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PHYSICS OF
SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
Review of Semiconductor Physics
There are two classes of materials (solids): conductors and insulators.
Conductor: The small D.C. conductivity at 0K is non-zero.
Insulator: The small D.C. conductivity at 0K is zero.
All insulators have finite conductivity at T > 0K.
Semiconductors are those insulators with conductivity that is not too small
at room temperature (300K).
NOTE: The concepts of conductivit y, et c. require quantum
mechanics. The solution of the Schrodinger Equation gives the
following results:
The al l owed el ect roni c st at es are l umped t ogether
to form bands.
There is a bandgap.
At finite temperature, there are electrons and holes in
the semiconductor.
)
Band formati ons:
In a crystalline solid, atoms are arranged in a periodic fashion. Silicon, for
example, is a diamond structure, whereas GaAs is a zinc-blende structure.
The most commonly used technique to solve the electronic states of a
crystal is called single electron approximation. The first treatment was done by
F. Block, and the Schrodinger Eqn. is:
2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
2
k k k
V r r E r
m
(
+ =
(
(1)
Note that ( ) V r is periodic in space for a crystal, ignoring the surfaces, and is called the
crystal potential.
The solution of the above eqn. is called the Block function, and has the form:
( ) ( , )
jk r
k n
r e U k r =
i
(Block Theorem)
A great deal of effort has been spent in finding
k
E and the functional form of ( , )
n
U k r .
The solution indicates that
k
E is formed into bands:
Methods used included tight binding, pseudo-potential, K P, orthogonal wave, etc.
The Block Theorem
Now, the Schrodinger Eqn. for a single
e in a rigid lattice is
(
= +
(
2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
2
H r V r r
m
(2)
Let
R
T be an operator that moves the wave function by
R , i.e., = +
( ) ( )
R
T r r R ;
where
R is a lattice constant.
E
C
E
V
E
k
E
C
E
V
E
C
E
V
E
k
)
Notice that
= + + + +
2
2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
R
T H r r R V r R r R
m
= + + +
2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
2
r R V r r R
m
(3)
since = +
( ) ( ) V r V r R i.e., =
( ) ( ( ))
R R
T H r H T r
Suppose
=
( ) ( )
n n n
H r E r (solution to the eigenvalue problems)
i.e.
= = +
( ) ( ) ( )
R n R n n n n
T H r T E r E r R
=
( ( )) ( ( ))
R n n R n
H T r E T r (4)
i.e.
( )
R n
T r is also an eigenfunction of the Hamiltonian. If
( )
n
r is non-degenerate,
then
=
n n
R R
T C
But lets look at
+
= + + =
'
' '
( ) ( ' ) ( )
R R
R R
T T r r R R T r
i.e.
+ +
= = =
'
' ' ' '
( ) ( )
R R n n
R R R R R R
T T C C T r C r , or
+
=
' ' R R R R
C C C or =
( )
m
mR R
C C
if
i
a is a primitive translation vector, then
=
2
i
i
j
a
C e and
i
is a real
number.
In general,
=
i i k R
R
C e (5)
with = + +
1 2 3
1 2 3
k b b b , and
i
b are the reciprocal lattice vectors. That is,
= + =
i
( ) ( ) ( )
i k R
R n n n
T r r R e r
)
Let =
i
( ) ( )
i k r
n n
r U r e
and
+
=
i
( )
( ) ( ( ))
i k r R
R n R n
T U r T r e
+
= =
i i
( )
( ) ( )
i k R i k r R
n n
e r e U r
( )
R
U r is periodic in the lattice.
Boundary Condition
If we assume the Born-Von Karman boundary condition:
+ =
1
1
( ) ( ) r N a r
+ =
2
2
( ) ( ) r N a r (6)
+ =
3
3
( ) ( ) r N a r
then, with Blocks Theorem,
+ = =
i
( ) ( ) ( )
i
i
iN k a
i
n i n n
r N a e r r
i.e.,
= =
i 2
1
i
i i i
iN k a iN
e e
or =
i i
N m = ( 0, 1, 2, ...) m
i.e. =
i
i
m
N
Thus the allowable
k occupies is
=
i
3 3
( 2 ) (2 )
N v V
where is the volume of a unit cell.
Consequence of the Block Theorem
Now we see that =
i
( ) ( )
i k r
n n
r U r e . When we put this into the Schrodinger
Equation, we get:
2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
2
n n n
V r r E r
m
(
+ =
(
2
2
, ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
i k r i k r
n k n n k
V r e U r E k e U r
m
(
+ =
(
i i
2 2
2
, ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
n k n n k
k V r U r E k U r
m m
| |
+ + =
|
\
But,
, ,
( ) ( )
n k n k
U r R U r + =
, we need only to solve the equation
over a unit cell. Consequently, there is an infinite solution for each k indexed by n .
Also,
( )
, ,
( ) ( )
i k K r
k K n k K n
r e U r
+
+ +
=
i
( K = a reciprocal vector)
,
' ( )
i k r
k K n
e U r
+
=
i
,
( )
i k r
k K n
e U r
+
i
Thus, the above is also a Block function with a different U .
Note that the differential equation of
,
' ( )
k K n
U r
+
is the same as that for
,
( )
k n
U r
the eigenvalues must be the same.
with proper choice of the index n , ( )
n
E k is periodic with K .
Only need to consider k values in the first Brillouin Zone (BZ).
Other properties of
,
( )
n k
U r : ( ) ( )
n n
E k E k =
, , m k n k mn
U U = ;
, ' , , ' m k n k m n k k
=
NOTE: The band structures are, however, quite complicated. For silicon, the
conduction band minimum is at the X points.
There are six equivalent constant energy surfaces.
GaAs is, however, a direct bandgap semiconductor with both conduction
band minimum and valence band maximum at .
)
Wave Packet
With these block-waves, we next construct a wave packet to study carrier transport. This
is necessary since the Block waves are extended states of the stationary Schrodinger
Equation. In order to treat a wave packet, we require time-dependent perturbation theory.
The results are that, with a wave packet centered at k,
g
k
m
=
, where
2
2
1 1 ( )
ij
i j
E k
m k k
| |
=
|
\
,
and
1
m
| |
|
\
is called the (effective mass)
-1
tensor, and
( )
g
d k
q E B
dt
= +
However, in reality we have imperfection in the crystal and lattice vibration. Thus
there will be scattering, and the above equation will only be followed between scattering
events. In general, the transport is governed by the Boltzmann transport equation (which
is a semi-classical equation, as it describes the movement of well-constructed wave
packets).
Boltzmann Equation
k r
scatt
df f
k f f
dt t
| |
= + +
|
\
i i (7)
k
)
where f is the occupation probability that a particular state in the cell is occupied with
k located in
k
dV . We will come back and look at the
Boltzmann Equation in greater detail, but let us first consider f .
For an electron (which is what we are interested in), it is a fermion, and consequently
it obeys the Pauli Exclusion Principle. A direct result is that its probability of occupancy
of any state with energy E is given by
1
( )
1 exp
f E
E
kT
=
| |
+
|
\
where is the electro-chemical potential, defined as
, E V
S
N T
| |
=
|
\
(8)
S is the entropy, and N is the number of particles. In solid-state, is also called the
Fermi-energy
F
E . Thus, in a solid with ( )
n
E k ,
1
( )
1 exp
k
F
f E f
E E
kT
= =
| |
+
|
\
(9)
The number of e
in a band is therefore
2
k
k
N f =
Since adjacent k values are very close to each other, we convert the into an integral,
and get
2
( )
k
k
dV
N f
k
=
where k is a volume of each k occupied, and
3
(2 )
V
= ,
)
i.e.
3 . .
2
( 2 )
k k
B Z
V
N f dV
=
3 . .
2
( 2 )
k k
B Z
N
n f dV
V
= =
(10)
Splitting the integration over surfaces of constant energy, and then over all energy in the
band, we have:
( ) ( ) ( )
k
E k k E k E k k + = +
i
( ) E k = +
dE
Thus, the number of e
states between ( ) E k
and dE is:
3 ( )
( ) ( )
4
n
S E
dS
N E dE k k
=
3 ( )
(4 ) ( )
E
S E
n
dS
dE
E k
=
i.e.,
3 ( )
( )
(4 ) ( )
E
E S E
n
dS
n f E dE
E k
(
=
(
(11)
( ) N E
( ) ( )
E
f E N E dE =
(12)
density of states
)
For a minimum conduction band, the constant energy surface is approximated by an
ellipsoid, and it is very simple to obtain ( ) N E :
Let ( ) n E = total number of states inside an ellipsoid with constant energy surface of
E
1
( )
( )
dn E
N E V
dE
=
But
2 2 2 2
1 2 3
1 2 3
2
C
k k k
E E
m m m
| |
= + + +
|
\
(13)
for an ellipsoid with the proper choice of principal axes, and the principal radii are:
2
2 ( )
'
i C
i
m E E
k
=
i.e.,
4
1 2 3 3
' ' '
( )
/2
k k k
n E
k
1
3
( 2 )
V
k
| |
=
|
\
Thus,
3/ 2 1 2 3
2 3
2 2
( ) ( )
3
C
m m m V
n E E E
and
1/ 2 1 2 3
2 3
2
( ) ( )
C
m m m
N E E E
(14)
i.e., ( ) ( )
C
C C
E
n M f E N E dE
=
+
)
3/ 2 1/ 2
2 3 /
2 ( ) ( )
1
F C
C dc C
E E kT E
M m E E
dE
e
=
+
If 3
C F
E E kT , then
( )/
/
1
1
E E kT
C F
F
E E kT
e
e
+
and
( )/
3/ 2 3/ 2
3/ 2 3
( ) ( )
2
E E kT
C F
C dc
M m kT
n e
(15)
N
C
= effective density of states of conduction band
Otherwise,
( )/
3/ 2 3/ 2 1/ 2
2 3 0
2( ) ( )
1
E E kT
C F
dc
C
m kT d
n M
e e
=
+
(16)
Defining
0
1
( )
( 1) 1
j
j f
f
d
F
j e e
=
+ +
| |
=
|
\
(17)
What about valence bands?
The important thing is that a full band does NOT conduct, since the velocity of a particle
with k-vector k is negative of that of k-vector
-k.
Summing up, a filled band net current is zero.
Conduction of a current happens when some electron in the valence band is missing.
Thus, we introduce an accounting principle, called a hole an electron state that is
empty.
( ) /
1
1
1
F
P
E E kT
f f
e
= =
+
and
)
hh
lh
sh
hh
lh
sh
( )
V
E
P
p n E f dE
=
3/ 2 3/ 2
*
1/ 2
3/ 2 3
2( ) ( )
( )
dV
V f
m kT
M F
=
;
*
F V
f
E E
kT
= (18)
where
2
1
2 2
1
( )
dV
E
m
k
| |
=
|
For silicon, we actually have two valence bands (+ a split-off band):
and
3/ 2 3/ 2 3/ 2
*
1/ 2
3/ 2 3
2 ( )
( )
2
lh hh
f
m m kT
p F
( +
=
*
1/ 2
( )
V f
N F = (19)
Note that in this definition of a hole, we have something called hole transformation:
*
( ) ( ) E k E k
*
q q
*
P
f f
k k
2 2
2 2
E E
k k
)
Thus, we have
1/ 2
exp
C F C F
C C
E E E E
n N F N
kT kT
| | | |
=
| |
\ \
1/ 2
exp
F V F V
V V
E E E E
p N F N
kT kT
| | | |
=
| |
\ \
Now, lets get back to the Boltzmann Equation.
E
r
scatt
df f
k f f
dt t
| |
= + +
|
\
i i
It turns out that if we make the following two assumptions:
1.
. .
0
G R
scatt
df f f f
dt t
| | | |
= +
| |
\ \
(relaxation time
approximation)
and
2. f is essentially the same as
0
f in Maxwells Boltzmann distribution,
Then the Boltzmann Equation is equivalent to the device equations:
1
( ) ( )
n
n
j G n R n
t q
(20)
1
( ) ( )
p
p
j G p R p
t q
+ =
(21)
n n n
J q n qD n = + (22)
p p p
J q p qD p = (23)
Onsager has shown from a very general thermal dynamic argument that, under
isothermal conditions,
n n
J n = +
)
with
2
n
c
T
E
m
=
2 3/ 2
0 0
1/ 2
0
( ) (1 )
2
3 ( )
C
C
C
E
c C
E
E E E f f dE
T
m kT E E f dE
(24)
For the purpose of this course, it is sufficient to use Eqs. (20)-(23) except when the
electric field is high, the carrier distributions are no longer Maxwellian, and velocity
overshoot can happen; or when
x
| |
| |
+ +
| |
\ \
i.e., the arithematic mean. For silicon, it turns out that for conduction minimum, it is a
circular ellipsoid with
1
m =
2
m =m
and
3
m =
l
m . Thus
* 1/3
( )
dc l
m m m
= (25)
1
*
2 1
3
cc
l
m
m m
| |
= +
|
\
(26)
Now, so far we have discussed pure semi-conductors. In reality, we always try to
introduce a controlled amount of impurities, called donors and acceptors, with
concentrations
D
N and
A
N , respectively. These atoms replace some of the host atoms.
E.g., in silicon, the donors are As, P and Sn. They are column V elements 5 valence
e
.
)
As
B
As
B
D A
N P N n
+
+ = + (charge neutrality)
Next, we must address the interaction between the electrons and the holes. For that, we
introduce the concept of quasi-fermi energies:
Fn
E and
Fp
E . This means that we are
assuming that the electrons in the conduction band are in quasi-equilibrium with an
electro-chemical potential
Fn
E , while the holes in the valence band are in equilibrium
with
Fp
E = (although
Fn
E
Fp
E ).
This concept makes sense when the relaxation time between the electrons and holes,
R
,
is much larger than the relaxation times,
i
, among the electrons and holes themselves.
This is generally true due to scattering (or matrix elements) differences
9
10 sec
R
;
13
5 10 sec
i
we can write:
1/ 2
exp
C Fn C Fn
C C
E E E E
n N F N
kT kT
| | | |
=
| |
\ \
(27)
1/ 2
exp
Fp V Fp V
V V
E E E E
p N F N
kT kT
| | | |
=
| |
\ \
(28)
The fifth e
will move
into the conduction band.
In case of acceptor, there are only 3 e
around the atom. At finite T, another e
will complete the missing bond, leaving
behind a hole, i.e.,
)
For non-degenerate material (i.e., the Boltzmann approximation holds), then we have
exp exp
Fn Fp
C V
C V
E E
E E
p n N N
kT kT
| |
| |
=
|
|
\
\
i
2
i
n
2
exp
Fn Fp
i
E E
n
kT
| |
=
|
\
(29)
Note that
2
i
n is the p n i product of non-degenerate semiconductor sample at
equilibrium!
Generation and Recombination of Excess Carriers
Let us next consider the relaxation mechanisms between the electrons and the holes (i.e.,
how they get back into equilibrium). Note that one measures the degree of departure
from equilibrium between the holes and the electrons by ( )
Fn Fp
E E ; or, for a non-
degenerate sample, by
2
( )
i
np n .
Recombination Processes
There are a few kinds of recombination processes that can bring about the equilibrium
of the electrons and the holes.
1. Band-to-Band (radiative recombination)
If we are not in the regime of simulated emission (e.g. as in the case of LASAR), the
recombination should be proportional to the number of electrons and holes:
0 0
( )( ) R C n n p p = + +
(30)
o
E
C
E
V
)
where the subscript 0 denotes equilibrium values. That is, at equilibrium
0 0
R Cn p = , and
must equal the generation rate,
0
G . In other words, the net recombination is proportional
to
0 0
U R R R G = =
0 0
( ) C n p p n n p = + +
(31)
If we assume quasi-charge neutrality, n p = , then we have
2
0 0
( ) ( ) U C n p n C n = + +
0 0
( ) C n p n +
(32)
for low level injection (i.e.
0 0
n n p + ). Since we define excess carrier lifetime to be
n
U
=
0 0
1
( ) C n p
=
+
(33)
i.e., as dopant concentration .
2. Auger recombination
This is a process involving three particles; therefore it is also known as the
e e h
process.
o
E
C
E
V
o
E
C
E
V
)
Single trap level
recombination
process
For the above process, by mass action law, we anticipate the rate by
2
R Cn p =
(34)
Because of the three particles involved, we expect C to be small. But in heavily doped
material, e.g. heavily doped n -typed material, n is large and R can be important.
3. Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination (also called trap-assisted recombination)
Now, for indirect gap materials such as silicon, band-to-band recombination is not
possible to the first order.
In order for the above process to occur, both energy and momentum must be conserved;
thus:
G
E h =
; C photon
k P =
But since 0
photon
P , then the two conservation laws cannot be met simultaneously for the
above process. Consequently, to first order, such a process does not occur.
Recombination is therefore via trap. The detailed physical mechanisms are unknown,
but we can work out a phenomenological theory from Shockley, Read, and Hall.
o
X
o
CB
VB
Trap
)
In the figure above, (a) e
capture;
(b) e
emission;
(c) hole capture;
(d) hole emission.
We expect process (a) to n , and number of empty traps. That is,
(1 )
a n T T
R C nN f =
(35)
where
T
N and
T
f are the number of traps per cm
3
, and the occupation probability of a
trap, respectively. Process (b) is number of filled traps:
b n T T
R e N f =
(36)
Similarly, for processes (c) and (d), we get
c p T T
R C pN f =
(37)
(1 )
d p T T
R e N f =
(38)
i.e., the net rate of recombination of e
is
n a b
n
R R R
t
| |
= =
|
\
(39)
and the net rate of recombination of h is
p c d
p
R R R
t
| |
= =
|
\
(40)
In addition, the rate of change of the number of e
= +
( ) ( )
a b c d
R R R R =
n p
R R =
(41)
)
At equilibrium, 0
n p
R R = = by detailed balance. That is,
(1 )
a b n T T n T T
R R C nN f e N f = = =
(42)
(1 )
c d p T T p T T
R R C pN f e N f = = =
(43)
But in equilibrium,
T
f is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution:
=
+
( )/
1
1 1/
F T
T
D
E E kT
f
g e
(44)
where
D
g is the degeneracy of the trap. Also, we have
( )
1/2
C F
E E
C F
kT
C C
E E
n N F N e
kT
| |
=
|
\
(45)
Thus, eqn. (42) yields
=
1
T
n
T
n
f
C n
f
e
( )
( )/
1/
C F
T F
E E
E E kT
kT
n C D
C N e g e
=
( )
1/
C T
E E
kT
n C D
C N g e
=
(46)
Let
( )
1
C T
E E
C
kT
D
N
n e
g
We then get
1 n n
e C n =
Similarly, using Eqn. (43) and
( )
F V
E E
kT
V
p N e
we obtain:
( )
T V
E E
kT
p p V D
e C N g e
=
1
p
1 p
C p =
(47)
)
we have:
1
( (1 ))
n n T T T T
R C n N f nN f = +
(48)
1
( (1 ))
p p T T T T
R C pN f p N f =
(49)
All of the above is under pretext of equilibrium. But of course, equations (35)-(38)
still hold in non-equilibrium; we just dont know the functional form of
T
f . Also,
n
e and
p
e should not depend on the state of equilibrium. eqs. (48) and (49) still hold.
Now, suppose we have a sample, which is in steady-state, depart from equilibrium:
0
T t
N f
t
n p
R R =
(from Eqn. (41) which, in turn, is from Eqns. (48) and (49)).
1 1
( (1 ) ) ( (1 ))
n T T T T p T T T T
C nN f n N f C pN f p N f =
1
1 1
( ) ( )
n p
T
n p
C n C p
f
C n n C p p
+
=
+ + +
(50)
Thus,
1
( (1 ) )
n p n T T T
R R C N n f n f = =
| | + +
=
|
|
+ + +
\
| |
=
|
|
+ + +
\
=
+ +
+
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
n p n p
n T
n p
p p
n T
n p
T
p n
n C n C p n C n C p
C N
C n n C p p
C np C n p
C N
C n n C p p
N np n p
n n p p
C C
(51)
Now,
( )
1
C T
E E
c
kT
D
N
n e
g
=
( )
1
T V
E E
kT
V D
p N g e
=
( )
2
1 1
C V
E E
kT
C V i
n p N N e n
= =
(from (29))
Thus,
2
1 1
( )
1/ ( ) 1/ ( )
T i
n p
p n
N np n
R R
C n n C p p
= =
+ + +
(52)
in steady state.
Very often, we write
, n p
C as
, , , n p n p thn p
C =
where
thn
V is the thermal velocity of the electron, i.e.,
2
*
1 3
2 2
thn
CC
m kT =
; or
*
3
thn
CC
kT
m
=
and
n
is the electron capture cross-section. Notice that
( )
1
C T
E E
c
kT
D
N
n e
g
=
( )
i T
E E
i
kT
D
n
e
g
=
( ) ( )
1
T V T i
E E E E
kT kT
V D i D
p N g e n g e
= =
where
log log
C V
i C V
i i
N N
E E kT E kT
n n
= +
Fermi energy for an intrinsic semiconductor (i.e., undoped).
With these definitions, (52) gives
2
( ) ( )
( )
i T T I
T n p thn thp i
n p
E E E E
i
kT kT
n thn p thp i D
D
N np n
R R
n
n e p n g e
g
= =
( (
+ + +
( (
(53)
(this is also Eqn. (58) in Szes book, chapter 1.)
Let
1
( )
p p thp T
N
= ;
1
( )
n n thn T
N
=
2
1 1
( )
( ) ( )
i
n p
p n
np n
R R
n n p p
= =
+ + +
Case A: Neutral region recombination
Suppose we have a quasi-neutral region, i.e.,
0
p p p = +
0
n n n = +
with n p = , and assume that
T A D
N N N
T
N is small; we do not need to
consider them for carrier concentration. Now, define recombination lifetime, , as
n n n
R
t t
= =
(i.e.,
/ t
n Ae
= if the excitation is removed). Now,
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
( )( )
( ) ( )
p n
n n p n n p
R
n n n p n p
+ +
=
+ + + + +
2
0 0
0 1 0 1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
p n
n p n n
n n n p p n
+
=
+ + + + +
(54)
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
n p
p p n n n n
n p n n p n
+ + + +
= +
+ + + +
(55)
I. if n -type material and
0
n n (
0 0
n p n -type), then
0 1 0 1
0 0
( ) ( )
n p
p p n n n n
n n
+ + + +
= +
If
0 1
n n and
0 1
n p (i.e.,
T
E is not too close to the band edges), then
| | | | + + +
= + +
| |
\ \
0 1 1
0 0
1
n p
p p n n n
n n
1
p
T thp p
N
=
II. Similarly, for p -type material,
0
n p :
1
n
T thn n
N
=
Suppose n is not too small, and
T
E is around
i
E . Then, for n -type material,
0 1
0 0
n p
n n p n
n n n n
| | | | + +
= +
| |
+ +
\ \
| |
+
|
+
\ 0
n p
n
n n
In the limiting case that
0
n n ,
= +
n p
This is rather counter-intuitive. It states that under very high-level injection, lifetime is
actually becoming larger than under low level injection! This is caused by the saturation
of the traps and they become less effective.
The above figure represents a variation of with
T
E for
0 0
n n p +
for n -type
material.
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
T
p
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
T
as
0 0
n p
;
| | | | +
+
| |
\ \
0 1 1
0 0
p n
n n p
n n
These recombination rates (lifetimes) enable us to calculate Equations (20) and (21).
Thus, the only parameters in Eqns. (20)-(23) that we need to discuss are the diffusion
constants
n
D ,
p
D .
Actually, by starting with (24), we can see what
n
D is, i.e.,
n n Fn
J n E =
But
1/2
Fn C
C
E E
n N F
kT
| |
=
|
\
| |
=
|
\
1/2
Fn C
C
E E
n N F
kT
1/2
1/2
Fn C Fn C
C
E E E E
N F
kT kT
| | | |
=
| |
\ \
( )
1/2
1/2
2
Fn C
F
n
E E
F kT
=
( )
1/2
1/2
2
Fn
F n
E q
F kT
=
(56)
that is,
1/2
1/2
2
Fn
F
n E kT n qn
F
=
1/2
1/2
2
n n n
F
J kT n q n
F
n n
qD n qn =
(57)
1/2
1/2
2
C Fn
n n
C Fn
E E
F
kT kT
D
E E
q
F
kT
| |
|
\
=
| |
|
\
For a non-degenerate semi-conductor, we have:
n n
kT
D
q
Similarly,
p p
kT
D
q
NOTE: This is therefore always true for minority carriers under low-level injection!
From Eqn. (24), we see that is determined by the scattering lifetime ( ) E . In
general, we have two types of carrier scattering:
1. phonon scattering
2. impurity scattering (ionized impurity)
Additionally,
+
| |
|
|
\
1
1 1
I ph
3/2
I
I
T
N
(from (24))
and
3/2
ph
T
for silicon.
versus
I
N
Now, also means that the average carrier velocity under drift in the direction of
the -field is
(58)
This is apparent from (22), as the drift current under an -field, = , is:
drift
qn
But this is also equal to
n
qn
drift n
=
Now, the
, n p
given in previous pages are true only for small .
As
,
n
0, and
drift
sat
e
e
v m kT dE
T T
dt T
=
where T
e
is the temperature of the electron gas, v is speed of sound in the
semiconductor and is the mean free path between collision.
Steady-state conditions
Rate of energy gain from E-field = Rate of energy loss to the lattice, we get
( )
( )
1/ 2
2
2
8 2 *
e
e
v m kT
e T T
T
= (59)
Express
n
as a function of
To express as a function of , we see that at low field is:
*
m
e
m
=
mean time between scatterings
*
e
m
=
But
3kT
m
=
;
0
3
e
mkT
;
i.e. if T of electrons is
e
T ,
1/ 2
0
e
T
T
| |
|
|
\
= . (60)
Actually, accounting for the angle of scattering:
( )
0 1/ 2
4
3 2 *
e
m kT
, (61)
using (59) to solve for T
e
, and using
1
T
| | | |
| |
| |
\ \
= . (62)
Finally,
1/ 2
2
0
1 3
1 1
2 8
e
T
T v
(
| |
= + +
( `
|
\
(
)
(63)
and
1/ 2
2
2
0 0
1 3
1 1
2 8 v
(
| | | |
= + +
( `
| |
\
\ (
)
. (64)
Thus, if
0
v ,
2
0
0
3
1
64 v
(
| |
(
|
\
(
. (65)
If
0
v >>
1/ 4 1/ 2
32
3
o
v
| | | |
| |
\ \
Recap of the transport equations:
n
F
n n n
E
J q n
n
= +
=
p p F
p
J p E =
n n
n
J qR q
t
= +
p p
p
J qR q
t
and
T T
n p
dN f
R R
dt
= .
Also,
( )
2
D A
q
P n N N
= +
and
cond n p T
J J J = +
.
To get the terminal currents, observe the following:
Now
S
1
S
2
i
1
i
2
S
1
S
2
i
1
i
2
1
1
Tcond
tot 1
S
S
D
J nds
t
i J nds
| |
|
|
\
(66)
Note from Maxwells equation that
( )
D
t t t
= =
.
1 1
1 Tcond
S S
i J nds ds
t
= +
.
conduction current displacement current
To probe further, lets integrate the continuity equation:
n n
V V V
n
J dv q R dv q dv
t
= +
Greens theorem
n n
S V V
n
J nda q R dv q dv
t
= +
Let
1
contact # one S =
2
contact # two S =
* remaining area; S =
i.e.,
1 2
*
n n n n
S S S S
J nda J nda J nda J nda = + +
, (67)
and similarly for p .
But
1 1
1 2
1cond
*
n p
S S
n p p p
S S S V V
i J nda J nda
p
J nda J nda J nda q R dv q dv
t
=
= + + + +
(68)
contact
1cond * S b
dQ
i i i i
dt
= + + +
where
2 1
contact
p n
S S
i J nda J nda =
= contact recombination.
*
*
surface recombination
p
S
S
i J nda = =
(69)
bulk recombination
p
b
V
i q R dv = =
(70)
change in stored charge
V
dQ
t dt
qpdv
= =
(71)
Simple Examples
Creating excess carriers ( ) 0
n
n p p = =
at 0 x = .
x=0
Injecting surface
x=0
Injecting surface
0
n p
J J + =
i.e.,
n p
J J =
or
n n p p
p n
qn qD qp qD
x x
+ =
( )
;
n p
n p
n p
n p
p
qD qD
x
qn qp
D D
p
n p x
+
=
+
+
=
+
E
i.e.
( )
p
p n p p
p n
p
p p
J q D D qD
p n x x
| |
|
|
\
= +
as
n p
p p
p
J qD
x
For this problem, the Continuity Equation gives:
2
2
0
n n
p
p
P P P
D
t
x
= = +
.
E
Boundary conditions are
( ) ( )
0
0 0
n n
n
P x P P = = +
( )
0
n
n
P x P =
.
the solution is:
( ) ( )
/
0 0
0
p
x L
n n
n n
P x P P P e
(
(
= +
with diffusion length
p p p
L D = = .
Now, if the length of the sample is short, and is W is small, (i.e.,
p
W L ), and if
( )
0 n n
P W P = , the equation will have the solution:
( ) ( )
0
exp / exp /
n p p
n
P P A L B L x x = + + ;
the boundary conditions will be:
( )
0
(0) 0
n n
n
P P P = +
( )
0
n
n
P W P =
( ) ( )
( )
( )
0
sinh /
0
sinh /
p
n n
n
p
W x L
P x P P
W L
| |
|
|
|
\
= +
x
p
p=
p
G
L
x=0 surface
x
p
p=
p
G
L
x=0 surface
Surface recombination
Here we introduce the concept of surface recombination (see Eq. (11)). When the
surface of a semiconductor is not perfect, it will develop recombinations sites. That is,
( )
0
0
n
S n
R S P P
| |
|
\
=
at the surface
( )
0
0
n ts
n th
N P P
| |
|
\
= .
Note that the dimension of S is
Length
time
(i.e., that of velocity). called surface
recombination velocity.
Consider minority carriers (from our previous argument, we need only consider the case
of diffusion):
In the steady state, the continuity equation gives:
2
2
0
p
L
p
p d p p
D G
t
x
= = +
. (72)
But
surface recombination
at 0
p p
p
F D
x
U x
= =
= =
.
In other words,
( )
0
0
0
p p n
n
x
p
D S P P
x
=
| |
|
\
(73)
Now the general solution for (72) is
( ) exp
p
L
p
x
L
p x G A
| |
|
|
\
=
Applying (73), we get
( )
p
p
p p
L
A
D A
L
G s =
Therefore, we have
p
p
p
p p L
D
L
S
S G
A
+
=
That is,
( ) exp
p
p
p
p p L
D
L
p
L
p
S
S G
x
L
p x G
| |
|
|
\
+
=
As expected, if S
p
0, p(0)=G
L
p
. if
p
S ,p(0)=0.