UNIVERSITYOFLAHORE

VietnamWar
HistoryandResults
MaqsoodAhmadAbbasi January2012

TheVietnamWarwasaColdWareramilitaryconflictthatoccurredinVietnam,Laos,andCambodia from1November1955tothefallofSaigonon30April1975.ThiswarfollowedtheFirstIndochinaWar andwasfoughtbetweenNorthVietnam,supportedbyitscommunistallies,andthegovernmentof SouthVietnam,supportedbytheUnitedStatesandotheranticommunistnations.TheVietnam People'sArmy(NorthVietnameseArmy)engagedinamoreconventionalwar,attimescommittinglarge unitsintobattle.Thewarexactedahugehumancostintermsoffatalities.

TABLEOFCONTENTS

INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................................... 1 HISTORYOFVIETNAM......................................................................................................................................................... 1 PREDYNASTICERA......................................................................................................................................................................................1 DYNASTICERA................................................................................................................................................................................................2 FRENCHCOLONISATION...............................................................................................................................................................................3 FIRSTINDOCHINAWAR...............................................................................................................................................................................3 . VIETNAMWAR....................................................................................................................................................................... 4 REASONOFWAR.................................................................................................................................................................... 5 BACKGROUNDTO1949...............................................................................................................................................................................5 EXITOFTHEFRENCH....................................................................................................................................................................................6 TRANSITIONPERIOD.....................................................................................................................................................................................7 DIEMERA........................................................................................................................................................................................................9 . Rule...................................................................................................................................................................................................................9 InsurgencyintheSouth........................................................................................................................................................................9 DURINGJOHNF.KENNEDY'SADMINISTRATION.................................................................................................................................. 0 1 Coupandassassinations...................................................................................................................................................................12 LYNDONB.JOHNSONESCALATESTHEWAR......................................................................................................................................... 3 1 Escalationandgroundwar.............................................................................................................................................................14 . RESULTSOFWAR...............................................................................................................................................................16 VIETNAMIZATION......................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 1 NixonDoctrine.........................................................................................................................................................................................16 OperationMenu......................................................................................................................................................................................17 1972electionandParisPeaceAccords....................................................................................................................................18 OPPOSITIONTOTHEVIETNAMWAR...................................................................................................................................................... 9 1 EXITOFTHEAMERICANS........................................................................................................................................................................... 9 1 Campaign275..........................................................................................................................................................................................21 FinalNorthVietnameseOffensive................................................................................................................................................22 FallofSaigon............................................................................................................................................................................................22 POSTWARPERIOD.............................................................................................................................................................23 RENOVATION(IMI)............................................................................................................................................................................ 4 2 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................................................24

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 INTRODUCTION
VietnamistheeasternmostcountryontheIndochinaPeninsulainSoutheastAsia.Itisbordered byChinatothenorth,Laostothenorthwest,Cambodiatothesouthwest,andtheSouthChinaSea referredtoinVietnamastheEastSeatotheeast.Withanestimated90.5millioninhabitantsasof2011, Vietnamistheworld's13thmostpopulouscountry,andtheeighthmostpopulousAsiancountry. TheVietnamesebecameindependentfromImperialChinain938AD,followingtheBattleof BchngRiver.SuccessiveVietnameseroyaldynastiesflourishedasthenationexpanded geographicallyandpoliticallyintoSoutheastAsia,untiltheIndochinaPeninsulawascolonizedbythe Frenchinthemid19thcentury.EffortstoresisttheFrencheventuallyledtotheirexpulsionfromthe countryinthemid20thcentury,leavingVietnamdividedpoliticallyintotwocountries.Fighting betweenthetwosidescontinued,withheavyforeignintervention,duringtheVietnamWar,which endedwithaNorthVietnamesevictoryin1975. Emergingfromthisprolongedmilitaryengagement,thewarravagedCommunistnationwas politicallyisolated.In1986,thegovernmentinstitutedeconomicandpoliticalreformsandbeganapath towardsinternationalreintegration.By2000,ithadestablisheddiplomaticrelationswithmostnations. Itseconomicgrowthhasbeenamongthehighestintheworldsince2000andaccordingtoCitigroup, suchhighgrowthissettocontinue.VietnamhasthehighestGlobalGrowthGeneratorsIndexamong11 majoreconomies,anditssuccessfuleconomicreformsresultedinitjoiningtheWorldTrade Organizationin2007.However,thecountrystillsuffersfromrelativelyhighlevelsofincomeinequality, disparitiesinhealthcareprovision,andpoorgenderequality.

HISTORYOFVIETNAM
PreDynasticEra
TheregionnowknownasVietnamhasbeeninhabitedsincePaleolithictimes,withsome archaeologicalsitesinThanhHaProvincepurportedlydatingbackseveralthousandyears. ArchaeologistshavelinkedthebeginningsofVietnamesecivilizationtothelateNeolithicearlyBronze AgePhungNguyenculture,whichwascenteredinwhatisnowVnhPhcProvincebetween2000and 1400BC. Byabout1200BC,thedevelopmentofwetricecultivationandbronzecastingintheMaRiver andRedRiverfloodplainsledtothedevelopmentoftheDongSonculture,notableforitselaborate bronzedrums.Thebronzeweapons,tools,anddrumsofDongSonsitesshowaSoutheastAsian influencethatindicatesanindigenousoriginforthebronzecastingtechnology.

ManyancientcopperminesiteshavebeenfoundinnorthernVietnam.TheDongSonsitesshare manysimilaritieswithotherBronzeAgeSoutheastAsiansites,includingthepresenceofboatshaped coffins,burialjars,andstiltdwellings,andevidenceofthecustomsofbetelnutchewingandteeth blackening.

DynasticEra
ThelegendaryHngBngDynastyoftheHngkingsisconsideredthefirstVietnamesestate, knowninVietnameseasVnLang.In257BC,thelastHngkingwasdefeatedbyThcPhn,who consolidatedtheLcVitanduVittribestoformtheuLc,proclaiminghimselfAnDngVng.In 207BC,aChinesegeneralnamedZhaoTuodefeatedAnDngVngandconsolidateduLcinto Nanyue.However,NanyuewasitselfincorporatedintotheempireoftheChineseHanDynastyin111 BC. Forthenextthousandyears,VietnamremainedmostlyunderChineserule.Earlyindependence movements,suchasthoseoftheTrngSistersandLadyTriu,wereonlytemporarilysuccessful,butthe regiondidbecomeindependentasVnXunundertheAnteriorLDynastybetween544and602AD. Bytheearly10thcentury,Vietnamhadgainedautonomy,butnotindependence,undertheKhcfamily. n938AD,theVietnameselordNgQuyndefeatedSouthernHanChineseforcesatBchng RiverandregainedindependenceafteramillenniumofChinesedomination.RenamedasiVit(en: GreatViet),thenationenjoyedagoldeneraundertheLandTrnDynasties.DuringtheruleoftheTrn Dynasty,iVitrepelledthreeMongolinvasions.Meanwhile,Buddhismflourishedandbecamethe statereligion. FollowingthebriefruleoftheHDynasty,Vietnameseindependencewasmomentarily interruptedbytheChineseMingDynasty,butwasrestoredbyLLi,thefounderoftheLDynasty.The VietnamesedynastiesreachedtheirzenithintheLDynastyofthe15thcentury,especiallyduringthe reignofEmperorLThnhTng(14601497).Betweenthe11thand18thcenturies,Vietnamexpanded southwardinaprocessknownasnamtin(southwardexpansion),eventuallyconqueringthekingdom ofChampaandpartoftheKhmerEmpire. Fromthe16thcenturyonwards,civilstrifeandfrequentinfightingengulfedmuchofVietnam. First,theChinesesupportedMcDynastychallengedtheLDynasty'spower.AftertheMcDynasty wasdefeated,theLDynastywasnominallyreinstalled,butactualpowerwasdividedbetweenthe northernTrnhLordsandthesouthernNguynLords,whoengagedinacivilwarformorethanfour decadesbeforeatrucewascalledinthe1670s.Duringthistime,theNguynexpandedsouthern VietnamintotheMekongDelta,annexingthecentralhighlandsofTayNguyenandtheKhmerlandsin theMekongDelta. ThedivisionofthecountryendedacenturylaterwhentheTySnbrothersestablishedanew dynasty.However,theirruledidnotlastlong,andtheyweredefeatedbytheremnantsoftheNguyn Lords,ledbyNguynnhandaidedbytheFrench.NguynnhunifiedVietnam,andestablishedthe NguynDynasty,rulingunderthenameGiaLong.

FrenchColonisation
Vietnam'sindependencewasgraduallyerodedbyFranceaidedbylargeCatholiccollaborator militiasinaseriesofmilitaryconquestsbetween1859and1885,afterwhichtheentirecountry becamepartofFrenchIndochina.TheFrenchadministrationimposedsignificantpoliticalandcultural changesonVietnamesesociety.AWesternstylesystemofmoderneducationwasdeveloped,and RomanCatholicismwaspropagatedwidelyinVietnamesesociety.MostoftheFrenchsettlersin IndochinawereconcentratedinCochinchinathesouthernthirdofVietnambasedaroundthecityof Saigon. Developingaplantationeconomytopromotetheexportoftobacco,indigo,teaandcoffee,the FrenchlargelyignoredincreasingcallsforVietnameseselfgovernmentandcivilrights.Anationalist politicalmovementsoonemerged,withleaderssuchasPhanBoiChau,PhanChuTrinh,PhanDinh Phung,EmperorHmNghiandHoChiMinhfightingorcallingforindependence.However,theroyalist CanVuongwasdefeatedinthe1890safteradecadeofresistance,andthe1930YenBaimutinyofthe VietNamQuocDanDangwasputdowneasily.TheFrenchmaintainedcontroloftheircoloniesuntil WorldWarII,whenthewarinthePacificledtotheJapaneseinvasionofFrenchIndochinain1941. WiththedefeatofFranceinEuropein1940,theFrenchThirdRepublicwasreplacedbythe VichyRegime,towhichthecolonyremainedloyal.HeavilydependentonNaziGermany,VichyFrance wasforcedtosurrendercontrolofFrenchIndochinatoGermany'sally,Japan.Thenaturalresourcesof VietnamwereexploitedforthepurposesoftheJapaneseEmpire'smilitarycampaignsintotheBritish IndochinesecoloniesofBurma,theMalayPeninsulaandIndia.TheJapaneseoccupationwasakeycause oftheVietnameseFamineof1945,whichcausedaroundtwomilliondeaths,equivalenttoasmuchas 10%ofthecontemporarypopulation.

FirstIndochinaWar
In1941,theVietMinhacommunistandnationalistliberationmovementemergedunderthe MarxistLeninistrevolutionaryHoChiMinh,whosoughtindependenceforVietnamfromFranceandthe endoftheJapaneseoccupation.FollowingthemilitarydefeatofJapanandthefallofitspuppetEmpire ofVietnaminAugust1945,theVietMinhoccupiedHanoiandproclaimedaprovisionalgovernment, whichassertednationalindependenceon2September. Inthesameyear,theProvisionalFrenchRepublicsenttheFrenchFarEastExpeditionaryCorps originallycreatedtofighttheJapaneseoccupationforcestopacifytheVietnameseliberation movementandtorestoreFrenchcolonialrule.On23November1946,Frenchvesselsbombardedthe portcityofHaiPhong,andtheVietMinh'sguerrillacampaignagainstFrenchforcesbegansoonafter. TheresultingFirstIndochinaWarlasteduntil20July1954. DespitetakingfewerlossesduringthecourseofthewartheExpeditionaryCorpssufferedone thirdofthecasualtiesoftheChineseandSovietbackedVietMinhtheFrenchandVietnameseloyalists eventuallysufferedamajorstrategicsetbackattheSiegeofDienBienPhu,whichallowedHoChiMinh tonegotiateaceasefirefromafavorablepositionattheGenevaConferenceof1954.Thecolonial 3

administrationendedandFrenchIndochinawasdissolvedundertheGenevaAccordsof1954,which separatedtheforcesofformerFrenchsupportersandcommunistnationalistsatthe17thparallelnorth withtheVietnameseDemilitarizedZone.A300dayperiodoffreemovementwasgiven,duringwhich almostamillionnortherners,mainlyCatholic,movedsouth,fearingpersecutionbythecommunists. ThepartitionofVietnam,withHoChiMinh'sDemocraticRepublicofVietnaminNorthVietnam, andEmperorBoi'sStateofVietnaminSouthVietnam,wasnotintendedtobepermanentbythe GenevaAccords,andtheAccordsexpresslyforbadetheinterferenceofthirdpowers.However,in1955, theStateofVietnam'sPrimeMinister,NgoDinhDiem,toppledBoiinafraudulentreferendum organisedbyhisbrotherNgoDinhNhu,andproclaimedhimselfpresidentoftheRepublicofVietnam. TheAccordsmandatednationwideelectionsby1956,whichDiemrefusedtohold,despiterepeated callsfromtheNorthfortalkstodiscusselections.

VIETNAMWAR
TheVietnamWarwasaColdWareramilitaryconflictthatoccurredinVietnam,Laos,and Cambodiafrom1November1955tothefallofSaigonon30April1975.ThiswarfollowedtheFirst IndochinaWarandwasfoughtbetweenNorthVietnam,supportedbyitscommunistallies,andthe governmentofSouthVietnam,supportedbytheUnitedStatesandotheranticommunistnations.The VietCong(alsoknownastheNationalLiberationFront,orNLF),alightlyarmedSouthVietnamese communistcontrolledcommonfront,largelyfoughtaguerrillawaragainstanticommunistforcesinthe region.TheVietnamPeople'sArmy(NorthVietnameseArmy)engagedinamoreconventionalwar,at timescommittinglargeunitsintobattle.U.S.andSouthVietnameseforcesreliedonairsuperiorityand overwhelmingfirepowertoconductsearchanddestroyoperations,involvinggroundforces,artillery, andairstrikes. TheU.S.governmentviewedinvolvementinthewarasawaytopreventacommunisttakeover ofSouthVietnamaspartoftheirwiderstrategyofcontainment.TheNorthVietnamesegovernmentand VietCongviewedtheconflictasacolonialwar,foughtinitiallyagainstFrance,backedbytheU.S.,and lateragainstSouthVietnam,whichitregardedasaU.S.puppetstate.Americanmilitaryadvisorsarrived inwhatwasthenFrenchIndochinabeginningin1950.U.S.involvementescalatedintheearly1960s, withtrooplevelstriplingin1961andtriplingagainin1962.U.S.combatunitsweredeployedbeginning in1965.Operationsspannedinternationalborders,withLaosandCambodiaheavilybombed.American involvementinthewarpeakedin1968,atthetimeoftheTetOffensive.Afterthis,U.S.groundforces weregraduallywithdrawnaspartofapolicyknownasVietnamization.DespitetheParisPeaceAccords, signedbyallpartiesinJanuary1973,fightingcontinued. U.S.militaryinvolvementendedon15August1973asaresultoftheCaseChurchAmendment passedbytheU.S.Congress.ThecaptureofSaigonbytheVietnamPeople'sArmyinApril1975marked theendofthewar,andNorthandSouthVietnamwerereunifiedthefollowingyear.Thewarexacteda hugehumancostintermsoffatalities(seeVietnamWarcasualties).Estimatesofthenumberof Vietnamesesoldiersandcivilianskilledvaryfromlessthanonemilliontomorethanthreemillion.Some 200,000300,000Cambodians,20,000200,000Laotians,and58,220U.S.servicemembersalsodiedin theconflict. 4

 REASONOFWAR
Backgroundto1949
FrancebeganitsconquestofIndochinainthelate1850s,andcompletedpacificationby1893. TheTreatyofHu,concludedin1884,formedthebasisforFrenchcolonialruleinVietnamforthenext sevendecades.Inspiteofmilitaryresistance,mostnotablebytheCanVuongofPhanDinhPhung,by 1888theareaofthecurrentdaynationsofCambodiaandVietnamwasmadeintothecolonyofFrench Indochina(Laoswasaddedlater).VariousVietnameseoppositionmovementstoFrenchruleexisted duringthisperiod,suchastheVietNamQuocDanDangwhostagedthefailedYenBaimutinyin1930, butnonewereultimatelyassuccessfulastheVietMinhcommonfront,whichwasfoundedin1941, controlledbytheIndochineseCommunistParty,andfundedbytheU.S.andtheChineseNationalist PartyinitsfightagainstJapaneseoccupation. DuringWorldWarII,theFrenchweredefeatedbytheGermansin1940.ForFrenchIndochina, thismeantthatthecolonialauthoritiesbecameVichyFrench,alliesoftheGermanItalianAxispowers. InturnthismeantthattheFrenchcollaboratedwiththeJapaneseforcesaftertheirinvasionofFrench Indochinaduring1940.TheFrenchcontinuedtorunaffairsinthecolony,butultimatepowerresidedin thehandsoftheJapanese. TheVietMinhwasfoundedasaleagueforindependencefromFrance,butalsoopposed Japaneseoccupationin1945forthesamereason.TheU.S.andChineseNationalistPartysupported theminthefightagainsttheJapanese.However,theydidnothaveenoughpowertofightactualbattles atfirst.VietMinhleaderHoChiMinhwassuspectedofbeingacommunistandjailedforayearbythe ChineseNationalistParty. DoubleoccupationbyFranceandJapancontinueduntiltheGermanforceswereexpelledfrom FranceandtheFrenchIndochinacolonialauthoritiesstartedholdingsecrettalkswiththeFreeFrench. FearingthattheycouldnolongertrusttheFrenchauthorities,theJapanesearmyinternedthemallon9 March1945andassumeddirectcontrolthemselvesthroughtheirpuppetstate,theEmpireofVietnam, underBoi. During19441945,adeepfaminestrucknorthernVietnamduetoacombinationofbad weatherandFrench/Japaneseexploitation.1millionpeoplediedofstarvation(outofapopulationof10 millionintheaffectedarea).ExploitingtheadministrativegapthattheinternmentoftheFrenchhad created,theVietMinhinMarch1945urgedthepopulationtoransackricewarehousesandrefuseto paytheirtaxes.Between75and100warehouseswereconsequentlyraided.Thisrebellionagainstthe effectsofthefamineandtheauthoritiesthatwerepartiallyresponsibleforitbolsteredtheVietMinh's popularityandtheyrecruitedmanymembersduringthisperiod. InAugust1945,theJapanesehadbeendefeatedandsurrenderedunconditionally.InFrench Indochinathiscreatedapowervacuum,astheFrenchwerestillinternedandtheJapaneseforcesstood down.TheVietMinhsteppedintothisvacuumandgraspedpoweracrossVietnamintheAugust Revolution,largelysupportedbytheVietnamesepopulation.Aftertheirdefeatinthewar,theImperial 5

JapaneseArmy(IJA)gaveweaponstotheVietnamese,andkeptVichyFrenchofficialsandmilitary officersimprisonedforamonthafterthesurrender.TheVitMinhhadrecruitedmorethan600 JapanesesoldiersandgiventhemrolestotrainorcommandVietnamesesoldiers. HoChiMinhdeclaredtheindependentDemocraticRepublicofVietnambeforeacrowdof 500,000inHanoion2September1945.InanoverturetotheAmericans,hebeganhisspeechby paraphrasingtheUnitedStatesDeclarationofIndependence:Allmenarecreatedequal.TheCreatorhas givenuscertaininviolableRights:therighttoLife,therighttobeFree,andtherighttoachieve Happiness. However,themajoralliedvictorsofWorldWarII,theUnitedKingdom,theUnitedStates,and theSovietUnion,allagreedtheareabelongedtotheFrench.AstheFrenchdidnothavetheships, weapons,orsoldierstoimmediatelyretakeVietnam,themajorpowerscametoanagreementthat BritishtroopswouldoccupythesouthwhileNationalistChineseforceswouldmoveinfromthenorth. NationalistChinesetroopsenteredthecountrytodisarmJapanesetroopsnorthofthe16thparallelon September14,1945.WhentheBritishlandedinthesouth,theyrearmedtheinternedFrenchforcesas wellaspartsofthesurrenderedJapaneseforcestoaidtheminretakingsouthernVietnam,astheydid nothaveenoughtroopstodothisthemselves. FollowingthepartylinefromMoscow,HoChiMinhinitiallyattemptedtonegotiatewiththe French,whowereslowlyreestablishingtheircontrolacrossthecountry.InJanuary1946,theVietMinh wonelectionsacrosscentralandnorthernVietnam.OnMarch6,1946,Hosignedanagreement allowingFrenchforcestoreplaceNationalistChineseforces,inexchangeforFrenchrecognitionofthe DemocraticRepublicofVietnamasa"free"republicwithintheFrenchUnion,withthespecificsofsuch recognitiontobedeterminedbyfuturenegotiation.TheFrenchlandedinHanoibyMarch1946andin NovemberofthatyeartheyoustedtheVietMinhfromthecity.Britishforcesdepartedon26March 1946,leavingVietnaminthehandsoftheFrench.Soonthereafter,theVietMinhbeganaguerrillawar againsttheFrenchUnionforces,beginningtheFirstIndochinaWar. ThewarspreadtoLaosandCambodia,whereCommunistsorganizedthePathetLaoandthe KhmerSerei,bothofwhichweremodeledontheVietMinh.Globally,theColdWarbeganinearnest, whichmeantthattherapprochementthatexistedbetweentheWesternpowersandtheSovietUnion duringWorldWarIIdisintegrated.TheVietMinhfightwashamperedbyalackofweapons;this situationchangedby1949whentheChineseCommunistshadlargelywontheChineseCivilWarand werefreetoprovidearmstotheirVietnameseallies.

ExitoftheFrench
InJanuary1950,thecommunistnations,ledbythePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC),recognized theVietMinh'sDemocraticRepublicofVietnam,basedinHanoi,asthegovernmentofVietnam,while noncommunistnationsrecognizedtheFrenchbackedStateofVietnaminSaigon,ledbyformer EmperorBoi,astheVietnamesegovernmentthefollowingmonth.TheoutbreakoftheKoreanWar inJune1950convincedmanyWashingtonpolicymakersthatthewarinIndochinawasanexampleof communistexpansionismdirectedbytheKremlin. PRCmilitaryadvisorsbeganassistingtheVietMinhinJuly1950.PRCweapons,expertise,and laborerstransformedtheVietMinhfromaguerrillaforceintoaregulararmy.InSeptember1950,the 6

UnitedStatescreatedaMilitaryAssistanceandAdvisoryGroup(MAAG)toscreenFrenchrequestsfor aid,adviseonstrategy,andtrainVietnamesesoldiers.By1954,theUnitedStateshadsupplied300,000 smallarmsandspentUS$1billioninsupportoftheFrenchmilitaryeffort,shouldering80percentofthe costofthewar. TherewerealsotalksbetweentheFrenchandAmericansinwhichthepossibleuseofthree tacticalnuclearweaponswasconsidered,thoughreportsofhowseriouslythiswasconsideredandby whomareevennowvagueandcontradictory.OneversionoftheplanfortheproposedOperation Vultureenvisionedsending60B29sfromU.S.basesintheregion,supportedbyasmanyas150fighters launchedfromU.S.SeventhFleetcarriers,tobombVietMinhcommanderVoNguyenGiap'spositions. TheplanincludedanoptiontouseuptothreeatomicweaponsontheVietMinhpositions.Admiral ArthurW.Radford,ChairmanoftheU.S.JointChiefsofStaff,gavethisnuclearoptionhisbacking.U.S.B 29s,B36s,andB47scouldhaveexecutedanuclearstrike,ascouldcarrieraircraftfromtheSeventh Fleet. U.S.carrierssailedtotheGulfofTonkin,andreconnaissanceflightsoverDienBienPhuwere conductedduringthenegotiations.AccordingtoU.S.VicePresidentRichardNixon,theplaninvolved theJointChiefsofStaffdrawingupplanstousethreesmalltacticalnuclearweaponsinsupportofthe French.Nixon,asocalled"hawk"onVietnam,suggestedthattheUnitedStatesmighthaveto"put Americanboysin".U.S.PresidentDwightD.EisenhowermadeAmericanparticipationcontingenton Britishsupport,butLondonwasopposedtosuchaventure.Intheend,convincedthatthepoliticalrisks outweighedthepossiblebenefits,Eisenhowerdecidedagainsttheintervention.Asanexperiencedfive stargeneral,EisenhowerwasverywaryofgettingtheUnitedStatesinvolvedinalandwarinAsia. TheVietMinhreceivedcrucialsupportfromtheSovietUnionandPRC.PRCsupportinthe BorderCampaignof1950allowedsuppliestocomefromthePRCintoVietnam.Throughouttheconflict, U.S.intelligenceestimatesremainedskepticalofFrenchchancesofsuccess. TheBattleofDienBienPhumarkedtheendofFrenchinvolvementinIndochina.Giap'sViet MinhforceshandedtheFrenchastunningmilitarydefeat,andon7May1954,theFrenchUnion garrisonsurrendered.Ofthe12,000FrenchprisonerstakenbytheVietMinh,only3,000survived.Atthe GenevaConference,theFrenchnegotiatedaceasefireagreementwiththeVietMinh,and independencewasgrantedtoCambodia,Laos,andVietnam.

Transitionperiod
Vietnamwastemporarilypartitionedatthe17thparallel,andunderthetermsoftheGeneva Accords,civiliansweretobegiventheopportunitytomovefreelybetweenthetwoprovisionalstates fora300dayperiod.Electionsthroughoutthecountryweretobeheldin1956toestablishaunified government.Aroundonemillionnortherners,mainlyminorityCatholics,fledsouth,fearingpersecution bythecommunistsfollowinganAmericanpropagandacampaignusingsloganssuchas"TheVirginMary isheadingsouth",andaidedbyaU.S.funded$93millionrelocationprogram,whichincludedferrying refugeeswiththeSeventhFleet.Itisestimatedthatasmanyastwomillionmorewouldhavelefthad theynotbeenstoppedbytheVietMinh.Thenorthern,mainlyCatholicrefugeesweremeanttogivethe laterNgnhDimregimeastronganticommunistconstituency.Diemlaterwentontostaffhis administration'skeypostsmostlywithnorthernandcentralCatholics. 7

InadditiontotheCatholicsflowingsouth,upto130,000"RevolutionaryRegroupees"wentto thenorthfor"regroupment,"expectingtoreturntothesouthwithintwoyears.TheVietMinhleft roughly5,000to10,000cadresinthesouthasa"politicomilitarysubstructurewithintheobjectofits irredentism."ThelastFrenchsoldiersweretoleaveVietnaminApril1956.ThePRCcompletedits withdrawalfromNorthVietnamataroundthesametime.Around52,000Vietnameseciviliansmoved fromsouthtonorth. Inthenorth,theVietMinhruledastheDemocraticRepublicofVietnamandengagedina drasticlandreformprograminwhichanestimated8,000perceived"classenemies"wereexecuted.In 1956,leadersinHanoiadmittedto"excesses"inimplementingthisprogramandrestoredalarge amountofthelandtotheoriginalowners. Thesouth,meanwhile,constitutedtheStateofVietnam,withBoiasEmperorandNgnh Dim(appointedinJuly1954)ashisprimeminister.InJune1955,Diemannouncedthatthescheduled 1956electionswouldnotbeheld,claimingSouthVietnamhadrejectedtheGenevaAccordsfromthe beginningandwasthereforenotboundbythem."Howcanweexpect'freeelections'tobeheldinthe CommunistNorth?"heasked.PresidentEisenhowerechoedseniorU.S.expertswhenhewrotethat,in 1954,"80percentofthepopulationwouldhavevotedfortheCommunistHoChiMinh"overEmperor Boi. FromApriltoJune1955,Diem(againstU.S.advice)eliminatedanypoliticaloppositioninthe southbylaunchingmilitaryoperationsagainsttheCaoDaireligioussect,theHoaHaosectofBaCut,and theBinhXuyenorganizedcrimegroup(whichwasalliedwithmembersofthesecretpoliceandsome militaryelements).Asbroadbasedoppositiontohisharshtacticsmounted,Diemincreasinglysoughtto blamethecommunists. InareferendumonthefutureoftheStateofVietnamon23October1955,Diemriggedthepoll supervisedbyhisbrotherNgoDinhNhuandwascreditedwith98.2percentofthevote,including133% inSaigon.HisAmericanadvisershadrecommendedamoremodestwinningmarginof"60to70 percent."Diem,however,viewedtheelectionasatestofauthority.Threedayslater,hedeclaredSouth VietnamtobeanindependentstateknownastheRepublicofVietnam(ROV),withhimselfaspresident. TheROVwascreatedlargelybecauseoftheEisenhoweradministration'sdesireforananti communiststateintheregion.Thedominotheory,whicharguedthatifonecountryfelltocommunism, thenallofthesurroundingcountrieswouldfollow,wasfirstproposedaspolicybytheEisenhower administration.Itwas,andisstill,commonlyhypothesizedthatitappliedtoVietnam.JohnF.Kennedy, thenaU.S.Senator,saidinaspeechtotheAmericanFriendsofVietnam:"Burma,Thailand,India,Japan, thePhilippinesandobviouslyLaosandCambodiaareamongthosewhosesecuritywouldbethreatened iftheRedTideofCommunismoverflowedintoVietnam."

DiemEra Rule
AdevoutRomanCatholic,Diemwasferventlyanticommunist,nationalist,andsocially conservative.HistorianLuuDoanHuynhnotes,however,that"Diemrepresentednarrowandextremist nationalismcoupledwithautocracyandnepotism."AshewasawealthyCatholic,manyordinary VietnameseviewedDiemaspartoftheelitewhohadhelpedtheFrenchruleVietnam;Diemhadbeen interiorministerinthecolonialgovernment.ThemajorityofVietnamesepeoplewereBuddhist,and werealarmedbyactionssuchasDiem'sdedicationofthecountrytotheVirginMary. Beginninginthesummerof1955,Diemlaunchedthe"DenouncetheCommunists"campaign, duringwhichcommunistsandotherantigovernmentelementswerearrested,imprisoned,tortured,or executed.HeinstitutedthedeathpenaltyagainstanyactivitydeemedcommunistinAugust1956.The regimebrandeditsopponentsVietCong("Vietnamesecommunist")todegradetheirnationalist credentials.Asameasureofthelevelofpoliticalrepression,about12,000suspectedopponentsofDiem werekilledbetween1955and1957andbytheendof1958anestimated40,000politicalprisonershad beenjailed. InMay1957,DiemundertookatendaystatevisittotheUnitedStates.PresidentEisenhower pledgedhiscontinuedsupport,andaparadewasheldinDiem'shonorinNewYorkCity.AlthoughDiem waspubliclypraised,inprivateSecretaryofStateJohnFosterDullesconcededthatDiemhadbeen selectedbecausetherewerenobetteralternatives. FutureU.S.SecretaryofDefenseRobertMcNamarawrotethatthenewAmericanpatronsofthe ROVwerealmostcompletelyignorantofVietnameseculture.Theyknewlittleofthelanguageorlong historyofthecountry.TherewasatendencytoassignAmericanmotivestoVietnameseactions,and DiemwarnedthatitwasanillusiontobelievethatblindlycopyingWesternmethodswouldsolve Vietnameseproblems.

InsurgencyintheSouth
TheSinoSovietsplitledtoareductionintheinfluenceofthePRCinVietnam,astheChinese hadinsistedin1954thattheVietMinhacceptadivisionofthecountry.TrngChinh,NorthVietnam's proPRCpartyfirstsecretary,wasdemotedandHanoiauthorizedcommunistsinSouthVietnamtobegin alowlevelinsurgencyinDecember1956.ThisinsurgencyinthesouthhadbeguninresponsetoDiem's DenunciationofCommunistscampaign,inwhichthousandsoflocalVietMinhcadresandsupporters hadbeenexecutedorsenttoconcentrationcamps,andwasinviolationoftheNorthernCommunist partyline,whichhadenjoinedthemnottostartaninsurrection,butratherengageinapolitical campaign,agitatingforafreeallVietnamelectioninaccordancewiththeGenevaAccords. HoChiMinhstated,"Donotengageinmilitaryoperations;thatwillleadtodefeat.Donottake landfromapeasant.Emphasizenationalismratherthancommunism.Donotantagonizeanyoneifyou canavoidit.Beselectiveinyourviolence.Ifanassassinationisnecessary,useaknife,notarifleor grenade.Itistooeasytokillinnocentbystanderswithgunsandbombs,andaccidentalkillingofthe 9

innocentbystanderswillalienatepeasantsfromtherevolution.Onceanassassinationhastakenplace, makesurepeasantsknowwhythekillingoccurred."Thisstrategywasreferredtoas"armed propaganda." Soonafterward,LDun,acommunistleaderwhohadbeenworkinginthesouth,returnedto Hanoitoacceptthepositionofactingfirstsecretary,effectivelyreplacingTrng.Dunurgedamilitary lineandadvocatedincreasedassistancetotheinsurgency.400governmentofficialswereassassinated in1957alone,andtheviolencegraduallyincreased.Whiletheterrorwasoriginallyaimedatlocal governmentofficials,itsoonbroadenedtoincludeothersymbolsofthestatusquo,suchas schoolteachers,healthworkers,andagriculturalofficials.Diemappointedvillagechiefsfromoutsidethe villages,andthepeasantryhatedthemfortheircorruptionandabuse.Accordingtooneestimate,the insurgentshadassassinated20percentofSouthVietnam'svillagechiefsby1958.Theinsurgencysought tocompletelydestroygovernmentcontrolinSouthVietnam'sruralvillagesandreplaceitwithashadow government. InJanuary1959,NorthVietnam'sCentralCommitteeissuedasecretresolutionauthorizingan "armedstruggle,"allowingthesoutherncommuniststobeginlargescaleoperationsagainsttheSouth Vietnamesemilitary.NorthVietnamsuppliedtroopsandsuppliesinearnest,andtheinfiltrationofmen andweaponsfromtheNorthbeganalongtheHoChiMinhTrail.InMay,SouthVietnamenactedLaw 10/59,whichmadepoliticalviolencepunishablebydeathandpropertyconfiscation.Observingthe increasingunpopularityoftheDiemregime,HanoiauthorizedthecreationoftheNationalLiberation Front(NLF)on12December1960asacommonfrontcontrolledbythecommunistpartyintheSouth. SuccessiveAmericanadministrations,asRobertMcNamaraandothershavenoted, overestimatedthecontrolthatHanoihadovertheNLF.Diem'sparanoia,repression,andincompetence progressivelyangeredlargesegmentsofthepopulationofSouthVietnam.AccordingtoaNovember 1960reportbytheheadoftheU.S.militaryadvisoryteam,LieutenantGeneralLionelC.McGarr,a "significantpart"ofthepopulationinthesouthsupportedthecommunists.Thecommuniststhushada degreeofpopularsupportfortheircampaigntobringdownDiemandreunifythecountry.

DuringJohnF.Kennedy'sAdministration
Inthe1960U.S.presidentialelection,SenatorJohnF.KennedydefeatedVicePresidentRichard Nixon.AlthoughEisenhowerwarnedKennedyaboutLaosandVietnam,EuropeandLatinAmerica "loomedlargerthanAsiaonhissights."Inhisinauguraladdress,Kennedymadetheambitiouspledgeto "payanyprice,bearanyburden,meetanyhardship,supportanyfriend,opposeanyfoe,inorderto assurethesurvivalandsuccessofliberty."InJune1961,hebitterlydisagreedwithSovietpremierNikita KhrushchevwhentheymetinViennatodiscusskeyU.S.Sovietissues. TheKennedyadministrationremainedessentiallycommittedtotheColdWarforeignpolicy inheritedfromtheTrumanandEisenhoweradministrations.In1961,theU.S.had50,000troopsbased inKorea,andKennedyfacedathreepartcrisisthefailureoftheBayofPigsInvasion,theconstruction oftheBerlinWall,andanegotiatedsettlementbetweentheproWesterngovernmentofLaosandthe PathetLaocommunistmovement.ThesemadeKennedybelievethatanotherfailureonthepartofthe UnitedStatestogaincontrolandstopcommunistexpansionwouldfatallydamageU.S.credibilitywith itsalliesandhisownreputation.Kennedywasthusdeterminedto"drawalineinthesand"andprevent 10

acommunistvictoryinVietnam.HetoldJamesRestonofTheNewYorkTimesimmediatelyafterhis ViennameetingwithKhrushchev,"NowwehaveaproblemmakingourpowercredibleandVietnam looksliketheplace." InMay1961,VicePresidentLyndonB.JohnsonvisitedSaigonandenthusiasticallydeclared Diemthe"WinstonChurchillofAsia."Askedwhyhehadmadethecomment,Johnsonreplied,"Diem's theonlyboywegotoutthere."JohnsonassuredDiemofmoreaidinmoldingafightingforcethatcould resistthecommunists. Kennedy'spolicytowardSouthVietnamrestedontheassumptionthatDiemandhisforcesmust ultimatelydefeattheguerrillasontheirown.HewasagainstthedeploymentofAmericancombat troopsandobservedthat"tointroduceU.S.forcesinlargenumberstheretoday,whileitmighthavean initiallyfavorablemilitaryimpact,wouldalmostcertainlyleadtoadversepoliticaland,inthelongrun, adversemilitaryconsequences."ThequalityoftheSouthVietnamesemilitary,however,remainedpoor. Badleadership,corruption,andpoliticalpromotionsallplayedapartinemasculatingtheARVN.The frequencyofguerrillaattacksroseastheinsurgencygatheredsteam.WhileHanoi'ssupportfortheNLF playedarole,SouthVietnamesegovernmentalincompetencewasatthecoreofthecrisis. OnemajorissueKennedyraisedwaswhethertheSovietspaceandmissileprogramshad surpassedthoseoftheUnitedStates.AlthoughKennedystressedlongrangemissileparitywiththe Soviets,hewasalsointerestedinusingspecialforcesforcounterinsurgencywarfareinThirdWorld countriesthreatenedbycommunistinsurgencies.Althoughtheywereoriginallyintendedforusebehind frontlinesafteraconventionalinvasionofEurope,Kennedybelievedthattheguerrillatacticsemployed byspecialforcessuchastheGreenBeretswouldbeeffectiveina"brushfire"warinVietnam. KennedyadvisersMaxwellTaylorandWaltRostowrecommendedthatU.S.troopsbesentto SouthVietnamdisguisedasfloodreliefworkers.Kennedyrejectedtheideabutincreasedmilitary assistanceyetagain.InApril1962,JohnKennethGalbraithwarnedKennedyofthe"dangerweshall replacetheFrenchasacolonialforceintheareaandbleedastheFrenchdid."By1963,therewere 16,000AmericanmilitarypersonnelinSouthVietnam,upfromEisenhower's900advisors. TheStrategicHamletProgramhadbeeninitiatedin1961.ThisjointU.S.SouthVietnamese programattemptedtoresettletheruralpopulationintofortifiedcamps.Theaimwastoisolatethe populationfromtheinsurgents,provideeducationandhealthcare,andstrengthenthegovernment's holdoverthecountryside.TheStrategicHamlets,however,werequicklyinfiltratedbytheguerrillas.The peasantsresentedbeinguprootedfromtheirancestralvillages.Inpart,thiswasbecauseColonelPham NgocThao,aDiemfavouritewhowasinstrumentalinrunningtheprogram,wasinfactacommunist agentwhousedhisCatholicismtogaininfluentialpostsanddamagetheROVfromtheinside. Thegovernmentrefusedtoundertakelandreform,whichleftfarmerspayinghighrentstoafew wealthylandlords.Corruptiondoggedtheprogramandintensifiedopposition. On23July1962,fourteennations,includingthePeople'sRepublicofChina,SouthVietnam,the SovietUnion,NorthVietnamandtheUnitedStates,signedanagreementpromisingtheneutralityof Laos.

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CoupandAssassinations
TheineptperformanceoftheSouthVietnamesearmywasexemplifiedbyfailedactionssuchas theBattleofApBacon2January1963,inwhichasmallbandofVietCongbeatoffamuchlargerand betterequippedSouthVietnameseforce,manyofwhoseofficersseemedreluctanteventoengagein combat.TheARVNwereledinthatbattlebyDiem'smosttrustedgeneral,HuynhVanCao,commander oftheIVCorps.CaowasaCatholicwhohadbeenpromotedduetoreligionandfidelityratherthanskill, andhismainjobwastopreservehisforcestostaveoffcoups;hehadearliervomitedduringa communistattack.SomepolicymakersinWashingtonbegantoconcludethatDiemwasincapableof defeatingthecommunistsandmightevenmakeadealwithHoChiMinh.Heseemedconcernedonly withfendingoffcoups,andhadbecomemoreparanoidafterattemptsin1960and1962,whichhe partlyattributedtoU.S.encouragement.AsRobertF.Kennedynoted,"Diemwouldn'tmakeeventhe slightestconcessions.Hewasdifficulttoreasonwith.. DiscontentwithDiem'spoliciesexplodedfollowingtheHuPhtnshootingsofmajority BuddhistswhowereprotestingagainstthebanontheBuddhistflagonVesak,theBuddha'sbirthday. ThisresultedinmassprotestsagainstdiscriminatorypoliciesthatgaveprivilegestotheCatholicChurch anditsadherents.Diem'selderbrotherNgoDinhThucwastheArchbishopofHuandaggressively blurredtheseparationbetweenchurchandstate.Thuc'sanniversarycelebrationsshortlybeforeVesak hadbeenbankrolledbythegovernmentandVaticanflagsweredisplayedprominently.Therehadalso beenreportsofBuddhistpagodasbeingdemolishedbyCatholicparamilitariesthroughoutDiem'srule. DiemrefusedtomakeconcessionstotheBuddhistmajorityortakeresponsibilityforthedeaths.On21 August1963,theARVNSpecialForcesofColonelLeQuangTung,loyaltoDiem'syoungerbrotherNgo DinhNhu,raidedpagodasacrossVietnam,causingwidespreaddamageanddestructionandleavinga deathtollestimatedtorangeintothehundreds. U.S.officialsbegandiscussingthepossibilityofaregimechangeduringthemiddleof1963.The UnitedStatesDepartmentofStatewasgenerallyinfavorofencouragingacoup,whiletheDefense DepartmentfavoredDiem.ChiefamongtheproposedchangeswastheremovalofDiem'syounger brotherNhu,whocontrolledthesecretpoliceandspecialforceswasseenasthemanbehindthe BuddhistrepressionandmoregenerallythearchitectoftheNgofamily'srule.Thisproposalwas conveyedtotheU.S.embassyinSaigoninCable243. TheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)wasincontactwithgeneralsplanningtoremoveDiem. TheyweretoldthattheUnitedStateswouldnotopposesuchamovenorpunishthegeneralsbycutting offaid.PresidentDiemwasoverthrownandexecuted,alongwithhisbrother,on2November1963. Whenhewasinformed,MaxwellTaylorrememberedthatKennedy"rushedfromtheroomwithalook ofshockanddismayonhisface."HehadnotapprovedDiem'smurder.TheU.S.ambassadortoSouth Vietnam,HenryCabotLodge,invitedthecoupleaderstotheembassyandcongratulatedthem. AmbassadorLodgeinformedKennedythat"theprospectsnowareforashorterwar". Followingthecoup,chaosensued.Hanoitookadvantageofthesituationandincreasedits supportfortheguerrillas.SouthVietnamenteredaperiodofextremepoliticalinstability,asonemilitary governmenttoppledanotherinquicksuccession.Increasingly,eachnewregimewasviewedasapuppet oftheAmericans;whateverthefailingsofDiem,hiscredentialsasanationalist(asRobertMcNamara laterreflected)hadbeenimpeccable.

12

U.SmilitaryadviserswereembeddedateveryleveloftheSouthVietnamesearmedforces.They were,however,almostcompletelyignorantofthepoliticalnatureoftheinsurgency.Theinsurgencywas apoliticalpowerstruggle,inwhichmilitaryengagementswerenotthemaingoal.TheKennedy administrationsoughttorefocusU.S.effortsonpacificationand"winningovertheheartsandminds"of thepopulation.ThemilitaryleadershipinWashington,however,washostiletoanyroleforU.S.advisers otherthanconventionaltrooptraining.GeneralPaulHarkins,thecommanderofU.S.forcesinSouth Vietnam,confidentlypredictedvictorybyChristmas1963.TheCIAwaslessoptimistic,however,warning that"theVietCongbyandlargeretaindefactocontrolofmuchofthecountrysideandhavesteadily increasedtheoverallintensityoftheeffort". ParamilitaryofficersfromtheCIA'sSpecialActivitiesDivisiontrainedandledHmongtribesmen inLaosandintoVietnam.Theindigenousforcesnumberedinthetensofthousandsandtheyconducted directactionmissions,ledbyparamilitaryofficers,againsttheCommunistPathetLaoforcesandtheir NorthVietnamesesupporters.TheCIAalsoranthePhoenixProgramandparticipationMilitary AssistanceCommand,VietnamStudiesandObservationsGroup(MACVSOG),whichwasoriginally namedtheSpecialOperationsGroup,butwaschangedforcoverpurposes.

LyndonB.JohnsonEscalatestheWar
LyndonB.Johnson(LBJ),ashetookoverthepresidencyafterthedeathofKennedy,initiallydid notconsiderVietnamapriorityandwasmoreconcernedwithhis"GreatSociety"andprogressivesocial programs.PresidentialaideJackValentirecalls,"Vietnamatthetimewasnobiggerthanaman'sfiston thehorizon.Wehardlydiscusseditbecauseitwasnotworthdiscussing." On24November1963,Johnsonsaid,"thebattleagainstcommunism...mustbejoined...with strengthanddetermination."ThepledgecameatatimewhenVietnamwasdeteriorating,especiallyin placesliketheMekongDelta,becauseoftherecentcoupagainstDiem.JohnsonhadreversedKennedy's disengagementpolicyfromVietnaminwithdrawing1,000troopsbytheendof1963(NSAM263on11 October),withhisownNSAM273(26November)toexpandthewar. Themilitaryrevolutionarycouncil,meetinginlieuofastrongSouthVietnameseleader,was madeupof12membersheadedbyGeneralDuongVanMinhwhomStanleyKarnow,ajournaliston theground,laterrecalledas"amodeloflethargy."Lodge,frustratedbytheendoftheyear,cabled homeaboutMinh:"Willhebestrongenoughtogetontopofthings?"Hisregimewasoverthrownin January1964byGeneralNguyenKhanh.However,therewaspersistentinstabilityinthemilitaryas severalcoupsnotallsuccessfuloccurredinashortspaceoftime. On2August1964,theUSSMaddox,onanintelligencemissionalongNorthVietnam'scoast, allegedlyfireduponanddamagedseveraltorpedoboatsthathadbeenstalkingitintheGulfofTonkin. AsecondattackwasreportedtwodayslaterontheUSSTurnerJoyandMaddoxinthesamearea.The circumstancesoftheattackweremurky.LyndonJohnsoncommentedtoUndersecretaryofState GeorgeBallthat"thosesailorsouttheremayhavebeenshootingatflyingfish." Thesecondattackledtoretaliatoryairstrikes,promptedCongresstoapprovetheGulfofTonkin Resolution,andgavethepresidentpowertoconductmilitaryoperationsinSoutheastAsiawithout

13

declaringwar.Inthesamemonth,Johnsonpledgedthathewasnot"...committingAmericanboysto fightingawarthatIthinkoughttobefoughtbytheboysofAsiatohelpprotecttheirownland." AnundatedNSApublicationdeclassifiedin2005,however,revealedthattherewasnoattackon 4August.Ithadalreadybeencalledintoquestionlongbeforethis."GulfofTonkinincident",writes LouiseGerdes,"isanoftcitedexampleofthewayinwhichJohnsonmisledtheAmericanpeopletogain supportforhisforeignpolicyinVietnam."GeorgeC.Herringargues,however,thatMcNamaraandthe Pentagon"didnotknowinglylieabouttheallegedattacks,buttheywereobviouslyinamoodto retaliateandtheyseemtohaveselectedfromtheevidenceavailabletothemthosepartsthat confirmedwhattheywantedtobelieve." "Fromastrengthofapproximately5,000atthestartof1959theVietCong'sranksgrewto about100,000attheendof1964...Between1961and1964theArmy'sstrengthrosefromabout 850,000tonearlyamillionmen."ThenumbersforU.S.troopsdeployedtoVietnamduringthesame periodwerequitedifferent;2,000in1961,risingrapidlyto16,500in1964. TheNationalSecurityCouncilrecommendedathreestageescalationofthebombingofNorth Vietnam.On2March1965,followinganattackonaU.S.MarinebarracksatPleiku,OperationFlaming Dart(initiatedwhenSovietPremierAlexeiKosyginwasatastatevisittoNorthVietnam),Operation RollingThunderandOperationArcLightcommenced.Thebombingcampaign,whichultimatelylasted threeyears,wasintendedtoforceNorthVietnamtoceaseitssupportfortheNationalFrontforthe LiberationofSouthVietnam(NLF)bythreateningtodestroyNorthVietnam'sairdefensesandindustrial infrastructure.Aswell,itwasaimedatbolsteringthemoraleoftheSouthVietnamese.BetweenMarch 1965andNovember1968,"RollingThunder"delugedthenorthwithamilliontonsofmissiles,rockets andbombs. BombingwasnotrestrictedtoNorthVietnam.Otheraerialcampaigns,suchasOperation CommandoHunt,targeteddifferentpartsoftheNLFandVPAinfrastructure.TheseincludedtheHoChi Minhtrail,whichranthroughLaosandCambodia.TheobjectiveofforcingNorthVietnamtostopits supportfortheNLF,however,wasneverreached.Asoneofficernoted"thisisapoliticalwaranditcalls fordiscriminatekilling.Thebestweapon...wouldbeaknife...Theworstisanairplane."TheChiefof StaffoftheUnitedStatesAirForceCurtisLeMay,however,hadlongadvocatedsaturationbombingin VietnamandwroteoftheCommuniststhat"we'regoingtobombthembackintotheStoneAge".

Escalationandgroundwar
Afterseveralattacksuponthem,itwasdecidedthatU.S.AirForcebasesneededmore protection.TheSouthVietnamesemilitaryseemedincapableofprovidingsecurity.On8March1965, 3,500U.S.MarinesweredispatchedtoSouthVietnam.ThismarkedthebeginningoftheAmerican groundwar.U.S.publicopinionoverwhelminglysupportedthedeployment. InastatementsimilartothatmadetotheFrenchalmosttwodecadesearlier,HoChiMinh warnedthatiftheAmericans"wanttomakewarfortwentyyearsthenweshallmakewarfortwenty years.Iftheywanttomakepeace,weshallmakepeaceandinvitethemtoafternoontea."Asformer FirstDeputyForeignMinisterTranQuangCohasnoted,theprimarygoalofthewarwastoreunify Vietnamandsecureitsindependence.ThepolicyoftheDemocraticRepublicofVietnam(DRV)wasnot totoppleothernoncommunistgovernmentsinSouthEastAsia. 14

TheMarines'assignmentwasdefensive.Theinitialdeploymentof3,500inMarchwasincreased tonearly200,000byDecember.TheU.S.militaryhadlongbeenschooledinoffensivewarfare. Regardlessofpoliticalpolicies,U.S.commanderswereinstitutionallyandpsychologicallyunsuitedtoa defensivemission.InDecember,ARVNforcessufferedheavylossesattheBattleofBnhGi,inabattle thatbothsidesviewedasawatershed.Previouslycommunistforceshadutilizedhitandrunguerrilla tactics,howeveratBinhGiatheyhadsuccessfullydefeatedastrongARVNforceinconventional warfare.Tellingly,SouthVietnameseforceswereagaindefeatedinJune,attheBattleofngXoi. Desertionrateswereincreasing,andmoraleplummeted.GeneralWilliamWestmoreland informedAdmiralU.S.GrantSharp,Jr.,commanderofU.S.Pacificforces,thatthesituationwascritical. Hesaid,"IamconvincedthatU.S.troopswiththeirenergy,mobility,andfirepowercansuccessfullytake thefighttotheNLF[NationalFrontfortheLiberationofSouthVietnam]."Withthisrecommendation, WestmorelandwasadvocatinganaggressivedeparturefromAmerica'sdefensivepostureandthe sideliningoftheSouthVietnamese.ByignoringARVNunits,theU.S.commitmentbecameopenended. Westmorelandoutlinedathreepointplantowinthewar:

Phase 1. Commitment of U.S. (and other free world) forces necessary to halt the losing trend by the end of 1965. Phase 2. U.S. and allied forces mount major offensive actions to seize the initiative to destroy guerrilla and organized enemy forces. This phase would end when the enemy had been worn down, thrown on the defensive, and driven back from major populated areas. Phase 3. If the enemy persisted, a period of twelve to eighteen months following Phase 2 would be required for the final destruction of enemy forces remaining in remote base areas.

TheplanwasapprovedbyJohnsonandmarkedaprofounddeparturefromtheprevious administration'sinsistencethatthegovernmentofSouthVietnamwasresponsiblefordefeatingthe guerrillas.Westmorelandpredictedvictorybytheendof1967.Johnsondidnot,however,communicate thischangeinstrategytothemedia.Insteadheemphasizedcontinuity.ThechangeinU.S.policy dependedonmatchingtheNorthVietnameseandtheNLFinacontestofattritionandmorale.The opponentswerelockedinacycleofescalation.TheideathatthegovernmentofSouthVietnamcould manageitsownaffairswasshelved. Theoneyeartourofdutydeprivedunitsofexperiencedleadership.Asoneobservernoted"we werenotinVietnamfor10years,butforoneyear10times."Asaresult,trainingprogramswere shortened. SouthVietnamwasinundatedwithmanufacturedgoods.AsStanleyKarnowwrites,"themain PX[PostExchange],locatedintheSaigonsuburbofCholon,wasonlyslightlysmallerthantheNewYork Bloomingdale's..."TheAmericanbuilduptransformedtheeconomyandhadaprofoundeffectonSouth Vietnamesesociety.Ahugesurgeincorruptionwaswitnessed. WashingtonencourageditsSEATOalliestocontributetroops.Australia,NewZealand,the RepublicofKorea,Thailand,andthePhilippinesallagreedtosendtroops.Majorallies,however,notably NATOnationsCanadaandtheUnitedKingdom,declinedWashington'strooprequests.TheU.S.andits alliesmountedcomplexoperations,suchasoperationsMasher,Attleboro,CedarFalls,andJunction City.However,thecommunistinsurgentsremainedelusiveanddemonstratedgreattacticalflexibility. 15

Meanwhile,thepoliticalsituationinSouthVietnambegantostabilizewiththecomingtopower ofPrimeMinisterAirMarshalNguynCaoKandfigureheadChiefofState,GeneralNguynVnThiu, inmid1965attheheadofamilitaryjunta.Thisendedaseriesofcoupsthathadhappenedmorethan onceayear.In1967,ThieubecamepresidentwithKyashisdeputy,afterriggedelections.Although theywerenominallyaciviliangovernment,Kywassupposedtomaintainrealpowerthroughabehind thescenesmilitarybody.However,ThieuoutmanoevredandsidelinedKybyfillingtherankswith generalsfromhisfaction.ThieuwasalsoaccusedofmurderingKyloyaliststhroughcontrivedmilitary accidents.Thieu,mistrustfulandindecisive,remainedpresidentuntil1975,havingwonaoneman electionin1971. TheJohnsonadministrationemployeda"policyofminimumcandor"initsdealingswiththe media.Militaryinformationofficerssoughttomanagemediacoveragebyemphasizingstoriesthat portrayedprogressinthewar.Overtime,thispolicydamagedthepublictrustinofficial pronouncements.Asthemedia'scoverageofthewarandthatofthePentagondiverged,asocalled credibilitygapdeveloped.

RESULTSOFWAR
Vietnamization NixonDoctrine
SeverecommunistlossesduringtheTetOffensiveallowedU.S.PresidentRichardNixontobegin troopwithdrawals.Hisplan,calledtheNixonDoctrine,wastobuilduptheARVN,sothattheycouldtake overthedefenseofSouthVietnam.Thepolicybecameknownas"Vietnamization".Vietnamizationhad muchincommonwiththepoliciesoftheKennedyadministration.Oneimportantdifference,however, remained.WhileKennedyinsistedthattheSouthVietnamesefightthewarthemselves,heattemptedto limitthescopeoftheconflict. Nixonsaidinanannouncement,"Iamtonightannouncingplansforthewithdrawalofan additional150,000Americantroopstobecompletedduringthespringofnextyear.Thiswillbringa totalreductionof265,500meninourarmedforcesinVietnambelowthelevelthatexistedwhenwe tookoffice15monthsago." On10October1969,Nixonorderedasquadronof18B52sloadedwithnuclearweaponsto racetotheborderofSovietairspacetoconvincetheSovietUnionthathewascapableofanythingto endtheVietnamWar. Nixonalsopursuednegotiations.TheatercommanderCreightonAbramsshiftedtosmaller operations,aimedatcommunistlogistics,withbetteruseoffirepowerandmorecooperationwiththe ARVN.NixonalsobegantopursuedtentewiththeSovietUnionandrapprochementwiththePeople's RepublicofChina.Thispolicyhelpedtodecreaseglobaltensions.Dtenteledtonucleararmsreduction onthepartofbothsuperpowers.ButNixonwasdisappointedthatthePRCandtheSovietUnion

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continuedtosupplytheNorthVietnamesewithaid.InSeptember1969,HoChiMinhdiedatage seventynine. TheantiwarmovementwasgainingstrengthintheUnitedStates.Nixonappealedtothe"silent majority"ofAmericanstosupportthewar.ButrevelationsoftheMyLaiMassacre,inwhichaU.S.Army platoonrapedandkilledcivilians,andthe1969"GreenBeretAffair"whereeightSpecialForcessoldiers, includingthe5thSpecialForcesGroupCommanderwerearrestedforthemurderofasuspecteddouble agentprovokednationalandinternationaloutrage. TheciviliancostofthewarwasagainquestionedwhenU.S.forcesconcludedOperationSpeedy Expresswithaclaimedbodycountof10,889Communistguerillaswithonly40U.S.losses;KevinBuckley writinginNewsweekestimatedthatperhaps5,000oftheVietnamesedeadwerecivilians. Beginningin1970,Americantroopswerebeingtakenawayfromborderareaswheremuch morekillingtookplace,andinsteadputalongthecoastandinterior,whichisonereasonwhycasualties in1970werelessthanhalfof1969'stotals.

OperationMenu
PrinceNorodomSihanoukhadproclaimedCambodianeutralsince1955,butthecommunists usedCambodiansoilasabaseandSihanouktoleratedtheirpresence,becausehewishedtoavoidbeing drawnintoawiderregionalconflict.UnderpressurefromWashington,however,hechangedthispolicy in1969.TheVietnamesecommunistswerenolongerwelcome.PresidentNixontooktheopportunityto launchamassivesecretbombingcampaign,calledOperationMenu,againsttheirsanctuariesalongthe Cambodia/Vietnamborder. ThisviolatedalongsuccessionofpronouncementsfromWashingtonsupportingCambodian neutrality.RichardNixonwrotetoPrinceSihanoukinApril1969assuringhimthattheUnitedStates respected"thesovereignty,neutralityandterritorialintegrityoftheKingdomofCambodia..."In1970, PrinceSihanoukwasdeposedbyhisproAmericanprimeministerLonNol.Thecountry'sborderswere closed,whileU.S.forcesandARVNlaunchedincursionsintoCambodiatoattackVPA/NLFbasesandbuy timeforSouthVietnam. TheinvasionofCambodiasparkednationwideU.S.protests.Fourstudentswerekilledby NationalGuardsmenatKentStateUniversityduringaprotestinOhio,whichprovokedpublicoutragein theUnitedStates.ThereactiontotheincidentbytheNixonadministrationwasseenascallousand indifferent,providingadditionalimpetusfortheantiwarmovement. In1971thePentagonPaperswereleakedtoTheNewYorkTimes.ThetopsecrethistoryofU.S. involvementinVietnam,commissionedbytheDepartmentofDefense,detailedalongseriesofpublic deceptions.TheSupremeCourtruledthatitspublicationwaslegal. TheARVNlaunchedOperationLamSon719inFebruary1971,aimedatcuttingtheHoChiMinh trailinLaos.TheostensiblyneutralLaoshadlongbeenthesceneofasecretwar.Aftermeeting resistance,ARVNforcesretreatedinaconfusedrout.Theyfledalongroadslitteredwiththeirowndead. Whentheyranoutoffuel,soldiersabandonedtheirvehiclesandattemptedtobargetheirwayonto Americanhelicopterssenttoevacuatethewounded.ManyARVNsoldiersclungtohelicopterskidsina desperateattempttosavethemselves.U.S.aircrafthadtodestroyabandonedequipment,including 17

tanks,topreventthemfromfallingintoenemyhands.HalfoftheinvadingARVNtroopswereeither capturedorkilled.TheoperationwasafiascoandrepresentedaclearfailureofVietnamization.As Karnownoted"theblundersweremonumental...The(SouthVietnamese)government'stopofficershad beentutoredbytheAmericansfortenorfifteenyears,manyattrainingschoolsintheUnitedStates,yet theyhadlearnedlittle." In1971AustraliaandNewZealandwithdrewtheirsoldiers.TheU.S.troopcountwasfurther reducedto196,700,withadeadlinetoremoveanother45,000troopsbyFebruary1972.Aspeace protestsspreadacrosstheUnitedStates,disillusionmentandilldisciplinegrewintheranks. VietnamizationwasagaintestedbytheEasterOffensiveof1972,amassiveconventional invasionofSouthVietnam.TheVPAandNLFquicklyoverranthenorthernprovincesandincoordination withotherforcesattackedfromCambodia,threateningtocutthecountryinhalf.U.S.troop withdrawalscontinued.ButAmericanairpowercametotherescuewithOperationLinebacker,andthe offensivewashalted.However,itbecameclearthatwithoutAmericanairpowerSouthVietnamcould notsurvive.ThelastremainingAmericangroundtroopswerewithdrawninAugust.

1972ElectionandParisPeaceAccords
Thewarwasthecentralissueofthe1972presidentialelection.Nixon'sopponent,George McGovern,campaignedonaplatformofwithdrawalfromVietnam.Nixon'sNationalSecurityAdviser, HenryKissinger,continuedsecretnegotiationswithNorthVietnam'sLcTh.InOctober1972,they reachedanagreement. However,SouthVietnamesePresidentThieudemandedmassivechangestothepeaceaccord. WhenNorthVietnamwentpublicwiththeagreement'sdetails,theNixonadministrationclaimedthat theNorthwasattemptingtoembarrassthePresident.Thenegotiationsbecamedeadlocked.Hanoi demandednewchanges. ToshowhissupportforSouthVietnamandforceHanoibacktothenegotiatingtable,Nixon orderedOperationLinebackerII,amassivebombingofHanoiandHaiphong1829December1972.The offensivedestroyedmuchoftheremainingeconomicandindustrialcapacityofNorthVietnam. SimultaneouslyNixonpressuredThieutoacceptthetermsoftheagreement,threateningtoconcludea bilateralpeacedealandcutoffAmericanaid. On15January1973,NixonannouncedthesuspensionofoffensiveactionagainstNorth Vietnam.TheParisPeaceAccordson"EndingtheWarandRestoringPeaceinVietnam"weresignedon 27January1973,officiallyendingdirectU.S.involvementintheVietnamWar.Aceasefirewasdeclared acrossNorthandSouthVietnam.U.S.POWswerereleased.Theagreementguaranteedtheterritorial integrityofVietnamand,liketheGenevaConferenceof1954,calledfornationalelectionsintheNorth andSouth.TheParisPeaceAccordsstipulatedasixtydayperiodforthetotalwithdrawalofU.S.forces. "Thisarticle",notedPeterChurch,"proved...tobetheonlyoneoftheParisAgreementswhichwasfully carriedout."

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OppositiontotheVietnamWar
SomeadvocateswithinthepeacemovementadvocatedaunilateralwithdrawalofU.S.forces fromVietnam.Onereasongivenforthewithdrawalisthatitwouldcontributetoalesseningoftensions intheregionandthuslesshumanbloodshed.EarlyoppositiontoU.S.involvementinVietnamwas centeredaroundtheGenevaconferenceof1954.AmericansupportofDieminrefusingelectionswas thoughttobethwartingtheverydemocracythatAmericaclaimedtobesupporting.JohnKennedy, whileSenator,opposedinvolvementinVietnam. OppositiontotheVietnamWartendedtounitegroupsopposedtoU.S.anticommunism, imperialismandcolonialismand,forthoseinvolvedwiththeNewLeftsuchastheCatholicWorker Movement,capitalismitself.Others,suchasStephenSpiroopposedthewarbasedonthetheoryofJust War.SomewantedtoshowsolidaritywiththepeopleofVietnam,suchasNormanMorrisonemulating theactionsofThchQungc.SomecriticsofU.S.withdrawalpredictedthatitwouldnotcontributeto peacebutrathervastlyincreasebloodshed.ThesecriticsadvocatedU.S.forcesremainuntilallthreats fromtheVietCongandNorthVietnameseArmyhadbeeneliminated.AdvocatesofU.S.withdrawal weregenerallyknownas"doves",andtheycalledtheiropponents"hawks",followingnomenclature datingbacktotheWarof1812. HighprofileoppositiontotheVietnamWarturnedtostreetprotestsinanefforttoturnU.S. politicalopinion.On15October1969,theVietnamMoratoriumattractedmillionsofAmericans.The fatalshootingoffourstudentsatKentStateUniversityledtonationwideuniversityprotests.Riots brokeoutatthe1968DemocraticNationalConvention.AfterexplosivenewsreportsofAmerican militaryabuses,suchasthe1968MyLaiMassacre,broughtnewattentionandsupporttotheantiwar movement,someveteransjoinedVietnamVeteransAgainsttheWar.Antiwarprotestsendedwiththe finalwithdrawaloftroopsaftertheParisPeaceAccordsweresignedin1973.SouthVietnamwasleftto defenditselfalonewhenthefightingresumed.ManySouthVietnamesesubsequentlyfledtotheUnited States.

ExitoftheAmericans
TheUnitedStatesbegandrasticallyreducingtheirtroopsupportinSouthVietnamduringthe finalyearsof"Vietnamization".ManyU.S.troopswereremovedfromtheregion,andon5March1971, theUnitedStatesreturnedthe5thSpecialForcesGroup,whichwasthefirstAmericanunitdeployedto SouthVietnam,toitsformerbaseinFortBragg,NorthCarolina. UndertheParisPeaceAccords,betweenNorthVietnameseForeignMinisterLcThand U.S.SecretaryofStateHenryKissinger,andreluctantlysignedbySouthVietnamesePresidentThiu,U.S. militaryforceswithdrewfromSouthVietnamandprisonerswereexchanged.NorthVietnamwas allowedtocontinuesupplyingcommunisttroopsintheSouth,butonlytotheextentofreplacing materialsthatwereconsumed.LaterthatyeartheNobelPeacePrizewasawardedtoKissingerandTh, buttheVietnamesenegotiatordeclineditsayingthatatruepeacedidnotyetexist.

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Thecommunistleadershadexpectedthattheceasefiretermswouldfavortheirside.But Saigon,bolsteredbyasurgeofU.S.aidreceivedjustbeforetheceasefirewentintoeffect,begantoroll backtheVietcong.Thecommunistsrespondedwithanewstrategyhammeredoutinaseriesof meetingsinHanoiinMarch1973,accordingtothememoirsofTrnVnTr. AstheVietcong'stopcommander,Trparticipatedinseveralofthesemeetings.WithU.S. bombingssuspended,workontheHoChiMinhTrailandotherlogisticalstructurescouldproceed unimpeded.LogisticswouldbeupgradeduntiltheNorthwasinapositiontolaunchamassiveinvasion oftheSouth,projectedforthe197576dryseason.TrcalculatedthatthisdatewouldbeHanoi'slast opportunitytostrikebeforeSaigon'sarmycouldbefullytrained. IntheNovember1972Election,McGovernlost49of50statestoRichardNixon,whowasre electedU.S.president.DespitesupportingNixonoverMcGovern,manyAmericanvoterssplittheir tickets,returningaDemocraticmajoritytobothhousesofCongress. On15March1973,U.S.PresidentRichardNixonimpliedthattheUnitedStateswouldintervene militarilyifthecommunistsideviolatedtheceasefire.PublicandcongressionalreactiontoNixon'strial balloonwasunfavorableandinAprilNixonappointedGrahamMartinasU.S.ambassadortoVietnam. MartinwasasecondstringercomparedtopreviousU.S.ambassadorsandhisappointmentwasanearly signalthatWashingtonhadgivenuponVietnam.DuringhisconfirmationhearingsinJune1973, SecretaryofDefenseJamesR.SchlesingerstatedthathewouldrecommendresumptionofU.S.bombing inNorthVietnamifNorthVietnamlaunchedamajoroffensiveagainstSouthVietnam.On4June1973, theU.S.SenatepassedtheCaseChurchAmendmenttoprohibitsuchintervention. TheoilpriceshockofOctober1973causedsignificantdamagetotheSouthVietnamese economy.TheVietcongresumedoffensiveoperationswhendryseasonbeganandbyJanuary1974it hadrecapturedtheterritoryitlostduringthepreviousdryseason.Aftertwoclashesthatleft55South Vietnamesesoldiersdead,PresidentThiuannouncedon4Januarythatthewarhadrestartedandthat theParisPeaceAccordwasnolongerineffect.Therehadbeenover25,000SouthVietnamesecasualties duringtheceasefireperiod. GeraldFordtookoverasU.S.presidenton9August1974afterPresidentNixonresigneddueto theWatergatescandal.Atthistime,CongresscutfinancialaidtoSouthVietnamfrom$1billionayearto $700million.TheU.S.midtermelectionsin1974broughtinanewCongressdominatedbyDemocrats whowereevenmoredeterminedtoconfrontthepresidentonthewar.Congressimmediatelyvotedin restrictionsonfundingandmilitaryactivitiestobephasedinthrough1975andtoculminateinatotal cutoffoffundingin1976. Thesuccessofthe197374dryseasonoffensiveinspiredTrtoreturntoHanoiinOctober1974 andpleadforalargeroffensiveinthenextdryseason.Thistime,Trcouldtravelonadrivablehighway withregularfuelingstops,avastchangefromthedayswhentheHoChiMinhTrailwasadangerous mountaintrek.Gip,theNorthVietnamesedefenseminister,wasreluctanttoapproveTr'splan.A largeroffensivemightprovokeaU.S.reactionandinterferewiththebigpushplannedfor1976.Tr appealedoverGip'sheadtofirstsecretaryLDun,whoapprovedoftheoperation. Tr'splancalledforalimitedoffensivefromCambodiaintoPhuocLongProvince.Thestrikewas designedtosolvelocallogisticalproblems,gaugethereactionofSouthVietnameseforces,and determinewhetherU.S.wouldreturntothefray. 20

On13December1974,NorthVietnameseforcesattackedRoute14inPhuocLongProvince. PhuocBinh,theprovincialcapital,fellon6January1975.ForddesperatelyaskedCongressforfundsto assistandresupplytheSouthbeforeitwasoverrun.Congressrefused.ThefallofPhuocBinhandthe lackofanAmericanresponselefttheSouthVietnameseelitedemoralized. ThespeedofthissuccessledthePolitburotoreassessitsstrategy.Itwasdecidedthat operationsintheCentralHighlandswouldbeturnedovertoGeneralVnTinDngandthatPleiku shouldbeseized,ifpossible.BeforeheleftfortheSouth,DngwasaddressedbyLDun:"Neverhave wehadmilitaryandpoliticalconditionssoperfectorastrategicadvantageasgreataswehavenow." Atthestartof1975,theSouthVietnamesehadthreetimesasmuchartilleryandtwicethe numberoftanksandarmouredcarsastheopposition.Theyalsohad1,400aircraftandatwotoone numericalsuperiorityincombattroopsovertheirCommunistenemies.However,therisingoilprices meantthatmuchofthiscouldnotbeused.Theyfacedawellorganized,highlydeterminedandwell fundedNorthVietnam.MuchoftheNorth'smaterialandfinancialsupportcamefromthecommunist bloc.WithinSouthVietnam,therewasincreasingchaos.TheirabandonmentbytheAmericanmilitary hadcompromisedaneconomydependentonU.S.financialsupportandthepresenceofalargenumber ofU.S.troops.SouthVietnamsufferedfromtheglobalrecessionthatfollowedtheAraboilembargo.

Campaign275
On10March1975,GeneralDunglaunchedCampaign275,alimitedoffensiveintotheCentral Highlands,supportedbytanksandheavyartillery.ThetargetwasBunMaThut,inkLkProvince.If thetowncouldbetaken,theprovincialcapitalofPleikuandtheroadtothecoastwouldbeexposedfor aplannedcampaignin1976.TheARVNprovedincapableofresistingtheonslaught,anditsforces collapsedon11March.Onceagain,Hanoiwassurprisedbythespeedoftheirsuccess.Dungnowurged thePolitburotoallowhimtoseizePleikuimmediatelyandthenturnhisattentiontoKonTum.He arguedthatwithtwomonthsofgoodweatherremaininguntiltheonsetofthemonsoon,itwouldbe irresponsibletonottakeadvantageofthesituation. PresidentNguynVnThiu,aformergeneral,wasfearfulthathisforceswouldbecutoffinthe northbytheattackingcommunists;Thieuorderedaretreat.Thepresidentdeclaredthistobea"lighten thetopandkeepthebottom"strategy.ButinwhatappearedtobearepeatofOperationLamSon719, thewithdrawalsoonturnedintoabloodyrout.WhilethebulkofARVNforcesattemptedtoflee, isolatedunitsfoughtdesperately.ARVNGeneralPhuabandonedPleikuandKonTumandretreated towardthecoast,inwhatbecameknownasthe"columnoftears". AstheARVNtriedtodisengagefromtheenemy,refugeesmixedinwiththelineofretreat.The poorconditionofroadsandbridges,damagedbyyearsofconflictandneglect,slowedPhu'scolumn.As theNorthVietnameseforcesapproached,panicsetin.Oftenabandonedbytheofficers,thesoldiersand civilianswereshelledincessantly.Theretreatdegeneratedintoadesperatescrambleforthecoast.By1 Aprilthe"columnoftears"wasallbutannihilated. On20March,ThieureversedhimselfandorderedHu,Vietnam'sthirdlargestcity,beheldatall costs,andthenchangedhispolicyseveraltimes.Thieu'scontradictoryordersconfusedanddemoralized hisofficercorps.AstheNorthVietnameselaunchedtheirattack,panicsetin,andARVNresistance withered.On22March,theVPAopenedthesiegeofHu.Civiliansfloodedtheairportandthedocks 21

hopingforanymodeofescape.Someevenswamouttoseatoreachboatsandbargesanchored offshore.Intheconfusion,routedARVNsoldiersfiredoncivilianstomakewayfortheirretreat. On25March,afterathreedaybattle,Hufell.AsresistanceinHucollapsed,North VietnameserocketsraineddownonDaNanganditsairport.By28March,35,000VPAtroopswere poisedtoattackthesuburbs.By30March100,000leaderlessARVNtroopssurrenderedastheVPA marchedvictoriouslythroughDaNang.Withthefallofthecity,thedefenseoftheCentralHighlands andNorthernprovincescametoanend.

FinalNorthVietnameseOffensive
Withthenorthernhalfofthecountryundertheircontrol,thePolitburoorderedGeneralDung tolaunchthefinaloffensiveagainstSaigon.TheoperationalplanfortheHoChiMinhCampaigncalled forthecaptureofSaigonbefore1May.Hanoiwishedtoavoidthecomingmonsoonandpreventany redeploymentofARVNforcesdefendingthecapital.Northernforces,theirmoraleboostedbytheir recentvictories,rolledon,takingNhaTrang,CamRanh,andDaLat. On7April,threeNorthVietnamesedivisionsattackedXuanLoc,40miles(64km)eastofSaigon. TheNorthVietnamesemetfierceresistanceatXuanLocfromtheARVN18thDivision,whowere outnumberedsixtoone.Fortwobloodyweeks,severefightingragedastheARVNdefendersmadea laststandtotrytoblocktheNorthVietnameseadvance.By21April,however,theexhaustedgarrison wereorderedtowithdrawtowardsSaigon. AnembitteredandtearfulPresidentThieuresignedonthesameday,declaringthattheUnited StateshadbetrayedSouthVietnam.Inascathingattack,hesuggestedU.S.SecretaryofStateHenry KissingerhadtrickedhimintosigningtheParispeaceagreementtwoyearsago,promisingmilitaryaid thatfailedtomaterialise.HavingtransferredpowertoTranVanHuong,heleftforTaiwanon25April.At thesametime,NorthVietnamesetankshadreachedBienHoaandturnedtowardSaigon,brushingaside isolatedARVNunitsalongtheway. BytheendofApril,theARVNhadcollapsedonallfrontsexceptintheMekongDelta.Thousand ofrefugeesstreamedsouthward,aheadofthemaincommunistonslaught.On27April100,000North VietnamesetroopsencircledSaigon.Thecitywasdefendedbyabout30,000ARVNtroops.Tohastena collapseandfomentpanic,theVPAshelledtheairportandforceditsclosure.Withtheairexitclosed, largenumbersofciviliansfoundthattheyhadnowayout.

FallofSaigon
Chaos,unrest,andpanicbrokeoutashystericalSouthVietnameseofficialsandcivilians scrambledtoleaveSaigon.Martiallawwasdeclared.AmericanhelicoptersbeganevacuatingSouth Vietnamese,U.S.,andforeignnationalsfromvariouspartsofthecityandfromtheU.S.embassy compound.OperationFrequentWindhadbeendelayeduntilthelastpossiblemoment,becauseofU.S. AmbassadorGrahamMartin'sbeliefthatSaigoncouldbeheldandthatapoliticalsettlementcouldbe reached.

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Schlesingerannouncedearlyinthemorningof29April1975theevacuationfromSaigonby helicopterofthelastU.S.diplomatic,military,andcivilianpersonnel.FrequentWindwasarguablythe largesthelicopterevacuationinhistory.Itbeganon29April,inanatmosphereofdesperation,as hystericalcrowdsofVietnameseviedforlimitedspace.MartinpleadedwithWashingtontodispatch $700millioninemergencyaidtobolstertheregimeandhelpitmobilizefreshmilitaryreserves.But Americanpublicopinionhadsouredonthisconflict. IntheUnitedStates,SouthVietnamwasperceivedasdoomed.PresidentGeraldFordhadgiven atelevisedspeechon23April,declaringanendtotheVietnamWarandallU.S.aid.FrequentWind continuedaroundtheclock,asNorthVietnamesetanksbreacheddefensesontheoutskirtsofSaigon.In theearlymorninghoursof30April,thelastU.S.Marinesevacuatedtheembassybyhelicopter,as civiliansswampedtheperimeterandpouredintothegrounds.Manyofthemhadbeenemployedbythe Americansandwerelefttotheirfate. On30April1975,VPAtroopsovercameallresistance,quicklycapturingkeybuildingsand installations.AtankcrashedthroughthegatesoftheIndependencePalace,andat11:30a.m.localtime theNLFflagwasraisedaboveit.PresidentDuongVanMinh,whohadsucceededHuongtwodays earlier,surrendered.Hissurrendermarkedtheendof116yearsofVietnameseinvolvementinconflict eitheralongsideoragainstvariouscountries,primarilyFrance,China,Japan,Britain,andAmerica.

POSTWARPERIOD
Intheaftermathofthewar,thegovernmentembarkedonamasscampaignofcollectivization offarmsandfactories.Thiscausedaneconomiccollapseandresultedintripledigitinflation. Reconstructionofthewarravagedcountrywasslow,andserioushumanitarianandeconomicproblems confrontedthecommunistregime.Millionsofpeoplefledthecountryincrudelybuiltboats,creatingan internationalhumanitariancrisis. In1978,theVietnamesemilitaryinvadedCambodiatoremovefrompowertheKhmerRouge, whohadbeenrazingVietnamesebordervillagesandmassacringtheinhabitants.Vietnamwas victorious,installingaregimeinCambodiawhoseleadersruleduntil1989.Thisactionworsened relationswiththeChinese,wholaunchedabriefincursionintonorthernVietnamin1979.Thisconflict causedVietnamtorelyevenmoreheavilyonSovieteconomicandmilitaryaid.

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Renovation(iMi)
AttheSixthCongressoftheCommunistPartyofVietnaminDecember1986,reformist politicians,upsetbythecountry'slackofeconomicprogressaftertheVietnamWar,replacedthe"old guard"governmentwithnewleadership.Thereformerswereledby71yearoldNguyenVanLinh,who becametheparty'snewgeneralsecretary.LinhwasanativeofnorthernVietnamwhohadservedinthe southbothduringandaftertheVietnamWar.Inahistoricshift,Linhandthereformersimplementeda seriesoffreemarketreformsknownasiMi(Renovation)whichcarefullymanagedthetransition fromaplannedeconomytoa"socialistorientedmarketeconomy". Thoughtheauthorityofthestateremainedunchallenged,thegovernmentencouragedprivate ownershipoffarmsandfactories,economicderegulationandforeigninvestment,whilemaintaining controloverstrategicindustries.TheeconomyofVietnamsubsequentlyachievedrapidgrowthin agriculturalandindustrialproduction,construction,exportsandforeigninvestment.However,these reformshavealsocausedariseinincomeinequalityandgenderdisparities.

REFERENCES
1. BIPage(1972).Policyvotingandtheelectoralprocess:TheVietnamWarissue.TheAmerican PoliticalScienceReview.JSTOR. 2. Giap,Vo,Nguyen(1973).People'swar,People'sArmy:theVietConginsurrectionmanualfor underdevelopedcountries.Delhi:Natrajpublication. 3. Goodman,AllanE.,(1973).Politicsinwar:thebasesofpoliticalcommunityinSouthVietnam. Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress. 4. HESalisbury(1985).Vietnamreconsidered:lessonsfromawar.HarpercollinsCollegeDiv 5. HGSummers(1995).Onstrategy:AcriticalanalysisoftheVietnamWar.PresidioPress. 6. RSobel(2001).TheimpactofpublicopiniononUSforeignpolicysinceVietnam:Constraining thecolossus.OxfordUniversityPress,USA. 7. RJMcMahon(1990).MajorproblemsinthehistoryoftheVietnamWar:documentsandessays. DCHeath. 8. RRLau,TABrown(1978).Selfinterestandcivilians'attitudestowardtheVietnamWar.Public OpinionQuarterly.AAPOR. 9. Russell,Bertrand,(1967).WarcrimesinVietnam.London:Allen&Unwin, 10. TTaylorYaleRev.L.&Soc.Action(1970).NurembergandVietnam:AnAmericanTragedy. HeinOnline. 11. WTerry(1985).Bloods,anoralhistoryoftheVietnamWar.PresidioPress.

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