PROJECT REPORT ON

Class-XII Session-2009-2010

Submitted to: Ms. Monika

Submitted by: Pravesh Malik Roll No.-

Shri Baba Mastnath Public School

The Project Report is outcome of the knowledge and guidance given to me by Ms. Monika, our chemistry teacher. I also thank our principal Mr. Yadav providing the excellent lab facilities and the environment, which motivate the students to do research work. PR XII

AVESH

This to certify that Kunal Sharma student of XII science has conducted and carried the project under my supervision and guidance. He had worked on this project very sincerely and honestly. The project report has been examined and approved by me.

Arya (Chemistry Teacher)

Praveen

INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION 2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 3. STRUCTURE 4. SYMMETRY OF WATER MOLECULES 5. SELF IONISATION OF WATER 6. REACTION OF WATER WITH METALS 7. REACTION OF WATER WITH OXIDES 8. WATER GAS SHIFT REACTION 9. ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER 10. WATER AS A SOLVENT 11. HARD WATER 12. WATER PURIFICATION 13. USES OF WATER

INTRODUCTIO N

2H2 + O2 -> H2O

Water, common name applied to the liquid state of the hydrogen-oxygen compound H2O. The ancient philosophers regarded water as a basic element typifying all liquid substances. Scientists did not discard that view until the latter half of the 18th century. In 1781 the British chemist Henry Cavendish synthesized water by detonating a mixture of hydrogen and air. However, the results of his experiments were not clearly interpreted until two years later, when the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier proved that water was not an element but a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. In a scientific paper presented in 1804, the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and the German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt demonstrated jointly that water consisted of two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen, as expressed by the present-day formula H2O. About 1.460 petatonnes (Pt) (1021kilograms) of water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation.[1] Saltwater oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. A very small amount of the Earth's water is contained within water towers, biological bodies, manufactured products, and food stores. Other water is trapped in ice caps, glaciers, aquifers, or in lakes, sometimes providing fresh water for life on land. Almost all the hydrogen in water has an atomic weight of 1. The American chemist Harold Clayton Urey discovered in 1932 the presence in water of a small amount (1 part in 6000) of so-called heavy water, or deuterium oxide (D2O); deuterium is the hydrogen isotope with an atomic weight of 2. In 1951 the American chemist Aristid Grosse discovered that naturally occurring water contains also minute traces of tritium oxide (T2O); tritium is the hydrogen isotope with an atomic weight of 3. See Atom.

Information and properties Common name IUPAC name PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Alternative names Molecular formula Pure water is an odorless, tasteless liquid. It has a bluish tint, which may be detected, however, only in layers of considerable depth. Molar mass Density and phase Melting point Boiling point Specific heat capacity water oxidane aqua, dihydrogen monoxide, hydrogen hydroxide, (more) H2O 18.0153 g/mol 0.998 g/cm (liquid at 20 C, 1 atm) 0.917 g/cm (solid at 0 C, 1 atm) 0 C (273.15 K) (32 F) 99.974 C (373.124 K) (211.95 F) 4.184 J/(gK) (liquid at 20 C) 74.539 J/ (molK) (liquid at 25 C)

Under standard atmospheric pressure (760 mm of mercury, or 760 torr); the freezing point of water is 0 C (32 F) and its boiling point is 100 C (212 F).

Like most other liquids, water can exist in a supercooled state; that is, it may remain a liquid although its temperature is below its freezing point. Water can easily be cooled to about -25 C (-13 F) without freezing, either under laboratory conditions or in the atmosphere itself. Supercooled water will freeze if it is disturbed, if the temperature is lowered further, or if an ice crystal or other particle is added to it.

Water attains its maximum density at a temperature of 4 C (39 F) and expands upon heating. This causes an unusual phenomenon: ice floats upon water, and so water organisms can live inside a partly frozen pond because the water on the bottom has a temperature of around 4 C (39 F).

Water sticks to itself. Water has a high surface tension caused by the strong cohesion between water molecules because it is polar. The apparent elasticity caused by surface tension drives the capillary waves.

Water is a very strong solvent, referred to as the universal solvent, dissolving many types of substances. Substances that will mix well and dissolve in water, e.g. salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases: especially oxygen,

carbon dioxide (carbonation), are known as "hydrophilic" (water-loving) substances, while those that do not mix well with water (e.g. fats and oils), are known as "hydrophobic" (water-fearing) substances. All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also dissolved in water. Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly upon solvation of a small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride.

Water is miscible with many liquids, for example ethanol, in all proportions, forming a single homogeneous liquid. On the other hand, water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layers according to increasing density from the top. As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible with air. Water forms an azeotrope with many other solvents. Water has the second highest specific heat capacity of any known chemical compound, after ammonia, as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ mol1), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. Water also has high adhesion properties because of its polar nature. Capillary action refers to the tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees.

capillary action of water compared to mercury

STRUCTURE

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O: one molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. Oxygen atom present is sp2 hybridized. Water molecule has a bent structure due to stronger lone pair-bond pair repulsion than bond pair-bond pair repulsion. In gaseous state water exists as individual molecules having weak vander wall interaction between them. In liquid state H-bonding comes into play. Water molecules are held together by strong H-bonding. Liquid water has maximum density at 4 degree celsiusbecause of maximum H-bonding.

Hydrogen Bonding in Water

Hydrogen bonds are chemical bonds that form between molecules containing a hydrogen atom bonded to a strongly electronegative atom (an atom that attracts electrons). Because the electronegative atom pulls the electron from the hydrogen atom, the atoms form a very polar molecule, meaning one end is negatively charged and the other end is positively charged. Hydrogen bonds form between these molecules because the negative ends of the molecules are attracted to the positive ends of other molecules, and vice versa. Hydrogen bonding makes water form a liquid at room temperature. Structure of ice The density of ice is dramatically smaller than that of water, due to the regular arrangement of water molecule via hydrogen bonds. In an idealized structure of ice, every hydrogen atom is involved in hydrogen bond. Every oxygen atom is surrounded by four hydrogen bonds.

This diagram from caltech.edu, shows the structure of hexagonal ice in (a) and cubic ice in (b). A rod here represents a hydrogen bond. Since the hydrogen bonds are not linear, the real structure is a little more complicated.

The tetrahedral coordination opens up the space between molecules. On each hydrogen bond, shown by a rod joining the oxygen atoms, lies one proton in an asymmetric position (not shown). Bond lengths, 275 pm, are indicated. Ordinary ice is hexagonal. and the hexagonal c axis is labelled 732 pm, and one of the hexagonal a axes is labelled 450 pm. If water vapor condenses on very cold substrate at 143-193 K (-130 to -80C) a cubic phase is formed. In (b) the cubic unit cell is outlined with dashed lines; dimensions are in pm determined at 110 K. The four hydrogen bonds around an oxygen atom form a tetrahedron in a fashion found in the two types of diamonds. Thus, ice, diamond, and close packing of spheres are somewhat topologically related. A phase diagram of water shows 9 different solid phases (ices). Ice Ih is the ordinary ice. In addition to ice Ic from vapor deposition, conditions for nine phases are shown. Aside from ice I, other phases are formed and observed under high pressure generated by machines built by scientists. So far, ten different forms of ice have been observed, and some ice forms exist at very high pressure. The pressure deep under the polar (Antarctic) ice cap is very high, but we are not able to make any direct observation or study. Symmetry of water molecules The water molecules are rather symmetric in that there are two mirror planes of symmetry, one containing all three atoms and one perpendicular to the plane passing through the bisector of the H-O-H angle. Furthermore, if the molecules are rotated 180 (360/2) the shape of the molecule is unperturbed. This indicates that the molecules have a 2-fold rotation axis. The three symmetry elements are 2-fold rotation, and two mirror planes. Both mirror planes contain the rotation axis, and this type of symmetry belongs to the point group C2v. O / \ A point group has a definite number of symmetry elements arranged in H certain fashion. Molecules can be classified according to their point groups. H

Molecules of the same point group have similar spectroscopic characters. Other molecules of C2v point group are CH2=O, CH2Cl2, the bent O3 etc.

Self-ionization of water The self-ionization of water (also autoionization of water, and autodissociation of water) is the chemical reaction in which two water molecules react to produce a hydronium ion (H3O+) and a hydroxide ion (OH): 2 H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + OH (aq)

It is an example of autoprotolysis, and relies on the amphoteric nature of water. Water, however pure, is not a simple collection of H2O molecules. Even in "pure" water, sensitive equipment can detect a very slight electrical conductivity of 0.055 Scm-1. According to the theories of Svante Arrhenius, this must be due to the presence of ions. The preceding reaction has a chemical equilibrium constant of Keq = ([H3O+] [OH]) / [H2O]2 = 3.23 1018. So the acidity constant which is Ka = Keq [H2O] = ([H3O+] [OH]) / [H2O] = 1.8 1016.[1] For reactions in water (or diluted aqueous solutions), the molarity (a unit of concentration) of water, [H2O], is practically constant and is omitted from the acidity constant expression by convention. The resulting equilibrium constant is called the ionization constant, dissociation constant, or self-ionization constant, or ion product of water and is symbolized by Kw. Kw = Ka [H2O] = Keq [H2O]2 = [H3O+] [OH] where [H3O+] = molarity of hydrogen or hydronium ion, and [OH] = molarity of hydroxide ion. At Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP), about 25 C (298 K), Kw = [H3O+][OH] = 1.01014. Pure water ionizes or dissociates into equal amounts of H3O+ and OH, so their molarities are equal: [H3O+] = [OH]. At SATP, the concentrations of hydroxide and hydronium are both very low at 1.0 107 mol/L and the ions are rarely produced: a randomly selected water molecule

will dissociate within approximately 10 hours.[2] Since the concentration of water molecules in water is largely unaffected by dissociation and [H2O] equals approximately 56 mol/l, it follows that for every 5.6108 water molecules, one pair will exist as ions. Any solution in which the H3O+ and OH concentrations equal each other is considered a neutral solution. Absolutely pure water is neutral, although even trace amounts of impurities could affect these ion concentrations and the water may no longer be neutral. Kw is sensitive to both pressure and temperature; it increases when either increases. It should be noted that deionized water (also called DI water) is water that has had most impurity ions common in tap water or natural water sources (such as Na+ and Cl) removed by means of distillation or some other water purification method. Removal of all ions from water is next to impossible, since water self-ionizes quickly to reach equilibrium.

Temperature dependence of the water ionization constant at 25 MPa

Pressure dependence of the water ionization constant at 25 C By definition, pKw = log10 Kw. At SATP, pKw = log10 (1.01014) = 14.0. The value of pKw varies with temperature. As temperature increases, pKw decreases; and as temperature decreases, pKw increases (for temperatures up to about 250 C). This means that ionization of water typically increases with temperature. There is also a (usually small) dependence on pressure (ionization increases with increasing pressure). The dependence of the water ionization on temperature and pressure has been well investigated and a standard formulation exists. Ph of pure water at SATP is 7 derived from the following equation : Ph =-log[H+] =7 It is regarded as ph of an neutral compound.

Reactivity of water with metals Alkali metals react with water readily. Contact of cesium metal with water causes immediate explosion, and the reactions become slower for potassium, sodium and lithium. Reaction with barium, strontium, calcium are less well known, but they do react readily. Warm water may be needed to react with calcium metal, however. 2X + 2H2O ->2XOH + H2

X=Li,Na,K,Rb,CS Reactivity of water with oxides Acidic oxides react with water to form their respective acids. EgCO2 + H2O -> H2CO3

Basic oxides react with water to form their respective bases. EgCaO + H2O ->Ca(OH)2

Water Gas Shift Reaction The water-gas shift reaction (WGS) is a chemical reaction in which carbon monoxide reacts with water to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen: CO + H2O CO2 + H2 The water-gas shift reaction is an important industrial reaction. It is often used in conjuction with steam reforming of methane or other hydrocarbons, which is important for the production of high purity hydrogen for use in ammonia synthesis.

ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER

Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water (H2O) into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen gas (H2) due to an electric current being passed through the water. This electrolytic process is used in some industrial applications when hydrogen is needed. An electrical power source is connected to two electrodes, or two plates, (typically made from some inert metal such as platinum or stainless steel) which are placed in the water. Hydrogen will appear at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode, where electrons are pumped into the water), and oxygen will appear at the anode (the positively charged electrode). The generated amount of hydrogen is twice the amount of oxygen, and both are proportional to the total electrical charge that was sent through the water. Electrolysis of pure water is very slow, and can only occur due to the self-ionization of water. Pure water has an electrical conductivity about one millionth that of

seawater. It is sped up dramatically by adding an electrolyte (such as a salt, an acid or a base). Historically, the first known electrolysis of water was done by William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle in about 1800.
EQUATIONS

In the water at the negatively charged cathode, a reduction reaction takes place, with electrons (e) from the cathode being given to hydrogen cations to form hydrogen gas (the half reaction balanced with acid): Cathode (reduction): 2H+(aq) + 2e H2(g) At the positively charged anode, an oxidation reaction occurs, generating oxygen gas and giving electrons to the cathode to complete the circuit: Anode (oxidation): 2H2O(l) O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e Cathode (reduction): 2H2O(l) + 2e H2(g) + 2OH(aq) Combining either half reaction pair yields the same overall decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen: Overall reaction: 2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) The number of hydrogen molecules produced is thus twice the number of oxygen molecules. Assuming equal temperature and pressure for both gases, the produced hydrogen gas has therefore twice the volume of the produced oxygen gas. The number of electrons pushed through the water is twice the number of generated hydrogen molecules and four times the number of generated oxygen molecules.

Water as a solvent Water is used as a solvent in a large number of reactions. Several types of reactions occur in water. When water is the solvent for a reaction, the reaction is said to occur in aqueous solution, which is denoted by the abbreviation (aq) following the name of a chemical species in a reaction. Three important types of reactions in water are precipitation, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction reactions. Dissolving (or suspending) is used to wash everyday items such as the human body, clothes, floors, cars, food, and pets. Also, human wastes are carried by water in the

sewage system. Its use as a cleaning solvent consumes most of water in industrialized countries. Water can facilitate the chemical processing of wastewater. An aqueous environment can be favourable to the breakdown of pollutants, due to the ability to gain an homogenous solution that is pumpable and flexible to treat. Aerobic treatment can be used by applying oxygen or air to a solution reduce the reactivity of substances within it. Organic reactions are usually quenched with water or a water solution of a suitable acid, base or buffer. Water is generally effective in removing inorganic salts. In inorganic reactions, water is a common solvent. In organic reactions, it is usually not used as a reaction solvent, because it does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Nevertheless, these properties are sometimes desirable. Also, acceleration of Diels-Alder reactions by water has been observed. Supercritical water has recently been a topic of research. Oxygensaturated supercritical water combusts organic pollutants efficiently.

Hard Water Hard water is the type of water that has high mineral content (in contrast with soft water). Hard water minerals primarily consist of calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+) metal cations, and sometimes other dissolved compounds such as bicarbonates and sulfates. Calcium usually enters the water as either calcium carbonate (CaCO3), in the form of limestone and chalk, or calcium sulfate (CaSO4), in the form of other mineral deposits. The predominant source of magnesium is dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Hard water is generally not harmful. The simplest way to determine the hardness of water is the lather/froth test: soap or toothpaste, when agitated, lathers easily in soft water but not in hard water.

Hardness Hardness in water is defined as the presence of multivalent cations. Hardness in water can cause water to form scales and a resistance to soap. It can also be defined as water that doesnt produce lather with soap solutions, but produces white precipitate (scum). Example : 2C17H35COONa + Ca2+ (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2Na+

Types of hard water In the 1960s, scientist Chris Gilby discovered that hard water can be categorized by the ions found in the water. A distinction is also made between 'temporary' and 'permanent' hard water. Temporary hardness Temporary hardness is caused by a combination of calcium ions and bicarbonate ions in the water. It can be removed by boiling the water or by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide). Boiling promotes the formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate and precipitates calcium carbonate out of solution, leaving water that is softer upon cooling. The following is the equilibrium reaction when calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is dissolved in water: CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq) Upon heating, less CO2 is able to dissolve into the water (see Solubility). Since there is not enough CO2 around, the reaction cannot proceed from left to right, and therefore the CaCO3 will not dissolve as rapidly. Instead, the reaction is forced to the left (i.e. products to reactants) to re-establish equilibrium, and solid CaCO3 is formed. Boiling the water will remove hardness as long as the solid CaCO3 that precipitates out is removed. After cooling, if enough time passes the water will pick up CO2 from the air and the reaction will again proceed from left to right, allowing the CaCO3 to "re-dissolve" into the water. Permanent hardness Permanent hardness is hardness (mineral content) that cannot be removed by boiling. It is usually caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium sulfates and/or chlorides in the water, which become more soluble as the temperature rises. Despite the name, permanent hardness can be removed using a water softener or ion exchange column, where the calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged with the sodium ions in the column. Hard water causes scaling, which is the left over mineral deposits that are formed after the hard water had evaporated. This is also known as limescale. The scale can clog pipes, ruin water heaters, coat the insides of tea and coffee pots, and decrease the life of toilet flushing units.

Similarly, insoluble salt residues that remain in hair after shampooing with hard water tend to leave hair rougher and harder to untangle.

WATER PURIFICATION Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemical and biological contaminants from raw water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking water) but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including to meet the requirements of medical, pharmacology, chemical and industrial applications. The purification process of water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi; and a range of dissolved and particulate material derived from the minerals that water may have made contacted after falling as rain. Flocculation Flocculation is a process which clarifies the water. Clarifying means removing any turbidity or colour so that the water is clear and colourless. Clarification is done by causing a precipitate to form in the water which can be removed using simple physical methods. Initially the precipitate forms as very small particles but as the water is gently stirred, these particles stick together to form bigger particles - this process is sometimes called flocculation. Many of the small particles that were originally present in the raw water absorb onto the surface of these small precipitate particles and so get incorporated into the larger particles that coagulation produces. In this way the coagulated precipitate takes most of the suspended matter out of the water and is then filtered off, generally by passing the mixture through a coarse sand filter or sometimes through a mixture of sand and granulated anthracite (high carbon and low volatiles coal). Coagulants / flocculating agents that may be used include: 1. Iron (III) hydroxide. 2. PolyDADMAC [edit] Sedimentation Water exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with slow flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin

so the transit between does not permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins can be in the shape of a rectangle, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer - furthest from the sediment - exits. As particles settle to the bottom of the basin a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of sludge must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge that is generated is significant, often 3%-5% of the total volume of water that is treated. Filtration After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc. The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal above the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odour. The space between sand particles is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog. Advantages: Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters can. Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specified pore sizes. They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused.

Removal of ions and other dissolved substances Ultrafiltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic pores that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The type of membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out. Ion exchange: Ion exchange systems use ion exchange resin- or zeolite-packed columns to replace unwanted ions. The most common case is water softening consisting of removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign (soap friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange resins also used to remove toxic ions such as

nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others. Electrodeionization: Water is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion exchange membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionized water is produced with a little worse degree of purification in comparison with ion exchange treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. The water is often pretreated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic contaminants.

Disinfection Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful microbes and also by adding disinfectant chemicals in the last step in purifying drinking water. Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Campylobacter and Shigella, and protozoans, including Giardia lamblia and other cryptosporidia. In most developed countries, public water supplies are required to maintain a residual disinfecting agent throughout the distribution system, in which water may remain for days before reaching the consumer. Following the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage - often called a contact tank or clear well to allow the disinfecting action to complete. 1. Chlorination- The most common disinfection method is some form of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramine or chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many harmful micro-organisms. Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This problem is avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively inexpensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can be generated on site by electrolyzing common salt solutions. 2. Ozone (O3) is an unstable molecule, a "free radical" of oxygen which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidising agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful protozoans that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical discharge. To use ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created on-site and added to the water by bubble contact. 3. UV radiation (light) is very effective at inactivating cysts, as long as the water has a low level of colour so the UV can pass through without being absorbed. The main disadvantage to the use of UV radiation is that, like

ozone treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water.

USES OF WATER

For drinking The human body is anywhere from 55% to 78% water depending on body size. To function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, though most advocates agree that 67 glasses of water (approximately 2 litres) daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather. For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), which can be fatal. As a heat transfer fluid Water and steam are used as heat transfer fluids in diverse heat exchange systems, due to its availability and high heat capacity, both as a coolant and for heating. Cool water may even be naturally available from a lake or the sea. Condensing steam is a particularly efficient heating fluid because of the large heat of vaporization. A disadvantage is that water and steam are somewhat corrosive. In almost all electric power plants, water is the coolant, which vaporizes and drives steam turbines to drive generators.

In the nuclear industry, water can also be used as a neutron moderator. In a pressurized water reactor, water is both a coolant and a moderator. This provides a passive safety measure, as removing the water from the reactor also slows the nuclear reaction down. Extinguishing fire Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire. However, water cannot be used to fight fires of electric equipment, because impure water is electrically conductive, or of oils and organic solvents, because they float on water and the explosive boiling of water tends to spread the burning liquid. Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards of a steam explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, when substances which react with water, such as certain metals or hot graphite, decompose the water, producing hydrogen gas. Industrial applications Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes, from where it flows down. Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent over-heating, or prevent saw blades from over-heating. Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge. Food processing Water plays many critical roles within the field of food science. It is important for a food scientist to understand the roles that water plays within food processing to ensure the success of their products.

Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water is affected by solutes. One mole of sucrose (sugar) raises the boiling point of water by 0.52 C, and one mole of salt raises the boiling point by 1.04 C while lowering the freezing point of water in a similar way.Solutes in water also affect water activity which affects many chemical reactions and the growth of microbes in food. Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing food in water or its gaseous state, steam.