.E
(Steffens and Wirth, 1997).
The importance of fish in household food Nutritional importance of fish
security in much of Asia has been frequently
In West Bengal, a rice-fish society where
stated but on a global level fish is less important
than livestock as a source of animal protein, much of the agricultural land is flooded for a
supplying less than 20 percent of the total for proportion of the year, market surveys indi-
developing countries. However, the average cate that consumption of fish is far more
disguises the importance of fish in many of these important than meat (Morrice et al., 1998).
countries, where fish meets between 40-70 In two sub-districts of Bangladesh more
percent of animal protein needs (Edwards, 1997). freshwater fish was eaten in households
There is clearly a huge unfulfilled need for fish to with little land than all meat combined
contribute towards the livelihoods of the poor as (poultry, beef and mutton) (calculated from
well as the diets of the affluent (Box 7.E). Ahmed et al., 1993). Fish and chicken were
Where natural food remains abundant, the two main animal protein products pro-
cultured livestock and fish are less important duced on-farm in households with ponds, of
(Prapertchob, 1989; Little and Satapornvanit, which more than 80 percent was fish.
1996; Edwards, 1997). In the Lao PDR small game,
7.4.2 MICRO-LEVEL
Using livestock waste where its use
is non-traditional
Using inorganic fertilizers or dried chicken manure
to grow back-yard vegetables. Aquaculture may
Attitudes to the use of livestock waste vary
compete for the use of these scarce resources greatly and are largely a function of the
evolutionary stage of agriculture generally.
Population pressure in particular has probably
7.4 played a major role in leading to cultural
acceptance of use of wastes (Edwards, 1992). If
Resource issues farming practices are based on extensive, crop-
dominated production with low pressure on
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION
resources, it is unlikely that people will readily
Closer integration between livestock and fish accept manure use in fish production.
production can have impacts at the production or A lack of interest in using manures in ponds
micro-level, the community level and on a macro- sometimes also reflects the multipurpose nature
level that affects the regional or national of water bodies in which fish are stocked.
economy. Promoting integration where the use of Farmers usually refrain from manure use if water
livestock waste is not traditional is often a key is also used for drinking or other domestic
issue and related broadly to the level of evolution purposes. Some degree of eutrophication is
of the agricultural system (Chapter 2). How tolerable if alternative water for drinking is
resources such as land, water, nutrients and available and water is used only for domestic
labour are utilized to support livelihoods is related cleaning. In northern Viet Nam a variety of factors
to their availability. Rapid development and limit the use of pig manure in fishponds, not least
population change can drastically change the the need to use the water for washing and
‘resource balance sheet’, requiring radical growing aquatic weeds as a feed for the pigs. The
change in resource use. traditional shortage of nutrients for the staple
Integrated livestock-fish can lead to crop, rice, has also meant that most pig and other
competition for feed or waste use elsewhere in manures are used on these crops. However,
the farming system, and such changes to the attempts to promote the use of livestock waste in
traditional resource base, or its exploitation, can small-holder aquaculture, where its use had
Competition for resources may be categorized efficiency or kind of resource use. Development of
into one of two types: Type 1, relating to feeds crop production, processing and marketing can
that were previously available for livestock; and totally change the availability of crop by-products
Type 2 to manures and other byproducts of for livestock and fish at the local level. Modern
livestock production used as fertilizers or fuel varieties, for example, in addition to producing
(Figure 23). Examples of the first type are the more grain can also produce more by-products
introduction of rice bran as a supplementary feed such as brans. Modern, high-yielding varieties of
for fish into a village situation in which it cereals are generally short-stemmed, reducing
competes for its use as pig and poultry feed. the amount of straw available for livestock feed
Another is the collection and/or cultivation of and bedding.
grass to feed to either grass carp or ruminants.
The diversion of livestock wastes for fish Traditional uses of cereal bran
culture, rather than conventional crop production The layer of fibrous bran surrounding the starchy
as an example of Type 2, could have major endosperm of the region’s major cereal grains,
impacts on the wider farming system, rice, maize and wheat is a key resource for
particularly in nutrient-poor environments. livestock and fish production. Rice bran in
Sustitution of inorganic fertilizers for manures, particular is critical to the production of
although achievable under short-term conditions, monogastrics, especially pigs in Southeast Asia
may be unsustainable in the long term, partly and dairy animals in South Asia. Its use as a
because of changes in soil structure and supplementary feed for fish therefore conflicts
chemistry. On a practical level, inorganic with its current use. The amount of ricebran and
fertilizers may be unavailable or expensive in other by-products (principally broken rice, husk
many developing countries. and straw) available to the household depends on
Overall agricultural and economic develop- cropping intensity, area, yield and post-harvest
ment inevitably cause changes in the relative disposal of by-products (Box 7.K). Improved
Feed Livestock
Manure
Fish Crops
Inorganic
fertilizers
of Southeast Asia
Area
Northeast Thailand Northern Viet Nam
Penned Penned
Mainly peri-urban or rural resource-rich e.g. rice millers Household
+ +++
++
Milled in village ricemill, rice by-products mainly retained Milled in village rice mill, rice by-products mainly
by miller purchased back by rice grower
Rice millers tend to waste much of their available pig 77 percent of households fatten pigs but only 10 percent
waste. In one study only 12 percent of pig producers of manure is used in the fish pond, 75 percent is used in
raised fish, but more than 50 percent gave the manure the ricefields and the balance for vegetables (Dinh, 1997)
away and others sold it for fertilizing rice or vegetables
Large rice mills concentrate feed resources such as here in Battambang, Cambodia. This supports commercial
livestock production but may undermine household-level systems
1. Feeding level required to ++ +++ + Possibly, if 7 is important. Irrigation to maintain feed availability
maintain value for livestock
Integration with livestock ensures that fish are fed consistently
2. Sensitivity to lack of water + ++ +++ Water for fish can reduce water shortages for livestock
3. Local marketability ++ + +++ Local markets are more likely to be oversupplied and
alternative products are advantageous
4. Easy to estimate asset value ++ +++ + If livestock are penned for more efficient integration, their
asset value may be more apparent
5. Provide collectable nutrients + +++ + Use of livestock wastes for fish may reduce nutrient use
for other on-farm production elsewhere, increasing risk
6. Water available to +++ See 2
produce other crops
7. Opportunities for value- ++ + +++
adding post harvest
13 Total
12 Mulberry
11 Sugar Cane
Fish
10
Percentage of annual total
Silkworms
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTH Source: Ruddle (1985)
reciprocity, the roles of old and young, male and aquaculture integrated with livestock
female, and the proportions of household and becoming less competitive in certain situations,
employed labour use may all be under pressure or it is likely to be an important developmental
already changed in response to new option for the foreseeable future in many
opportunities. Less labour is required as pond developing countries. Similarly, rice/fish
construction and then fish harvest have become production has been adopted as a low risk entry
more mechanized. Feeds for livestock and fish point for farmers to diversify their farming
may be produced industrially, rather than on- systems in certain parts of Asia, partly because
farm. Alternatively, labour shortages through fish culture is less labour intensive than other
migration or other causes may undermine the options. Integrated rice/fish culture, however,
productivity of, or interest in, aquaculture as it requires significantly more labour than rice alone
suffers from the labour crunch. If aquaculture, in and this factor has been one of the main driving
common with other components of the farming forces for farmers to switch from ricefield to pond
system, is marginal in terms of meeting the culture of fish in Northeast Thailand (Little et al.,
household’s needs, it is likely to be abandoned or 1996).
extensified. In one example of successful commercial
egg chicken/fish system (Engle and Skladany,
Integrated aquaculture as a 1992), the scale of operation meant that
transitory livelihood option household labour alone was sufficient and the
Although increasing opportunity costs may income produced at a level that inhibited off-
eventually result in small-holder, semi-intensive farm migration. Moreover the labour
service based on training demonstration farmers extension methods and practices and are under-
and their subsequent training of fellow fish funded and poorly motivated.
farmers. However, the basic problem remains:
effective transfer of information to poorer people
7.5.6 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES
is most difficult. Rather than trickle down, ‘trickle
across’ typically occurs, as farmers with more Alternative roles for traditional extension agents
and similar resource levels benefit most from to act as facilitators and promoters to a range of
such farmer to farmer contact, leaving the basic ‘change agents’ have been proposed (Scoones et
problem of more widespread involvement of the al., 1994; Edwards, 1997). Depending on the
poor unresolved. Lewis (1997) notes that despite complexity of the technology and the degree of
a raise awareness of the need for partipatory on-farm testing required, a minimalist approach
approaches by international research may work well in which concepts and alternative
organizations and their national counterparts, approaches to farm production are presented
more rhetoric than change has occurred. The rather than prescribed packages of tested
superiority of formal scientific approaches and a technologies. Technological packages may just
top-down approach remain entrenched attitudes, be too expensive for agricultural services to
while interest and understanding in social and develop and provide in view of the diversity of
equity issues remain a low priority. possible recommendation domains (Byerlee,
Another fundamental constraint is the limited 1987) and their value too limited in terms of
capacity of most extension services and their lifetime.
fragmentation into specialist livestock and The role of extension worker as a
fisheries units with few links to broader diagnostician and advisor on available
agricultural extension. Typically their staff have techniques that can support to both livestock and
limited knowledge of production systems more fish production suggests that changes in
appropriate for the poor, have little training in professional training and management are
BOX 7.Q
Farmers who adopted, and benefited from, materials. A standard design of pen that kept
integrated livestock-fish in Pathum Thani by the ducks enclosed over the pond water at all
the early 1980s were a small rural elite with times ensured that all the manure and spilt
significant resources. The relative poverty of feed entered the pond. If ducks are allowed to
the majority of farmers growing rice in the scavenge for a portion of their own feed, pond
same Province stimulated the concept of scal- dikes quickly become eroded, and much of
ing-down livestock-fish farming to meet the the waste lost. On-station research found that
needs and resources of ordinary rice farmers. 30 ducks kept in this way over a 200 m2 earth-
Rice farmers, especially those with poorly en pond stocked with Nile tilapia for 6 months
diversified farming systems, were more likely produced enough fish to meet all the estimat-
to seek off-farm employment, and consumed ed animal protein requirements of a family of
significantly less fish than average. The ration- five.
ale of introducing livestock-fish systems was Unfortunately, once support for the purchase
to improve both household nutrition and of livestock feed was withdrawn, the farmers
income. Both on-station and on-farm trials were unable to sustain the system. The ration
were run to develop a technical model that given to the high-yielding ducks had to be
could be managed and sustained by resource- purchased as the farmers’ own paddy rice was
poor farmers. Farming households were unsuitable for inclusion in the balanced diet
actively involved, participating in pond con- required to maintain egg-laying rates at eco-
struction and provision of a proportion of the nomic levels. Most families found managing
livestock feed. The researcher-managed trials the high level of inputs and outputs difficult.
followed a structured design that farmers fol- A regular cash outlay for feed was required
lowed, and there was little flexibility or and the large numbers of eggs produced daily
involvement in decision-making. Egg-laying were difficult to market. The relatively large
ducks were chosen as a suitable type of live- amounts of fish produced were greatly valued
stock, as a preliminary assessment had found but the system did not fit within the farmers’
duck eggs to be readily marketable in the vil- overall resource base, with cash and time
lage and their integration with fish culture being particularly limiting.
technically feasible using locally available
The ancient hydraulic civilization located in As the rains begin and the upper watershed
the dry zone of Northwest Sri Lanka was tanks fill, they begin to overflow into the
based on ‘tank’ irrigation. The storage of rain- catchment of the tanks below. This allows
water in ‘tanks’, large, man-made reservoirs, upward migration of aquatic animals to repop-
within watersheds that could be used to irri- ulate upper tanks that may completely dry out
gate the crop of rice was critical to reducing during the dry season.
vulnerability to shortages of water and also Understanding how individuals from commu-
provided an important source of fish. In the nities gain access to, and benefit from, these
last century these systems have been rehabil- aquatic resources is complex. Their intensified
itated and watersheds have become more management is a challenge. The nutrient links
densely populated. The pressure on the between management of grazing livestock
resource base has intensified, especially as and fish are clearly important and a major
the water held in these community-managed determinant of overall productivity.
tanks is used for a variety of purposes. Most Working with communities surrounding different
households rely on them for domestic water tanks in the same cascade to improve livelihoods
supply, and in the dry season they become an requires an interdisciplinary approach to
important grazing and water resource for live- understand and resolve potential conflicts. A
stock in addition to their primary purpose to stakeholder approach that builds on an
supply irrigation water for the rice. understanding of the resource base and the
The tanks, arranged as a complex mosaic with- interactions between the various components is a
in watersheds, interact in terms of movement useful way to realise the potential of these
of both water and fish through the seasons. systems for equitable development.
the Philippines, high land costs and a relative agribusiness have supported information flow
abundance of large water bodies appears to and wider economic development has stimulated
favour the development of cage-based operations intensification of livestock production.
but pond-based fish culture has also continued to
develop, particularly in West Java with fewer
problems of land tenure for small-holders than the
Philippines.
In countries where economic conditions are
suitable and an entrepreneurial class has access
to land and water, integrated livestock-fish can
spread with relatively little formal support, at
least among better-off farmers. Technology
transfer by agribusiness has been effective in the
transfer of modern intensive livestock systems,
and if other resources and market opportunities
are suitable, entrepreneurs have quickly used the
waste for aquaculture and/or horticulture (Box
7.P). Where integrated practices have become
established such as in Thailand, the media and
Solving the problems of poor fish seed supply and evaluations of several projects allow some broad
losses through theft and predation are as conclusions to be drawn.
fundamental to successful adoption of A summary of some key factors that explains
aquaculture by small-holders in Asia as well as the apparent dichotomy in integrated livestock
Africa and Latin America. The role of cultured /fish development among small-holders in Africa,
fish in meeting the needs of rural people is Asia and Latin America concludes the section.
compared, and many similarities identified,
especially the reliance of fish pond water to
diversify and stabilise surrounding farming
systems. Benefits from aquaculture within the 8.1
household and to non-producers are also
interpreted from developments outside Asia. General considerations
Attempts to promote aquaculture on a The broad developmental challenge in both
community-level basis have been made in many Africa and Latin America is similar to that in
developing countries and post-project Asia: populations are rapidly increasing and
TABLE 8.1
Issues and problems from the perspective of aquaculture promoters in Africa, Latin
Issues/Problems Explanations/Comments
1. The development context •projects have an aquaculture focus rather than being needs-driven
•both needs identification and making the links between these and
aquaculture is problematic
• lack of awareness of off-farm factors and other livelihood options
2. Lack of sustainability of project • inadequate assessment of limitations and priorities of host institution
efforts, including collapse of • inadequate involvement of all stakeholders in needs assessment and problem
infrastructure identification
• infrastructure development focus
3. Problems in extension services: • lack of incentives, little participation in decision-making, dependence on allowances
•poor morale • training has been technically and fisheries-based
•unable to reach farmers
•inappropriate advice
4. Weaknesses in monitoring and •lack of clarity concerning overall objectives and mechanisms for their achievement
evaluation •failure to incorporate intra- and inter-household resources
•lack or inconsistent data collection
•projects over focus on data collection; unreliable and inconsistent data storage and use
•lack of understanding of demand and benefits to consumers
5. Farmers do not respond as hoped: •aquaculture may be attractive and adoptable by only a limited number of farmers
•failure to adopt •fish production below the technical optimum may meet farmers’ needs
•poor management •water resource development may stimulate other uses of water that meet farmers’ needs
better
•better technical advice/knowledge base required by farmers for improved yields
•limited capacity to improve yields because of resource constraints, physical factors etc.
•better-off farmers benefit most, poorest people least
BOX 8.A
BOX 8.G
The nature of current interaction with live- provision of shallow well nearby2.
stock. Conflicts arising through access of The level of regular stock management and
large ruminants to wallow in community harvest.
ponds are resolvable through access restric-
Active village committees, representative of
tions.
the community and reactive to their needs are
Spatial location of community ponds and set- critical. Benefits need to be seen to be accord-
tlement pattern of the community1. ed to the community as a whole, rather than
Traditional management and feeding systems benefit a small elite.
e.g. free-range ducks, liable to theft of eggs Continued access of the poorest to non-fish
and animals led farmers to pen ducks in the resources e.g. aquatic plants, crustaceans,
homestead plot, reducing access of ducks to amphibians and snails4.
water body once intensified1.
Management of stocked community ponds
Use of pig manure allowed the benefits of and reduced fishing effort resulted in an
integration to be appreciated before pigs increase in the role of the pond as a refuge for
were relocated to household-managed ponds. wild fish species with potentially beneficial
Many households abandoned pig production effects on seasonal rice field fish yields5.
after initial subsidies were withdrawn1.
Requirements for an alternative water source Sources: 1AASP (1996); 2Garaway (1995); 3Garaway (1999);
4Lorenzen et al. (1998a); 5Lorenzen et al. (1998b)
for domestic purposes were resolved through
BOX 8.H
In Panama the promotion of aquaculture among Unfortunately, an evaluation of the benefits from
organized groups of poor farmers (campesinos) these activities was not presented but it seems
was supported through training, assistance in likely that the current utilization was meeting
pond excavation and setting up integrated some needs of the communities involved.
livestock and crop production over a two year
period A range of social, economic and technical factors
were identified to explain this, all of which could
Early evaluations found that: be drawn from projects in Asia:
groups worked best when the community was lack of timely availability of fingerlings hin-
not highly stratified; dered the efficient use of ponds;
groups in communities with relatively few groups found it difficult to manage livestock,
public and private commercial services; especially financing inputs. Livestock num-
groups with their leadership drawn from with- bers and management were ‘sub-optimal’ but
in, rather than elites, were most sustainable. this was the only major source of nutrients
entering the ponds in community projects;
After a period of 14 years, an evaluation found poor site selection, especially when water
that adoption had not been sustained at the level, retention was poor and culture seasonal;
or in the manner, planned. Fish production levels out-migration of the young, reducing labour
had declined and direct nutritional benefits from availability e.g. men leaving for construction
fish judged minor since the time of the project. industry;
However, the community had generally adapted difficulties in managing loans;
ponds to produce rice, which were often
land ownership issues of community projects.
integrated with fish culture, and continued to use
them as a focus for livestock and fruit production. Source: Lovshin et al. (2000)
Situated in the Hadejia-Nguru wetlands of poor levels of education (literacy and numer-
Northern Nigeria, a community approach to acy) prevented the community monitoring
aquaculture was promoted in a village of 1200 the project effectively;
people. Although fish production per hectare was fishers were reluctant to contribute even low
171 percent greater in managed compared to value fingerlings because they were not con-
unmanaged ponds, and returns to labour were vinced of a return;
favourable to alternatives, the project was not change in how the fish were harvested and
sustained: disposed of conflicted with traditional prac-
the technology was ‘simple’ i.e. wild seed tices;
surplus to catches of food fish stocked in reduced rights of access to certain groups
ponds fertilized with cow manure; which increased social tensions between eth-
poor levels of community participation were nic groups;
related to: aquaculture didn’t meet the needs of particu-
a lack of any custom of community fishing, larly the poorer people who would rather
and catch 1 kg of wild fish than obtain more fish
inappropriate management structure, later.
despite being based on indigenous
institutions and maintaining linkages with
State organizations. Source: Thomas (1994)
BOX 8.J
1. Greater dominance of ‘projects’ in evaluation similar role to that in Asia. This may be relat-
of success, criteria for success and farmers ed to (3) and a lack of traditional wild seed
attitudes to inputs. Greater importance in the collection and use.
‘culture of development’ to adoption. 5. Lower population densities and need for cul-
2. Less availability of markets and market chan- tured fish and on-farm irrigation also reduces
nels for inputs such as cheap, synthetic net effectiveness of change agents in aquaculture
materials. and other new activities.
3. Less long term consistent attempts to pro- 6. Less traditional importance of freshwater fish
mote aquaculture by Government and NGOs. in the diet. Relatively smaller proportion of
4. Less core resources developed in terms of the population in Africa and Latin America
early adopters that can support new entrants, where fish and aquatic products constitute a
although where they have, suggestive of a major proportion of dietary animal protein.