ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES

1. Introduction
Artificial satellites are the backbone of modern communication systems. Artificial satellites are human-built objects orbiting the Earth and other planets in the Solar System. This is different from the natural satellites, or moons, that orbit planets, dwarf planets and even asteroids. Artificial satellites are used to study the Earth, other planets, to help us communicate, and even to observe the distant Universe. Satellites can even have people in them, like the International Space Station and the Space Shuttle. Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.

2. History of Artificial Satellites

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is a crater on the lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.

Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War. Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named Laika.[5] On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957. The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space Station.

3. Types of Orbits
If placed in an orbit high enough to escape the frictional effects of the earth's atmosphere, the motion of the satellite is controlled by the same laws of celestial mechanics that govern the motions of natural satellites, and it will remain in orbit indefinitely. t heights less than 200 mi (320 km) the drag produced by the atmosphere will slow the satellite down, causing it to descend into the denser portion of the atmosphere where it will burn up like a meteor. To attain orbital altitude and velocity, multistage rockets are used, with each stage falling away as its fuel is exhausted; the effect of reducing the total mass of the rocket while maintaining its thrust is to increase its speed, thus allowing it to achieve the required velocity of 5 mi per sec (8 km per sec). At this speed the rocket's forward momentum exactly balances its downward gravitational acceleration, resulting in orbit. Once above the lower atmosphere, the rocket bends to a nearly horizontal flight path, until it reaches the orbital height desired for the satellite. Different orbits serve different purposes. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are several types of orbits: 3.1 Polar orbits 3.2 Sun synchronous orbits 3.3 Geo synchronous orbits

3.1 Polar Orbits:

The more correct term would be near polar orbits. These orbits have an inclination near 90 degrees. This allows the satellite to see virtually every part of the Earth as the Earth rotates underneath it. It takes approximately 90 minutes for the satellite to complete one orbit. These satellites have many uses such as measuring ozone concentrations in the stratosphere or measuring temperatures in the atmosphere.

3.2 Sun Synchronous Orbits:

These orbits allows a satellite to pass over a section of the Earth at the same time of day. Since there are 365 days in a year and 360 degrees in a circle, it means that the satellite has to shift its orbit by approximately one degree per day. These satellites orbit at an altitude between 700 to 800 km. These satellites use the fact since the Earth is not perfectly round (the Earth bulges in the center, the bulge near the equator will cause additional gravitational forces to act on the satellite. This causes the satellite's orbit to either proceed or recede. These orbits are used for satellites that need a constant amount of sunlight. Satellites that take pictures of the Earth would work best with bright sunlight, while satellites that measure long wave radiation would work best in complete darkness.

3.3 Geosynchronous Orbits:

Also known as geostationary orbits, satellites in these orbits circle the Earth at the same rate as the Earth spins. The Earth actually takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds to make one full revolution. So based on Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion, this would put the satellite at approximately 35,790 km above the Earth. The satellites are located near the equator since at this latitude, there is a constant force of gravity from all directions. At other latitudes, the bulge at the center of the Earth would pull on the satellite. Geosynchronous orbits allow the satellite to observe almost a full hemisphere of the Earth. These satellites are used to study large scale phenomenon such as hurricanes, or cyclones. These orbits are also used for communication satellites. The disadvantage of this type of orbit is that since these satellites are very far away,

they have poor resolution. The other disadvantage is that these satellites have trouble monitoring activities near the poles.

A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based observer. A geostationary satellite revolves around the earth at the same angular velocity of the earth itself, 360 degrees every 24 hours in an equatorial orbit, and therfore it seems to be in a fixed position over the equator.The launch of Anik A-1 in 1972, made Canada the first country in the world to establish its own domestic geostationary communication satellite network. The geostationary orbit is useful for communications applications because ground based antennas, which must be directed toward the satellite, can operate effectively without the need for expensive equipment to track the satellites motion. Especially for applications that require a large number of ground antennas (such as DirectTV distribution), the savings in ground equipment can more than justify the extra cost and onboard complexity of lifting a satellite into the relatively high geostationary orbit. The main drawback of a geostationary satellite , however, is that it cannot be "seen" from polar regions, so it cannot provide commumications to extreme northerly or southerly areas of the globe. Another drawback of GEO satellites is their distance from earth (~37,000 kilometers), which requires more powerful transmitters, larger (usually dish) antennas, and high sensitivity receivers to Satellite Earth Stations. This distance also introduces a large (~0.25 second) delay.

4. Satellite Components
Communications satellites are similar to other unmanned spacecraft, but are refined for the communications mission in GEO. Within the satellite are two major sections:
y y

The spacecraft bus (likewise, the bus). The communications payload (or simply, the payload).

4.1 The bus

The bus contains the support vehicle and control subsystems that allow the payload to perform its mission as a microwave repeater in space. Within the bus we find:
y

Tracking, telemetry, command and ranging (TTC&R) to provide a remote control and housekeeping link to the satellite operator.

Solar panels to provide all of the prime power.

Batteries to operate the satellite when it is hidden from the sun by the earth or moon (called eclipse, happening for up to 70 minutes a day during equinox season).

y y

Reaction control system (propulsion) to be used to correct the orbit. Attitude and spacecraft control processing to assure that the antennas are pointed at the ground.

Thermal control to maintain the electronics and other components within a safe temperature range over the life of the satellite.

Structure to hold everything together and protect the subsystems during launch and after deployment on orbit.All of these subsystems are important because they must work properly throughout the satellite's lifetime. Problems in these areas can reduce satellite performance and even threaten its ability to operate.

4.2 The payload

The payload is the business-end of the satellite, consisting of:
y

Repeater (microwave receivers, RF multiplexers, power amplifiers, channel processing and switching). Contained within the repeater are the transponders,

Antennas (reflectors, feeds, feed networks, support structure and pointing mechanisms). The antennas create "footprint" coverage but require the repeater to receive and transmit the actual signals from and to the ground.

Other 3 major components in a satellite are : (i)

Transponder and antenna system-

The transponder is a high frequency radio receiver, a frequency down-converter and a power amplifier, which is used to transmit the downlink signal. The antenna system contains the antennas and the mechanism to position them correctly. Once properly in place, they will generally function trouble-free fro the life of the satellite. (ii)

Power Package-

It is a power supply to the satellite. The satellite must be powered either from a battery or a solar energy system. In case of communications satellites in the Clarke orbit, a combination of battery power and solar energy is used. A solar cell system supplies the power to run the electronics and change the batteries during the sunlight cycle and battery furnishes the energy during the eclipse. (iii)

Control and information system & rocket thruster system

The control and information system and the rocket thruster system are called the station keeping system. The function of the station keeping system is to keep the satellite in the correct orbit with the antennas pointed in the exact direction desired.

5. Life And Death of a Satellite

y Building a satellite
Every satellite carries special instruments that enable it to perform its mission. For example a satellite the studies the universe carries a telescope. A satellite that helps forecast the weather carries cameras to track the movement of clouds. In addition to such mission specific instruments, all satellites have basic subsystems, groups of devices that help the instruments to work together and keep the satellite operating. For example a power subsystem generates, stores and distributes the satellites electric power. This subsystem may include panels of solar cells that gather energy from the sun. Command and data handling systems consists of subsystems that gather and process data from the instruments and execute commands from earth. All satellites instruments and subsystems are designed built and tested individually. Workers install them on the satellite one at time until the satellite is complete. Then the satellite is tested under the conditions that it will encounter during launch and while in space. If the satellite passes all its tests, it is ready to be launched.

y Launching the satellite

Space shuttles carry some satellites into space but most of them are launched by rockets that fall into the ocean after their fuel is spent. Many satellites require minor adjustments of their orbits before they begin to function. Built in rockets called thrusters make these adjustments. Once a satellite is placed into a stable orbit, it can remain there for a long time without further adjustments.

y Performing the mission

Many satellites are directed from the control center on the earth. Computers and human operators at the control centre monitor the satellites position, send instructions to its computers and retrieve information that the satellite has gathered. The control center communicates with the satellite by radio. Ground stations within satellites range send and receive the radio signals.

A satellite does not usually receive constant direction from its control center. It is like an orbiting robot. It controls its solar panels to keep them pointed toward the sun and keeps its antennas ready to receive its commands. Its instruments automatically collect its information. Satellites at high altitudes, Geosynchronous orbits are always in contact with the earth. Ground stations can contact satellites in low orbits as often as 12 times a day. During each contact satellite transmits information and receives instructions. Each contact must be completed during the time the satellite passes overhead, about 10 minutes. If some part of the satellite breaks down, but satellite remains capable of doing useful work.The satellite owner usually will continue to operate it. In some cases, ground controllers can repair or reprogram the satellite. In rare instances, space shuttle crews have retrieved or repaired satellites in space. If a satellite can no longer perform usefully and cannot be repaired or reprogrammed, the operators will send a signal to shut it off.

y Falling from the orbit

A satellite remains on orbit until its velocity decreases and it is pulled down by the gravitational force into a relatively dense part of the atmosphere. A satellite slows down due to occasional impact with air molecules in the upper atmosphere and gentle pressure of the suns energy. When the gravitational force pulls the satellite down far enough into the atmosphere, the satellite rapidly compresses the sir in front of it. This air becomes so hot that most or all of the satellite burns up.

6. Types of artificial satellites

Satellites are classified on the basis of their mission. Accordingly we have:

6.1 Scientific Research Satellites:

They gather data for scientific analysis. They do either of the following jobsy Some gather information regarding the composition and the effects of the space near earth. They may be placed in any of the various orbits depending n the type of measurements they are to make. y Some record changes in the earth and its atmosphere. Many of them travel in sun synchronous, polar orbits. y Some observe planets, stars and other distant objects. Most of these satellites operate in low altitude orbits.

These satellites gather data for scientific analysis. This includes observations of the atmosphere of our planet, the stars, the sun and other parts of space. The earth orbiting satellites can observe celestial objects without the interference from the Earth's atmosphere. These satellites are able to record data without the interference of gases, lights, and magnetic fields produced on earth. Scientific satellites are not restricted to earth orbits, they also orbit the sun, moon, and other planets.

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6.2 Weather satellites:

The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth. Satellites can be either polar orbiting, seeing the same swath of the Earth every 12 hours, or geostationary, hovering over the same spot on Earth by orbiting over the equator while moving at the speed of the Earth's rotation.[1] These meteorological satellites, however, see more than clouds and cloud systems. City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., and other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites. Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields.

The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2, was launched on February 17, 1959. It was designed to measure cloud cover and resistance, but a poor axis of rotation kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data. The first weather satellite to be considered a success was TIROS-1, launched by NASA on 1 April 1960. TIROS operated for 78 days and proved to be much more successful than Vanguard 2.

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6.3 Communication satellite:

A communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to COMSAT) is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits including geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, other elliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar) Earth orbits. For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio relay technology complementary to that of communication cables. They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting, for which application of other technologies, such as cable television, is impractical or impossible.

The first artificial satellite was the Soviet Sputnik 1, launched on October 4, 1957, and equipped with an on-board radio-transmitter that worked on two frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based observer. A geostationary satellite revolves around the earth at the same angular velocity of the earth itself, 360 degrees every 24 hours in an equatorial orbit, and therfore it seems to be in a fixed position over the equator.The launch of Anik A-1 in 1972, made Canada the first country in the world to establish its own domestic geostationary communication satellite network.

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6.4 Navigation satellite:

A satellite navigation or sat nav system is a system of satellites that provide autonomous geospatial positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few metres using time signals transmitted along a line-of-sight by radio from satellites. Receivers calculate the precise time as well as position, which can be used as a reference for scientific experiments. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system or GNSS. The first satellite navigation system was Transit, a system deployed by the US military in the 1960s. Transit's operation was based on the Doppler effect: the satellites traveled on well-known paths and broadcast their signals on a well known frequency. The received frequency will differ slightly from the broadcast frequency because of the movement of the satellite with respect to the receiver. By monitoring this frequency shift over a short time interval, the receiver can determine its location to one side or the other of the satellite, and several such measurements combined with a precise knowledge of the satellite's orbit can fix a particular position. The two current operational low Earth orbit satellite phone networks are able to track transceiver units with accuracy of a few kilometers using doppler shift calculations from the satellite. The coordinates are sent back to the transceiver unit where they can be read using AT commands or a graphical user interface.[18][19] This can also be used by the gateway to enforce restrictions on geographically bound calling plans.

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6.5 Military Satellite:

A military satellite is an artificial satellite used for a military purpose, often for gathering intelligence, as a communications satellite used for military purposes, or as a military weapon. A satellite by itself is neither military nor civil. It is the kind of payload it carries that enables one to arrive at a decision regarding its military or civilian character. For example, a civilian satellite can carry military transponders and vice versa. Civil commercial satellites are also known to carry out military tasks including enabling military communications, imagery etc. At the same time, military satellites like the NAVSTAR GPS have more civilian users than military users. In spite of the above possibilities, satellites which have purely military uses are known as military satellites. The US poses the largest demand for military satellites. Military satellites is becoming more indispensable in theater of operations as well as "home country" use for training, data redistribution and backhaul. India will launch its first dedicated military satellite in 2012 to give the country the capability to monitor missile launches in its neighbourhood.The dedicated military reconnaissance satellite, CARTOSAT 2A, will be launched on a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle rocket by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) .It will boast of spatial resolution and will be loaded with cameras that can supply advanced imagery. It will cater to military and intelligence specifications than any existing Indian satellite.The launch of the satellite will fulfill a longstanding demand from the armed forces for a dedicated reconnaissance spacecraft.Launch of the first military satellite will be rapidly followed by the launch of two more advanced imaging satellites by next year to give India the capability of keeping an eye round-the-clock on the region surrounding the country.

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6.6 Earth Observing Satellites:

Earth observation satellites are satellites specifically designed to observe Earth from orbit, similar to reconnaissance satellites but intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making etc. Most Earth observation satellites carry instruments that should be operated at a relatively low altitude. But altitudes below say 500-600 kilometers are in general avoided, though, because of the significant air-drag at such low altitudes making frequent orbit raising manoeuvres necessary. To get a (close to) global coverage with such a relatively low orbit it has to be polar or at least close to polar. As such a rather low orbit will have an orbital period of roughly 100 minutes the Earth will rotate around its polar axis with about 25 deg between successive orbits with the result that the ground track is shifted towards west with these 25 deg in longitude.

For spacecraft carrying instruments for which an altitude of 36000 km is suitable the Geostationary orbit is sometimes the preferred choice. From such an orbit one gets uninterrupted coverage of more than 1/3 of the Earth. With 3 geostationary spacecraft positioned over the equator at longitudes separated with 120 deg the whole Earth is covered except the extreme polar regions. This type of orbit is mainly used for meteorological satellites.

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7. Satellite Phones
Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, the Indonesian tsunami and other disasters in recent months have allowed people to compare satellite phones and their advantages to terrestrial communication systems. A satellite phone is simply a mobile phone that uses commercial space satellites instead of landbased radio towers to connect to phone lines. The phone signal is transmitted to an orbiting satellite and then beamed back to earth. This creates a number of advantages. 1. Satellite phones will work almost anywhere in the world. All that is needed is signal access to the satellite. The phones are not dependent upon cell towers. 2. Satellite phones will work during power outages. All that is required is a charged battery in the phone. There are also a number of accessory power supplies available to extend the life of the phone during the crisis period. These include chargers that plug into the cigarette lighter of a car or truck, additional batteries, data kits and solar chargers. 3. Satellite phones are compact and convenient to carry and use. Just as with other phone technologies, these phones are now much smaller than predecessor models. 4. Satellite phones are affordable. At one time this technology delivery was expensive for customers. As acceptance of these phones has increased over the past decade, the cost of using satellite phones has decreased. There are also a number of plans available to provide the service you need at the lowest possible cost. For less than $1,000, you can purchase both a handset and a one year airtime plan. 5. Satellite phone equipment and plans provide voice communication, Internet access, voice mail and access to e-mail. Secure link communications are also available and you can have T1 speed available in a portable, hand-held device.

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8. India in space
The Indian Space Research Organization is an independent Indian governmental agency established in 1969 for the research and development of vehicles and activities for the exploration of space within and outside of Earths atmosphere. Headquartered in Bangalore (Bengaluru). ISROs chief executive is a chairman, who is also chairman of the Indian governments Space Commission and the secretary of the Department of Space.

ISROs first satellite,Aryabhatta was India's first satellite, named after the great Indian astronomer of the same name. It was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3M launch vehicle. It was built by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to gain experience in building and operating a satellite in space. The 96.3 minute orbit had an apogee of 619 km and a perigee of 563 km, at an inclination of 50.7 degrees. It was built to conduct experiments in X-ray astronomy, aeronomics, and solar physics. The spacecraft was a 26-sided polygon 1.4 m in diameter. All faces (except the top and bottom) were covered with solar cells. A power failure halted experiments after 4 days in orbit. All signals from the spacecraft were lost after 5 days of operation. The satellite reentered the Earth's atmosphere on 11 February 1992. The satellite's image appeared on the reverse of Indian 2 rupee banknotes between 1976 and 1997.

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9. BIBLIOGRAPHY y www.howstoffworks.com y www.whitedwarf.com y www.wikipedia.org y Satellite Communication by K.L.Mitro y Network Communications by Sameul Digah

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