THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

A Research Paper submitted to Engr. Romeo Carani College of Environmental Design and Engineering Baliuag University

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In Partial fulfilment of the Course Requirement in ME 314 (Thermodynamics I)

by Julius Glenn Sison Gilbert Estarez Angelo Carlo Carlos Russell Hernandez

March 25, 2011

Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Historical Background ............................................................................................................................... 4 Different Forms of Energy ............................................................................................................................. 6 Potential Energy ........................................................................................................................................ 6 What is Potential Energy? ..................................................................................................................... 6 Formula ................................................................................................................................................. 6 Example ................................................................................................................................................. 6 Kinetic Energy............................................................................................................................................ 7 What is Kinetic Energy? ........................................................................................................................ 7 Formula ................................................................................................................................................. 7 Example ................................................................................................................................................. 7 Internal Energy .......................................................................................................................................... 8 What is Internal Energy? ....................................................................................................................... 8 Formula ................................................................................................................................................. 8 Example ................................................................................................................................................. 8 Heat ........................................................................................................................................................... 9 What is Heat? ........................................................................................................................................ 9 What is Specific Heat?........................................................................................................................... 9 Formula ................................................................................................................................................. 9 Example ................................................................................................................................................. 9 Enthalpy .................................................................................................................................................. 10 What is Enthalpy? ............................................................................................................................... 10 Difference between Enthalpy (H) and Internal energy (U) ................................................................. 10 Relationship to Heat ........................................................................................................................... 10 Formula ............................................................................................................................................... 10 Flow Work (Flow Energy) ........................................................................................................................ 11 What is Flow Work? ............................................................................................................................ 11 Formula ............................................................................................................................................... 11 Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid ........................................................................................................... 11 The Steady-flow Process ......................................................................................................................... 12 -1-

What is Steady-flow Process? ............................................................................................................. 12 Steady-flow process characteristics .................................................................................................... 12 Mass and Energy Balance for Steady-flow Process ............................................................................ 12 Conclusion and Recommendation .............................................................................................................. 13 Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 14 Practice Problems.................................................................................................................................... 14 References .................................................................................................................................................. 16 Books ....................................................................................................................................................... 16 Internet ................................................................................................................................................... 16

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Introduction
Energy is a quantity that is often understood as the capacity of a physical system to do work. The changes are produced when the energy is transferred from a system to another. A system can transfer energy by means of three ways, namely: physical or thermodynamical work, heat transfer, or mass transfer. This quantity can be assigned to any physical system. The assigned energy depends on its physical state relative to the frame of reference used to study it. All the forms of energy that a system has can belong to one of two great components: the internal energy and the external energy. All kinds of internal and external energies can be classified as kinetic energy or potential energy. Kinetic energy considers the mass and the motion of a system. If the system is studied as a whole, it is called external kinetic energy. The thermal energy is the internal kinetic energy and it considers the motion of every constitutive particle of the system (molecules, atoms, electrons, etc.). The gravitational potential energy is an external potential energy and so is the electrostatic potential energy. The elastic energy is an internal potential energy. German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz established that all forms of energy are equivalent energy in one form can disappear but the same amount of energy will appear in another form. A restatement of this idea is that energy is subject to a conservation law over time. Any form of energy can be transformed into another form. When energy is in a form other than thermal energy, it may be transformed with good or even perfect efficiency, to any other type of energy. With thermal energy, however, there are often limits to the efficiency of the conversion to other forms of energy, due to the second law of thermodynamics. In all such energy transformation processes, the total energy remains the same. Energy may not be created nor destroyed. This principle, the conservation of energy, was first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time. Although the total energy of a system does not change with time, its value may depend on the frame of reference. In the International System of Units (SI), energy is measured in joules, but in some fields other units such as British Thermal Unit (BTU), foot-pound (ft.-lb.), kilowatt-hours (KWh) and kilocalories (Kcal) are also used. The law of conservation of energy is an empirical law of physics. It states that the total amount of energy in an isolated system remains constant and conserved over time. This law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed: it can only be transformed from one state to another. The only thing that can happen to energy in a closed system is that it can change form. Today, conservation of energy refers to the conservation of the total system energy over time. This energy includes the energy associated with the rest mass of particles and all other forms of energy in the system. If energy in any form is allowed to escape such systems, the mass of the system will decrease in correspondence with the loss. A consequence of the law of energy conservation is that perpetual motion machines can only work perpetually if they deliver no energy to their surroundings.

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Historical Background
The word energy derives from Greek (energeia), which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. Ancient philosophers as far back as Thales of Miletus had inklings of the conservation of which everything is made. In 1638, Galileo published his analysis of several situationsincluding the celebrated "interrupted pendulum"which can be described as conservatively converting potential energy to kinetic energy and back again. The concept of energy emerged out of the idea of vis viva (living force), which Leibniz defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz theorized that thermal energy consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter, a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted. In 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy" in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy". It was argued for some years whether energy was a substance (the caloric) or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum. Meanwhile, in 1843 James Prescott Joule independently discovered the mechanical equivalent in a series of experiments. In the most famous, now called the "Joule apparatus", a descending weight attached to a string caused a paddle immersed in water to rotate. He showed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was equal to the thermal energy (heat) gained by the water by friction with the paddle. Over the period 18401843, similar work was carried out by engineer Ludwig A. Colding though it was little known outside his native Denmark. Both Joule's and Mayer's work suffered from resistance and neglect but it was Joule's that, perhaps unjustly, eventually drew the wider recognition. In 1844, William Robert Grove postulated a relationship between mechanics, heat, light, electricity and magnetism by treating them all as manifestations of a single "force" (energy in modern terms). In 1874 Grove published his theories in his book The Correlation of Physical Forces. In 1847, drawing on the earlier work of Joule, Sadi Carnot and mile Clapeyron, Hermann von Helmholtz arrived at conclusions similar to Grove's and published his theories in his book ber die Erhaltung der Kraft (On the Conservation of Force, 1847). The general modern acceptance of the principle stems from this publication. In 1877, Peter Guthrie Tait claimed that the principle originated with Sir Isaac Newton, based on a creative reading of propositions 40 and 41 of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This is now regarded as an example of Whig history. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) amalgamated all of these laws into the laws of thermodynamics, which aided in the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes using the concept of energy by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Joef Stefan. -4-

During a 1961 lecture for undergraduate students at the California Institute of Technology, Richard Feynman, a celebrated physics teacher and Nobel Laureate, said this about the concept of energy:

There is a fact, or if you wish, a law, governing all natural phenomena that are known to date. There is no known exception to this lawit is exact so far as we know. The law is called the conservation of energy. It states that there is a certain quantity, which we call energy, that does not change in manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract idea, because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is a numerical quantity which does not change when something happens. It is not a description of a mechanism, or anything concrete; it is just a strange fact that we can calculate some number and when we finish watching nature go through her tricks and calculate the number again, it is the same. The Feynman Lectures on Physics

Since 1918 it has been known that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is, energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time.

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Different Forms of Energy

Potential Energy
What is Potential Energy? Potential energy (PE) is energy stored in an object. This energy has the potential to do work. Gravity gives potential energy to an object. This potential energy is a result of gravity pulling downwards. The gravitational constant, g, is the acceleration of an object due to gravity. This acceleration is about 9.8 meters per second2 (32.2 ft/s2) on earth. The formula for potential energy due to gravity is PE = mgh. As the object gets closer to the ground, its potential energy decreases while its kinetic energy increases. The difference in potential energy is equal to the difference in kinetic energy. After one second, if the potential energy of an object fell ten units than its kinetic energy has risen ten units. Potential energy units are joules. Formula W = Fd; Work equals force times distance. F = ma; Force equals mass times acceleration. a = g; Acceleration is g, (9.8 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2) F = mg; so force equals mass times g. W = mgd; which means work equals mass times g times distance. d = h; Distance equals height. W = mgh; which makes work equal to mass times g times height. W=PE; which means potential energy is the amount of work an object could do.

PE = mg (h); change in potential energy equals mass times g times change in height. PE = mg (hf - ho ); change in potential energy equals mass times g times the difference of final
height and initial height. Example SOLUTION: PE = mgh PE = (20 kg) (9.8 m/s2) (10 m) PE = (20 kg) (98 m2/s2) PE = 1960 kg m2/s2 or 1960 joules The block can perform 1960 J of work -6-

Kinetic Energy
What is Kinetic Energy? Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of motion. An object that has motion - whether it is vertical or horizontal motion - has kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object is the energy which it possesses
due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same amount of work is done by the body in decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest.

Formula W = mv2; Work equals one half of mass times the square of velocity. m; mass of the object. v; velocity of the object. W=KE; which means kinetic energy is the amount of work an object possesses.

KE = m(v) 2; change in kinetic energy equals one half of mass times the square of change of
velocity.

KE = m(vf2 vo2); change in kinetic energy equals one half of mass times the difference of the
square of final velocity and initial velocity. Example
Determine the kinetic energy of a 625-kg roller coaster car that is moving with a speed of 18.3 m/s.

SOLUTION: KE = mv2 KE = (625 kg) (18.3 m/s) 2 KE = (312.5 kg) (334.89 m2/s2) KE = 104653.13 J or 104.65 KJ The roller coaster car has 104.65 KJ of work

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Internal Energy
What is Internal Energy? Internal energy (U) is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving objects; it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and molecular scale. For example, a room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no apparent energy, either potential or kinetic. But on the microscopic scale it is a seething mass of high speed molecules traveling at hundreds of meters per second. If the water were tossed across the room, this microscopic energy would not necessarily be changed when we superimpose an ordered large scale motion on the water as a whole.

is the most common symbol

used for internal energy. Internal energy involves energy on the microscopic scale. For an ideal monoatomic gas, this is just the translational kinetic energy of the linear motion of the "hard sphere" type atoms, and the behaviour of the system is well described by kinetic theory. However, for polyatomic gases there is rotational and vibrational kinetic energy as well. Then in liquids and solids there is potential energy associated with the intermolecular attractive forces. A simplified visualization of the contributions to internal energy can be helpful in understanding phase transitions and other phenomena which involve internal energy. Formula

U = U2 U1; where U is the total internal energy. u = u2 u1; where u is the specific internal energy.
Example

U = mcv T; where cv is volume constant. U = mcv(Tf To); where T = (Tf To)

SOLUTION: When the sample of water and copper are both heated by 1C, the addition to the kinetic energy is the same. But to achieve this increase for water, a much larger proportional energy must be added to the potential energy portion of the internal energy. So the total energy required to increase the temperature of the water is much larger, i.e., its specific heat is much larger. -8-

Heat
What is Heat? In physics and thermodynamics, heat (Q) is energy transferred from one place in a body or thermodynamic system to another place or beyond the boundary of one system to another one due to thermal contact even when the systems are at different temperatures. It is also often described as the process of transfer of energy between physical entities. In this description, it is an energy transfer to the body in any other way than due to work performed on the body. What is Specific Heat? The specific heat (c) is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius. The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually expressed in the form shown below where c is the specific heat. The relationship does not apply if a phase change is encountered, because the heat added or removed during a phase change does not change the temperature. Formula Q = mcT; Heat equals mass times specific heat times change in absolute temperature. m; mass of the object. c; specific heat of the object. Q = mc(Tf To); Heat equals mass times specific heat times the difference of final absolute temperature and initial absolute temperature. +Q => closed system (mass does not cross its boundaries) -Q => open system (mass crosses its boundaries) Example Calculate the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 25kg of water from 25oC to 100oC. c = 15.31 J/kg.K SOLUTION: Q = mc(Tf To) Q = (25 kg) (15.31 J/kg.K) (373 K 289 K) Q = 28706.25 J or 28.706 KJ 28.706 KJ is the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of water.

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Enthalpy
What is Enthalpy? Enthalpy (H) is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes the internal energy, which is the energy required to create a system, and the amount of energy required to make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing its volume and pressure. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential. It is a state function and an extensive quantity. Difference between Enthalpy (H) and Internal energy (U) Chemists routinely use H as the energy of the system, but the pV term is not stored in the system, but rather in the surroundings, such as the atmosphere. When a system, for example, n moles of a gas of volume V at pressure P and temperature T, is created or brought to its present state from absolute zero, energy must be supplied equal to its internal energy U plus pV, where pV is the work done in pushing against the atmospheric pressure. This additional energy is therefore stored in the surroundings and can be recovered when the system collapses back to its initial state. In basic physics and thermodynamics it may be more interesting to study the internal properties of the system and therefore the internal energy is used. Relationship to Heat The increase in enthalpy of a system is exactly equal to the energy added through heat, provided that the system is under constant pressure and that the only work done on the system is expansion work: H = Q where H is the change in enthalpy of the system, and Q is the energy added to
the system through heat.

Formula H = U + pV; by the definition of enthalpy, it is equal to the summation of internal energy and the product of pressure and volume.

H = Hf Ho; where H is the enthalpy. h = hf ho; where h is the specific enthalpy.

H = mh; enthalpy equals the product of mass and specific enthalpy.

H =mcpT; change in enthalpy equals mass times pressure constant times change in absolute
temperature.

H = mcp(Tf To); change in enthalpy equals mass times pressure constant times the difference
of final absolute temperature and initial absolute temperature.

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Flow Work (Flow Energy)

What is Flow Work? Work is needed to push the fluid into or out of the boundaries of a control volume if mass flow is involved. This work is called the flow work (flow energy). Flow work is necessary for maintaining a continuous flow through a control volume. Formula Wflow = PV; flow work equals pressure times volume. wflow = Pv; For unit mass, flow work equals pressure times specific volume.

Wflow = P2V2 P1V1; change in flow work equals the difference of pressure volume two and one
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid The total energy of a simple compressible system consists of three parts: internal, kinetic, and potential energy. E = U + KE + PE For unit mass, e = u + ke + pe = u + v2/2 + gz where e = total energy u = internal energy v = velocity of the system z = the elevation of the fluid The fluid entering or leaving a control volume possess an additional energy, the flow work (Pv). Hence, the total energy of a flowing fluid becomes = Pv + u + v2/2 + gz where = methalpy, the total energy of a flowing fluid The definition of enthalpy gives: Replacing Pv + u by h yields: h = Pv + u = h + v2/2 + gz

By using the enthalpy instead of internal energy, flow work is not a concern.

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The Steady-flow Process

What is Steady-flow Process? Steady flow process is a process where: the fluid properties can change from point to point in the control volume but remains the same at any fixed point during the whole process. Steady-flow process characteristics A steady-flow process is characterized by the following:

No properties within the control volume change with time. That is mcv = constant Ecv = constant No properties change at the boundaries with time. Thus, the fluid properties at an inlet or exit will remain the same during the whole process. They can be different at different opens. The heat and work interactions between a steady-flow system and its surroundings do not change with time.

Mass and Energy Balance for Steady-flow Process The conservation of mass principle, which has been previously introduced, in rate format, is: in - out = dmsystem/dt; where is mass rate. During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does not change with time. That is, dmsystem/dt = 0; the derivative of the mass of the system over time equals zero. Hence the conservation of mass principle gives the total amount of mass entering a control volume equal to the total amount of mass leaving it. In an equation format, it is (Total mass entering the control volume per unit time) = (Total mass leaving the control volume per unit time) or in= out Also, the energy balance for a process, which has been previously introduced, in rate format, is: in - out = dEsystem/dt; where is energy rate. For a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control volume remains constant. That is, dEsystem/dt = 0; the derivative of the energy of the system over time equals zero.

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Thus, the amount of energy entering a control volume in all forms (heat, work, mass transfer) must be equal to the amount of energy leaving it for a steady-flow process. In an equation format, it is (Rate of net energy transfer in by heat, work and mass) = (Rate of net energy transfer out by heat, work and mass) or in = out For a general steady-flow process, the energy balance can be written as
in +

in + in( hin + vin2/2 + gzin) =

out +

out + out( hout + vout2/2 + gzout)

If the sign introduced previously for heat and work is used, the energy balance for a general steady-flow process can be rewritten as: + = out( hout + vout2/2 + gzout) - in( hin + vin2/2 + gzin)

Conclusion and Recommendation

Energy is a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the capacity of a physical system to do work. Energy can take a wide variety of forms. The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed: it can only be transformed from one state to another. Therefore the sum of all the energies in the system is a constant. It can be written to an equation: Energy Entering = Energy Leaving PE1 + KE1 +Wflow 1 + U1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + Wflow 2 +U2 + WS Q = PE + KE + Wflow + U + WS Where:

PE = mg (h); change in potential energy equals mass times g times change in height. KE = m(v) 2; change in kinetic energy equals one half of mass times the square of change of velocity. Wflow = P2V2 P1V1; change in flow work equals the difference of pressure volume two and one. U = U2 U1; where U is the total internal energy.
Q; it is the heat of the system. WS; it is the work in a steady flow process. The law of conservation of energy is a great part of the first law of thermodynamics. Studying the basic ideas of the conservation of energy helps you understand the full purpose of thermodynamics in our lives.

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Appendix
Practice Problems
Problem 1: A small block of 0.1 kg is released from a height 5 m as shown in the figure. The block following a curved path transitions to a linear horizontal path and hits the spring fixed to a wedge. If no friction is involved and spring constant is 1000 N/m, find the maximum compression of the spring. Given: m = 0.1 kg h=5m kS = 1000 N/m g = 9.8 m/s2 Solution: PE = mgh PE = (0.1 kg) (9.8 m/s2) (5 m) PE = 4.9 J Let x be the maximum compression U = kx2 U = (1000 N/m) x2 PE = U 5 = 0.5 (1000) x2 x = (5/500) = 0.1 m

Problem 2: A pitcher throws a 0.140 kg baseball and it approaches the bat at a speed of 40.0 m/s. The bat does 70.0 J of work on the ball in hitting it. Determine the speed of the ball after the ball leaves the bat and is 25.0 m above the point of impact. Given: m = 0.140 kg v1 = 40.0 m/s W = 70.0 J h = 25.0 m Solution: KE0 = mv12 KE0 = (0.140 kg) (40 m/s) 2 KE0 = 112 J KE1 = KE0 W KE1 = 112 J 70 J = 42 J PE = mgh PE = (0.140 kg) (9.8 m/s) (25 m) PE = 34.3 J KE2 = KE1 PE KE2 = 42 J 34.3 J = 7.7 J v2 = *KE2/0.5(m)] v2 = [7.7 J/0.5(0.140 kg)] v2 = 10.4881 m/s

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Problem 3: A quantity of gas in a cylinder receives 1600J of heat from a hot plate. At the same time 800J of work are done on the gas by outside forces pressing down on a piston. Calculate the change in thermal energy of the gas. Given: Q = 1600 J W = -800 J Solution:

U = Q W U = 1600 J (-800 J) U = 2400 J

Problem 4: 3000J of heat is given to a gas at constant pressure of 2105 N/m2. If its volume increases by 10 litres during the process find the change in the internal energy of the gas. Given: Q = 3000 J P = 2105 N/m2 V = 10 L (1 m3/100 L) = 0.1 m3 Solution:

U = Q W U = 3000 J (2105 N/m2) (0.1 m3) U = 3000 J 2000 J U = 1000 J

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References
Books

Alekseev, G. N. (1986). Energy and Entropy. Moscow: Mir Publishers. Crowell, Benjamin (2007) [2003]. Conservation Laws. Light and matter series of introductory physics textbooks. 2.2. Fullerton, CA: Light and Matter. Ross, John S. (23 April 2002). "Work, Power, Kinetic Energy". Project PHYSNET. Michigan State University. Smil, Vaclav (2008). Energy in nature and society: general energetics of complex systems. Cambridge, USA: MIT Press. Walding, Richard, Rapkins, Greg, Rossiter, Glenn (1999-11-01). New Century Senior Physics. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. Kroemer, Herbert; Kittel, Charles (1980). Thermal Physics (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman Company. Nolan, Peter J. (1996). Fundamentals of College Physics, 2nd ed.. William C. Brown Publishers. Oxtoby & Nachtrieb (1996). Principles of Modern Chemistry, 3rd ed.. Saunders College Publishing. Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman.

Internet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/thermo1f.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/PotentialEnergy/ http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/u5l1b.cfm http://www.tjhsst.edu/~jleaf/tec/html/10/potent.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/u5l1c.cfm http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ke.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_energy http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/inteng.html http://www.splung.com/content/sid/6/page/internal_energy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/enthalpy.html http://www.chem.tamu.edu/class/majors/tutorialnotefiles/enthalpy.htm http://www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-bin/ebook.cgi?doc=&topic=th&chap_sec=04.1&page=theory

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