Past achievements and future directions of forage and pasture seed production and research for the highlands

of Arsi, Ethiopia
Karta K. Kalsa Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 489, Asella, Ethiopia

Abstract Scarcity in varieties of well adapted forage species, shortage in seeds of highly demanded forage crops, and shortage of technical information on forage seed production have remained to be major bottlenecks in feed improvement in quality and quantity. This paper describes some findings achieved in the area of seed crop establishment and management, seed harvesting, and post harvest handling of forage and pasture crops. It also further identifies knowledge gaps on seed production and post harvest handling in potential forage species. Finally, actions are recommended for improved functioning of the forage seed production and research system in the country.

Key Words: Seed Crop, Intercropping, tropical, seed system, seed priming.

Introduction Besides the slow adaptation rates by farmers to forage crops, scarcity in varieties of well adapted forage species, shortage in seeds of highly demanded forage crops, and limitations of technical information on forage seed production remain to be major bottlenecks in feed improvement in quality and quantity in Ethiopia. Even though the registered number of varieties for forage and pasture species is limited, seed productivity and seed crop management for optimum seed yield of the available varieties is rarely documented (CVR, 2010). Increasing demand for improved forage and pasture species in response to the converging grazing land area has faced seed shortage on commonly requested species such as fodder beet (Beta vulgaris), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), vetches (Vicia spp.), Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), colored guinea grass (Panicum coloratum), oats (Avena sativa), etc. While forage seed production requires knowledge and skills on site selection, seed crop establishment and management, seed harvesting, post-harvest handling, and insuring of seed quality, information is limited on such issues and/or any available finding has not been well documented.

At Kulumsa, forage and pasture research has been an integral component of research activities since late 1960s. Several accessions have already been evaluated and recommended for their adaptation areas by Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU, 1973). Commonly recognized forage and pasture species such as alfalfa, vetches, Rhodes grass, oats, colored guinea grass, cocksfoot, and fodder beet were amongst well evaluated species for their herbage productivity over several locations. While the main focus of the research during the early period was on higher herbage yield and feed value, CADU had begun forage seed production and research in the early 1970s. Some efforts were recorded in the areas of seed crop establishment and management and seed harvesting and post-harvest management certain forage and pasture species until it was discontinued in late 1980s. Since recent years, research activities on variety evaluation for seed and herbage yield, seed crop management, and post-harvest handling have been undertaken on selected forage and pasture crops such as alfalfa, vetches, fodder beet, tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), Harding grass (Phalaris aquatic) and oats. Forage seed supply improvement has been the first priority in the forage research and development effort at Kulumsa. Research on forage seed production and post-harvest handling is still at its infant stage. Hence, objective of this paper is to ascertain findings in the past, identify problem statements, and foreword future directions for forage and pasture seed research.

Micro seed increase and distribution

Forage seed production and distribution is an integral component of the forage and pasture research activities at Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center. In 2006/2007 about 366kg of initial seed was produced and ca. 45% of it was distributed during the budget year to different institutions such as Agricultural Universities, Research Centers, Farmers, Non-Governmental organization, and Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development from various regional states of Ethiopia (Table 1). Seed productivity ranged from 55kg in Harding grass to 2750kg in Tree Lucerne. In 2007/2008 a total of 4.25ha of land was covered for micro seed increase and 3154kg seed was produced. More than 80% of the seed produced the same year was distributed to various institutions. The largest share of total seed production is taken by oats (Avena sativa) in both crop years.

Table 1: Seed production and distribution status for the year 2006/2007 cropping season Species Phalaris aquatica Chloris gayana Festuca arundinacae Beta vulgaris Avena sativa Vicia Spp Chamaecytisus palmensi Total
Source: KARC, 2009.

Area covered (ha) 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.12 0.01 0.31

Actual Seed Yield (kg) 2.04 5.70 8.37 7.00 281.00 51.00 11.00 366.11

Productivity (kgha-1) 55.2 154.4 353.5 310.0 4407.8 425.0 2750.0 1181.0

Distributed (kg) 1.05 1.81 10.23 17.63 117.67 12.12 3.00 163.51

Table 2: Seed production and distribution status for the year 2007/2008 cropping season Area covered Actual Seed Yield (kg) Productivity (kgha-1) (ha) 0.02 2.0 100.0 0.02 20.9 1045.0 0.02 1.7 85.0 0.05 18.3 381.5 0.30 80.0 276.7 2.30 2454.0 1090.6 1.50 565.0 390.6 0.01 2.0 160.0 0.02 4.0 200.0 0.01 6.0 1500.0 4.25 3153.9 742.1

Species Phalaris aquatica Chloris gayana Festuca arundinacae Melilotus spp Beta vulgaris Avena sativa Vicia spp Lotus corniculatus Trifolium repense Chamaecytisus palmensi Total
Source: KARC, 2009.

Distributed (kg) 4.0 6.5 0.1 0.1 3.6 2,464.6 52.2 0.0 0.0 1.0 2532.1

Seed yielding characteristics of different forage and pasture crops

Seed yielding ability is generally affected by seed crop management practices, environment, and genotype. Seed yield of forage crops such as alfalfa, oats, vetches, tall fescue, Harding grass, and Rhodes grass was evaluated over locations for several years at Kulumsa. Alfalfa varieties showed a significant variation in their seed yielding ability at Kulumsa (Table 3). There was also variation in seed yield of varieties across seasons. Variety F-L-77 gave highest seed yields during Belg and Meher seasons of 2005 whereas the highest seed yield during establishment season was registered in Sequel variety. Seed yield of all varieties in the Meher season of 2005 was inferior as compared to the belg season of 2005. This could be attributed to the stand age effect. Another study on seed yield performance of alfalfa genotypes obtained from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) has shown that there is a reasonable variation among genotypes for seed yielding ability and seed yield
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components at Kulumsa (Table 4). Seed yield ability ranged from 218.4 to 1160.3kg per ha with highest seed yield obtained from genotypes with accession numbers of ILRI7369 and ILRI9235 gave the highest seed yield. Thousand seed weight of genotypes with superior seed yield was smaller than that of other accessions. The two genotypes had demonstrated the highest herbage dry matter yield such as 18755.4 and 18885.0 kg per ha, respectively (KARC, 2007). Table 3: Seed yielding ability of alfalfa varieties over three growing seasons at Kulumsa Variety F-L-77 Hairy Peruvian Hunter River Pioneer Sequel LSD Source: KARC, 2006. Meher 2004 307.7 232.0 215.7 89.3 324.0 169.5 Belg 2005 458.3 438.3 216.7 213.7 371.7 217.9 Meher 2005 237.3 177.7 93.0 170.7 148.3 192.1

Table 4: Seed yield and thousand seed weight of alfalfa genotypes evaluated during the Belg season of 2007 at Kulumsa Genotype ILRI 5681 ILRI5682 ILRI7110 ILRI7323 ILRI7369 ILRI9235 Mean RMSE CV Seed yield per plot (g) 131.2 144.9 78.7 120.7 417.7 179.2 178.7 27.12 15.17 Thousand seed weight (g) 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.3 0.13 5.75 Seed yield (kg/ha) 364.3 402.6 218.4 335.4 1160.3 497.7 496.4 75.33 15.17

Source: KARC, 2007.

Seed yield ability of temperate forage species such as Harding grass (Phalaris aquatica) and Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) were evaluated for two year over three locations (Bokoji, Kulumsa, Kofele) in the highlands of Arsi. Results showed that better seed yield was obtained at Kofele, a humid highland, for both species (Table 5). Seed yield of the two temperate grasses was significantly lower during the second year of establishment at all locations with negligible yields for Harding grass at Bokoji and Kulumsa. This might be attributed to the higher water requirement of the species.

Table 5: Seed yielding ability of Harding grass (Phalaris aquatica) and Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) over different locations and years Temperate grass Phalaris aquatic var. Sirrosa Festuca arundinacea var Demeter CV% (=0.05) Phalaris aquatic var. Sirrosa Festuca arundinacea var Demeter CV% (=0.05)
Source: KARC, 2009

Year 2007 2007 2008 2008

Seed yield (kg per ha) Bokoji Kulumsa Kofele 418.4 207.5 569.5 789.9 455.7 870.6 9.1 8.6 12.8 14.9 4.2 250.6 146.9 200.6 253.1 11.5 12.4 11.6

Mean 398.5 705.4 89.9 200.2

Forage seed production under prevailing crop culture

The crop-livestock farming system in the highlands of Arsi is part of the national cereal belt with 73% of its cultivated area allotted to cereal production (CSA, 2009). However, the livestock feed supply is mainly limited to crop residues and land shortage is considered by farmers as a major bottleneck for improved forage production. To introduce forage and pasture seed production into the existing farming system, evaluation wheat alfalfa companion cropping was evaluated. Results showed that alfalfa seed crop can be established in companion with dwarf and early type wheat cultivars such as KBG-01(Figure 1). Highest alfalfa seed yield from mixed stands was obtained at 60cm row spacing. Alfalfa seed fields have been successfully established when planted wheat at 75cm row spacing in the Middle East (Marble, 1989). The fields are maintained as wheat field until wheat is harvested and then as alfalfa seed fields until December. It is important to note that growing wheat with alfalfa did not affect wheat grain yield and rather expected to increase total farm return (Figure 2). There are important factors to consider in selecting and managing wheat as a companion crop, including: selecting earlier maturing and shorter-stature varieties; reducing the seeding rate; and promptly removing straw.

Alfalfa seed yield (kg per ha)

500 400 300 200 100 0

Wheat*alfalfa mixture

Sole alfalfa

30

60 Alfalfa row spacing

90

Fig. 1: Effect of wheat as a companion crop on seed yield of alfalfa at Kulumsa

Wheat grain yield (t per ha)

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Sole Wheat 30 60 90

Alfalfa row spacing (cm) Fig. 2: Effect of alfalfa companion crop on wheat grain yield at Kulumsa

Fig. 3: Alfalfa intercropped with wheat cultivar KBG-01 at Kulumsa. Wheat grain was harvested and stubble was removed earlier when alfalfa stands flowering.

Fertilizer management for forage seed crops

In general, forage plants are believed to be heavy feeders and thus drain a considerable amount of nutrients (Hazra and Sinha, 1996). In grasses the aim of fertilizing seed crops is to synchronize production of a large number of fertile heads to get uniform ripening. Application of nitrogen to grass seed crops is nearly always profitable since it promotes tiller fertility (% tillers producing inflorescence) and ultimately good seed yield. Increasing fertilizer rate up to 200kgha-1 has resulted in a rapid increase in seed yield of Rhodes grass at the first harvest year at Kulumsa (Figure 4). Further increase in rate of urea application did not show considerable improvement in seed yield. In the older stands seed yield was lower than that of the first harvest but increasing fertilizer rate up to 300kgha-1 has improved seed yield by more than 200% as compared to the unfertilized stand. Seed crops after the first harvest require a substantial amount of N-fertilizer since nitrogen is essential to bring about many heads and fertile spikeletes for better synchronization. 300 1974 Seed yield (kg per ha) 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 100 200 300 400 Urea Rate (kg per ha) Fig. 4: Effect of rate of urea fertilizer on seed yield of Rhodes grass at different stand ages after establishment at Kulumsa. Source: ARDU, 1983 1980 1983

Determination of proper time of fertilizer top dressing is an important step in fertilizer management for seed crop. Time of urea top-dressing was studied on Rhodes grass and it observed that topdressing seed crop in Mid-July gave the highest clean seed and pure germinating seed yield (Figure 5). Urea top-dressing stands later than mid July continuously decreased clean seed yield as well as 7

yield of pure germinating seed. However, urea application at any time has improved both seed yield parameters.

140 Seed yield (kg per ha) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 No urea

SY

PGS

Mid June Early July Mid July Late July Date of Urea top dressing

Mid Aug

Late Aug

Fig.5: Effect of time of urea top-dressing on clean seed yield (SY) and pure germinating seed yield (PGS) of Rhodes grass at Kulumsa. Source: CADU, 1973.

Harvesting forage seed

Forage seed harvesting is complicated by poor synchronization of flowering/heading, seed shattering, difficulty in attaining maximum viability at harvest. Uneven heading and seed setting, and seed ripening of grass seed crops make the selection of harvest time difficult. Seed harvesting on tropical grasses is usually carried out some 6-7 weeks after initial head emergence (5-10 heads plant-1) (Boonman, 1993). In Rhodes grass pure germinating seed yield (PGS) increased until two weeks later after the first heads started to scatter the seed (Figure 6). High clean seed yields (more that 200kgha-1) were obtained by harvesting Rhodes grass between one and four weeks after the first heads start scattering seeds. However, maximum clean seed yield of colored guinea grass was obtained by harvesting two weeks later. The highest pure germinating seed yield was obtained after five weeks in colored guinea grass. Getnet and Tadesse (1996) noted that the optimum stage of maturity for maximum seed yield and higher viability of perennial grasses such as Rhodes grass, colored guinea grass, and Harding grass could be obtained when harvested a month after flowering.

300 CGSY Seed yield (kg per ha) 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Weeks after first heads start scattering 6 CGPGS RSY RPGS

Fig.6: Effect of harvesting time on seed yield of Rhodes grass and colored guinea grass. NB: CGSY and CGPGS=Colored guinea grass clean seed and pure germinating seed yields; RSY and RPGS= Rhodes grass clean seed and pure germinating seed yields. (Source: CADU, 1973).

Fig. 7: Beating on palm to check scattering of first heads (Photo by Author, 2010)

Effect of storage period and seed treatment on seed quality

Effects of adverse storage conditions on the seed vigor of various crop species have been well documented (Hopkinson & English, 2005). When stored under prevailing temperature and
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humidity conditions, seeds of many plant species lose viability and vigor within a short period of time; except for legume seeds with impermeable seed coats (upi et al., 2005). Vigor loss is associated with biochemical losses associated during seed ageing (Murthy et al., 2003). Seed vigor enhancement techniques such are hydro-priming are used to improve the germination and vigor of seeds (Harris, 1996). Hydro-priming is reported to improve seed and seedling performance in soybean (Mohammadi, 2009).

Fig. 8: Speed of germination and seedling emergence index of common vetch seeds as affected by duration of seed storage and hydro-priming. Data consists of means SE. Data points followed by different letters are significantly different at = 0.05 level of significance. (Source: Karta et al., 2011) Speed of germination of unprimed seeds was not affected by storing seeds for up to two years under ambient conditions whereas emergence index has increased as seed storage duration was increased up to two years (Figure 8). Hydro-priming significantly improved speed of germination at all durations of storage. Emergence index was also improved by hydropriming common vetch seeds at zero and one year period of storage. These results are in line with that of Mohammadi (2009), who reported that hydro-priming significantly improved

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speed of germination in soybean. Faster rate of germination of hydroprimed seeds could be attributed to enhanced repair in the intra-cellular architecture and mobilization of hydrolytic enzymes required for visible germination to occur (Bewley, 1997).

Problems in forage seed production and research

Problems in forage seed production Limited number of varieties commercially registered Shortage of locally adaptable technical information on establishment, seed crop management, seed harvesting, cleaning, packing, and storage Evolutionary problems such as poor seed yielding ability, seed shattering, dormancy. Unpredictable demand for forage seed and low priority by farmers to cultivated forage, and weak forage seed marketing Problems in forage seed research Priority to herbage productivity and quality improvement Limited skill in forage breeding, agronomic management of seed crops for seed yield and quality improvement Limited facility for post-harvest handling research

Future directions in forage seed production and research

Forage crop improvement Data collection should consider traits associated with optimum seed yield and quality, but without significantly affecting herbage yield and quality Focus should be place on limited number of species with wide adaptation for seed as well as herbage production Forage seed agronomy Information on seed crop establishment (seed rate, fertilizer rate, dormancy breaking, seed enhancement, etc) should be generated for species with wider adaptation and superior herbage yield and quality Seed crop management (stand management for perennials, harvesting stages and harvesting methods) Post harvest handling Seed cleaning and packing techniques, storage regime, duration of storage, dormancy breaking treatments, seed enhancement, etc
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Strengthening forage seed value chain and networking stakeholders (Figure 9)

Fig. 9: Hypothetical scheme of networking key players in the forage seed value chain :

Conclusion and recommendations

Some findings are available in the area of seed crop establishment and management, seed harvesting, and post harvest handling of forage and pasture crops. However, there still is knowledge gap on seed production and post harvest handling in potential forage species. harvest Moreover, several bottlenecks exist in the area of forage seed production and research. Hence, recommended actions have to be taken into consideration for improved functioning of the forage seed production and research system in the country. rese

References
ARDU (Arsi Rural Development Unit).1983. Report on survey and experimental results. ARDU, Asella, Ethiopia. Bewley J.D.1997. Seed germination and dormancy. The Plant Cell. 9:1055-1066. 9:1055 1066. CADU (Chillalo Agricultural Development Unit). 1973. Reports on survey and experimental Development results. CADU, Asella, Ethiopia. CSA (Central Statistical Authority). 2009. Report on Farm Management Practices. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency, Agricultural Sample Survey, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. upi, T, Popovi, S., Grljui, S., Tucak, M., Andri L. & imic, B. 2005. Effect of storage , Andri, time on alfalfa seed quality. J. C. Europ. Agri. 6:65-68. CVR (Crop Variety Register). 2009. Crop variety register. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Ministry Development, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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Harris D. 1996. The effect of manure, genotype, seed priming and depth and date of sowing on the emergence and early growth of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench in semi-arid Botswana. Soil and Till. Res. 40:73-88. Hazra, C.R. and N.C. Sinha. 1996. Forage seed production: A technological development, South Asian Publisher, New Delhi, India. Hopkinson, J.M. & English, B.H. 2005. Influence of storage conditions on survival and sowing value of seed of tropical pasture grasses. 1. Longevity. Tropical Grasslands, 39:129 139. KARC (Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center).2006. Forage and Pasture Research Progress Report, KARC, Kulumsa, Ethiopia. .2007. Forage and Pasture Research Progress Report. KARC, Kulumsa, Ethiopia. .2009. Forage and Pasture Research Progress Report. KARC, Kulumsa, Ethiopia. Karta Kaske, R.P.S. Tomer, and Bekele Abebie.2011. Effects of duration of storage and hydro-priming on seed germination and vigor of common vetch. Journal of Science and Development, 1: Marble, V.L. 1989. Fodders for the Near East: Alfalfa. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), Rome, Italy. Muhammadi G.R. 2009. The effect of seed priming on plant traits of late-spring seeded soybean (Glycine max L.). Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci. 5:322-326. Murthy U.M.N., Kumar P.P. and Sun W.Q. 2003. Mechanisms of seed ageing under different storage conditions for Vigna radiate (L.) Wilczek: lipid peroxidation, sugar hydrolysis, maillard reactions and their relationship to glass transition. J. Exp. Bot. 54:1057-1067.

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