AC Steady State Analysis

You have learned a number of rules related to DC analysis of circuits, including resistors whose voltage is proportional to current (V = IR), Kirchoff's current law and Kirchoff's voltage law, equivalents for parallel and series resistors, superposition, source transformation, Thevenin's equivalent circuit, and Norton's equivalent circuit. These various rules relate to linear circuits in which voltage sources produce constant voltages, current sources produce constant currents, and the circuit elements (resistors) exhibit a voltage drop proportional to the current flowing through the resistor.

A. Why Do We Use Sine Waves

In this set of notes, we consider the case of a time varying voltage source or time varying current source applied to a circuit. We shall be concerned with the case of a sinusoidal source. For example, a source could be given by X(t) = X0 *sin( t) = X0 *sin(2 ft) where X = V for a voltage source and X = I for a current source. In this equation, is the radial frequency (radians per second) and f is the frequency in Hertz (cycles per second) with = 2 f. If we were to look at any voltage or current anywhere in a linear circuit, we will find the same sinusoidal variation, but with a different amplitude and perhaps a phase shift . If sin( t) is the time dependence of the source voltage or current, then a phase shift corresponds to sin( t + ). This use of a sine wave to represent a general input voltage's or current's time dependence is far more general than would appear at first. This is because any real time varying signal can be created by summing together a number of weighted sine waves with different frequencies and phase shifts. Given an input signal that is a sum of sine waves, we can obtain the output for each sine wave and then add those outputs together (superposition) to obtain the full solution. This is merely the consequence of the linearity of the circuit. We may, for example, have a time varying function X(t) which can be represented by X(t) = A1 sin( 1 t + 1) + A2 sin( 2 t + 2) + A3 sin( 3 t + 3) . Each of the three sinusoids is characterized by its amplitude and its phase shift. More generally, we will need to have a huge number of sinusoids to construct an arbitrary time varying function. The formal approach, given by the Fourier transform will be given later. The main point here is that by solving a circuit for an arbitrary sinusoidal source

voltage or current, we are in fact generating the solution for a general time varying voltage or current which is merely a superposition of several sinusoidal sources as in the example above.

B. Using exponentials rather than sine or cosine functions B1. Problem using sine or cosine functions
Assume that a circuit is driven by a voltage source Vsource* sin( t). The voltage drop Vx(t) across a resistor and the current Ix(t) through the resistor are related by Vx(t) = R Ix(t). If Ix(t) = Ix0* sin( t + x), then Vx(t) = R*Ix0* sin( t + x) = Vx0* sin( t + x). In particular, the sinusoidal waves for current and voltage are in phase (same value x) and have amplitudes related by the simple V = IR form, i.e. Vx 0 = R*Ix 0. If instead of a resistor we consider an inductor, then V = L (dI/dt). If the current through the inductor is IL(t) = IL0* sin( t + x), then the voltage across the inductor is given by VL(t) = L (dIL(t) /dt) = [L IL0 ] * cos( t + x) whereas IL(t) = IL0* sin( t + x), In this case, the current and voltage are 90 degrees out of phase. This phase difference prevents the common appearance of cos( t) in all terms of a circuit analysis equation (and therefore cancelation of the time-dependent terms to achieve a DC equation).

B2. Using Exponentials

When considering transient solutions, we assumed solutions of the general form exp(-st) for the second order differential equations and exp(-at) for the first order differential equations. If f(t) = Aexp(-st), then df(t)/dt = -sAexp(-st) = -s * f(t). In particular, the derivative of f(t) equals a constant time f(t), leading to a canceling of all the time dependence (the terms f(t)) in the circuit equations. Since exp(-j t) = cos( t) - j sin( t), a sinusoidal function cos( t) can be represented by the complex exponential. Here, j2 = -1 defines our function as a complex function. If we convert to this complex number representation, just as cos( t) is the real part of exp(-j t), so also is the final solution the real part of the complex result obtained.

As in section B1, if the circuit is driven by a voltage source V(t) = V 0 * exp(-j t) or by a current source I(t) = I 0 * exp(-j t), then the currents and voltages everywhere in the circuit have a sinusoidal time dependence at frequency with some possible phase shift. Consider the case of a resistor R or an inductor L. Resistor: Let the current through a resistor R be IR (t) = I R0* exp(-j t+ ). Since V = IR through a resistor, the voltage drop across a resistor is VRr (t) = IR (t) * R = (IR0 * R) * exp(-j t+ ) = VR0 * exp(-j t+ ). The voltage amplitude VR0 is related to the current amplitude IR0 by VR0 = IR0 * R. We shall call R in this case the impedance ZR =R of the resistor. NOTE: the equation VR0 = IR0 * ZR relates the amplitudes of the voltage and current sine waves. Inductor: Let the current through an inductor L be IL (t) = IL0* exp(-j t+ ). Since the voltage across the inductor is related to the current through the inductor by VL(t) = L d IL /dt, VL (t) = j L * IL (t) = j L IL0*[ exp(-j t+ )] = VL0 *[exp(-j t+ )]. Therefore, VL0 = j L IL0 = ZL * IL0 where the impedance ZL of the inductor is given by ZL = j L. NOTE: the equation VL0 = IL0 * ZL relates the amplitudes of the voltage and current sine waves. Capacitor: Let the voltage across a capacitor C be VC (t) = VC0* exp(-j t+ ). Since the current IC through the capacitor is related to the voltage across the capacitor by IC(t) = C d VC /dt, IC (t) = j C * VC (t) = j C VC0*[ exp(-j t+ )] = IC0 *[exp(-j t+ )]. Therefore, IC0 = j C VC0 = (1/ZC)* VC0 or

VC0 = ZC* IC0 where the impedance ZC of the capacitor is given by ZC = 1 / (j C). NOTE: the equation VC0 = IC0 * ZC relates the amplitudes of the voltage and current sine waves.

C. Application of Above to AC Circuit Analysis

AC circuit analysis corresponds to the case in which a circuit is driven by a sinusoidal current of voltage. The steps below describe how to change the circuit with time varying current or voltage sources and R, L, and C elements into a DC circuit with impedances relating DC current and voltage levels. The current source or voltage source will be given by A sin( t) or by A sin(2 ft), The frequency is = 2 f and the constant amplitude is A. Replace the time varying current source or voltage source by its constant amplitude. In this manner, we replace the AC source by a DC source equal to the AC amplitude. More than one source at the same frequency can be analyzed rather easily but you will not be responsible for understanding such circuits at this time. Change components to impedances. If Z is the impedance of a component (R, L, or C), then the amplitude V of the AC voltage across the component is related to the amplitude I of the AC current through the component by V = I * Z. In this sense, you will be treating the problem as a DC problem seeking to determine the constant amplitudes of the sinusoids. Replace each resistor R by an impedance ZR = R Replace each capacitor by an impedance ZC = 1 / (j C). Replace each inductor by an impedance ZL = j L.

Finally, analyze the overall circuit as a simple DC circuit with DC source voltage given by the amplitude of the sinusoid (rather than the time varying sinusoid), with each passive component (R, L, or C) treated as a resistor with value given by its impedance, and with each passive component having the voltage/current relationship V=I*Z.

When analyzing the circuit as a DC circuit, you may use any and all of the rules and tricks you learned for normal DC circuits. These include those listed below. To be clear, we repesent the "DC voltage" V by Vamp and the "DC

current" I by I amp as a reminder that they are the amplitudes of the time varying voltages and currents. Two impedances Z1 and Z2 in parallel can be replaced by a single impedance Z = (Z1*Z2) / (Z1 + Z2). Two impedances Z1 and Z2 in series can be replaced by a single impedance Z = Z1 + Z2. Kirchoff's voltage law: Sum of voltage drops Vamp around a loop equals zero. Kirchoff's current law: Sum of currents I amp into a node equals zero. Superposition. Note: this is only useful if all independent voltage and current sources are operating at precisely the same frequency. Source transformation: Voltage source Vamp in series with an impedance Z can be replaced by a current source I amp = Vamp / Z in parallel with that impedance Z. Current source I amp in parallel with an impedance Z can be replaced by a voltage source Vamp = I amp * Z in series with that impedance Z.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a voltage source Vth in series with an impedance Zth. Vth is the open circuit output voltage. Zth. is the impedance seen looking into the circuit with all current sources replaced by open circuits and all voltage sources replaced by short circuits. The Norton equivalent circuit consists of a current source Inort in parallel with an impedance Zth. Inort is the short circuit output current. Zth. is the impedance seen looking into the circuit with all current sources replaced by open circuits and all voltage sources replaced by short circuits.

D. Frequency Dependent Input/Output Behavior of a Circuit

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1 below.

L= C V jL Z Ampl w C0 +ZR =jCC(t) V- Z R 1/ (t) in0 Amplitude V = 1 Figure

Assume that the voltage source is a sine wave Vin (t) = V0 sin( t). The circuit contains an inductor, a resistor, and a capacitor. This AC circuit is then converted into the circuit of Figure 2, where the AC input is replaced by the amplitude V0 of the source voltage and the components are replaced by impedances (impedances given in Figure 1).

+ZL RjCV jR= C= 1/ w L= Z C0 VZ 0 - Figure 2

We can now analyze the circuit in Figure 2 as a DC circuit. Impedances ZR and ZC are in parallel and can be replaced by an equivalent impedance Zeq1 given by Zeq1 = [ZR * ZC] / [ZR + ZC] = R / [1 + j RC]. Then, Zeq1 is in series with ZR giving an overall equivalent impedance Zeq in series with the voltage source. That overall equivalent impedance is Zeq = ZL + Zeq1 = j L + {R / [1 + j RC]}. The current I flowing around the loop is given by I = V0 / Zeq and the voltage across the capacitor is given by the input voltage minus the voltage across the inductor (VL = j L * I) VC0 = V0 - j L * I = V0 * [1 - j L / Zeq].

The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage gives the transfer function H( ) of the circuit. From the equation above, this transfer function is H( ) = VC0 / V0 = [1 - j L / Zeq] where Zeq was obtained earlier as Zeq = j L + {R / [1 + j RC]}. To complete the solution, you would need to convert H( ) into the form H( ) = [1 - j L / Zeq] = A( ) + jB( ), Given this form, the magnitude |H( )| and phase of the circuit's transfer function are as follows.
H( ) = ( ) 2 + ( ) 2

( ) ( ) = 1 ( )

E. Fourier Transform of Signal and Transfer Function

Finally, we complete the discussion by returning to the concept of the Fourier Transform. If the signal is given by s(t), then the Fourier Transform S( ) represents the amplitude of sinusoids at frequency needed to construct s(t). The Fourier Transform is
S( ) =

() (

If one knows the Fourier Transform S( ), then the original signal s(t) is obtained from the inverse Fourier Transform
s(t) = 1 + ( ) ( ) . 2

If S( ) is the Fourier transform of the input signal s(t) to a circuit and H( ) is the transfer function of the circuit, then the Fourier transform X( ) of the output signal x(t) is given by X( ) = H( ) * S( ) and the time-varying output signal x(t) is obtained from X( ) by using the Inverse Fourier transform.

WHY IS THIS SO IMPORTANT? In the discussions above, we were able to obtain the transfer function of the circuit without regard to the signal being applied. In earlier problems such as the original DC solutions and the transient solutions for RC, RL and RLC networks, the analysis of the circuit depended critically on the specific signal being applied. By performing the AC analysis above in the frequency domain, we have obtained a mathematical representation, the transfer function H( ), of the effect of a circuit on an arbitrary input signal. In addition, we have found a way, the Fourier transform, to represent any time varying signal s(t) encountered in practice by its frequency components S( ). The output of the circuit for this arbitrary input is merely X( ) = H( )S( ).