Section 2

4 Ion and Laser Induced Plasmas High Energy Density in Matter

Overview
Heavy ion beams are a new tool to investigate dense plasma phenomena associated with high energy density matter. A number of methods are available to generate high energy density matter. These are intense laser beams, exploding wires, gas guns, and fast z-pinches. The advantage of heavy ion beams is that only here the amount of energy deposited in matter is known with high precision, as well as the temporal and spatial distribution of the energy in the initial state. GSI-Darmstadt is the first and only accelerator laboratory worldwide where a powerful and intense heavy ion beam a high-energy laser beam are available. This unique combination facilitates novel and pioneering beam-plasma interaction experiments to study the structure and the properties of matter under extreme conditions of high energy density [1]. Already at the currently existing power level for the heavy ion beam (10 GW/g) and the laser beam (51011 W/cm2) unexpected results have been found. Beam-plasma interaction experiments demonstrated a stopping power of fully ionized matter for heavy ions which is up to forty times higher than the stopping power of cold non-ionized matter. It could be shown that the charge state distribution of heavy ions traversing a plasma is significantly different from the distribution obtained from interaction processes with a cold gas [2]. In a laser irradiation experiment a directed beam of heavy ions emerging from the target was detected, where the total energy of the observed ions was approximately two orders of magnitude higher than it was predicted from standard scaling relations [3].

The new facility SIS 100 with a heavy ion synchrotron for high intensity heavy ion beams will extend the available beam deposition power by more than two orders of magnitude beyond the currently available power. Therefore it will be possible to perform laboratory experiments under controlled and reproducible conditions to study properties of matter under conditions similar to those in the interior of stars or large planets. Plasma phenomena do occur in quite different areas of physics. In the early phase of the universe matter consisted of quarks and gluons forming a state that is called quark-gluon plasma and the investigation of the quark-gluon plasma properties is one of the research topics GSI scientists are engaged in. The properties of compressed nuclear matter is yet another field of intense research in nuclear physics. The experiments are searching for phase transitions and aim to measure the properties of nuclear matter produced in the extreme conditions of heavy ion collisions. Though the experimental techniques are different from those applied in plasma physics, the basic underlying physical phenomena show similarities to the effects that are investigated to probe atomic and molecular matter under the conditions of high energy density. 347

Section 2 Interaction processes of ion beams with bulk matter have a wide range of application to modify matter properties of the irradiated samples. If a multi-kilojoule beam is deposited in matter during a time span, which is short compared to the hydrodynamic response time of the material, a state of high energy density is induced. This results in dramatic changes of characteristic target properties. Phase transitions are induced and shock waves may be generated which lead to a high compression state of the target material, and to the metallization of condensed hydrogen [4,5] and other molecular crystals. Thus, yet widely unexplored regions of the metallic-phase diagrams and critical points of the gas-fluid and plasma phase transitions in strongly compressed matter become readily accessible under reproducible conditions in the laboratory (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Exploring matter under extreme conditions of high energy density. Instantaneous energy deposition in a sample leads to a heated volume at solid state density o and extreme pressure. Subsequent expansion of the material along the expansion isentropes allows to study the phase diagram of matter under high pressure and less than solid state density. In this regime the critical points of metals and plasma phase transitions are predicted. The regime above the solid state density can only be accessed in compression experiments using single and multiple shocks. A single planar shock wave can drive matter only up to fourfold density. Therefore only multiple shock waves and the near isentropic compression allow to reach the ultrahigh density regime

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4.1 Science Case

4.1.1 Introduction Basic research of plasma physics with intense heavy ion and laser beams is motivated by the fact that heavy ion beams are excellent tools to generate dense plasma. The energy deposition of ion beams into a non-ionized target is a reasonably wellunderstood process and direct heating of a well-defined extended volume is achieved by a rather homogeneous energy deposition. High precision experiments to study the properties of bulk matter require a detailed knowledge about the exact amount of energy deposited into the sample as well as the spatial and time distribution of the energy inside the target volume. This demand is intrinsically fulfilled by the very nature of the interaction processes of heavy ions with matter themselves. They provide a detailed picture of the energy deposition inside the target volume as shown in Figure 4.2, where a heavy ion beam is injected into a solid crystal made from argon gas at cryogenic temperature The energy deposition profile is revealed through interaction processes emitting light in the visible regime. The highest energy deposition occurs at the end of the range. This regime is commonly called the Bragg peak and its position is precisely determined by the total ion energy. A higher beam energy would cause the Bragg peak to shift out of the target. In this case the target is heated in a very homogeneous manner. If the ion beam is intense enough, the beam heated target volume is transformed into a dense plasma. Thus intense ion beams open new opportunities to investigate the interaction phenomena of heavy ion beams with dense plasma and they allow to study the hydrodynamic and radiative properties of beam heated matter with high precision experiments, and improved or complementary techniques. In order to achieve this ambitious goal it is also necessary to include the development of new diagnostic techniques and the design of appropriate heavy ion targets.

Figure 4.2: Neon beam of 300 MeV/u penetrating an Ar crystal. The beam deposition time is 1 s. The false colors represent the spatial energy deposition. This framing picture demonstrates that heavy ion beams offer the opportunity to measure the total amount of energy deposited into the material sample as well as the spatial and temporal distribution of the energy. While the target material during the first part of the range is heated in a rather homogeneous manner an increased energy deposition occurs at the Bragg peak end of the range.

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Section 2 The investigation of interaction processes of high-energy heavy ion beams with matter is a research topic with a long tradition at accelerator laboratories. At least for simple collision systems a basic understanding of the dominant atomic and nuclear interaction mechanisms has been achieved. However, energy loss and charge exchange reactions with dense, ionized matter have added new and interesting aspects to this field [6-11]. Since most visible matter, that constitutes our universe is in a state of high energy density, dense, strongly coupled plasmas are an interesting research object. The properties of matter under conditions of high density and pressure are often summarized by an equation that relates the pressure, or energy density to the matter density of the sample. Such an equation is called the equation of state (EOS) of the material. The determination of the proper equation of state, the conversion of kinetic energy of the ion beam into radiation, and the hydrodynamic behavior of dense plasmas are key issues to a basic understanding of dense plasma phenomena.

Figure 4.3: Parameter range of plasmas produced by direct impact of intense heavy ion and laser beams on solid targets compared to different stellar plasmas and the ignition parameters for magnetic confinement (MCF) and inertial confinement (ICF) plasmas.

A plasma map covering many orders of magnitude in temperature and density is shown in Figure 4.3. The dominating physical properties of plasma vary considerably between the extremes of low density very high temperature plasma in the top left corner of the figure, where the magnetic confinement fusion plasma is situated, down to the low temperature high density regime of dense plasma. A dividing line is marked where the plasma parameter is equal to unity. This parameter is a measure 350

Section 2 of the relative strength of Coulomb interaction phenomena compared to the thermal effects and is given by the ratio of the potential energy (e2/40d) to the thermal energy (kT) of the plasma constituents. In the high temperature low-density regime the plasma parameter is smaller than unity and the plasmas occurring in this parameter regime are called ideal plasmas. Below the dividing line interaction processes determine the properties of plasma and therefore the term strongly coupled plasma is used. Quantum effects are expected, where the inter particle distance d is comparable to the de Broglie wavelength b of the particles. The line of b=d is also marked in Figure 4.3. Plasma targets used for experiments at GSI are shown in comparison with typical plasmas of astrophysical interest, as well as fusion plasmas. Interaction processes between intense ion beams and plasmas are an ideal tool to probe high energy density plasmas and to investigate their properties. The kinetic energy of the heavy ions can exactly be tailored to the experimental conditions. Ions penetrate deep into the volume of the plasma target. Energy loss and the final charge state distribution of the ions are the typical signals which characterize the beam plasma interaction processes, and which allow to draw conclusions about the plasma target properties [13,14]. The general interest in these measurements is the high precision determination of the deposition power, an analysis of recombination and charge exchange processes, and the hydrodynamic response of matter irradiated with high intensity heavy ion beams. Concerning the aspect of basic research, physics of dense plasmas is a well-established field of research, a domain of pulsed power generators like shock tubes, light gas guns, exploding wires as well as powerful laser and light ion beam facilities. During the last decades they have produced a wealth of results, motivated predominantly by the application to inertial confinement. With heavy ion beams, research in this field has been carried out in recent years [6-12] using the available low intensity beams at the GSI accelerator facilities, where the heavy-ion beam energy ranged from a few keV/u up to several hundred MeV/u. Gas-discharge, z-pinch, and later also laser plasmas from the nhelix laser system (nanosecond high energy laser for ion experiments) were used initially for beam-plasma interaction experiments as indicated in Figure 4.3. The intense beam from a high current radio-frequencyquadrupole RFQ-accelerator was used to study first beam induced plasma from an ion beam heated gas target. With higher beam intensities available now, solid-state targets are the subjects of investigation. After completion and the achievement of the full performance of the new high current injector, target temperatures of up to several eV will be obtained. With the new synchrotron facility the intensity for beams of very heavy ions will be increased by another factor of 100 which allow the investigation of fast hydrodynamic phenomena of dense plasmas, the physics of hot compressed matter, its equation of state, predicted phase transitions and material properties in a new regime of pressure and temperature. Sophisticated target designs like a magnetically insulated cylindrical target will eventually open the temperature regime around 100 eV for ion beam driven plasmas, where radiation physics is starting to be the new dominant feature. This regime is obviously relevant to the stellar interior and stellar atmospheres, and other basic phenomena of astrophysics. 351

Section 2 Basic research into the properties of dense plasmas has also been motivated by the aspect to explore the physics basis for an alternative route to fusion energy. Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) driven by heavy ion beams exhibits a promising perspective. Compared to laser and light ion drivers which are single-shot facilities, the heavy ion accelerator is an excellent high repetition rate machine with high efficiency and is therefore a natural candidate for a reactor driver. On the other hand, the European Fusion Program is almost exclusively devoted to magnetic confinement fusion (MCF). This decision was made more than forty years ago, when the European Fusion Program was launched. At that time the restriction to MCF had some logic because the route to fusion energy seemed to be paved already, taking into account the enormous progress and success introduced by Tokamak machines. Meanwhile the situation has changed dramatically. Laser fusion experiments have experimentally demonstrated similar temperature and confinement parameters. Moreover, in 1993 the U.S. Department of Energy has declassified nearly all target issues relevant to fusion energy. Different from Japan, the U.S., and the Russian Federation, however, where traditionally strong civilian inertial fusion energy activities exist, European science policy is still ignoring this promising opportunity. A figure of merit for the progress of fusion experiments is often given in terms of the confinement parameter nT, which is the product of density n, the confinement time , and the plasma temperature T. Comparing the two confinement options in terms of the achieved confinement parameter with existing facilities, inertial confinement is as advanced as magnetic confinement: With the next generation of facilities, ITER for MCF and two new high-power Nd-glass laser facilities NIF and Megajoule for ICF, now under construction in Livermore and in Bordeaux, ignition is expected to be achieved for both fusion concepts. As a consequence, the investigation of the key issues for ICF drivers and target physics is mandatory and ICF with heavy ion beams has an excellent basis with the existing expertise of a large and experienced European accelerator community. Therefore, a new facility at GSI can contribute within a basic science research concept to a great number of problems related to inertial fusion energy and will allow - as the most advanced accelerator facility with high-power heavy ion beams - to carry out an excellent research and development program for the specific needs of a driver accelerator as well as for the physics of dense plasmas which is attractive for a worldwide community. Intense ion beams are necessary to provide a new and powerful high precision tool to create and investigate extreme states of matter in the laboratory under reproducible conditions. A fast growing community of university groups and of international research teams is getting interested in the physics of dense, strongly correlated plasmas and should therefore be provided with resources to investigate this research topic. Based on these considerations the following major topics will be studied with a new accelerator facility at GSI:

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Section 2 interaction processes of ions with plasma in a large regime of density and temperature elementary processes in dense plasma.

These include such items as high-pressure metal physics, phase transitions, shock compressed non-ideal plasmas, hydrodynamics of beam driven plasmas, radiation transport and opacity measurements in dense plasmas, as well as measurements of phase diagrams and the equation of state. The new facility will provide the capability to address relevant problems of high power ion accelerators for a variety of applications in the field of accelerator physics, physics of intense beams, their transport and focusing, target physics.

With these features a highly innovative research potential will become available which already at the present level is attracting young scientists from university groups and research laboratories worldwide.

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Section 2 4.1.2 Matter under Extreme Conditions Since most of the matter in the universe is in the plasma state and is not accessible to direct observation, high-energy density plasmas are research objects of fundamental interest. The dense plasma in the interior of the sun is at the origin of energy generation for the energy needs of our planet. Stellar atmospheres, stellar dynamics, and the conditions in the interior of large planets and brown dwarfs are other objects of astrophysical research (see Figure 4.3) with relevance to dense plasma phenomena. The most prominent processes in these dense plasmas involve opacities, radiative transfer, electronic transport and nuclear reactions. Plasmas in the laboratory can simulate some of these conditions. Such plasmas are created by high current discharges, explosively driven shock waves, and by irradiation of samples with intense laser beams. High current ion beams are now a new tool in this field of research. The characteristic features that distinguish intense ion beams from other tools and methods to create and analyze extreme matter properties, are due to properties inherent to the ions and to the accelerators producing them, such as: the energy deposition properties of ions, constituting a source of heating dense matter in a volume, the interaction of ions with the heated material, which provides new diagnostic methods, like energy loss, charge state distribution, emission of characteristic x-rays from the target and the projectile, nuclear reactions along the interaction region, and the emission of secondary particles and -rays, the repetition rate capability of accelerators.

Therefore, ion beams can produce interesting plasma states where, due to the ion range in matter, macroscopic volumes of dense matter with comparatively small gradients of temperature and density prevail, and conditions near equilibrium can be prepared for experimental investigation. These issues are therefore of interest to a large scientific community and establish interdisciplinary links between various branches of physics, like atomic and molecular physics, plasma physics and nuclear physics, condensed matter physics, statistical and many particle physics. 4.1.2.1 Interaction Processes of Ions with Plasma

Beam plasma interaction physics is a research field that derives its motivation already from the interest in the multitude of basic phenomena in atomic, plasma, and nuclear physics that govern energy loss processes of charged particles in matter. Since many years, interaction processes of ions with matter have constituted a classical research topic of nuclear physics, leading to a wealth of applications, particularly in medical and material sciences. Interaction experiments were, however, restricted to targets of cold matter. Only since a few years, interaction phenomena with ionized gases and hot plasmas have been studied. The charge state evolution and the energy loss of heavy ions passing through plasma show pronounced differences when compared to the passage through cold gases and solid-state matter. 354

Section 2 First experiments to study beam plasma interaction phenomena made use of externally created plasmas, which had to be integrated into the accelerator beamline. While the route will be continued to use external plasmas as in the early experiments, the proposed accelerator schemes allow to place the emphasis on dense, strongly coupled plasmas in the temperature range of up to several 10 eV, which are created directly by the heavy ion beam. The properties of matter in this temperature and density regime are characterized by the fact that the potential energy of the particles due to their mutual Coulomb interaction (e2/4od) is equal to, or even exceeds the thermal energy (kT). In order to access this area of strongly-coupled, or non-ideal plasmas, and to study the effects associated with intense beams, like collective phenomena, instabilities, and hydrodynamic target response, it is necessary to perform irradiation experiments at the highest available intensity level. Highly charged ion species prevail in high temperature plasmas. Such conditions with plasma temperatures of up to 300 eV and higher, depending on the actual plasma size, can be explored in beam plasma interaction experiments with laser driven plasma targets. With a combination of laser- and ion-beam plasmas the interesting transition regime from non-ideal to ideal plasmas will be accessible. For this purpose a kilojoule-class high-power laser is necessary. Other experimental conditions call for a laser system of the same specifications for short-time diagnostics and x-ray backlighting to study the hydrodynamics and the opacities of beam driven plasmas. These demands will be met in the near future by the Petawatt High-Energy Laser for Ion EXperiments (PHELIX), which is currently under construction at the accelerator facilities of GSI. 4.1.2.2 Hydrodynamic Response of Beam Driven Plasmas

Energy deposition processes of ion beams in matter determine locally the properties of the heated material with respect to temperature, density and pressure [15]. The hydrodynamic response of the target is time-dependent and is also a limiting factor for the temperature, which can be achieved in the heating process. Investigations of the hydrodynamic target response involve time and space dependent measurements of density , temperature T, and the pressure p. The measured results are then compared to simulations and thus test the assumptions about the equation of state and transport properties. Presently, no models of material behavior for pressures between 10 and 100 Mbar have been experimentally validated. At low pressures, below a few Mbar, impact and static experiments provide much data showing the validity of statistical mechanical models. At higher pressures few experiments have been performed in Russia and in the U.S. with lasers, but with insufficient accuracy due to high gradients and inhomogeneities of small-scale laser plasmas. For real advances in this field a significant progress concerning the uniformity of the irradiating driver beam and an improvement of the involved time and length scales are indispensable. These demands can, however, be met by heavy ion beam heated dense matter. This effort will substantially increase our understanding of dense fluids, especially the predicted effects of pressure ionization and phase boundaries. In the past, experiments had 355

Section 2 concentrated just on the simplest and most fundamental measurements. There hardly exist any experimental data on transport properties such as thermal and electrical conductivity at these conditions. The main effects will be based on turbulent hydrodynamics, caused by instabilities, radiative transfer and electronic heat conduction. If the latter mechanism is dominant, magnetically insulated targets could achieve even very high temperatures. With the unique combination of the intense heavy ion beam and a powerful subpicosecond laser, experiments in the totally unexplored field of matter under conditions similar to those deep inside stellar objects with keV temperatures or more than 100 times solid density seem to be feasible. Presently, with the SIS-18 beam focused by the plasma lens to diameters smaller than 600 m, specific power depositions up to several GW/g are obtained, and induced pressures of up to 10 kbar are accessible. With the high intensity fine focused SIS 100 beam, shockwaves in the Mbar regime will be reached in solid targets at low temperatures of about 1 eV. At these parameters hydrogen, iodine, xenon and other cryogenic gas crystals are expected to perform a phase transition towards a metallic state. Unexplored regions of the equation of state (EOS) at extremely high densities in matter will be revealed, which will give new insight into processes involved in the evolution of stars, and the composition of stars and large planets like Jupiter and others. The SIS 100 beam, if moderately focused will enable the generation and precise characterization of planar shocks in the range of several ten kbar. The results from experiments using this beam property will be used for direct measurements of the Hugoniot curve and will lead to considerable improvements of the EOS models and simulations. 4.1.2.3 Phase Transitions

A prominent feature of Equation-of-State physics is the occurrence of phase transitions in cold compressed material, e.g. the insulator to metal transition of diamond at 10 Mbar, the insulator to metal transition of solid hydrogen at about 5 Mbar, or the plasma phase transitions at temperatures of about 1 eV. As most of the previous experiments were based on shock wave techniques on the principal Hugoniot, these phase transitions were not accessible because they require nearly isentropic compression. Heavy ion heated systems with their intrinsic large time and length scales offer a promising alternative to explore these phase transitions in precision experiments. With heavy ion beams the very interesting area of non-ideal, strongly coupled plasmas is accessible to experimental investigation. To illustrate this capability we show numerical simulations in this regime on the cylindrical compression of hydrogen, which were carried out with respect to hydrogen metallization envisaged by imploding multi-layered cylindrical targets for the SIS100. Wigner and Huntigton first suggested metallization of hydrogen in 1935 [16]. They predicted that normal molecular hydrogen, which is an insulator, would transform into a mono-atomic metallic system when subjected to pressures of the order of 0.25 Mbar. This problem has attracted much attention of a significant number of physicists over the past decades because of the later predictions that metallized hydrogen may 356

Section 2 possess some very special and exotic properties. For example, Ashcroft predicted that it could be a room temperature super-conductor [17]. If this were the case, then it will have an immediate and revolutionary impact on our daily life. At present, the best high-temperature superconductors work at about 150 K ( -123 degrees Celsius) and must be cooled by liquid nitrogen which makes them impractical for daily use. Because of its high density, metallic hydrogen could store a huge amount of energy that will be released when the solid is transformed to gas. It could thus be used as a clean and highly efficient propellant for space travel. This however requires that the sample can be quenched from a state of high pressure to an ambient state, which means that the atoms of the sample will not fly apart once the imposed high pressure is released. It has been predicted by Brovman et al. [18] that once produced at high pressures, the metallized hydrogen may remain in a metastable phase even after the pressure is released. In addition to the above potential industrial applications, the success in creation of metallized hydrogen would provide new insight into the structure of the giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn. Several techniques have been used to compress samples of hydrogen by applying static as well as transient pressures. The most popular method of generating static pressure is that of a diamond anvil cell (DAC) [19]. Transient pressures have been created using gas guns and high intensity lasers [20]. Pressures in excess of 2 Mbar have been generated but the final goal of hydrogen metallization has not yet been achieved, although significant progress has been made towards the understanding of the equation-of-state of highly compressed hydrogen. This shows that the critical value of 0.25 Mbar pressure predicted by Wigner and Huntigton is incorrect. Modern estimates suggest that one would require pressures in the range of 3-5 Mbar, a density of the order of 1 g/cm3 and a temperature not exceeding a few eV in order to bring about such a transition. We believe that an intense beam of energetic heavy ions could be a very effective and a much superior tool to create metallized hydrogen by imploding an appropriately shaped multi-layered cylindrical target. This is because the slow compression driven by an ion beam will lead to a low entropy implosion that is necessary to achieve the above physical conditions. In addition to that, the heavy ion imploded samples have dimensions of the order of a few mm, which is very large compared to those created by other methods like lasers and the diamond anvil cell. The lifetime of ion-beam driven targets is of the order of a few hundred ns, which is long enough for experimental investigations but still short enough to avoid any significant diffusion of hydrogen from the sample. Moreover, the physical conditions of the material are quite uniform throughout the sample. This fact eases the experimental investigations and the results will become more reliable. In order to design such experiments at the SIS-100 facility, we have carried out extensive numerical simulations [5,21,22]. These simulations were performed with the two-dimensional computer code BIG-2 [23].

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Section 2 Beam Parameters and Simulation Results The target design proposed for this experiment is shown in Figure 4.4 and it consists of a cylinder of frozen hydrogen. A thick cylindrical shell made of solid lead encloses the hydrogen region. The right face of this target is irradiated by the ion beam with an annular (ring shaped) focal spot. It is arranged in such a way that the hydrogen region is not directly irradiated by the projectile particles. The length L of the cylinder is chosen to be less than the range (penetration depth) of the projectile ions so that they loose only a part of their energy in the lead shell and emerge from the opposite face of the cylinder with a much reduced energy. Since the Bragg peak does not lie inside the target, the energy deposition is approximately uniform along the particle trajectory. Moreover, the outer radius Ro of the ring shaped focal spot is considered to be smaller than the outer target radius Rt.

Figure 4.4: Beam-target configuration: The cylinder length L is assumed to be 5.0 mm, the radius Rh of the hydrogen layer is 0.4 mm while the outer target radius Rt is considered to be 2.5 mm. The beam has a ring shaped focal spot with an inner radius, Ri = 0.6 mm and an outer radius, Ro = 1.6 mm. The beam deposition profile along the radial direction is parabolic and the pulse duration is assumed to be 50 ns. The temporal profile of the beam power is also considered to be parabolic. It is to be noted that the range of the 1 GeV/u uranium ions in solid cold lead is about 1.5 cm while the target length is 5.0 mm which means that the target is a "sub range" target [24] and the energy deposition is uniform along the particle trajectory.

As a result of the energy deposition inside the target, a high temperature and high pressure zone is created in the lead shell surrounding the hydrogen region. A shell of solid cold lead follows the high-pressure region. The high pressure that is created in the middle of the target launches shock waves along the radial direction, inward as well as outward. The inward moving shock wave travels towards the axis where it is reflected and a return shock is created that moves outwards. The return shock is again reflected from the hydrogen-lead boundary, which is moving inwards, thereby compressing the hydrogen slowly. As a result of multiple shock reflection between the target axis and the hydrogen-lead boundary, and due to a slow target implosion, one achieves a very low entropy compression of the hydrogen layer that leads to the theoretically predicted physical conditions for hydrogen metallization, namely, a 358

Section 2 density of 1 g/cm3, a pressure of 5 Mbar and a temperature of less than 1 eV. The target is irradiated with an intense uranium beam which has a particle energy of 1 GeV/u and the total number of particles in the beam pulse is 5 1011. The situation described in Figure 4.4 has been investigated using a sophisticated two-dimensional hydrodynamic computer code BIG-2 [23].

Figure 4.5: Target density on a radius-length plane at t = 150 ns. The axis of the cylindrical target is at R=0. The beam heated material starts to compress the inner hydrogen layer

Figure 4.5 shows as result of the simulation the target density on a radius-length plane at t = 150 ns. It is seen that a shock wave is moving outward along the target radius into the lead region. The lead-hydrogen boundary has moved inwards as the radius of the hydrogen-lead boundary has been reduced to 0.35 mm compared to the initial value of 0.4 mm. This results in a compression of the hydrogen layer. Ahead of the hydrogen-lead boundary, a shock is propagating along the radial direction and is reflected at the cylinder axis. A return shock is thus generated that propagates outwards, along the cylinder radius. The return shock is again reflected at the hydrogen-lead boundary and multiple shock reflection takes place while the hydrogenlead boundary continues to move inwards, slowly compressing the hydrogen layer. This compression scheme leads to the theoretically predicted metallization conditions in the hydrogen sample, as shown in Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7.

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Figure 4.6: Density, temperature and pressure profile along the target axis at t=220 ns as simulated by the BIG-2 code [23] for the target and beam parameters as given in Figure 4.4 and an intensity of 51011 ions.

Figure 4.7: Same as Figure 4.6 but as function of the target radius in the middle (L = 2.5 mm) of the target.

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Section 2 In Figure 4.6 we plot density, temperature and pressure along the target axis (at r = 0.0 mm) and at t = 220 ns. It is seen that the material density is of the order of 1 g/cm3, the pressure is about 5 Mbar and the temperature is of the order of 0.2 eV. Figure 4.7 shows the same variables of density, temperature and pressure as in Figure 4.6, but along the radius, at L = 2.5 mm (middle of the cylinder) and at t = 220 ns. It is seen that the density is of the order of 1.3 g/cm3; the pressure is above 5 Mbar while the average temperature is of the order of 0.2 eV, which is quite low. These physical conditions that are the theoretically predicted conditions for hydrogen metallization exist inside the sample for about 50 ns, which is long enough to carry out experimental investigations. On the other hand, this time is short enough to avoid any significant loss of hydrogen from the sample due to diffusion. It is also seen that the compressed sample is about 4 mm long and has a 100-micron radius. These dimensions are very large compared to other techniques including lasers, diamond anvil cell and gas guns. Another important advantage of using ion beam induced compression is that the physical conditions in the compressed sample are very uniform which is very difficult to achieve with laser beams.

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Section 2 4.1.3 Equation of State Physics The regime of density and temperature, which is accessible through intense heavy ion beam irradiation of matter, is shown in Figure 4.3. As long as the temperature stays below approximately 10 eV and the density is within one order of magnitude of solidstate density, the properties of matter are dominated by strong correlation effects due to the fact that the thermal energy is small compared to the potential energy of charged particles at small inter-particle distances. The internal energy Ei(T,) as well as the pressure p(T, ) the so-called equation of state (EOS), which generally are functions of temperature T and density , are known in this regime from theoretical models mainly. Only few reliable measurements exist. Even for hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, recent experiments have shown large deviations from widely used theoretical predictions [25]. Benchmark experiments for the equation of state therefore are an absolute necessity to gain a deeper inside into the properties and the behavior of high energy density matter. EOS data are of great importance to understand e.g. the core of giant gas planets, to describe the inner core of the earth, as well as to estimate the hydro-behaviour of matter used in inertial fusion energy scenarios. Promising results with very high pressures were achieved, when spatially uniform and steadily moving shock waves without preheat of the material ahead of the shock became possible by powerful laser pulses [25-28]. In these experiments a strong single shock was produced which drives the matter to a point on the Hugoniot curve. Solid targets were heated up to several eV by shocks in the 10Mbar regime. EOS-related studies have also been carried out with the pulsed proton beam of the Karlsruhe Light Ion Facility KALIF [30] during recent years. 4.1.3.1 Equation of state studies with heavy ion beams The new SIS-100 is expected to deliver beam energies on the order of 100 kJ, resulting in power densities of several TW/g when focused to a moderate beam-spot of 2 mm diameter. A rather homogeneously illuminated beam spot is essentially to produce planar shockwaves in forward direction, with shock velocities exceeding 10 km/s. The progress in this field is intimately connected to the continuous development, the reliability and the achieved high standard of accelerator physics and technology [29]. Intense heavy ion beams can be applied to any material of interest, either a metal or a dielectric, unlike, for example, electrical wire explosion method, and only ion beams are in general capable of depositing high energy density within a relatively large target volume. To keep the entropy low during compression and allow at the same time high compression ratios of several times the initial solid density a multiple-shock technique is desirable [4,5,31]. As result of the multiple shock waves, the compression process consists of a series of reverberating shock waves running back and forth inside the investigated piece of matter.

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Figure 4.8: Flyer scheme and hydrogen density ratio vs. mass cell number and time.

This is illustrated by Figure 4.8, were a target layer will be impacted by a planar piston flying with a velocity of several km/s in the range of the target sound velocity. The perspective density plot for a frozen hydrogen layer shows multiple density jumps caused by the reverberating shocks. Since low entropy compression of a 100m thick layer takes tens of nanoseconds, heavy ion beams from the proposed new accelerator SIS-100 with a pulse duration of 50 100 ns seem to be well-matched drivers. Additionally, the use of these particle beams does not involve complications due to target preheat by fast electrons or hard x-rays generated in laser-driven shock experiments.

Figure 4.9: a) Flow diagram, b) Trajectory of a mass cell (circles) and the hydrogen isentrope for initially 10 K.

Figure 4.9 shows a one-dimensional hydrosimulation in planar geometry with a specific ion beam deposition power of 0.5 TW/g [32]. The flow diagram exhibits 363

Section 2 reverberations of the shock inside the hydrogen layer as well as the rarefaction wave followed by a second shock in the cold part of the gold pusher. The compression is almost isentropic, as it can be concluded from the coincidence of the mass cell trajectories with the subsequent isentrope in the pressure-density space. SESAME equation-of-state tables were used in this numerical experiment. A schematic view on a relevant planar slow compression experiment with the future GSI heavy ion beam is plotted in Figure 4.10. The investigated target and part of the high-Z ion beam absorber (here frozen hydrogen and gold respectively) are screened by a beam stopper. The other heavy ions deposit part of their energy in the absorber plates. An amount of 3% of an overall beam energy not higher than 1.5 kJ would be already sufficient to get a specific deposition power of 1 TW/g in both flyer plates of this scheme.

Figure 4.10: Proposed planar compression experiment.

Two counterpropagating shock waves will compress the sample. This process may be observed here in a direction perpendicular to the shock motion. The cold flyer plates should also be good protectors of the compressed target layer against instabilities from the energy deposition region. Two-dimensional hydrosimulations of the scheme have shown, that rarefaction waves running inwards from the sample boundaries perpendicular to the shock motion will remarkably influence the homogeneity of the compression process only after several tens of nanoseconds. This hydrodynamic effect can be avoided or at least minimized only by use of sufficiently short heavy ion pulses. A careful design of this experiment would allow measuring characteristic parameters of the compression process in a near-planar geometry. Only under these conditions the determination of a shock velocity seems to be possible. Since a large part of the ion beam must be screened out to meet the homogeneity demands of the proposed scheme, a powerful heavy ion pulse will be needed. The new accelerator facility at GSI is well suited to perform such new type of high-precision measurements of EOS data at high compression ratios not attainable by other techniques. The hydro processes in cylindrical targets irradiated by the ion beams with the parameters expected for SIS-100 accelerator facility were considered in detail recently 364

Section 2 [33,34], and it was demonstrated that with the envisioned conditions again high compression rates of matter inside such targets can be achieved. This scheme is well adapted to the geometry of the heavy ion beam, the shock front in this geometry is however non-planar. As far as the transverse intensity profile of the heavy ion beam is sufficiently smooth a further experimental scenario is possible, where a nearly planar shock front is induced in heavy ion beam excited matter around the Bragg-peak region (Figure 4.11). This shock front situation will be used to determine the equation of state (EOS) parameters of the material under consideration. Beam target interaction simulations show that e.g. in gold plasmas induced from an intense uranium ion beam, temperatures of up to 50 eV are to be expected at the Bragg peak region. This will release a shockwave in forward direction, traveling with a speed of approximately 10 km/s. At the same time it will induce a temperature wave with rather constant amplitude of up to 10 eV. The density in the shock front will rise to more than twice the solid-state density. In this process hot, dense plasma is created. The emitted radiation spectrum is almost entirely characterized by the properties of blackbody radiation. The peak wavelength emitted by a blackbody radiator at a temperature corresponding to 10 eV is centered around 20 nm, a wavelength region that is opaque in almost all materials [35]. Direct access to the light emitting volume of the pure material thus is not possible in most cases, and comparative measurements are hindered by different opacities of the materials involved. On the other hand, for most other beam target combinations, shock velocities, as well as temperatures will be almost one order of magnitude less, strongly reducing the amount of emitted light, and the access to the light-emitting region will be easier.

Figure 4.11: Schematic target configuration for shock velocity measurements. The ion beam B is stopped in a heavy pusher material P, releasing a shock wave towards the target material T. The step in the target will have a height (depending of the calculated shock velocity) on the order of 100 m, resulting in a time difference of shock arrival on the order of 10ns, easily to be measured by optical means.

To deduce equation of state data, usually shock velocity, matter velocity, and temperature are the measured observables [36,37]. Shock velocity is generally obtained from a planar shockwave, which is moving towards a step, perpendicular to the shock direction, as indicated in Figure 4.11. The time difference of the arrival of the shock front at the outer surface of the two steps can easily be converted to the 365

Section 2 shock velocity. However, the hydro dynamical properties of the target have to be calculated beforehand, in order to design the step height and step extension properly according to the shock velocity and shock shape conditions. In general, a typical step height will be on the order of 100m, resulting in a time difference of shock arrival on the order of 10 ns with a shock velocity of 10 km/s. Using a streak camera with 10 ps resolution, shock velocities thus can be derived with an accuracy of a few percent. Care has to be taken to investigate only the planar region of the released shock, but with proper optics a spot size of about 200m dimension will be sufficient. When the shock reaches the surface, the compressed and heated matter will evaporate into the surrounding vacuum of the target chamber. Matter velocities are significantly lower than shock wave velocities, reaching from 0.5 to 5 km/s. Several techniques can be used to measure these velocities, with time resolved shadowgraphy or schlieren measurements being the most widely used ones. Careful analysis of the beam shape is inevitable in any case, since an Abel-inversion of the optical density in the shadow has to be performed. Also, time resolved Doppler broadening and Doppler shift of an impinging and reflected laser beam can be used to study velocity distribution of evaporated particles. Since time scales are on the order of several hundred ns up to microseconds, particle velocities can be measured with the same or even better accuracy than shock velocities.

Figure 4.12: Schematic target configuration for temperature measurements of target T and pusher material P. The ion beam B releases a shock wave inside the pusher, which compresses and heats up the target. The thermal radiation can be observed through a cladding C, which prevents the target material from immediate evaporation. Thermal radiation of the pusher and target material will be focused by mirrors M to the analyzing spectrometers S.

The third entity to be measured is target temperature. Since a direct temperature measurement by blackbody radiation analysis inside the beam-target interaction volume is not possible in the range from 1 to 30 eV, an indirect method of measuring the temperature on the target surface, induced by shock wave heating, can be applied. Hydro-calculation, including beam-stopping behaviour in a heated and expanding target has then to be compared with the results, measured. At a plasma temperature range, not exceeding 20 eV, blackbody radiation can be expected. For each projectile366

Section 2 target combination, thus the appropriate wavelength regime to be observed has to be calculated and measurements shall be performed in a way that during the time of measurement, the peak of the Planck-curve shifts through the observed wavelength interval. Since almost any solid material absorbs radiation in the wavelength regime of interest, a suitable transparent surface layer of well-defined thickness has to be applied to the target. This cladding is going to prevent evaporation of target material during the observation time, at the same time allowing blackbody radiation to be emitted from inside the compressed matter. A schematic sketch of the target is shown in Figure 4.12. For any expected target surface temperature up to 5 eV, resulting in a Planck peak wavelength of about 50 nm, a several hundred m thick layer of neon is proposed, or argon, in case the blackbody peak emission happens to coincide with excitonic emissions of crystalline neon. Neon crystals are completely transparent essentially down to the neon resonance lines at 74 nm, with correction to be applied at wavelengths lower than 85 nm. Depending on the actual strength of the compression wave, direct access to the pure target surface is given, while at a temperature of more than 2eV the compressed and heated neon itself is radiating as a blackbody being excited to an estimated electron density on the order of 1020 cm-3 according to the Saha equation at solid-state density. For compressions, resulting in temperatures in excess of 5eV, the regular VUV spectroscopy is no longer perfectly suited, since the peak of the Planck curve shifts towards 10 nm at a temperature of 20 eV. EUV/x-ray spectroscopy, combined with VUV spectroscopy thus is proposed to be applied. The cladding's best choice in the short wavelength range therefore is lithium, with a 20 nm thick protective layer of LiF. This combination can be used down to the cutoff wavelength at about 23 nm. At even shorter wavelengths beryllium might be the appropriate choice. However, since the cladding is evaporated during the experiment, safety aspects associated with the use of beryllium have to be considered, and boron might serve the purpose equally well. In any case, the optical depth of the surface layer is on the order of one micrometer, which results in an observation time of 0.1 to 1 ns. A relative calibration of the monochromators is mandatory, since the temperature has to be determined by the shape of the recorded spectrum in comparison to blackbody radiation. 4.1.3.2 Two-sided Irradiation of Cylindrical Targets The key part of the planned new accelerator facility is a synchrotron complex consisting of two separate synchrotron accelerator rings, in addition to the already existing synchrotron SIS-18. This opens the possibility to irradiate the target with different ion species of the same magnetic rigidity at the same time. This feature is especially interesting for diagnostic purposes of an ion beam heated target. Furthermore the synchrotron complex may also be used to irradiate a target from opposite sides simultaneously. This feature is not implemented in the present layout for the new facility and is regarded as a promising option of the new accelerator facility. Phase-locking the RF of both machines would allow to vary the arrival time

367

Section 2 on the target and allow to study collisions of shock waves, an important aspect in understanding the dynamics of Supernovae.

Figure 4.13: Irradiation geometry for the following simulations. The shading illustrates the intensity of the local deposition, and the arrows the shock wave propagation directions.

As a start we have studied the collision of two opposite beams of about equal properties. The first series of simulations were devoted to the possibilities of generating shock waves in quite diverse configurations using two beams. Figure 4.13 illustrates the generic possibilities: overlapping the deposition regions yields a localized region of higher temperatures, while separating them leads to the collision of shock waves with possibly higher densities achievable. These cases were compared to that of a one-sided single-beam illumination. The simulations were carried out using the code Caveat [38]. The target was a solid gold cylinder of 3 mm radius and with a length adjusted to produce the various situations depicted above (6 mm for the upper two cases, 8 mm for the colliding-beam case). For the beams a flat temporal profile of 19 kJ in 50 ns was assumed and the deposition was calculated based on a SRIM [39] simulation assuming an ion energy of 500 MeV per nucleon, which yields a total range of about 3.5 mm. This ion energy was selected because the range is comparable to the radius, yielding an attractive geometry: for different ion energies effects will be analogous. The total energy corresponds to 1012 ions in the pulse. The radial profile of the beam was taken to be one of two characteristic cases: constant up to the maximum radius of 2 mm or Gaussian with =1 mm. As is well known [40], the two types of radial profile show quite different behavior, but here we concentrate only on the features due to the new irradiation geometry. The time dependence of the maximum density in the target is shown in Figure 4.14.

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Section 2

Figure 4.14: Time dependence of the highest compression in the target for the different scenarios studied.

It is clearly seen how the higher deposition leads to enhanced compression with a strong increase when the two shock waves collide. The additional strong jump for flat deposition in the colliding shocks case caused by the inward convergence of the material due to the higher deposition in the outer radial parts of the target. In the temperatures, the overlapping case with the addition of two deposition regions shows the highest temperatures. The maximum values are also summarized in the following table: Beam profile Flat Case single pulse overlapping colliding Gaussian single pulse overlapping colliding

max [g cm-3]
34.4 32.3 50.4 34.3 25.5 43.5

Tmax [eV] 14.6 13.0 13.1 14.6 18.6 14.0

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Section 2 While the overlapping of the deposition regions seems to offer only the advantage of higher temperatures in the zone of enhanced deposition, the increased density achieved in the colliding shock wave situation is clearly pronounced and it has the additional advantage of being at rest after the shock collision.

Figure 4.15: Energy deposition in a shorter target for one- and two-sided irradiation.

For the flat radial profile the high-density region is a thin sheet at rest in the center of the target but expanding and is at relatively low temperatures of less than 2 eV. For the Gaussian beam profile the situation is more complicated and less useful. Because of the higher speed of the shock waves near the axis of the cylinder, the collision happens first on the axis and then the high-density zone expands as a ring to the sides as the collision point moves outward. An additional possible use of overlapping deposition regions could be to heat the target in a more homogeneous way. Although the most prominent feature of the deposition curve is the Bragg peak, it should be noted that the energy loss always has a noticeable slope. To study this effect we compare the energy distribution in a target irradiated from both sides, but only 1.25 mm long in order to avoid the Bragg peaks, with that irradiated by a beam of double the intensity from one side only (see Figure 4.15). While the deposition from both sides does not provide a perfectly homogeneous heating, the advantages are clearly visible: instead of the strongly increasing deposition for a single beam, we get a much more, though not completely, constant behavior for the two-sided deposition. To investigate the practical consequences, we studied a case of a hollow Lead cylinder irradiated by a hollow beam in a configuration very similar to that investigated by Tahir et al. [41]. The simulations were done using Caveat [38]. A hollow lead cylinder of 0.5 mm inner, 2.5 mm outer radius and 1.25 mm length is irradiated by a beam confined to the radial range 0.5 up 370

Section 2 to 1.5 mm. The beam consists of Uranium ions with an ion energy of 200 MeV per nucleon delivered over 50 ns. The total beam energy is 1.525 kJ, the temporal deposition profile is parabolic, while the radial one corresponds to an inverted parabola between the inner and outer radii of the beam. The deposition is again computed using SRIM [39].

Figure 4.16: The inner part of a hollow cylindrical target as discussed at a time close to the collision on the axis in each case. The colors indicate density as shown by the scale on the left. The upper plot is for single-sided and the lower one for double-sided illumination by the heavyion beams.

The hydrodynamic flow caused by the beam converges to the cylinder axis and the density distribution near the time of hitting the axis is shown in Figure 4.16. As expected, the absence of the Bragg peak because of the shorter length of the target makes the inward motion already a bit more uniform. In the case of one-sided illumination, the axis will clearly be hit in a point which moves to the right with time, while for the two-sided illumination there is a much more uniform region of high densities created, which also stays stationary for some period. 371

Section 2 4.1.3.3 Magnetized implosions driven by intense ion beams and radiation physics Once intense beams of heavy ions become available through the proposed accelerator scenario they will immediately open new ways to generate high energy density states in matter. Due to special energy deposition features of the energy deposition mechanisms by fast heavy ions, such experiments will make a contribution of their own to fundamental research into the structure and properties of matter under extreme conditions. Self Sustained Magnetized Implosions Since the beam deposition characteristics of high-energy heavy ion beams in dense matter favor a cylindrical geometry the most simple experimental scenario will be a quasi-cylindrical plasma volume created by focusing an ion beam onto a uniform sample. The peak pressure and temperature values that can be attained in this way have been analyzed recently at GSI [43] and it was demonstrated that intense heavy ion beams and the cylindrical target geometry are well suited for implosion experiments. The aim of such experiments is to obtain states of matter, which are characterized by a maximum concentration of energy. Hydrodynamic expansion is in this case considered to be an effect, which is adverse but unavoidable. At the same time, hydrodynamic flow in a converging geometry can well be employed to enhance the initial energy concentration created by the energy deposition of the ion beam. A special beam focus geometry, e.g. an annular beam is necessary for this purpose. Also recently an annular beam focus has been experimentally demonstrated with the plasma lens [42]. In such implosions the initial pressure, which is generated by the direct heating of target material by deposition of heavy ion beam energy inside the target volume, can be enhanced by more than a factor of 10. Moreover, the cylindrical target geometry offers simple methods for magnetization. If an external magnetic field is introduced, the effect of magneto-thermal insulation may allow to reach extremely high temperatures accompanied by significant thermonuclear neutron yields even with beam intensities that result in a specific deposition power of some TW/g [43,44]. Hydrodynamic consistency between the total amount of energy deposited into the target ( 100 200 kJ/g) and the focal spot radius (1mm) sets a limit on the pulse duration tp for the ion pulse below 100 ns, which is in agreement with the design parameters considered here. The imploding configuration consists of a hollow metallic (Au) cylinder, filled with low-density deuterium gas. The heavy ion beam with an annular focus impinges onto the target parallel to the cylinder axis and heats the target material uniformly along the cylinder axis inside the volume determined by the outer and inner focal radii. In this case the cavity is imploded by the cold inner portion of the liner, which is accelerated inward by the amount of heated matter surrounding it. The peak pressure values obtained in 1-D simulations range up to almost 500 Mbar. In reality, drive asymmetries, target imperfections and instabilities near the stagnation state will distort the 1-D results towards more moderate plasma parameters. 372

Section 2

Figure 4.17: The principle of magnetized targets for heavy ion beam experiments. The focus of the ion beam is annular. Highest plasma parameters are obtained where the annular beam focus heats the liner material only in the annular focus region and the remaining cold portion of the liner is accelerated inward by the beam heated material. An initial magnetic field of approximately 30 T is required to reach the self-sustained magnetic implosion regime.

The situation may considerably improve with an additionally applied magnetic field, which is introduced in axial direction into the target plasmas shown in Figure 4.17. A series of detailed magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) simulations, taking into account parameters, which are within reach of the SIS-100 facility, have been performed by Basko [43]. The results indicate that it is possible to obtain a situation, where a selfsustained magnetic implosion (SSMI) is achieved. In this situation the plasma temperature of the low-density deuterium gas exceeds the temperature of the nonmagnetized situation considerably and is expected to reach a value as high as 1 3 keV. However, the threshold for the self-sustained magnetic insulation (SSMI) regime can only be met with an initial magnetic field of B0 = 30 T, which certainly is a challenge to the experimental conditions. Radiation Physics When the plasma temperature approaches 100 eV radiation becomes more and more important and finally dominates the energy transport and the energy partition in the plasma. This regime has been addressed by high power lasers like NOVA at LLNL where Planckian temperatures above 200 eV have been measured, and by light ions at Sandia National Laboratories where a hohlraum temperature of 160 eV has been achieved with multi-Mega-Ampere beams of Li at an energy of 9 MeV. It is highly desirable that a heavy ion facility can participate in this region of radiationdominated physics to complement the other high energy density facilities with its unique features. Except for special cases of low density plasmas as discussed for magnetically insulated targets it will be the low temperature regime that will be accessible with the planned facility. However, the prospects for future improvements 373

Section 2 by a high current low charge state injector e.g. with U4+ ions and improved bunching capabilities are tempting. Therefore the radiation physics issue is discussed here briefly. The radiative opacity of the material plays a key role in any object where radiation dominates the energy transport mechanisms like in stellar objects and radiatively heated hohlraums. Opacity controls the flow of energy inside stars and in particular the instability of stars is especially sensitive to nuances of the opacity. Therefore precision experiments are necessary to optimize the models of stellar structure. As the radiative opacity is a harmonic mean of the spectral-dependent opacity which depends on the atomic structure of the involved matter, experiments in this field could stimulate the advance of the theoretical description of highly charged ions in plasma, like plasma ionization balance, the rate processes, spectral line shapes and transition energies. Opacity simulation codes having recently been reviewed at an international workshop in Garching have made large progress. However, those simulation codes available have to be benchmarked with experimental data. The conversion efficiency of a converter in an inertial fusion scenario also depends strongly on the radiative opacity of the involved material. High-Z materials have shown good conversion efficiencies, because of their large radiative opacities. But actual converter targets will probably consist of a delicate mixture of high and low-Z material in order to have an optimum of both properties, radiation conversion and radiation transport. Such issues have also to be addressed in experiments with heavy ion beams. The conversion of kinetic energy of the ion beam into radiation is a fundamental physics question. There exists no substitute experimental technique to address this problem other than to use the most intense ion beams to irradiate a target and measure the emitted radiation spectrum. One important goal for the new facility should therefore be to obtain radiation temperatures as high as possible, even in small samples of matter. An essential issue in this context is that of preheat by light fragments and other side products of ion beam interaction with matter, such as electrons, -rays and nuclear reaction products. The influence of these products on the hydrodynamic flow can be studied with irradiated planar targets and x-ray backlighting techniques. A related problem that can be studied is that of radiative smoothing of surface inhomogeneities causing hydrodynamic instabilities. Currently, the SIS-18 beam creates samples of high-energy density in matter with temperatures of the order of 1 eV. Numerical simulations predict [33] that after the final completion of the intensity upgrade and the bunch compressor, several eV can be achieved in a solid lead target. The SIS-100 facility will deliver a much more intense beam compared to the SIS-18. It is expected that the SIS-100 beam will deliver 1012 particles of uranium in a pulse length of about 50 ns long. Simulations show that a suitable energy for plasma physics experiments is 400 MeV/u [34]. The range of these particles in cold lead is about 4.25 mm. In our simulations a cylindrical lead target with 2 mm length is considered. The target is thus sub range as the particles deposit 374

Section 2 only a fraction of their energy in the target. Since however the Bragg peak does not lie inside the target, the energy deposition is uniform along the particle trajectory. This gives rise to a uniform heating. The simulation shows that with the specific power deposition of about 4 TW/g a temperature of the order of 20 eV is created. The corresponding pressure of this target is about 6 Mbar.

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Section 2 4.1.4 Intense ion and laser beams synergetics with the PHELIX laser The new prospects of the SIS-100 accelerator to generate dense plasmas for fundamental research will be further complemented and enhanced by the Petawatt High Energy Laser for Heavy Ion Experiments (PHELIX) laser system, which is currently under construction [37]. This project was developed at GSI realizing the unique synergetic possibilities offered by the combination of a high power laser and an intense heavy ion beam in various fields of fundamental research, such as plasma physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, laboratory astrophysics and material research and is highly regarded within these communities world-wide. The new areas of research accessible with the new SIS-100 will further improve the outstanding position of GSI in these fields of basic research. The combination of intense heavy ion beams and high power laser in the kJ regime with the additional option of short pulses to achieve a laser power in excess of 1015 W will be a unique research tool for many years. Leading laser laboratories worldwide have immediately supported this project and have offered their collaboration. GSI is therefore able to attract a new community and will be able to provide unparalleled research conditions to scientists from university groups and research teams on an international scale. Especially for the exciting and widely unexplored field of dense plasma research it is of great interest to access the matter properties, for example present in the interior of the earth, giant planets and stellar atmospheres, in the laboratory to precisely determine the characteristics of this matter under such extreme conditions. Therefore it is mandatory to transform a macroscopic sample of matter into a rather cold, but highly compressed state and furthermore to determine its characteristics with the highest amount of accuracy. Moreover, the combination of a high power laser with the intense, short ion bunches delivered by the SIS-100 allows not only the measurement of the matter properties, but it will also be possible to manipulate these exotic states of matter in a controlled and reproducible way in the laboratory for the first time. 4.1.4.1 PHELIX as a unique diagnostic tool The investigation of dense plasmas is a challenging task, because most of the standard diagnostic means, which are well known from atomic and plasma physics, fail due to the high density and exotic electronic behavior of the sample to be probed [45]. Spectroscopy in the visible and near UV-range is usually not applicable due to the huge opacities of the sample. Similar restrictions appear to interferometric measurements and optical imaging. Moreover, detectors, which are mechanically attached to the sample, are either subject to destruction, or may alter the conditions of the sample in a way, which decreases the accuracy of the measurement. Furthermore, these exotic states of matter are available in the laboratory only in a highly transient state. These kind of experiments therefore require a high temporal resolution of the diagnostics which has to be at least of order of nanoseconds or even better. However, well known techniques to investigate plasma states at and above the 376

Section 2 solid state density have been developed and tested at many laboratories worldwide and are employed and developed by the GSI plasma physics group for several years already [46-50].For the diagnostic techniques presented in this section, we generally think of the diagnostic radiation as an illumination produced behind the target materials and detected after passing through the target. Hence, the light source is commonly called a Backlighter. The propagation of electro-magnetic waves in any plasma is restricted to densities, where the density dependent frequency of plasma waves is lower than the incident frequency of the light wave. The density dependent plasma frequency is given by

p = (nee2/0me)1/2
where ne, e, and me are the electron density, charge and mass and 0 is the electric field constant. Therefore, visible and ultra-violet light is no longer propagating in dense plasmas. To investigate the rapidly changing properties of dense plasmas at or well above the solid state, short x-ray bursts of high brightness are required. High-Z, laser generated plasmas are known to be suitable sources of such radiation and are therefore used as diagnostic tools in many laboratories [51-54]. The efficiency to convert laser light into high energy x-rays of 10 keV or more depends on the irradiance provided by the laser beam. In order to provide a sufficient x-ray intensity the irradiance of the laser beam should be at least 1015 W/cm2 or even higher. The spatial resolution of the experiments requires a spot size diameter below 50 m. The GSI- PHELIX system is designed to serve as a versatile driver for x-ray backlighting of heavy ion driven targets. The laser is equipped with a front-end, which is able to generate multiple laser pulses of sub-ns pulse duration, with each pulse to be timed independently. Therefore transient phenomena, like the dense, strongly coupled plasmas generated by the SIS-100 can be investigated with high temporal resolution. Backlighter scenarios to investigate plasmas generated by the SIS-100: The point projection requirement applies for imaging techniques in the photon energy range between 4-12 keV, and a 25m spatial resolution. For x-rays in this energy range a laser intensity of 1-30 PW/cm2 is required The resolution requirement sets the spot size to about 50 m for a standard magnification m=2. To avoid motional blurring, the maximum acceptable pulse length is between 0.5 and 1 ns. To provide multiple snapshots on a single heavy ion experiment, multiple pulses are required. For experiments to investigate the temporal evolution of sample features that are either 1D, repeating, or random, one can simply gate different segments of a single point-projected x-ray image at different times. This allows for a single laser focus to be sufficient (Figure 4.18). If it is necessary to view the temporal evolution of samples that are 2D or non-repetitive, one needs, a whole series of short pulses, and spatially distinct point backlighters (i.e., laser foci) for each frame. The laser foci are typically separated by a few millimeters (Figure 4.19). 377

Section 2

Figure 4.18: Examples for dense plasma diagnostics. Single point projection geometry. The whole temporal evolution of a 1-D sample can be studied in a single shot experiment.

Figure 4.19: Multiple point projection. The laser spots are separated by a few mm due to a shift of the laser wavelength for each pulse. This allows for the analysis of 2-D samples (tomography) with high temporal resolution.

The area backlighting requirements apply for 1-3 keV photon energies over approximately a 1 mm spot. A uniform spot of ~1 mm can be created by inserting an appropriate random phase plate. An irradiance (power) of 0.1-0.3 PW/cm2 (1-2 TW total power) is required to create sources with x-ray energies of 1 to a few keV over 378

Section 2 this spot size. The area backlighting option allows for absorption spectroscopy, which provides opacity information of the sample (Figure 4.20).

Figure 4.20: Example for large-area, low-energy (1-2 keV) backlighting. To provide a homogenous focal spot, the laser beam can be smoothes by SSD (smoothing by spectral dispersion).

The measurement using x-rays can be extended and complemented by the use of short, intense pulses of energetic protons. These intense, low-emittance ion beams have recently been discovered at experiments with short pulse lasers and are subject of great interest since [55]. Petawatt class lasers, like PHELIX, have demonstrated their capability of generating intense (several hundred kiloamperes), short (several picoseconds), energetic (up to 60 MeV), beams of protons with an excellent beam quality (normalized beam emittance ~ 0.2 pi mm mrad), which are suitable for radiographic measurements. Due to the different interaction mechanism, these beams may provide complementary information about the properties of matter under extreme conditions. One unique aspect of laser accelerated protons as compared to conventional RF accelerated beams is that the instantaneous beam current can be quite large, that is, a huge number of protons can be accelerated in a single, short pulse, having a duration of order of picoseconds, comparable to the laser pulse duration. Therefore transient phenomena like dense plasmas can be studied with highest temporal resolution [56]. The SIS-100 will be a unique tool to adiabatically compress matter to densities well above the solid-state density while maintaining a relatively low temperature. The resulting strongly coupled plasma is enclosed by the compressing pusher material. The pusher that is heated by the intense heavy ion beam is made of high-Z materials in order to effectively convert the heavy ion beam energy into kinetic energy of the 379

Section 2 pusher. Therefore, x-ray radiography does not work well for the imploding sample, because of the low x-ray attenuation (especially in case of hydrogen samples) of the compressed plasma, and because the surrounding pusher will attenuate the x-rays much more than the compressed matter to be investigated. Here, proton energy loss imaging can be used to directly image the sample throughout the entire course of the implosion.

Figure 4.21: First experimental demonstration of short pulse proton radiography by laser accelerated protons. The target consisted of four layers of plastic (Kapton) placed behind a highZ shielding (see left inset). The proton beam was accelerated by a 100 TW laser at a few cm distance from the sample. The result demonstrates the capability of laser-accelerated protons to image the light element with excellent resolution. The total time of exposure was just a couple of picoseconds.

Figure 4.21 shows the first experimental proof of this technique performed within an international collaboration at a 100 TW laser (LULI, Ecole Polytechnique). Several layers of low-Z plastic were mounted behind a high-Z (Tantalum) shielding. The result demonstrates the unique capability of laser accelerated proton beams to image a lowZ sample. In combination with x-ray absorption measurements, proton beam imaging will allow a direct measurement of the matter opacities, which then provides a whole set of information about the atomic structure of matter at high pressures.GSI is the only facility in the world with a powerful Petawatt laser system in combination to an intense heavy ion driver. Therefore it will be an outstanding place to investigate matter properties for example present in giant planets or the interior of our earth.

380

Section 2 4.1.4.2 The combined capabilities of PHELIX and the SIS-100 The SIS-100 with its intense, short heavy ion pulses can generate dense, strongly coupled plasmas superior to other methods. Thus it will become possible to explore the regime of this state of matter with high accuracy for the first time. Augmented by the unique capabilities of the PHELIX laser the combination of these two facilities can extend the range of measurements in new areas. Laser light propagation in dense plasmas: Since ultra-intense laser pulses are now available for experimental research it has become of great interest to study propagation properties of such laser pulses in plasmas. This issue is also of importance for a variety of applications like short pulse laser cutting of sensitive material or the so-called fast ignitor approach to inertial confinement fusion [57]. Irradiation at a level of 1019 W/cm2 and higher results in a new regime of plasma physics, the relativistic plasmas, where the mean oscillatory velocity of the electrons becomes close to the speed of light [58]. Therefore the electron mass changes significantly, the frequency of electron plasma waves changes and the laser light propagation is therefore modified with respect to the regular laser-target interaction. Moreover, the light pressure reaches magnitudes in the Gigabar range and is therefore similar or even exceeding the pressure in the center of the sun. Nonlinear effects lead to self-focusing and channeling. For experiments investigating these phenomena clean initial conditions are the key to precision measurements. The ion beam delivered by the SIS-100 is able to create volumetric plasmas of high density without the presence of large gradients that reduces the accuracy of the experiment. Hence, the combination of a powerful heavy ion accelerator to prepare the sample with a short pulse laser to interact with opens the possibility to precision experiments on light propagation in overdense plasmas. Equation of state and the characterization of dense plasmas: As presented in this proposal, the SIS-100 will be able to generate highly compressed states of matter with clean, well-known initial conditions. In addition, once the sample is prepared by the ion beam the physical conditions can be altered by the PHELIX laser within a time span much shorter than the hydrodynamic response time of the matter. For example, a sample of metallic hydrogen can be heated by the short pulse laser either on one side by direct irradiation or heated throughout the volume instantaneously by laser generated ion beam impact. Whereas for example the propagation of shock waves and heat conduction can be studied in the first case, the response of the target properties to sudden temperature variations and the successive phase transition could be explored in the second case. To summarize, due to the combined capabilities of laser and ion beam drivers, the door to a whole new set of experiments in dense plasma physics may be opened.

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Section 2 Additional synergetic effects: The use of the GSI plasma lens as a superior final focusing device will be explained in detail in the technical part of the proposal. This instrument has been in use at GSI for several years and has also been proven to be an important device for high energy density in matter research [59]. Using a powerful laser to drive a micro-plasma lens, as proposed in several international conferences may further reduce the final spot size and hence increase the specific energy deposition of the intense heavy ion beam from the SIS-100. The laser beam, irradiating a solid target expels a huge number of electrons from it, thereby charging the target to high voltages. If a secondary target is placed in close vicinity to the irradiated one and bathed into these electron cloud, one effectively created a fast charged capacitor. If this voltage is released in a connecting circuit, designed like a small plasma lens, huge currents may be generated that will focus a passing ion beam due to the induced magnetic fields. This may drive heavy ion beam irradiated targets, mounted closely behind the lens to high temperatures and further extend the range of plasmas accessible with the new facility.

Figure 4.22: Remnants of the supernova 1987a. The ring structures are caused by the interaction of the propagating shock waves with the interstellar background medium.

382

Section 2 Supernova shock wave experiments: The propagation of shock waves of a supernova explosion into the interstellar medium is of general astrophysical importance because it releases the heavy elements created in the final phase of the supernova into the universe and mixes them with the background medium (Figure 4.22). At a certain point of the shock wave propagation it is pumped with energy dumped by the huge amount of neutrinos (~ 1046 J) created in the supernova explosion. The response of a propagating shock wave on a sudden energy deposition is therefore an interesting topic of astrophysics research. With the combination of the SIS-100 and the PHELIX laser, this question can be studied in the laboratory. A shock wave, launched by a tailored laser pulse from the PHELIX laser propagates through a sample that is then volumetrically heated by an intense heavy ion pulse, delivered by the SIS-100. The response of the shock wave, its velocity, or even a breakup, predicted by numerical calculations, can be studied under welldefined experimental conditions repeatable in the laboratory. Plasma spectroscopy in high-energy astrophysics: The observation of violent events, like quasars, exploding galaxies or pulsars, refers to the detection of radiation in the x-ray and ray regime extending to optical and UVlight to reveal the nature of the emitting objects. The astronomers problem is to obtain a spectrum showing as much details as possible. However, a second problem is to have the knowledge base on non-equilibrium spectra that allows inference to be drawn from the data. One poorly understood area is the low-temperature radiation dominated plasma. These plasmas are irradiated by dilute sources and very far from local thermal equilibrium (LTE). One of the uncertainties is the plasma energetics. Perhaps a lot of energy is tied up in states that are not evident in the spectrum. One example is the Bowen mechanism. In 1924 Ira Bowen found, that in some nebulae the emission lines of OIII arising from the upper state 2p3d 3P2 were greatly enhanced relative to other members of the same multiplet. She discovered that there was a coincidence between He Ly and the OIII line producing fluorescence. The Bowen mechanism was analyzed theoretically in the 60s and 70s but still does not have a secure theoretical footing and needs experimental verification. An experimental exploration can be done creating a large volume of plasma with a temperature of 2-3 eV in which oxygen and nitrogen are mostly doubly ionized. A second region of hotter plasma that serves as a light source for the first may then illuminate this volume under investigation. The column density of the large plasma, perhaps 1020 cm-2, could be ample to provide the necessary optical depth in He Ly and perhaps also in OIII 374,436 as well. Whereas the new SIS-100 will be an ideal tool to homogeneously drive the large plasma avoiding the large amount of background radiation present in laser driven plasmas, PHELIX will be able to serve as a driver for the second, hotter plasma. This approach shows the unique experimental possibilities available with such a combination for a whole variety of experiments in laboratorybased astrophysics.

383

Section 2

4.1.5 Spectroscopy experiments with intense ion and laser beams to investigate dense plasma properties 4.1.5.1 Introduction The planned new accelerator facility combined with a high-power laser opens outstanding future prospects for novel spectroscopy experiments to study the properties of hot, dense matter. The parameter regime of future GSI experiments is exceptional, and standard methods of spectroscopy almost entirely fail and can hardly be modified to serve for the future needs.

Figure 4.23: Space resolved x-ray image of magnesium plasma produced with the nhelix laser. He-like resonance and intercombination lines show strong emission up to cm-distances from the target surface (Z' = 0.00 cm). Li-like satellite emission is much more restricted in space

Since 1999 "Spectroscopy" has been included into the plasma physics activities at GSI [35,36] as a new fundamental research program to develop and apply appropriate methods to investigate dense plasma phenomena. Novel spectroscopic approaches have been employed which involve the atomic physics of atoms and ions in the complex environment of a dense plasma as well as x-ray diffractive imaging methods. Due to a strong interaction between theory and experiment the spectroscopic attempts 384

Section 2 have been extremely successful as they included also benchmark experiments at the currently running high energy nhelix-laser facility [e.g., 60,61]. Figure 4.23 shows an example of a high quality x-ray image from a nhelix-laser produced magnesium plasma. Well resolved are the He-like resonance and intercombination line as well as the associated dielectronic satellite spectra, which serve for advanced diagnostics [60]. Future spectroscopy experiments have to deal with large-scale dense, optically thick plasmas [60], non-Maxwellian particles [35,60,61], strongly coupled plasmas [62] and so called "Warm Matter" (near solid density at only a few eV temperature), registration of projectile radiation inside matter [63,64] and local probing of high energy density matter [65]. A self-consistent treatment of coupling between heavy ion projectiles and the target atoms has currently begun in collaboration with the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow in order to deduce the average projectile charge state Zav inside matter from the spectral distribution of the projectile radiation. These investigations are extremely important for the interpretation of stopping power measurements. For heavy ion beam created strongly coupled plasmas this requires the highest beam intensities available in the world. This research will have large implications on the basic physics of stopping power measurements and potential applications e.g. heavy ion beam induced inertial fusion. 4.1.5.2 Projectile spectroscopy with highest ion beam intensities

An essential parameter for the stopping power of heavy ion beams inside matter is the average projectile charge Zav. Previous measurements of Zav employ particle analyzers located far away from the interaction volume. However, in order to compare the stopping power measurements with theoretical predictions the average projectile charge inside the interaction volume is requested. This information can in principle be obtained from the spectral distribution I() of the projectile radiation:

I ( ) =

D
k = 0 j =1 i =1

Zn

Nk Nk

k , ji

nk , j Ak , ji k , ji ( ) .

is the transition frequency, A is the transition probability and is the respective line profile, k indicates the ionization stage, j and i are indices for the respective transitions. I() is the central function of the theory, namely the "Spectroscopic Approach to Analyze the Projectile Average Charge Inside Matter (SAAPACIM). This function is to be compared with emission spectroscopy measurements. The population densities nkj are given by a set of collisional radiative rate equations:

d nkj dt

l k i =1

Zn

Nl

li ,kj

nli nkj kj ,mn

m k n =1

Zn N n

where the li,kj are the transfer rates from level i of charge state l into the level j of charge state k. These rates depend on the beam parameters, e.g. the velocity 385

Section 2 distribution, and the target parameters, e.g. density and temperature. The average charge of a projectile ion is then given by

Zav = k nkj
k = 0 j =1

Zn Nk

with

n
k =0 j =1

Zn Nk

kj

= 1.

nkj are the normalized population densities of the projectile ion with charge state k (e.g., neutral atoms k=0, singly ionized ions k=1, fully stripped ions k = Zn) and the index j indicates the level j (j = 1 is the ground state, j > 1 characterizes excited states) of an ion in charge state k. Nk is the number of states included for the charge state k. The projectile x-ray radiation is of particular importance since it leaves the target without essential absorption. Emission lines of potential interest for the determination of Zav, however, originate from multi-excited autoionizing ions. Due to numerous coupling possibilities of electrons in equivalent shells and electrons in a high n spectator orbital, the corresponding level structure is extremely complex. Only recently, a theoretical model has been developed [66] which opens up the realization of the SAAPACIM method.

Figure 4.24: Space resolved x-ray radiation emitted from argon projectiles when interacting withan aerogel target.

386

Section 2 Since almost 30 years the approach outlined above is considered as a challenge for basic research of heavy ion beams interacting with matter [67]. However, low beam intensity, insufficient spectral and spatial resolution and the absence of efficient reduction methods denied a success so far. Recently, however, we have been able at GSI to successfully record the projectile x-ray radiation in different types of experiments by means of high luminosity spherically bent mica crystals [68,69] and xray film: first, nickel ions interacting with gases [64], and, second, argon ions interacting with aerogels (Figure 4.24) [63]. 4.1.5.3 X-ray beams from PHELIX probing warm matter created by SIS-100 Warm dense matter is the region in temperature (T) and density () which is not described as normal condensed matter, i.e., T ~ 0 and not described by weakly coupled plasma theory. is the coupling parameter defined by the ratio of the interaction energy between the particles, Vii, to the kinetic energy, T:

V e2 Z 2 = ii = T r0 T

with

3 r0 = 4

1/ 3

a)

aluminum

b)

WDM

Figure 4.25: Temperature-density diagrams showing the regions of classical plasmas, dense plasmas, strongly coupled plasmas and warm matter, a) aluminum, b) hydrogen. The parameter interval relevant for astrophysical objects like Brown Dwarfs and Jupiter are indicated for hydrogen.

The relevance of warm dense matter arises from its wide occurrence, namely planetary science and cold star physics and all plasma production devices, which start from cold dense matter (e.g., z- and x-pinches, laser solid matter interaction, heavy ion beam driven plasmas, capillaries, exploding wires). For aluminum, the warm dense matter parameter region is roughly = 10-3 10 g/cm-3, T = 1 20 eV, for H 387

Section 2 (H2), = 0.3 1 g/cm-3, T = 0.5 - 2 eV (intersecting the parameter space of, e.g., the interiors of Jupiter and white dwarfs) [70], see Figure 4.25. The PHELIX laser will be a unique tool to produce x-ray probe beams [37], either by means of broad band x-ray production illuminating high Z-targets, or, small band xray radiation positioning a two-dimensional curved x-ray crystal as an dispersive element behind the x-ray back lighter. More advanced methods (e.g., laser induced fluorescence) make use of an x-ray laser (e.g., Ni-like laser scheme near 50 ). Unlike many pulsed power experiments (e.g., exploding wires) the conditions of target heating are well defined because the particle energy and the number of particles are well known at in heavy ion experiments from the acceleration process. Moreover, configurations can be set up to heat the target almost homogeneously, thereby providing outstanding experimental conditions for warm dense matter research. These will enable to perform benchmark experiments for the radiation emission of warm dense matter, which, in turn, will result in the development of diagnostic tools. Stark broadening in strongly coupled plasmas, level depression and line shifts will be particular issues. Just recently, we have established collaboration in the field of Stark broadening of complex spectra of strongly coupled plasmas with the group of R. Stamm, Marseille, France [71]. SIS-100 created parameter ranges will provide world wide exceptional studies of the radiative properties of warm dense matter. 4.1.5.4 Self-consistent treatment of beam ions and target particles At low beam intensities, the perturbation of the target due to heavy ion beam interaction can be neglected which considerably simplifies the analysis (e.g., SAAPACIM). At high beam intensities as, e.g., provided by SIS-100, the perturbation is extremely large changing the target properties essentially (e.g., transformation from a solid to a strongly coupled plasma). This leads to a new type of interaction analysis, namely the self-consistent coupling of projectiles and target heavy particles. These particular perturbations lead also to a self-consistent coupling for the spectroscopic approach [72]. The difficulties in the treatment of the self-consistent coupling are considerably (all population matrixes are non-linear and not triangular separable). On the other hand, this approach increases the diagnostic accessible parameters essentially. Under typical parameter conditions of SIS-100, plasmas created from heavy ion beam interaction show extremely large optical thickness preventing their diagnostics. Different methods are under discussion, which have also to be considered as spectroscopic research programs as they are almost not available in the literature: Time resolved energy loss measurements [73] by means of a SIS-18 beam line to the SIS-100 experimental facility. An apparent current drawback of this diagnostics is the employment of heavy ion beams for density diagnostic instead of protons, introducing the currently not well-known projectile average charge state in strongly coupled plasmas into the analysis.

388

Section 2 Probe beam excited temperature shifted K x-ray transitions. The plasma temperature releases outer electrons, thereby shifting the inner-shell K transitions (excited by inner-shell ionization from the probe beam) to shorter wavelengths in a transient plasma evolution [74], Figure 4.26. A high-resolution diagnostics, as already successfully applied to dense plasma experiments [50] enables the observation of the K shift. It should be noted, that under typical parameter conditions of SIS-100, the perturbation of the ion beam on the diagnostic test particles has to be taken into account (a type of self-consistent test particle approach).

Figure 4.26: Transient evolution of the x-ray emission of titanium showing strong K emission of H-, He-, Li-, Be-, B-, C-, N-like ions. In the early stage of plasma development, fewer electrons are generated and the K-emission is shifted to longer wavelength, from [74].

4.1.5.5 Benchmark experiments for spectroscopic research at strongly coupled plasmas The parameters provided by SIS-100 also stimulate the research for spectroscopic methods to diagnose strongly coupled plasmas. An obvious obstacle to almost all approaches based on emission spectroscopy is the huge opacity. Numerous methods are currently under investigation: The considerations of line transitions whose lower states are at the same time atomic/ionic excited states. The population of these states may be considerably less than atomic/ionic ground states thereby providing the possibility of emission spectroscopy and diagnostics [62]. At typical SIS-100 parameters, however, even more methods have to be invented, because estimations show, 389

Section 2 that the method developed in [62] may be inappropriate for temperatures higher than about 1eV (as even the n=3 excited state populations of neon increase considerably). The use of forbidden transitions from multi-excited ions. As shown in [60], it is possible to base diagnostics entirely on forbidden transitions of multi-excited ions (e.g., intercombination satellite transitions, two-electron transitions). Temperature induced shift of K transitions, where the intense heavy ion beam drives the inner-shell vacancies. Stark broadening in strongly coupled plasmas: Measurements of the profiles of the neutral hydrogen line H-alpha emitted from plasmas of electron densities Ne > 1018 cm-3 in a gas-liner pinch at temperatures T= 1-5 eV [75] and in an underwater laser-produced plasma at temperatures T < 1 eV [76,77] were believed to have delivered data at the highest available plasma densities. These results, however, brought to the research community a number of severe problems connected with the accuracy of the measurements as well as for the Stark broadening theory itself.

Starting from Griems theory of the width [78,79] a more sophisticated theory of the width allowing for the ion dynamics in frames of a frequency-fluctuation model (FFM) [80] was developed. At extremely high densities, coupling effects could in principle be important in the analysis. Several types of coupling have been considered e.g. in the frame of the Upgraded Advanced Generalized Theory (UAGT) [81-85]. It would be

important to perform future spectroscopic experiments with a plasma much closer to the non-ideality than in the cited experiments [75-77] to point also on further developments in the theory. SIS-100 will be the facility, to perform the first spectroscopic experiments near solid density and at the temperatures 0.110 eV on that issue and also on the general investigation of the radiation emission under such extreme parameter conditions.

390

Section 2

4.2 Layout of the high energy density experiments

4.2.1 General Considerations In order to make a substantial contribution to the scientific areas in the regime of strongly coupled plasmas [86], the new accelerator scenario must aim to provide the highest intensities of bunched heavy ion beams. For its realization the most advanced accelerator technology has to be exploited [87]. Heavy ion species mostly used in the experimental program will be those with highest stopping power in an energy regime from 50 MeV/u up to about 1000 MeV/u. The lower limit is given by the optimum ion energy required for fusion targets, the upper value provides an optimization for a volume-heated cylindrical target. In order to reach temperatures above 10 eV in a target, an intensity for a single bunch of very heavy ions of the order of 1 TW must be delivered to the target with a spot size below 1 mm, resulting in a beam power density of 1014 W/cm2. For volume heating with ion beams the relevant figure of merit is the specific deposition power

P =

(dE / dx) N tr

measured in TW/g, with dE/dx the specific energy loss (at these energies about 3104 MeV/(g/cm2)), N the number of particles, r the spot size and t the pulse length. The local scientific community around GSI carried out a large number of radiationhydrodynamic simulations in order to investigate the conditions achievable with a variety of targets. It turned out that the details depend very sensitively on the structure of the beam (temporal and spatial distribution) as well as on the target design. The possibility to shape the target combined with the geometry of the deposition region allows for a wide variety of different experimental layouts. A hollow beam or hollow target produces much higher densities and especially pressures because of the converging shock waves. Such hollow beam profiles could be produced recently for SIS 18 beams with the help of the plasma lens [88] simultaneously with achieving a high beam transmission to the target region. A plasma lens is therefore of high importance for these experiments to produce strongly coupled plasmas at the SIS 100 (Figure 4.27). For experiments, which require a high sensitivity to measure e.g. the conductivity of a compressed target, a plasma lens is less well suited. A plasma lens produces a considerable amount of electromagnetic noise by its pulsed operation of a few 100 kA electric current. Here, a focusing system will be set up by using superconducting quadrupoles to achieve sub millimeter spot sizes for high-energy heavy ion beams. The diagnostics of the achieved plasma parameters is of large importance for the envisaged experimental program. For this purpose a beam line from SIS 18 to the plasma physics cave is required, which will serve as a diagnostic tool by measuring e.g. energy loss in a sample, as already done at present experiments at SIS 18 [89]. A 391

Section 2 versatile high-power laser, capable to operate in long pulse (ns) and short pulse (subps) mode, will provide unique additional diagnostics capabilities All diagnostics for the planned experiments depend strongly on single shot, fast data acquisition. Complex spectra produced by laser and ion beam-target interaction have to be collected within microseconds down to nanoseconds. The data acquisition systems for such experiments depend strongly on image recording devices, which are based on modern semiconductor devices. On the other hand, the pulsed high intensity ion beam and the Petawatt laser beam produce intense hard gamma and neutron radiation, which saturates or even destroys these sensitive and expensive detectors and cameras. To overcome this problem, a concrete shielding of several meter thickness between target and detectors is necessary. This shielding should be set up moveable, to allow flexible access to the interaction region according to the requirements of the different target geometries and different diagnostic tools. 4.2.2 Final focusing of high energy heavy ion beams The plasma physics experiments at the future GSI facility require a precise fine focusing to concentrate all available beam energy into a small target volume. Focusing to a small spot size or to a special shape is of high importance to the plasma physics experiments. The experience gained at the present GSI accelerators has shown that standard quadrupole systems are not sufficient for this purpose. The first choice for a final focusing system is a plasma lens. A Plasma lens provides strong first order focusing simultaneously in both planes perpendicular to the beam axis. The magnetic field of a pulsed high current discharge in the path of the ion beam exerts a Lorentz force on the beam ions and bends the ions towards the lens axis. Large focusing angles can be achieved, that are essential for emittance limited focusing. Moreover the plasma lens provides the possibility of flexible radial intensity distributions in the focal point. However, due to the electromagnetic noise of the high current gas discharge some diagnostics methods like electric conductivity measurements in the target are difficult when a plasma lens is used. For these experiments and due to the simpler handling an alternative superconducting quadrupole lens is planned. 4.2.2.1 Plasma lens focusing Plasma lenses were successfully operated at Berkeley [90], Brookhaven Columbia Laboratory [91], NRL Washington [92], CERN and GSI. At GSI the ability of plasma lenses for precision fine focusing was demonstrated [93], as well as their long-term reliability [94]. The plasma lens that is currently operated in GSIs experimental area HHT to focus the high-energy heavy ion beam from the SIS-18 accelerator achieves the best possible, emittance-limited focusing for a time interval of 500 ns [95]. This is long enough to focus the beam in the single bunch extraction scheme. The minimum size of the focal spot was 350 m (FWHM) [96]. Annular cylindrical beams were produced with an contrast of 10 between the maximum intensity and the intensity on the axis. The minimum annulus radius was 0.58 mm. The radius could be kept constant over 110 ns, or could be vary with velocities up to 0.1 mm/ns. 392

Section 2 A computer code has been developed, that calculates the radial current density profile in the plasma lens that is needed for this type of focusing. A diagnostic method has been developed to measure the radial current density profile in the plasma lens with high spatial (100 m) and temporal (10 ns) resolution [94]. It employs a mask to generate 61 individual beamlets that probe the plasma. Image analysis software has been developed to infer the deflection of these beamlets in the magnetic field from the raw data.

1 2 3 5 12 1m 4 67 8

9 10 11

Figure 4.27: Schematic set-up of the plasma lens. 1 Pulse power cables leading to the strip lines to the pulse generators, 2 Conical connector flange, 3 Entrance window (thin foil), 4 Removable scintillator for beam diagnostics, 5 Camera to observe the scintillator, 6 Hollow graphite anode, 7 Alumina discharge tube, 8 Hollow graphite cathode with preionization, 9 Exit window (2 mm graphite shield + thin foil), 10 Target position, 11 Target chamber, 12 PHELIX laser beam for interaction and diagnostics

The plasma lens (see Figure 4.27) device underlies spatial restrictions. Due to the large focusing angles it has to be close to the target, and yet it must not interfere with the diagnostics and the target handling equipment. The system is therefore separated into the plasma lens and the pulsed power generator. The pulse generator can be located in a technical support facility area, which can be accessed during the beam times to allow for easy control, adjustment and maintenance work. In this case low inductance strip lines connect the pulse generator to the experimental area (as in the CERN-ACOL plasma lens)[97]. From there, flexible cables lead the driving current to the plasma lens (as in the GSI SIS-18 plasma lens) [98]. The connector flange is shaped conically to allow the PHELIX laser beam, other diagnostics, and target handling equipment to interact with the front side of the target under a small angle to the beam axis. Experiments that require the highest achievable specific deposition power require a focusing to the smallest possible focal spot size. This is done with a parallel, round 393

Section 2 beam that completely fills the entrance aperture of the plasma lens, together with a radially homogeneous current density in the plasma lens. For experiments that require spatially constant specific deposition energy, a new mode has to be developed that produces a radial constant beam intensity profile in the target volume. This can be done with a specifically shaped current density distribution in the plasma lens zpinch discharge. Cylindrical implosion experiments, e.g. to produce metallic hydrogen, require intense annular beams. Beams with such profiles have already been produced [99] and will be further optimized [100]. An ion beam of 6 Tm magnetic rigidity, 20 mm mrad emittance, and 12 mm radius (2 ) is focused to a radius (FWHM / 2) of 200 m over a distance of 150 mm between the discharge tube and the target with a total plasma lens current of 220 kA [101]. To allow for the production of smaller spots and higher contrast ratios in the hollow cylinder shaped beams, the pulse generator should be able to deliver 500 kA current pulses. This value is technically feasible, and is not too far from the existing plasma lens (300 kA) to allow an extrapolation. The scientific development of a new plasma lens includes measurements of the pinch dynamics. A parameter optimization will lead to the best working values for the different focusing modes. On the technical side, work will include the development of the pulse generators, lifetime tests, and incorporation into the experimental control system. 4.2.2.2 Final Focusing System using Superconducting Quadrupoles Ion Optical Properties The generation of hot dense plasma matter by heavy ion beams requires strong transverse focusing. An appropriate quadrupole system for the generation of an ion beam spot with about 1 mm radius has been designed. The proposed system is shown in Figure 4.28 and Figure 4.29. According to first order calculations, ignoring chromatic effects (dp/p = 0), the achievable spot size is smaller than 1 mm. However, the spot size growth significantly due to the large momentum spread of the beam pulse after longitudinal compression. The main contribution to this growth is caused by second order chromatic image aberrations. The growth appears mainly in vertical direction and leads to a slightly elliptical spot shape. Further, but smaller contributions to the spot tails are caused by third order aberrations, mainly caused by fringing field effects. As maximum transverse emittance, 20 x 20 mm mrad was assumed. In order to restrict the beam size and to produce a circular focal spot, it is necessary to generate a vanishing dispersion function by the upstream transport- and matching system. As earlier studies (HIDIF) have shown, the proposed system layout behaves stable with respect to varying transverse space charge forces. No significant increase of the focal spot size can be observed with increasing beam currents up to 130 A.

394

Section 2

Figure 4.28: Rays of characteristic particles through the PP-final focusing system. The beam is matched by two quadrupoles (left) and focused by the quadrupoles Q1-Q6.

Figure 4.29: Transverse distribution of the ion beam in the focal plane in 1st. order without momentum spread (left) and 3rd. order including a momentum spread of 1% (right). The plot dimensions are 5 x 5 mm.

395

Section 2

Technical Properties The proposed system consists of 6 large aperture quadrupole magnets and two matching quadrupoles. In order to restrict the pole tip field, the apertures of the individual quadrupoles have been kept as small as possible. Four of the six quadrupole magnets can be set-up as normal conducting, iron dominated magnets, with a maximum pole tip field of 1 T. The two final quadrupoles are, high gradient, superconducting quadrupoles with a maximum pole tip field of about 4.5 T, and an especially large aperture. The aperture of the four normal conducting magnets is comparable to the ESR quadrupole magnet aperture. However, the maximum pole tip field of the ESR quadrupole magnet is only 0.8 T. Thus, at a similar yoke design the width must be slightly enhanced. Other comparable quadrupole magnets can be found at MSU (diameter: 300 mm). The MSU quadrupoles are iron dominated, but superconducting with a maximum pole tip field of 2.4 T. Another similar type of quadrupole is foreseen for the new separator project of RIKEN. The whole focusing system will be operated in a steady state mode. No fast field ramping is required. Thus the two high-field superconducting magnets can be designed similar to the RHIC quadrupole magnet design (Figure 4.30). Eventually a second coil layer has to be introduced. One of the advantages of the proposed quadrupole final focusing system compared to other focusing options is the comfortable target distance. The target distance from the last quadrupole magnet is 1 m. The maximum field gradients were determined for beam focusing at the maximum magnetic rigidity of 100 Tm. The calculated pole tip fields and other magnet parameters are listed in the following tables:

Final Focusing Quadrupole # Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 396

Pole Tip Field [T] (100Tm) .933 -1 .933 .933 -4.215 4.25

Aperture Radius [m]

Length [m] 2.5 3 1.75 1.75 2 2

.14 .14 .14 .14 .17 .1

Section 2 Drift # Matching System Q1 Q1-Q2 Q2-Q3 Q3-Q4 Q4-Q5 Q5-Q6 Q6-Target Length [m] 10 1 2 .5 2 .5 1

Figure 4.30: RHIC-Insertion Region Quadrupole

397

Section 2 4.2.3 Diagnostics for heavy ion beam interaction with solid targets Shock compression of solid matter driven by intense beams of particles or photons is of vital relevance for Equation of State studies at various matter densities and temperatures, implying also phase transitions and high energy density in matter experiments. While the shock compression driven by intense laser beams is a high pressure fast heating, the ion beam driven compression is a slow, adiabatic process. Strongly coupled plasmas are created by the interaction of the SIS heavy ion beams with solid targets. The generated plasmas have densities close to the solid state and large volumes of several mm3. Different from the cold shock compression, the study of these plasmas is very important for studies of compressed matter at high temperatures of several eV. The temperature of the target heated by the beam can be determined by time resolved spectroscopy in visible and VUV regions, which were already employed in experiments of beam interaction with cryogenic gas crystals. Optical backlighting shadowgraphy is already used to study the hydrodynamics of the matter expanding from the heated targets. The method uses a 250 J Xe flashlamp with a pulse length of 10 s and a fast multiframing or a streak camera. This method shows only the boundary of the expanding matter, but gives no information about its density. In the future an intense short pulse X-ray backlighter will be generated with the PHELIX laser which will be used for density radiography of the expanding target. Furthermore, high intensity proton beam is generated by the interaction of the intense laser pulse with a thin target. It was proven that such a beam can be used for proton radiography of the heated target. 4.2.3.1 Schlieren-Diagnostics Studies on shock wave cold compression of the matter in the conditions offered by the heavy ion beams have already been performed with the aid of a Schlieren technique. A serial of experiments aiming the determination of shock propagation velocity and estimations of the induced density gradients in the test material were run, for different beams: U, Kr and Au. Layered targets composed out of a metal driver for absorbing the beam energy, followed by a transparent block for optical observations (Plexiglas in these cases) have been tested. Four metals (Al, Cu, Fe and Pb) were used as drivers for comparison between situations created by different ion beam specific energy depositions. The detection was done by a streak camera and, for two-dimensional visualization, a framing camera. Time and space resolved measurements were this way attained, providing information about the dynamical behavior of the pressure waves and their effects on the solid matter. A multiple shock structure expanding in time was observed, displaying a spherical front, which reaches propagating velocities higher than the speed of sound in Plexiglas. A maximum shock velocity of 3 km/s was measured for the Pb driver target. The consequently determined pressures were of maximum 0.4 GPa, higher for the Pb and Al drivers than for Cu and Al. Numerical simulations performed using a two dimensional hydrodynamic code, BIG 2, showed a good agreement in parameters. Additionally, the experimental streak images could be 398

Section 2 reproduced using the simulation output parameter. An example is given below, for the Cu driver target (Figure 4.31).

Figure 4.31: SIS-18 studies on the heavy ion beam induced pressure waves: target design, streak picture from Schlieren measurements and reconstructed streak picture from BIG-2 simulations.

Future enhancement of the beam parameters (short bunching, higher intensity and energy) will contribute dramatically to the compression rate, which in the present conditions is of around 7%. Diagnostics like interferometry (for absolute density measurements) and direct pressure measurements (using PVDF gauges) will provide accurate benchmarks to the theoretical EOS studies and will give a complete insight in the heavy ion beam - matter interaction process. 4.2.3.2 Conductivity measurements One of the properties of matter, which dramatically changes due to the interaction of high intensity heavy ion beams with different types of targets, is the electrical conductivity. The electrical conductivity gives insight about both charge carrier density and microscopic interactions between the carriers and their environment; it also provides an indirect method to determine the heat conductivity (usually the contribution of electrons). Thus, measured values of electrical conductivity are of both practical and theoretical importance. There are several known methods which can be applied to measure electrical conductivity of matter, but special attention has to be given to the specifics of the targets which can be used in connection with high intensity heavy ion beams. Therefore for the first measurements of electrical conductivity made in the Plasma Physics Group at GSI, simplicity of the method was considered to be of greater importance then precision, which should be improved in the future. At this point it has to be mentioned that beams of higher intensity and shorter duration can greatly

399

Section 2 help the precise measurement of electrical conductivity, and also can provide for the achievement of temperature/pressure conditions which are not possible at present.

Figure 4.32: The electrical circuit used to measure variations of electrical conductivity. The target is represented by a time-variable resistance R(t); L is the stray inductance of the targets circuit.

Figure 4.33: A typical target. The lead wire (target) is shown on the left side, it was partially destroyed by the intense ion beam, which was oriented perpendicular to it.

The method presently used provides for measurements of changes in the electrical conductivity at low frequencies for initially conducting targets (metals), which are directly heated by the ion beam. For this we use the electrical circuit showed in Figure 4.32. The voltage signal obtained from the target is proportional to the change in its electrical resistance: dU=dR*I, where I is a constant current of typically 1A. As targets we used thin wires (0.5 or 0.25mm in diameter, 10mm long) of different 400

Section 2 materials (lead, aluminum, copper, silver) of high purity. These wires were placed perpendicular or along the axis of the focused ion beam. Because the wire-target is directly heated, it suffers a hydrodynamic expansion, thus we have to monitor its geometrical dimensions (especially the diameter). This is done with the aid of a fast multi-framing camera (DRS Ultra-8). In Figure 4.33 we show one of the targets used in our experiments while Figure 4.34 gives a typical evolution of the electrical conductivity of a target in time. For the future we plan to extend our experiments to directly heated insulating targets and to indirectly driven targets (shock compressed matter).

Figure 4.34: The electrical conductivity of a lead wire as function of time, during the irradiation with an oxygen beam having an intensity of approximately 1.71010 part./bunch. The time origin is at the beginning of the beam bunch; the conductivity of lead in standard conditions is approximately 5 MS/m.

4.2.3.3 Time resolved energy loss spectrometry and stopping power measurements The accelerator facilities at GSI Darmstadt offer a unique possibility for experiments with heavy-ion beam induced dense plasmas. Using intense beams of highly energetic heavy ions, it is possible to heat rather large volumes of matter at solid-state density to extreme conditions of temperature and pressure [102-104]. The knowledge gained by such experiments is of considerable interest in fundamental research on the equation of state (EOS) of matter, phase transitions and hydrodynamic behavior of dense plasmas. These phenomena are related to the field of plasma physics, astrophysics, geophysics and have an important practical application in inertial fusion energy research [1]. Measurements of the density are essential in experiments on 401

Section 2 interaction between intense heavy-ion beams and dense matter since the target density can change by an order of magnitude or more during and after the interaction process. However, in many of the above experiments the time-resolved measurement of the target density is a difficult problem. For example the most frequently used method of x-ray absorption measurements is hard to apply if the target material of interest with a low x-ray attenuation is surrounded by a high-Z material, or when the temperature, pressure and, thus, the opacity of the matter are varying significantly in space as well as in time. X-ray radiography can also not be used to determine the line density of the target in the ion beam direction that is needed for precise measurement of the deposition power.

Figure 4.35: Principal scheme of the Energy Loss Dynamics experimental setup.

Recently, we have developed a new technique, where the ion beam itself is used as a diagnostic tool, while heating a target [89]. In this method the energy loss spectrum of an ion beam is measured with time resolution during the interaction process. Since energy loss of the projectiles reflects directly the target density, time evolution of the line density in the target can be obtained in this way. A small time resolving energy loss spectrometer, based on an original operating principle has been developed for these measurements (Figure 4.35). In this spectrometer, the projectile ions, escaping the target in the vicinity of the beam axis are stopped in the bulk of a fast scintillator. An electronic streak camera records the specific luminescence profile along the ion penetration depth in the scintillator. The energy loss evolution of the ion beam is deduced from this data with a ns temporal resolution. For the first time, we observed continuous reduction in energy loss due to hydrodynamic motion of the ion-beam heated target matter. The commissioning experiments with cryogenic rare-gas targets and ion beams delivered by SIS-18 (Figure 4.36) have demonstrated that this diagnostics, distinctively, provides the experimental data that can be compared with the simulations directly and on quantitative level [105]. Good agreement has been 402

Section 2 found between the experimental results and two-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations [89].

Figure 4.36: Measured and calculated energy loss dynamics of intense heavy ion beams heating cryogenic rare-gas crystals. a) 238U beam, 190 MeV/u, 1.2x109 particles/pulse interacting with solid Ne target; b) 86Kr beam, 300 MeV/u, 1.1x1010 particles/pulse interacting with solid Xe target.

The energy loss dynamics measurements will be a standard target diagnostic technique for the proposed plasma physics experiments with SIS-100 heavy ion beams. The high intensity ion beams delivered by SIS-100 will allow to increase the accuracy of the measurements providing the precision that is necessary to verify and correct the EOS data for the target material, along with the hydrodynamic simulations. Moreover, the beam intensities will be sufficient for simultaneous timeresolved measurements of the charge state distribution of the ions escaping the target. For this purpose a magnetic spectrometer will be installed. In order to achieve the highest energy density in matter, all the beam energy must be deposited before the target material expands significantly. This requires that short ion beam pulses are used, i.e. the whole ion beam intensity is compressed into a shot (about 50 ns) bunch. In this case a separate diagnostic beam with lower intensity and longer duration will be used in addition to the main SIS-100 beam generating the plasma. This probing ion beam can be either a complimentary ion beam delivered by SIS-18 or may consist of a different species that are accelerated together with the main pulse in SIS-100. The longer bunches of the diagnostic beam will extend the probing duration while selecting different energies and different ion species for the diagnostics will allow to optimize the precision of the measurements for specific experimental conditions. In the proposed beam-matter interaction experiments high target temperatures (tens of electron volt) are expected. Dense target matter heated to such temperatures will become to a state of a non-ideal, strongly coupled plasma. It is well known, that the stopping properties of plasma differ significantly from that of cold matter due to the 403

Section 2 free electron contribution to the stopping cross section [106-108]. Moreover, there are recent theoretical results predicting that the stopping power of dense, strongly coupled plasmas substantially deviates from that of cold matter as well as of an ideal plasma [109,110]. Therefore, the energy loss of a particle beam in such cases will depend not only on target density but also on the temperature dependent stopping processes. In order to separate the density and temperature related effects in the stopping cross sections, x-ray radiography with the PHELIX backlighter system will be used, whereas time and space resolved information on the target temperature will be obtained by spectroscopic measurements. Together with the energy loss dynamics, this will allow to study the stopping properties of dense, strongly coupled plasmas in the proposed experiment To maximize the ion beam energy deposition in the target, a plasma lens will be used to focus the beam onto the target to beam spot sizes below a milimeter in diameter. A similar plasma lens designed for the SIS-18 is successfully in operation for a number of years as the standard final focus device at the HHT experimental area [111]. Due to the strong focusing the ion beam is strongly divergent after passing through the target. To increase the signal in the energy loss spectrometer, especially for a low intensity diagnostics beam and to achieve high temporal resolution, focusing of the ion beam behind the target may be necessary. Behind the target the probing beam can be transported over distances of several meters with negligible losses in a discharge current channel. Discharge channels are ideal ion-optical elements for this purpose due to their high and symmetric focusing fields and due to their large achromaticity. The low mass density of these channels ensures an almost negligible energy loss and scattering of the beam. Beam transport channels are currently under investigation at GSI [112]. The discharge channel parameters for beam transport to a spectrometer with a current of 10 20 kA in a 1 cm-diameter dielectric discharge tube are relaxed compared to the channels currently under investigation. A single capacitor bank of a few F charged to several kV can drive the current. The discharge conditions during the passage of the beam are constant since a channel of this size has a current rise time of several microseconds. Bending the transport channel slightly out of the optical axis allows several meters of shielding between the target region and the energy loss spectrometer without beam losses and without a direct line of sight between target and diagnostics equipment. The trajectories in Figure 4.37 were calculated for a homogeneously distributed current of 16.8 kA in a discharge channel with a diameter of 1 cm. Experiments with wall stabilized discharges have shown that the assumption of homogeneous current distribution is almost perfectly fulfilled [113]. Lower currents will lead to a loss of ions in the channel, higher currents lead to an increased divergence of the beam that enters the scintillator at the end of the channel. Slightly higher channel current than the minimum confining current are required to avoid particle losses in a bend channel. To avoid losses the bending of the channel per betatron oscillation of the ions has to be small compared to the betatron oscillation amplitude. Ions leaving the channel with a divergence of 100 mrad lead to tolerable transverse expansion of the beam inside the scintillator of few millimeters. 404

Section 2

Figure 4.37: Ion beam trajectories through a plasma lens, target chamber and a 17 kA transport channel.

4.2.4 Layout of the experimental area The experimental area for the high energy density in matter experiments driven by heavy ion beams consists of two beam-target interaction chambers (Figure 4.38). Both target chambers (target A and target B) have a spherical shape with an external diameter of 1.5 m. The beam transport to the target chambers is achieved by superconducting quadrupoles. The chamber walls consist of interchangeable modules for different types of experiments and various diagnostics. The Petawatt compressor tank for the PHELIX laser beam is positioned above the two target areas at a height of 5 m and it can be moved in order to deliver the Petawatt laser beam to both target chambers. A beam fine focusing by a superconducting quadrupole results in a low level of electromagnetic noise, which is set up for the first target chamber. This chamber is dedicated to experiments that require sensitive electrical measurements, such as the determination of the plasma conductivity, pressure gauge measurements or optical measurements where the presence of CCD cameras close to the target chamber is required. Moreover, the SIS 18 beam can be delivered to this chamber to diagnose the plasmas generated by SIS 100 beam during the interaction with solid density targets. At the second target chamber the pulsed power devices are set up, such as the plasma lens for final beam focusing and a pulse generator for magnetized target experiments. The plasma lens is able to produce ion beam spots with diameters smaller than 1 mm in the focus, as well as hollow beams for cylindrical target compression experiments. After passing through the targets, the SIS 100 beam can be characterized, either by time of flight measurements, or with an ion spectrometer build from a magnetic dipole. The two target chambers are shielded for electromagnetic noise and nuclear radiation, the last being achieved by thick concrete blocks and lead shields. This shielding is required to protect the image collecting systems from neutron and gamma radiation produced from the heavy ion beams as well as from the Petawatt laser pulse. 405

Section 2

Figure 4.38: Principal set up of the experimental area to investigate strongly coupled plasmas. The beams from SIS 100 are focused to the targets by using superconducting quadrupoles and alternatively by using a plasma lens with its capabilities to produce a hollow beam. A further beam line from the SIS 18 serves to diagnose the density of a target. Above the central mirror tower a compressor tank will be mounted to recompress the PHELIX laser pulse to a sub ns time duration (Petawatt pulse) and to deliver it to both target chambers. The concrete shielding serves as protection for the sensitive semiconductor devices from the hard radiation coming from laser and ion beam.

406

Section 2 4.2.4.1 The diagnostic and control devices There are two main ideas which have to be achieved in the diagnostics set-up of the two target areas, namely the presence of a fixed, standardized set of diagnostics and a careful shielding of the sensitive semiconductor devices. Optical spectrometers for the visible, VUV and X-ray ranges as well as beam intensity monitors will be part of the standard diagnostics for both target A and B areas. Since the spectrometers do not have electronic parts sensitive to the electromagnetic noise of the Petawatt laser produced plasmas or of the pulsed power devices, they may be mounted directly onto the target chambers. For the spectroscopy and the imaging in visible range, the images can be focused by using object-to-bundle objectives onto fiber bundles that are connected to streak, multi-framing and fast shutter CCD cameras. These cameras are placed in a special Faraday cage, highly shielded for noise and radiation, separated from the target areas by concrete blocks. Bundles with a rectangular profile of 25x35 mm and a fiber size of 10 m are presently available, with a transmission of approx. 30% over 6 m distance for the 500 nm to 1200 nm range. The x-ray and VUV signals can be either converted to visible light in order to be transported as well on the bundles to the visible CCD cameras, or can be imaged directly by using X-ray and VUV mirrors onto special detectors and cameras. The camera control and acquisition PCs are placed together with the cameras for both target areas in the same Faraday cage. These PCs are connected via a data acquisition and control system and an optical fiber line to the main PC unit for control and acquisition, placed in the main HHT control room. This cage for cameras is therefore electrically insulated from all other systems. A second shielded Faraday cage is dedicated to sensitive electrical measurements that imply galvanic contact and any other diagnostic devices except for the optical diagnostics, such as the cryogenic target control, the backlighter control and others. This cage is connected to the target area B by low voltage and optical signal lines. The control and data acquisition is also achieved from the main HHT control room through optical fiber lines. The TTL signals that control the pulsed power generators are transformed in light signals and several optical-to-electrical converters are placed close to the generators. In principle only optical fiber lines connect the HHT control room and the experimental cave.

407

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Acknowledgment
This chapter, as all the other chapters (sections) of this document, was prepared with the help of many individuals. The appendix lists the names of all the individuals involved in the CDR document, from the contributions to the science discussions, workshops and working groups to the research and development, the detailed scientific and technical planning activities, and, last not least, the drafting of this Conceptual Design Report. The concepts and presentations of the science and technical plans in this chapter were in particular developed by the following authors: Carmen Constantin, Eduard Dewald, Dieter H.H. Hoffmann, Joachim Jacoby, Anna Kozyreva, Joachim A. Maruhn, Ulrich Neuner, Christoph Niemann, Frank Rosmej, Markus Roth, Theo Schlegel, Peter Spiller, Naeem A. Tahir, Andreas Tauschwitz, Serban Udrea, Dmitry Varentsov, Jochen Wieser.

408

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