Adela Ben-Yakar - Experimental Investigation of Mixing and Ignition of Transverse Jets in Supersonic Crossflows

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF MIXING AND
IGNITION OF TRANSVERSE JETS IN SUPERSONIC

CROSSFLOWS
a dissertation
submitted to the department of mechanical engineering
and the committee on graduate studies
of stanford university
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
doctor of philosophy
Adela Ben-Yakar
December, 2000
c Copyright 2001 by Adela Ben-Yakar
All Rights Reserved
ii
Abstract
Ignition, ame-holding, and mixing enhancement are fundamental aspects of su-
personic combustion and are critical to the development of hypersonic airbreathing
propulsion engines. High velocities associated with supersonic/hypersonic ight speeds
constrain the performance of propulsion systems because of the limited ow residence
time inside the combustor. A useful hypervelocity propulsion system therefore requires
enhanced mixing of fuel and air, injection with very low drag penalty, and eective
distribution of fuel over the burner cross-section. One of the simplest approaches is
the transverse injection of fuel from wall orices. The interesting but rather compli-
cated ow-eld dynamics of transverse jets injected into a supersonic crossow has been
studied by many supersonic combustion researchers since 1960s, but with limited free-
stream ow conditions. Most of the previous research was performed in conventional
wind tunnels by accelerating cold air into supersonic conditions, namely in low velocity
and low total enthalpy ow conditions. However, a real supersonic combustor environ-
ment at ight speeds beyond Mach 8 can only be simulated using impulse facilities due
to the required high total enthalpies. Among various impulse facilities, expansion tubes
are especially useful in providing high total enthalpy ows with the proper chemical
composition, namely the absence of dissociated species.
This research is focused on studying the near-eld mixing and ignition properties of
transverse fuel jets injected into realistic supersonic combustor ows. We use advanced
ow visualization techniques, namely planar laser-induced uorescence (PLIF) imag-
ing of the hydroxyl radical (OH) and ultra-fast-framing-rate schlieren imaging. While
schlieren indicates the location of shock waves, jet penetration and large scale ow
features, OH-PLIF is used to map the regions of ignition.
The rst objective of the present work is to characterize the expansion tube facility
iii
for three operating points, simulating ight Mach 8, 10 and 13 total enthalpy conditions.
The ability of the expansion tube to provide a steady-ow test time of adequate duration
and a core ow of sucient size for 2 mm diameter jet-in-crossow studies is veried.
The second objective is to study the ow-eld properties of hydrogen and ethylene
jets, owing to their relevance to supersonic combustion. Visual observations of image
data, supported by the results for the convection velocity and jet penetration, reveal
signicant dierences between the hydrogen and ethylene injection cases with similar
momentum ux ratio. Previously the momentum ux ratio was found to be the main
controlling parameter of the jet penetration but the results here demonstrate the exis-
tence of an additional mechanism which alters the vortical structure, the penetration
and the mixing properties of the jet shear layer. The thickness of the penetration band,
used as the representation of the jet-shear-layer thickness is considerable in the ethy-
lene injection case, due to the tilting-stretching-tearing mechanism and also due to
the larger growth rate of the jet shear layer. Furthermore autoignition of an ethylene
transverse jet is achieved at ight Mach 10 conditions despite the relatively long ig-
nition delay times of ethylene (hydrocarbons), a key limitation for hydrocarbon-fueled
scramjets. These results of higher penetration, larger jet shear layer growth rate and
autoignition capability indicate that hydrocarbons might be a useful fuel in scramjets
ying at Mach 10 conditions.
The third objective is to investigate the stability of the jet shear layer at various
speed ratios and density ratios via schlieren. The high shear stresses induced by the
large velocity dierence across the jet shear layer have a large eect on the structure of
the layer. For the unstable case, we notice: 1) breakdown of Kelvin-Helmholtz structures
with the tilting-stretching-tearing mechanism; 2) increased growth rates with decreasing
values of jet-to-free-stream velocity ratio; 3) large intrusions of crossow in between the
eddies, and 4) additional shock waves and distortion of the bow shock around the large
eddies. Stable layers show well-dened Kelvin-Helmholtz spanwise rollers. The results
plotted in a density-eective velocity ratio (s ) diagram demonstrate two separate
regions of stableand unstablejet shear layers with a separation line at a critical
eective velocity ratio.
The nal objective is to study the ignition and ame-holding capabilities of a hy-
drogen transverse jet injected into ight Mach 8, 10 and 13 total enthalpy conditions.
The results demonstrate self-ignition in the near-eld of the hydrogen jet for the high
iv
total enthalpy conditions (ight Mach 10 and 13). OH-uorescence is detected along
the jet shear layer periphery in a continuous and very thin lament. For the low total
enthalpy Mach 8 condition, however, the ignition is limited to a small region behind the
bow shock and no OH uorescence can be observed farther downstream.
It is evident from the results that improved injection schemes for better ame-holding
would be required for practical applications in scramjet engines, especially in the ight
Mach 8 range. During the last few years, cavities have gained the attention of the
scramjet community as a promising ame-holding device, owing to results obtained in
ight tests and to feasibility demonstrations in laboratory scale supersonic combustors.
In this thesis, we summarize the oweld characteristics of cavities and research eorts
related to cavities employed in low- and high-speed ows. Open questions impacting
the eectiveness of the cavities as ame-holders in supersonic combustors are discussed.
Preliminary studies on cavities with upstream injection are presented indicating self-
ignition inside and around the cavity.
v
Contents
Abstract iii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Typical Scramjet Burner Entry Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Flow-Field Features of Jets in Supersonic Crossows . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Ignition and Flame-Holding Strategies in Supersonic Combustion 8
1.2 Thesis Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Experimental Aspects 14
2.1 Critical Parameters in Supersonic Combustion Simulation . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Experimental Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Expansion Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Injection System and its Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.3 Cavity/Injection Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Test Flow Characterization in the Flight Mach 8 - 13 Range . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Flow Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Measurement of Flow Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.3 Boundary Layer Eects on Test Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.4 Core-Flow Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.5 Flow Establishment Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 Flow Visualization Techniques 41
3.1 Ultra-Fast Framing Rate Schlieren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
vi
3.1.1 Previous and Current High Speed Imaging Eorts . . . . . . . . 43
3.1.2 High-Speed Schlieren Imaging Components . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.3 Timing and Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.4 Resolution Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.5 Image Processing and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2 OH-PLIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.1 Excitation and Detection Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.2 OH-PLIF Laser Source and Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.3 OH-PLIF Imaging System and Its Spatial Resolution . . . . . . . 55
3.2.4 Interpretation of OH-PLIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Simultaneous Schlieren and OH-PLIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 Time Evolution and Mixing Characteristics of Hydrogen and Ethylene
Transverse Jets 59
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.1 General Flow-Field Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.2 Large Scale Coherent Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.3 Convection Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.2.4 Penetration and Shear Layer Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.5 OH-PLIF Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5 The Eect of Velocity and Density Ratio on Transverse Jets 88
5.1 Eect of Jet Molecular Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.1.1 Flow Visualization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.1.2 Penetration and Shear Layer Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.1.3 Convection Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.4 Characteristic Large Eddy Frequencies (Possible Transverse Jet
Modes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.5 Jet Compressibility Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2 Eect of Density and Velocity Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.1 Flow Visualization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
vii
5.2.2 Denition of an Eective Velocity Ratio, . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2.3 Discussion on the Eect of the Curvature - Centrifugal Instability
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6 Autoignition and Flame-Holding Capability of a Hydrogen Transverse
Jet 114
6.1 Ignition and Flame-Holding Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2 Ignition and Flame-Holding Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.1 Simultaneous OH-PLIF/Schlieren Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.2 Top View OH-PLIF Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.3 Comparison of Ignition in Flight Mach 8-13 Total Enthalpy Range 120
6.3 Discussion of the Ignition Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.3.1 Ignition Characteristics of Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.3.2 Ignition in Supersonic Combustors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3.3 Ignition of a Hydrogen Transverse Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.3.4 Ignition of Ethylene Transverse Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7 Cavity Flame-Holders 132
7.1 Review of Previous Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.1.1 Cavity Flow-Field Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.1.2 Cavity in Reacting Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.1.3 Outstanding Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.2 Preliminary Cavity Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2.1 Visual Observation of Cavities Using Ultra-Fast Schlieren . . . . 153
7.2.2 Preliminary Ignition Results of Injection/Cavity Schemes . . . . 157
8 Concluding Remarks 161
8.1 Summary of Major Results and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.1.1 Experimental Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.1.2 Flow Visualization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.1.3 Characteristics of Hydrogen and Ethylene Transverse Jets . . . . 165
8.1.4 Density and Velocity Ratio Eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.1.5 Ignition and Flame-Holding Capability of a Hydrogen Transverse
Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
viii
8.1.6 Cavity Flame-Holders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2 Recommendation For Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
A Expansion Tube Equations 175
B Maps of Estimated Expansion Tube Test Conditions 178
Bibliography 184
ix
List of Tables
1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of expansion tubes relative to shock tun-
nels for hypervelocity combustion simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Test gas (free-stream) ow properties simulating the burner entry condi-
tions of three ight Mach numbers. The corresponding values are from
Fig. 1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Summary of measured, ideal (inviscid 1-D) and predicted (based on
Mirels solution) properties of test gas for Mach 10 and 13 ow condi-
tions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1 Jet exit ow properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.1 The general ow exit properties of gaseous jets with dierent molecular
weights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.2 The specic ow exit properties of gaseous jets used in the study of the
jet molecular weight eect. The free-stream used in these experiments
simulates the ight Mach 10 ow condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3 Summary of the dierent conditions used in the study of jet instability
analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.1 Summary of cavity oscillation frequencies, f
m
, for dierent cavity length
to depth ratios, L/D. The table includes the expected values based on
Rossiters formula and the ones measured in our experiments. . . . . . . 153
8.1 Recommended free-stream ow conditions for further ignition studies. . 170
x
List of Figures
1.1 Typical scramjet burner entry conditions as a function of ight Mach
number, calculated assuming adiabatic compression. a) The burner en-
try Mach number, M
3
, for dierent temperature ratios, T
3
/T
0
. b) The
burner entry pressure, p
3
, and the ight trajectories of constant dynamic
pressure, q
0
, of 50 and 100 kPa. In our experiments, total enthalpy ows
(Mach number, M
3
, and static temperature, T
3
) simulating three nominal
ight conditions (Mach 8, 10 and 13) were generated. . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Schematic of an underexpanded transverse injection into a supersonic
cross-ow, (a) instantaneous side view at the center-line axis of the jet;
(b) 3-D perspective of the averaged features of the ow-eld (Gruber et
al. 1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Flow-eld schematics of traditional injection/ame-holding schemes for
supersonic combustors. a) underexpanded fuel injection normal to the
crossow, b) fuel injection at angle, c) injection behind a sudden expan-
sion produced by a step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1 Expansion tube facility (12 m in length and 89 mm inner diameter) and
imaging system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Expansion tube distance-time (x-t) diagram calculated for ight Mach
13 condition. Method of characteristics was used to solve the ow gasdy-
namics properties assuming one-dimensional inviscid theory. Test time
is dened as the time that the test gas has uniform ow quantities and
determined by the time arrival of the contact surface to the tube exit,
and that of the rst subsequent rarefaction wave (reected rarefaction
head in our case of high total enthalpy simulations). . . . . . . . . . . . 19
xi
2.3 Schematic of the test section (27 x 27 cm cross section) where a rake of 4
pitot probes, instrumented with pressure transducers, was located 2.5 cm
downstream of the tube exit. The ow history during the expansion tube
operation was detected via pitot pressure information. Note that the
inner diameter of the tube is 8.9 cm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Optical set-up to measure the test gas velocity, assumed to be equal to
the CS - contact surface velocity. IR emission from 5%CO
2
seeded in the
test gas nitrogen is collected by an InSb IR detector at the viewing port
located at 101.6 cm from the end of the tube. The test gas velocity can
then be calculated by considering its time of arrival at the viewing port
and at the pitot rake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Schematic of a) Injection system, b) cavity/injection plate system. . . . . 23
2.6 Schlieren visualization of an underexpanded gaseous injection into still
air. (a)-(c) hydrogen (d)-(e) ethylene jets. The exposure time of the
images was 3 musec. Mach disk height, y
1
, was measured for dierent
pressure ratios, P
j
/P
eb
, to calibrate the injection system. . . . . . . . . . 24
2.7 Maps of estimated test gas (nitrogen) conditions (state 5) at the exit of an
expansion tube: a) pressure and temperature, b) total enthalpy and ve-
locity of the test gas are plotted for dierent initial driven and expansion
section pressures. Calculations are performed using the inviscid 1D equa-
tions for a given driver pressure of P
4
= 600 psig (helium). Note that the
eective lling pressure of the driver section is taken as P
4,e
= 686 psig,
as its inner diameter (10.2 cm) is larger than that of the driven and ex-
pansion sections (8.9 cm). This area dierence is accounted for in the
curves presented above. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8 Example of IR emission, pitot pressure, wall pressure records and the
Mach number variation based on the pitot-to-static pressure ratios, as
a function of time for the Mach 10 ow condition. t = 0 represents
incident shock arrival at the pitot probe, placed 2.5 cm downstream of
the tube exit, while the wall pressure transducer and IR detector are
positioned 40.6 cm and 101.6 cm upstream of the tube exit, respectively
(see Fig. 2.4). Note that the time scale of the static pressure trace is
shifted by 235 s to match the shock arrival at the pitot probe. . . . . . 29
xii
2.9 Example of IR emission, pitot pressure and wall pressure traces as a
function of time for the Mach 13 ow condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.10 Example of IR emission, pitot pressure and wall pressure traces as a
function of time for the Mach 8 ow condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.11 Comparison of the measured contact-surface velocity (test gas velocity)
with the shock-induced gas velocity estimated using the measured shock
speeds in the expansion section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.12 X-t diagrams for the expansion section only. 1-D inviscid calculations
are plotted in straight lines and results applying Mirels model to include
the boundary layer eects are plotted in dashed lines. One can see the
improved test time as a result of the contact surface (CS) acceleration
due to the developing boundary layer behind the incident shock in the
low pressure expansion section helium ow. The incident shock velocity
was measured and assumed to be constant along the expansion section. 34
2.13 Useful core-ow size in ight Mach 13, 10 and 8 conditions, (a), (b) and
(c), respectively, determined by measuring the radial variation of pitot
pressure at dierent distances from the tube exit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1 Schlieren imaging set-up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2 Examples of schlieren images of jet issuing into quiescent air as obtained
for dierent positions of the knife edge (razor blade) at the focal point.
We use the set-up demonstrated in (d) where the knife edge cuts the
focused light at an angle to enhance both the vertical and the horizontal
density gradient eects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Timing diagram of the high-speed rate imaging system and its synchro-
nization with the expansion tube test ow time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Examples of schlieren images with dierent integration/exposure times:
a) 100 ns exposure time, resolving the instantaneous features of the ow-
eld, b) 200 ns exposure time, resulting in blurring of the image, c) 3 s
exposure time, averaging the general features while enhancing the weak
shocks such as upstream separation shock wave and downstream recom-
pression wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
xiii
3.5 Timing diagram of the high-speed rate imaging system and its synchro-
nization with the expansion tube test ow time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6 a) Triggering diagram and timing connections of the imaging, the injec-
tion and the data acquisition systems. b) Timing diagram of simultane-
ous OH-PLIF and schlieren and their synchronization with the expansion
tube test ow time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1 Examples of hydrogen (a) and ethylene (b) injections into a supersonic
crossow (nitrogen). Exposure time of each image was 200 ns. The x-axis
is normalized by the jet diameter d. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2 An example of schlieren image with 3 s exposure time for hydrogen
injection case. While the unsteady features (coherent structures) are
averaged to zero, some of the weak shocks such as upstream separation
shock wave and downstream recompression wave are emphasized. . . . . 63
4.3 (a) Bow shock position and its angle at the center-line of the jet as mea-
sured from the long exposure schlieren image shown in Fig. 4.2. (b) The
free-stream velocity behind the bow shock and the ow turning angle
based on the measured bow shock shape. For the calculations a calori-
cally perfect gas has been assumed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 An example of 8 consecutive schlieren images of underexpanded hydrogen
injection (d=2 mm) into a supersonic crossow (nitrogen) obtained by
high-speed-framing camera. Exposure time of each image is 100 ns and
interframing time is 1 s. Free-stream conditions are: U
=2360 m/s,
M
=3.38, T
=1290 K, p
=32.4 kPa; and jet-to-free-stream momentum

ratio is: J=1.40.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.5 The second example of 4 of 8 consecutive schlieren images of hydrogen
injection into ight Mach 10 condition. Exposure time of each image is
100 ns and interframing time is 1 s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.6 Time evolution of an ethylene jet in a supersonic crossow (nitrogen)
as observed from 8 consecutive schlieren images. Exposure time of each
image is 100 ns and interframing time is 1.5 s. Free-stream conditions
are: U
=2360 m/s, M
=3.38, T
=1290 K, p
=32.4 kPa; and jet-to-

free-stream momentum ratio is: J=1.40.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
xiv
4.7 The second example of an ethylene transverse jet ow-eld in a supersonic
crossow as observed from 8 time correlated schlieren images. Exposure
time of each image is 200 ns and interframing time is 1.2 s. . . . . . . . 72
4.8 Schematic of the three-dimensional shape ( shape) of the unsteady vor-
tical structures formed intermittently (Brizzi et al. 1995). . . . . . . . . 73
4.9 Development of a large-scale ethylene structure (eddy number -1 in
Fig. 4.7) as it goes through the tilting and stretching processes. Four
dierent parts of the eddy structure were independently tracked in the
duration of the 8.6 s ow visualization time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.10 Space-time trajectories of large-scale eddies present in the hydrogen jet
shear layer. The center of the eddies are tracked from the 8 successive
schlieren images shown (a) in Fig. 4.4 and (b) in Fig. 4.5. . . . . . . . . . 75
4.11 Space-time trajectories of ethylene large scale eddies as tracked from 8
time-correlated schlieren images: (a) x-t diagram of the example shown
in Fig. 4.6, (b) x-t diagram of the example shown in Fig. 4.7. . . . . . . 76
4.12 Convection features of coherent large scale structures present in the hy-
drogen jet/free-stream shear layer. The data were subtracted by analyz-
ing the eddy displacement in 8 consecutive schlieren images of 2 exper-
iments (images shown in Figs. 4.4 and 4.5). (a) the convection velocity
of eddies in streamwise and transverse directions, U
c,x
and U
c,y
, respec-
tively; (b) the convection angle of eddies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.13 Convection features of eddies present in the ethylene jet/free-stream shear
layer. The data were subtracted by analyzing the eddy displacement in 8
consecutive schlieren images of 2 experiments (images shown in Figs. 4.6
and 4.7). (a) the convection velocity of eddies in streamwise and trans-
verse directions, U
c,x
and U
c,y
, respectively; (b) the convection angle of
eddies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.14 Measured convection velocity of large eddy structures in the hydrogen and
ethylene jet shear layers. The results are compared with the estimated
values of the free-stream velocity immediately behind the bow shock. . . 79
4.15 Schematic showing the low- and high-speed regions of the bow shock-
induced free-stream velocity around the large-scale ethylene eddies. . . . 81
xv
4.16 Transverse penetration data of (a) hydrogen jet and (b) ethylene jet. The
data points were obtained by manually tracking the visually observable
outer edge of the jet from 8 consecutive schlieren images for J = 1.40.1.
Both of the gures include analysis of 2 experiments namely 16 images.
For comparison, also shown in the gures is the penetration correlation
given by other studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.17 OH-PLIF results mapping the ignition regions at the jet center-line of:
a) hydrogen injection into air, b) ethylene injection into air, c) ethylene
injection into pure oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.1 Examples of instantaneous schlieren images of jets with dierent molec-
ular weights. Free-stream conditions are: U
=2360 m/s, M
=3.38,
T
=1290 K, p
=32.4 kPa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 Jet transverse penetration along the axial distance, x/d. Data for four
gases with dierent molecular weights are presented: a) M
w
= 2, J =
1.84, b) M
w
= 4, J = 1.72, c) M
w
= 8, J = 1.85, d) M
w
= 16, J = 1.67.
For comparison, empirical correlations suggested by Gruber et al. (1995)
and Rothstein and Wantuck (1992) are also included for J = 1.75. . . . 93
5.3 Convection velocity of large scale structures in the streamwise (M
c,x
)
and transverse (M
c,y
) directions as a function of axial distance x/d. The
results for each case (for each molecular weight of jet) are obtained from
4-5 experiments each including 8 consecutive schlieren images. . . . . . . 96
5.4 Formation frequency of the large scale structures and the corresponding
preferred mode Strouhal number, St
d
= f
j
d/U
j
, as a function of the jet
exit velocity. The data were collected from the time evolution observation
of the jet from 8 consecutive schlieren images. Each data point was
obtained by averaging 5-10 experiments with the error bars representing
the deviation from the mean value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.5 Formation frequency of the large scale structures and the initial vortex
shedding Strouhal number, St
j
= f
j
/U
j
, as a function of the jet
Reynolds number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.6 Flow-eld schematics used in the jet compressibility analysis. Letters A,
B and C indicate the zones of the jet shear layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
xvi
5.7 Estimated convective Mach number in zone A, M
A
c
, (refer to the
schematic in Fig. 5.6) and the measured visible jet shear layer thickness,
vis
, at x/d22 as obtained from penetration width measurements. . . . 102
5.8 Estimated velocity elds for the jet and the free-stream in zones B and
C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.9 Schlieren images at selected conditions given in Table 5.3. . . . . . . . . 107
5.12 Velocity vector eld (U
, U
j
) for a skewed mixing layer and the eective
velocity ratio, ., described in the total velocity vector direction. . . . . 110
5.13 Jet-to-free-stream density ratio vs. velocity ratio. The number near the
data points corresponds to the experimental conditions summarized in
Table 5.3. Unstable ow jet is dened when the large structures lose
coherence downstream of the injection port and signicant distortions in
the bow shock shape can be observed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.14 Jet-to-free-stream density ratio vs. the eective velocity ratio, . The
number near the data points corresponds to the experimental conditions
summarized in Table 5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.15 Schematics illustrating the stability regions based on a) Rayleigh criterion
for centrifugal forces in the curved mixing layers as given in Eq. 5.15 where
cons. = 3 + 2

vis
h
max
and b) current experimental results. . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.1 Simultaneous OH-PLIF and schlieren images visualizing hydrogen injec-
tion into supersonic crossow. Free-stream conditions are M = 3.57,
T = 1300 K, P = 0.32 atm, V = 2500 m/s. The jet-to-freestream mo-
mentum ux ratio is J = 1.4. a) Schlieren image, b) OH-PLIF image
demonstrating the ignition and combustion regions of jet-in-crossow at
high enthalpy condition, c) Overlaid OH-PLIF and schlieren images. . . 118
6.2 Instantaneous top-view OH-PLIF images obtained at dierent height
above the injection plate. Free-stream conditions are M=3.57, T=1300K,
P=0.32atm, V=2500m/s. The jet-to-freestream momentum ux ratio is
J=1.4. a) y/d=3, b) y/d=2.5, c) y/d=2, d) y/d=1 above the injection plate.119
xvii
6.3 Instantaneous OH-PLIF acquired at center-line axis of the hydrogen jet
injected into ight Mach 10 and 13 conditions. The images are obtained
by combination of 2 dierent instantaneous images: near the exit of the
jet (5 < x/d < 1) and downstream of the jet (1 < x/d < 10). . . . . . . 121
6.4 Two instantaneous OH-PLIF images acquired at center-line axis of the
hydrogen jet injected into ight Mach 8 conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.5 Explosion limits of a stoichiometric hydrogen-oxygen mixture (after Sung
et al., 1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.6 Variation of ignition delay times
ign
of a stoichiometric mixture of H
2
and air with temperature and pressure. Calculations are perfomed using
Chemkin and the GRI mechanism. a)
ign
vs. T, b) p
ign
vs. T . . . . . 125
6.7 Variation of ignition time with fuel-air equivalence ratio, , for cold H
2
(T
jet
= 300 K) injected into hot air. The values of the ignition delay time
are calculated for dierent air temperatures, T
air
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.8 The free-stream temperature and pressure (T
2
and P
2
) behind the bow
shock, measured from schlieren images as discussed in Section 4.2.1 (see
Fig. 4.3). Ignition delay times are calculated for several conditions of air
assuming = 0.2. The free-stream ow properties simulate the ight
Mach 10 conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.9 Comparison of ignition delay of a stoichiometric mixture of C
2
H
4
(ethy-
lene) and air/oxygen at 1 atm with a stoichiometric mixture of H
2
and
air. Two dierent reaction mechanisms are used to calculate the ignition
delay times of C
2
H
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.10 a) Variation of ignition delay of a stoichiometric mixture of C
2
H
4
(ethy-
lene) and air/oxygen at various pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
xviii
7.1 Flow-eld schematics of cavities with dierent length to depth ratios,
L/D, in a supersonic ow. a) Open cavity ow for L/D < 7 10;
shear layer reattaches to the back face while spanning over the cavity.
Small aspect ratio cavities (L/D < 2 3) are controlled by transverse
oscillation mechanism while in larger aspect ratio cavities longitudinal
oscillation becomes the dominant mechanism. b) Closed cavity ow for
L/D > 10 13; shear layer reattaches to the lower wall. The pressure
increase in the back wall vicinity and the pressure decrease in the front
wall results in large drag losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.2 Typical longitudinal cavity oscillations are caused by the impingement
of the free shear layer on the rear wall which generates travelling shocks
inside the cavity. The shear layer spanning the cavity becomes unsteady
as a result of these acoustic waves deecting the shear layer up and down,
and/or by the shock induced vortices generated at the front wall leading
edge of the cavity. As a result unsteady waves emanate from the cavity. 135
7.3 Dierent concepts can be employed to suppress the cavity oscillations:
a) Cavities with an angled back wall suppress the unsteady nature of the
free shear layer by eliminating the generation of the travelling shocks
inside the cavity due to the free-shear-layer impingement. b) In addition,
small disturbances produced by spoilers or by the secondary jet injection
upstream of the cavity can enhance the free-shear-layer growth rate. The
thickening of the cavity shear layer alters its instability characteristics,
such that its preferred roll-up frequency is shifted outside of the natural
frequency of the cavity, and as a result the oscillations are attenuated. . 137
xix
7.4 Instantaneous schlieren images with 200 ns of exposure time demonstrat-
ing the eect of the back wall angle on the oweld structure of a cav-
ity exposed to a supersonic ow. The free-stream was generated in an
expansion tube to simulate Mach 10 total enthalpy conditions at the su-
personic combustor entry: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K,
p
= 32 kPa. The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the

cavity is approximately 1mm. a) Cavity with L/D = 5 shows the un-
steady nature of the shear layer at the reattachment with the trailing
edge of the back wall. b) Cavity with slanted back wall (20
o
) stabilizes
the shear layer reattachment process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.5 Eect of length-to-depth ratio, L/D on a) magnitude (root-mean-square)
of pressure uctuations on the bottom of the cavity (at x/D = 0.33),
b) drag of the cavity at Mach 1.5 and 2.5 ows. The values were adapted
from Zhang and Edwards (1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.6 Cavity-actuated supersonic mixing enhancement concepts: (a) Sato et al.
(1999), studied the inuence of acoustic waves, emitted from a cavity and
impinging on the initial mixing layer. (b) Yu and Schadow (1994) used
the same concept to enhance the mixing of supersonic reacting jets. . . . 143
7.7 Axisymmetric combustor of the Scramjet engine which was ight-tested
by Russian-CIAM/NASA joint program (1998). In this engine two cav-
ities with angled-rear wall were used for ame-holding purposes. The
dimensions are in mm (McClinton et al. 1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.8 Position of pressure transducers located at the bottom of the cavity to
measure the history of the ow oscillations inside the cavity. Pressure
transducer located farther downstream at x/D = 1.5 provided a more
accurate oscillation frequency measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.9 Examples of cavity pressure traces in arbitrary units: a) L/D = 3, b) L/D =
5, c) L/D = 5 with upstream hydrogen injection, d) L/D = 7. t = 0
represents incident shock arrival at the cavity. The free-stream (N
2
) con-
ditions represent Mach 10 total enthalpy at the supersonic combustor
entry: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K, p
= 32 kPa. . . . . . 152
xx
7.10 Schlieren images demonstrating the dierences in the ow-eld structure
of cavities with dierent length-to-depth ratios and back wall angle. The
depth of the cavities is constant and equal to D = 3 mm. The free-
stream was generated to simulate Mach 10 total enthalpy conditions at
the supersonic combustor entry: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
=
1290 K, p
= 32 kPa. The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge

of the cavity is approximately 1mm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.11 Schlieren images demonstrating jet interaction with dierent cavities.
The hydrogen jet is injected into a non-reacting free-stream 3 mm up-
stream of the cavity from a d = 1 mm orice. The injection is performed
at angle of 30
o
to the plate. The free-stream, N
2
, represents the ight
Mach 10 burner entry conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.12 Instantaneous OH-PLIF images demonstrating the ignition regions of a
hydrogen jet interacting with a L/D = 3 cavity. The images are obtained
from 5 single shots at the same conditions. Hydrogen is injected 3 mm
upstream the cavity leading edge at an angle of 30
o
. The free-stream
(air) properties represent the ight Mach 10 burner entry conditions:
M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K, p
= 32 kPa. Note that

a schlieren image is also included to indicate the ow-eld properties
around the cavity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.13 Instantaneous OH-PLIF images demonstrating the ignition regions of a
hydrogen jet interacting with a cavity with L/D = 3 and 30
o
back wall.
The images are obtained from 5 single shots at the same conditions.
Hydrogen is injected 3 mm upstream the cavity leading edge at an angle
of 30
o
. The free-stream (air) properties represent the ight Mach 10
burner entry conditions: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K,
p
= 32 kPa. Note that a schlieren image is also included to indicate the

ow-eld properties around the cavity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.1 Flow-eld schematics demonstrating dierent concepts of angled jet in-
jection combined with cavity ame-holder. a) upstream injection, b) base
injection , c) cavity injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8.2 Flow-eld schematic of a shock-wave/jet interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . 172
xxi
8.3 Schematic of the 25
o
wedge to generate a shock wave above the injection
plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.4 (a) An oblique shock wave impinging the hydrogen jet as visualized us-
ing schlieren imaging. The shock was produced by a 25
o
angled wedge
mounted above the injection plate. Flight Mach 13 free-stream condi-
tion. (b) Combined OH-PLIF and schlieren images visualizing the eect
of shock/jet interaction on OH number density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
B.1 Maps of estimated test gas (nitrogen) conditions at the exit of an expan-
sion tube: a) pressure and temperature, b) total enthalpy and velocity of
the test gas are plotted for dierent initial driven and expansion section
pressures. Calculations are performed using the inviscid 1D equations for
a given driver pressure of P
4
= 300 psig (helium). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
B.2 Maps of estimated test gas (Argon) conditions at the exit of an expansion
tube: a) pressure and temperature, b) total enthalpy, velocity and Mach
number of the test gas are plotted for dierent initial driven and expan-
sion section pressures. Calculations are performed using the inviscid 1D
equations for a given driver pressure of P
4
= 300 psig (helium). . . . . . 180
B.3 Maps of estimated test gas (Argon) conditions at the exit of an expansion
tube: a) pressure and temperature, b) total enthalpy, velocity and Mach
number of the test gas are plotted for dierent initial driven and expan-
sion section pressures. Calculations are performed using the inviscid 1D
4
= 600 psig (helium). . . . . . 181
B.4 Maps of estimated test gas (Helium) conditions at the exit of an expan-
sion tube: a) pressure and temperature, b) total enthalpy, velocity and
Mach number of the test gas are plotted for dierent initial driven and
expansion section pressures. Calculations are performed using the invis-
cid 1D equations for a given driver pressure of P
4
= 300 psig (helium). . 182
B.5 Maps of estimated test gas (Helium) conditions at the exit of an expan-
sion tube: a) pressure and temperature, b) total enthalpy, velocity and
Mach number of the test gas are plotted for dierent initial driven and
expansion section pressures. Calculations are performed using the invis-
cid 1D equations for a given driver pressure of P
4
= 600 psig (helium). . 183
xxii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background and Motivation
The success of future hypersonic airbreathing propulsion systems will be largely
dependent on ecient injection, mixing and combustion processes inside the super-
sonic / hypersonic combustion chamber. At ight speeds beyond Mach 6, air entering
the combustor must be supersonic to avoid excessive dissociation of both nitrogen and
oxygen gases. Consequently, the time available for fuel injection, fuel-air mixing and
combustion is very short, of the order of 1 msec, which results in troublesome constraints
on the combustion problem (Ferri 1973; Kumar et al. 1989).
1.1.1 Typical Scramjet Burner Entry Conditions
The combustor entry conditions (Mach number, static temperature and pressure)
of hypersonic airbreathing propulsion systems depend on the ight conditions of the
vehicle. In order to keep the density inside the combustor high for ecient combustion
and the lift at reasonably high values, the ight Mach number, M
0
, should increase as
the altitude of the vehicle increases.
Residence time is another issue that has to be considered for ecient performance
of a high-speed propulsion system. The air must be compressed in the diuser in
order to reduce velocities and increase the ow residence time and therefore to allow
a combustor of reasonable length. On the other hand, the reduced velocities at the
combustor entry are restricted by the maximum allowable compression temperature (in
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 2
5 10 15 20 25
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
3
2
1
8
7
T
3
/T
0
=6
Current experiments
1. Mach 8 (3 MJ/kg)
2. Mach10 (4 MJ/kg)
3. Mach13 (6 MJ/kg)
M
3
=1
B
u
r
n
e
r
E
n
t
r
y
M
a
c
h
N
u
m
b
e
r
,
M
3
Flight MachNumber, M
0
5 10 15 20 25
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
q
0
=50 kPa
q
0
=100 kPa
p
3
=1 atm
B
u
r
n
e
r
E
n
t
r
y
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,
p
3
,
a
t
m
Flight MachNumber, M
0
20
25
30
35
40
45
H
e
i
g
h
t
,
k
m
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.1 Typical scramjet burner entry conditions as a function of ight Mach number, calculated assum-
ing adiabatic compression. a) The burner entry Mach number, M
3
, for dierent temperature
ratios, T
3
/T
0
. b) The burner entry pressure, p
3
, and the ight trajectories of constant dynamic
pressure, q
0
, of 50 and 100 kPa. In our experiments, total enthalpy ows (Mach number, M
3
,
and static temperature, T
3
) simulating three nominal ight conditions (Mach 8, 10 and 13)
were generated.
the range of 1440-1670 K (Heiser and Pratt 1994)) to avoid excessive dissociation in
the exhaust ow. These constraints determine the expected values of combustor entry
Mach number and temperature, M
3
and T
3
, respectively.
Considering the above issues, the expected values of ow conditions at the combustor
entrance of an airbreathing propulsion system were estimated and plotted in Fig. 1.1
as a function of ight Mach number, M
0
. Calculations were performed for dierent
burner entry temperature to atmosphere temperature ratios (T
3
/T
0
) assuming adiabatic
compression (constant total enthalpy) throughout the diuser according to Eq. 1.1:
T
3
T
0
=
1 +

0
1
2
M
2
0
1 +

3
1
2
M
2
0
(1.1)
As shown in Fig. 1.1a, for hypersonic ights beyond Mach 6, (M
0
> 6) a supersonic
combustion ramjet (scramjet) where the ow remains supersonic / hypersonic through-
out the engine should be considered.
Furthermore, to keep structural loads on the hypersonic vehicle at acceptable levels,
namely, to keep the dynamic pressure, q
0
= 1/2
0
V
2
0
, in the range of 50-100 kPa, ight
at high speeds is conned to altitudes of 25-40 km. Consequently, the burner entry
pressure, p
3
, can be directly evaluated (see Fig. 1.1b) for xed dynamic pressure, q
0
,
of 50 and 100 kPa, compression eciency,
c
, of 0.9 and temperature ratio, T
3
/T
0
, of 6
using Eq. 1.2 (Heiser and Pratt 1994):
P
3
P
0
=
_
T
3
T
0
T
3
T
0
(1
c
) +
c
_

c
c
1
(1.2)
where
c
is the average specic heat ratio;
c
= 1/2(
0
+
3
). Therefore, at ights
beyond Mach 8, typical pressures at the entrance of supersonic combustors range from
approximately 0.2 to 4 atm depending on the operating parameters for the ight mission,
such as the Mach number and the altitude.
Most supersonic combustion research in the open literature has focused on ight
speeds of Mach 8 and below (Allen et al. 1993; McMillin et al. 1994; Gruber et al.
1995; Parker et al. 1995; Santiago and Dutton 1997), and there are relatively few
works which have been performed for higher ight Mach numbers (Stalker 1989; An-
derson et al. 1990; Bakos et al. 992a; Bakos et al. 992b; Bakos et al. 992c; Erdos
1994; Anderson 1994; Albrechcinski et al. 1995; Wendt and Stalker 1996; Belanger and
Hornung 1996; McIntyre et al. 1997; Erdos 1998; Ben-Yakar and Hanson 002a). Due
to the large total enthalpies (greater than 3 MJ/kg) associated with high ight Mach
numbers, only impulse facilities are capable of providing the required total tempera-
ture and Mach number to replicate a combustor environment. Expansion tubes and
reected shock tunnels are two possible types of impulse facilities for ground testing.
Of concern for high stagnation enthalpy simulations is the chemical composition of the
test gas. While in reected shock tunnels signicant amounts of dissociated species are
formed, in expansion tubes the amounts of these species are negligible (?). Therefore,
an expansion tube can provide a more correct simulation of the true ight combustion
chemistry including ignition delay and reaction times. In general, however, expansion
tubes have shorter test times than reected shock tunnels. The principal advantages
and disadvantages of expansion tubes as compared to other hypersonic test facilities,
especially shock tunnels, are summarized in Table 1.1.
In the present study, the Stanford expansion tube facility is used to generate to-
tal enthalpy conditions in the Mach 8-13 ight range. This facility is one of the few
impulse-type facilities which can provide a wide range of total enthalpies. The free-
piston reected shock tunnel, T5, located at GALCIT (Belanger and Hornung 1996),
Calspan reected shock tunnel (Albrechcinski et al. 1995) and the HYPULSE expan-
sion tube located at GASL (Bakos et al. 992a; Bakos et al. 992b; Erdos 1994) are
three current examples of larger impulse facilities. In these facilities, generic combustor
models with hydrogen injection have been tested using conventional measurement tech-
niques such as pressure measurements along the combustor and ow visualization with
dierential interferometry. While most of the high enthalpy and high speed combustion
ow-eld studies in the open literature utilize these methods, modern laser-based diag-
nostics can provide ow-eld and species information critical for fundamental research
(Erdos 1994; Erdos 1998; Anderson et al. 1992; Rogers et al. 1992; Ben-Yakar and
Hanson 998b).
1.1.2 Flow-Field Features of Jets in Supersonic Crossows
Ecient performance of very high-speed combustor systems requires fuel and air
mixing at the molecular level in the near-eld of the fuel injection. One of the simplest
approaches is the transverse (normal) injection of fuel from a wall orice. As the fuel
jet, sonic at the exit, interacts with the supersonic crossow, an interesting but rather
complicated ow-eld is generated. Figure 1.2 illustrates the general ow-features of an
under-expanded transverse jet injected into a cross-ow. As the supersonic crossow
is displaced by the fuel jet a 3-D bow shock is produced due to the blockage produced
by the ow. The bow shock causes the upstream wall boundary layer to separate,
providing a region where the boundary layer and jet uids mix subsonically upstream
of the jet exit. This region conned by the separation shock wave formed in front of it,
is important in transverse injection ow-elds owing to its ame-holding capability in
combusting situations, as has been shown in previous publications (Parker et al. 1995;
Ben-Yakar and Hanson 998b).
The recent experimental studies performed by Fric and Roshko (1994) provide a
new insight into the vortical structure of a jet injected into a low speed crossow. Their
photographs, obtained using the smoke-wire visualization technique, illustrate four types
of coherent structures: (1) the near-eld jet-shear layer vortices; (2) the far-eld counter
rotating vortex pair (CVP); (3) the horseshoe vortex which wraps around the jet column;
and (4) the downstream wake vortices originating from the horseshoe vortex. Figure 1.2
shows the presumed vortical structures for the jet in supersonic crossow (which are
TABLE 1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of expansion tubes relative to shock tunnels for hypervelocity
combustion simulations.
Shock Tunnels Expansion Tubes
Signicant level of radicals such as O
and NO are produced in the test gas af-
fecting the combustion chemistry. In the re-
ected zone of the shock tube, air dissoci-
ates due to high temperatures and recom-
bines only partially during the fast expansion
process.
Negligible amounts of radicals are pro-
duced. The working gas never stagnates, thus
reduces the extent of dissociation. As a result
the test gas reaches to the test section with
more accurate chemical composition.
The facility needs to contain the to-
tal pressures and temperatures of the
ow it generates. As noted by Anderson
(1994), at ight Mach numbers above 12, the
total pressure requirements approaches a mil-
lion psi or 68,000 atm, which can be produced
only by expansion tubes.
Higher stagnation pressures and tem-
peratures can be achieved in expansion
tubes even for the same initial driver pres-
sure and sound speed, as velocity is added
to the ow through the unsteady expansion
process without stagnating it.
Free-stream Mach number is xed by
the nozzle geometry. Simulation of dif-
ferent conditions requires replacement of the
nozzle with a new geometry.
Variable Mach numbers and conditions
can be easily obtained by just altering the
initial lling pressures.
Nozzle can be damaged due to the high
heat transfer rates at the throat and ying
diagrams inside the tube.
High heat transfer rates are avoided in
the absence of a sonic throat. However, the
test object is prone to damage from ying
diagrams arriving at the end of the expansion
tube operation.
Boundary layer develops throughout
the nozzle and can be thick compared to the
dimensions of the injection port. It is usually
required to eliminate the boundary layer by,
for example, inserting a step before the fuel
injection port (Parker et al. 1995)
A thin boundary layer is developed up-
stream of the injection port as the injection
plate is placed in the free-jet exiting the tube.
Test times 1 msec
Test times are of the order of 1msec. How-
ever, a substantial part of it is wasted dur-
ing the nozzle start-up time (of the order of
0.5 msec), required for the supersonic ow to
be established. Test time decreases with in-
creasing stagnation enthalpy.
Test times 0.2 - 0.5 msec
No nozzle start-up time is required. In addi-
tion, the establishment of ow on the studied
model begins during the expansion section
gas ow prior to the test gas arrival. As a
result, less useful test time is consumed dur-
ing the ow establishment.
Longer test section because of the longer
test time and larger core ow. However, side
wall eects should be taken into account.
Test section dimensions depend on the
size of the core ow at the exit of the tube
which is diminished by the boundary layer
growth on the tube walls.
known to exist in subsonic jet-in-crossow) as they were partially observed by numerous
studies (Gruber et al. 1996; Gruber et al. 997a; Ben-Yakar et al. 998a).
The origin of the jet vortical structures was studied by several researchers (Fric and
Roshko 1994; Brizzi et al. 1995; Yuan et al. 1999). Among those studies, Yuan et al.
(1999) performed a large-eddy simulation of transverse jets in subsonic crossows. Their
results revealed that the majority of the jet vortical structures arose from the Kelvin
Helmholtz (K-H) instability of the jet-shear layer in the near-eld. Interestingly, they
do not observe the formation of vortex rings around the periphery of the jet as was
assumed in previous studies. Instead they nd two kinds of vortices originating from
the jet exit boundary layer: 1) regularly formed spanwise rollers on the upstream and
downstream edges (large scale jet shear layer vortices), 2) quasi-steady vortices, the so-
called hanging vortices that form in the skewed mixing layers (mixing layers formed
from non-parallel streams) on each lateral edge of the jet leading to the formation of
the CVP.
The near-eld mixing of transverse jets is dominated by the so-called entrainment-
stretching-mixing process driven by large scale jet-shear layer vortices. In the region
near the injector exit, the injectant uid moves with a higher velocity tangent to the
interface than the free-stream uid. As a result, large vortices are periodically formed
engulng large quantities of free-stream uid and drawing it into the jet-shear layer
(macromixing). These large scale vortices also stretch the interface between the un-
mixed uids. Stretching increases the interfacial area and simultaneously steepens the
local concentration gradients along the entire surface while enhancing the diusive mi-
cromixing.
Preliminary examinations (Gruber et al. 997a; Ben-Yakar and Hanson 002b) of the
convection characteristics of these large-scale structures, developed in a sonic transverse
jet injection into supersonic crossows, determined that in the far-eld the eddies tend
to travel with velocities that are closer to the free-stream velocity. This indicates that
in high speed free-stream conditions, these large coherent structures, where the fuel and
air are mixed by slow molecular diusion, will also travel at high speeds. Consequently
the combustion process will be mixing controlled.
High mixing eciency, however, must be achieved in the near-eld of the fuel in-
jection for the success of hypersonic propulsion systems. Therefore, it is important to
understand how these structures and their growth rates evolve as ow and jet conditions
(a)
INJECTANT
(Hydrogen or
Ethylene)
BOWSHOCK
BARREL
SHOCK
RECIRCULATION
ZONE
M
>1
RECIRCULATION
ZONE
BOUNDARY LAYER
SEPARATED
REGION
MACH DISK
LARGE-SCALE
STRUCTURES
(b)
3-D
BOWSHOCK
M
>1
MACH DISK &
BARREL SHOCK
AVERAGE
JET BOUNDARY
COUNTER-ROTATING
VORTEX PAIR (CVP)
HORSESHOE-VORTEX
REGION
FIGURE 1.2 Schematic of an underexpanded transverse injection into a supersonic cross-ow,
(a) instantaneous side view at the center-line axis of the jet; (b) 3-D perspective of the av-
eraged features of the ow-eld (Gruber et al. 1995).
are changed. Two types of fuel are being considered for use in supersonic combustion:
1) hydrogen and 2) hydrocarbon fuels. The large dierences in the molecular weights
of these fuels result in a big variation in injection velocities that might lead to a wide
variation in the jet shear layer growth rate and the mixing properties. However, none
of the previous jet penetration studies (Zukoski and Spaid 1964; Schetz and Billig 1966;
Rogers 1971; Rothstein and Wantuck 1992; Papamoschou and Hubbard 1993; Gru-
ber et al. 1995) found any dominant dierences between jets with dierent molecular
weights. Penetration was shown to be dependent primarily on the jet-to-free-stream
momentum ux, J, expressed by:
J =
_
u
2
_
jet
(u
2
)
(1.3)
Most transverse jet-in-crossow studies were, however, carried out in cold supersonic
ows (namely low velocities) generated in blow-down wind tunnels. The free-stream
temperatures and velocities in these facilities were usually lower than that expected
in a real supersonic combustor environment. Comprehensive studies still need to be
performed to determine the mixing properties of dierent type of fuels in a relatively
accurate supersonic combustor environment. These observations gave rise for the fol-
lowing question: is there any other mechanism or controlling parameter which will
alter the large eddy characteristics of the jet shear layer to enhance its near-eld mixing
in realistic conditions?
We were therefore challenged to study the ow features of hydrogen and ethylene
transverse jets exposed to high-speed supersonic free-streams at realistic conditions
leading to high shear levels.
1.1.3 Ignition and Flame-Holding Strategies in Supersonic Combus-
tion
Dierent injection strategies have been proposed (Billig 1993; Tishko et al. 1997;
Abbitt et al. 1993; Harteld et al. 1994; Riggins et al. 995a; Riggins and Vitt 995b;
Fuller et al. 1998) with particular concern for rapid near-eld mixing. These injec-
tion strategies, both ush-mounted injectors and intrusive injectors, typically rely on
the generation of strong streamwise counter-rotating vortices. As a result, mixing is
enhanced both in macro-scale by entrainment of large quantities of air into the fuel
and in micro-scale due to stretching of the fuel-air interface. Stretching increases the
interfacial area and simultaneously steepens the local concentration gradients thereby
enhancing the diusive micro-mixing. Micro-scale mixing is required for combustion
since chemical reactions occur at the molecular level. However, ecient mixing of fuel
and air does not directly initiate the combustion process.
Ignition and ame-holding in supersonic ows (Huber et al. 1979; Miller 1994; Im
et al. 1998; Sung et al. 1999; Ben-Yakar and Hanson 998b) are two other important
factors that have to be addressed in the design of an injection system. Once the fuel-
air ignition is established, the combustion depends directly on the eciency of the
mixing. In order for self-ignition (and therefore combustion) to be accomplished in a
owing combustible mixture, it is necessary that four quantities have suitable values:
static temperature, static pressure, fuel-air mixture, and the residence time at these
conditions. The ignition is considered accomplished when sucient free radicals are
formed to initiate the reaction system, even though no appreciable heat has yet been
released. When the conditions of spontaneous ignition exist, the distance l
i
at which
it occurs in a medium owing at a velocity U is: l
i
= U
i
, where
i
is the ignition
delay time. As the combustor velocity U becomes larger, the ignition requires longer
distances.
The primary objective of a ame-holder in a supersonic combustion, therefore, is
to reduce the ignition delay time and provide a continuous source of radicals for the
chemical reaction to be established in the shortest distance possible. In general, ame-
holding is achieved by three techniques: 1) organization of a recirculation area where
the fuel and air can be mixed partially at low velocities, 2) interaction of a shock wave
with partially or fully mixed fuel and oxidizer, and 3) formation of coherent structures
containing unmixed fuel and air, wherein a diusion ame occurs as the gases are
convected downstream.
These three stabilization techniques can be applied in a supersonic combustor in
dierent ways. One of the simplest approaches is the transverse (normal) injection of
fuel from a wall orice (see Fig. 1.3a). As the fuel jet interacts with the supersonic
crossow a bow shock is produced. As a result, the upstream wall boundary layer
separates, providing a region where the boundary layer and jet uids mix subsonically
upstream of the jet exit. This region is important in transverse injection owelds owing
to its ame-holding capability in combusting situations, as has been shown in previous
Fuel
Bow Shock
M M
>1 >1
Fuel
Bigger
Recirculation Region
Weaker Bow Shock
(~ Mach Wave)
Fuel
Smaller
Recirculation Region
Autoignition
Zones
Combined Bow and
Step-Induced Shock
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 1.3 Flow-eld schematics of traditional injection/ame-holding schemes for supersonic combustors.
a) underexpanded fuel injection normal to the crossow, b) fuel injection at angle, c) injection
behind a sudden expansion produced by a step.
publications (Huber et al. 1979; Ben-Yakar and Hanson 998b; Ben-Yakar and Hanson
999a). However, this injection conguration has stagnation pressure losses due to the
strong 3-D bow-shock formed by the normal jet penetration, particularly at high ight
velocities.
Another way of achieving ame stabilization is by means of a step, followed by
transverse injection (see Fig. 1.3c). The step creates a larger recirculation area with the
hot gases serving as a continuous ignition source. This approach can provide sustained
combustion but, like the previously described method, has the disadvantage of stagna-
tion pressure losses and increase in drag due to the low ow pressure base behind the
step.
On the other hand, it is possible to reduce the pressure losses associated with the
injection process by performing angled injection (e.g., 60
o
or 30
o
rather than 90
o
) so that
the resulting bow shock is weaker (see Fig. 1.3b). In this approach, jet axial momentum
can also contribute to the net engine thrust. Riggins et al. (995a) studied the thrust
potential of a supersonic combustor at Mach 13.5 and Mach 17 ight conditions with
30
o
ush wall injection of hydrogen and concluded that the major component of thrust
potential gain is due to the jet momentum. In our previous work (Ben-Yakar and
Hanson 998b; Ben-Yakar and Hanson 999a), autoignition of a hydrogen jet transversely
injected into Mach 10-13 ight enthalpy ow conditions was observed in the upstream
recirculation region of the jet and behind the bow shock. However, dierent experiments
(McMillin et al. 1994) performed for similar geometry but at much lower total-enthalpy
ow conditions showed that ignition occurred only far downstream of the jet. Based
on those observations, angled injection is likely to reduce or eliminate these forms of
autoignition and stabilization especially at ight speeds lower than Mach 10. Therefore,
it is likely that a new technique will be required to obtain autoignition and downstream
combustion stabilization.
In recent years, cavity ame-holders, an integrated fuel injection/ame-holding ap-
proach, have been proposed as a new concept for ame-holding and stabilization in
supersonic combustors (Tishko et al. 1997). Cavity ame-holders, designed by CIAM
(Central Institution of Aviation Motors) in Moscow, were used for the rst time in a
joint Russian/French dual-mode scramjet ight-test (hydrogen fueled) (Roudakov et al.
1993). Further experiments (Vinagradov et al. 1995; Ortweth et al. 1996; Owens et al.
1998) showed that the use of a cavity after the ramp injector signicantly improved
the hydrocarbon combustion eciency in a supersonic ow. Similar ame stabilization
zones, investigated by Ben-Yakar et al. (998a), have been employed within a solid-fuel
supersonic combustor, demonstrating self-ignition and sustained combustion of PMMA
(Plexiglas) under supersonic ow conditions.
In November 1994, NASA contracted CIAM (Roudakov et al. 1996; McClinton
et al. 1996) to continue exploring the scramjet operating envelope from dual-mode
operation below Mach 6 to the full supersonic combustion mode at Mach 6.5. The
proposed combustor design also included two cavity ame-holders (20 mm in depth by
40 mm in axial length and 30 mm by 53 mm). The performance predictions obtained by
analytical solutions indicated that these cavities would be quite eective as autoignition
and ame-holding devices. Indeed, the recent ight test of this combustor has been
successfully completed, encouraging further investigation of cavity ame-holders.
It is worth noting that, although there is recent interest in cavity ame-holders for
supersonic combustors, their application in subsonic combustors goes back to the 1950s.
Probably, the rst published investigation of cavity ame-holders is due to Huellmantel
et al. (1957), who studied various shapes of cavities to sustain combustion in low speed
propane-air ames. The main purpose of this thesis is to summarize relevant known
characteristics of cavities in supersonic ows and research eorts related particularly to
cavities employed in low- and high-speed combustors.
1.2 Thesis Objectives
The ultimate objective of this dissertation is to investigate near-eld mixing and
ame-holding characteristics of dierent gaseous fuels such as hydrogen and ethylene
injected normally from a single orice into a realistic supersonic combustor environ-
ment. We apply advanced non-intrusive ow diagnostic techniques such as Planar
Laser-Induced Fluorescence of OH radicals (OH-PLIF) and schlieren imaging using an
ultra-fast-framing rate digital camera. These techniques and the simulation of high
speed and high temperature free-stream conditions enable unique observations that
were not available in the previous studies. The thesis includes four primary elements:
1. The experimental approach: The goal is to generate a relatively accurate
supersonic burner entry condition, namely a radical-free, high total enthalpy air
ow. An expansion tube is used to generate three nominal free-stream conditions
for ight Mach 8, 10 and 13 regimes. The experimental approach is discussed in
Chapter 2 which includes descriptions of the critical parameters that have to be
considered in the simulation of a supersonic combustor environment, the facility
itself and the measurement techniques. The characterization of the test ow is
then presented summarizing determination of the useful test time, core-ow size
and boundary layer eects, issues that have to be addressed to fully characterize
the ow generated in an expansion tube. The ow visualization techniques are
discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
2. Mixing: In Chapter 4, we study the ow features of hydrogen and ethylene trans-
verse jets exposed to high-speed supersonic free-streams at realistic conditions
leading to high levels of shear. Guided by the observations of these experiments,
we continue in Chapter 5 with a more fundamental study looking into the origin
of the observed phenomena. The outstanding questions that we investigate are:
How do the jet shear layer vortices develop and which parameters control their
stability and coherence? What is the contribution of the jet shear layer vortices
to the near-eld mixing? Does the penetration mechanism only depend on jet-to-
crossow momentum ratio as has been proposed for the last 40 years or is there
any other mechanism leading to higher penetration and better mixing properties?
3. Ignition and ame-holding: The ignition and the ame-holding capabilities of
a hydrogen jet in high total enthalpy ow conditions are presented in Chapter 6.
We study the self-ignition regions in the near-eld of the jet in ight Mach 8, 10
and 13 ow conditions using OH-PLIF ow visualization. We also compare the
near-eld ignition results of a hydrogen transverse jet with an ethylene transverse
jet at ight Mach 10 conditions.
4. Cavity ame-holders: In Chapter 7, an extensive overview of cavities, which
are considered as a promising ame-holding devices for supersonic combustion, is
presented. Open questions impacting the eectiveness of the cavities as ame-
holders in supersonic combustors are then discussed. Preliminary experimental
results are also summarized. The goal is to study the ignition capability of a jet-
cavity conguration and to observe the dierences in the shock wave structures
around cavities as the length-to-depth ratio and the geometry of the cavity back
wall are changed.
Chapter 2
Experimental Aspects
Our experimental approach includes the use of an expansion tube to provide a wide
range of variability in the freestream conditions with relatively accurate chemical compo-
sition. The latter is critical for supersonic combustion studies in the high total enthalpy
ows associated with hypersonic air-breathing propulsion systems.
Eorts are focused on achieving three operating points, simulating ight Mach 8, 10
and 13 total enthalpy conditions at the entrance of a supersonic combustor. The ability
of the expansion tube to provide a steady-ow test time of adequate duration and a
core-ow of sucient size for 2 mm jet-in-crossow studies is veried.
In the following sections, the important parameters that must be considered in the
design of a supersonic combustion experiment are discussed and the facility and the test
ow characterization techniques are then summarized. Additional test conditions are
characterized for fundamental uid mechanical studies and are presented in Chapter 5.
2.1 Critical Parameters in Supersonic Combustion Simu-
lation
An experimental simulation of a supersonic reacting ow requires the replication of
5 parameters (Heiser and Pratt 1994). These simulation parameters including pressure
(p), temperature (T), velocity (u), characteristic length of the model (L) and gas com-
position (
i
) must be manipulated to provide the ight values of certain non-dimensional
parameters such as:
14
CHAPTER 2. EXPERIMENTAL ASPECTS 15
Mach number:
M
u
T
(2.1)
Reynolds number:
Re

T
pL
u
T
3/2
(2.2)
Damkohler number:
Da
L
u
c
(2.3)
Damkohler number represents the ratio of ow residence time, L/u, through the com-
bustor to chemical time,
c
, and must be larger than 1 to achieve ame-holding and
a complete combustion process. For ame-holding considerations ignition delay time,
i
, replaces the chemical time in Damkohler number,
c
=
i
. For a hydrogen-air com-
bustion process, the ignition delay time, varies inversely with pressure because of the
two-body reactions and depends exponentially on temperature. As a result, Damkohler
number can be related to basic parameters in the following form:
Da
pL
u exp(/T)
(2.4)
where is a characteristic temperature for the ignition time.
Consequently, in order to preserve the values of these three non-dimensional param-
eters it is required to simulate all 5 basic parameters, including temperature, pressure,
velocity, model length and the gas chemical composition. However, it is worth noting
the following point: If the chemical composition of the ow, its velocity and temper-
ature were to be duplicated, then a constant value of the product pL would satisfy
the requirements for simulation of the three non-dimensional parameters. Therefore,
from the standpoint of mixing and ame-holding studies a correct simulation of only 4
parameters is essential: chemical composition, temperature, velocity and the product
pL.
In our experimental approach, we replicate 3 of these 4 parameters: the required
burner entry velocity and burner entry static temperature, u
3
and T
3
, respectively,
according to the values of burner entry Mach number, M
3
, estimated in Fig. 1.1a. The
use of an expansion tube enables acceleration of the air to total enthalpy conditions
(3-6 MJ/kg
air
) corresponding to the Mach 8-13 ight range, without exposing it to
high stagnation temperatures (3000-6000 K). Therefore, the free-stream contains only
negligible amounts of radicals, produced only by the incident shock wave. The test gas,
rst shocked to its maximum temperature (1700-2150 K), is then accelerated and cooled
to the required static temperature (1250-1400 K). Through this unsteady expansion
process, the test gas gains in total temperature and total pressure.
Although in our experiments the free-stream ow composition, Mach number and
static temperature correspond to typical scramjet combustor entrance values, its static
pressure is somewhat below that of actual systems. Table 2.1 summarizes the three
nominal test ow conditions, Mach 8, Mach 10 and Mach 13, achieved in the Stanford
expansion tube facility. Furthermore, since the characteristic length scale in our exper-
iments is small, about 2 mm (the diameter of the injection orice), the parameter pL
is not suciently high to replicate a real combustor environment. This might result
in chemical kinetic limitations on the H
2
- air ignition and combustion process. On the
other hand, this limitation can be circumvented if an elevated concentration of oxygen
is used in the test gas to increase the collision rates as suggested by Bakos et al. (992b).
Finally, in the current study we have shown that in high-enthalpy ows, ignition of
hydrogen, injected transversely into a free-stream of air, can be achieved in the near-
vicinity of the injector, even at low pL values. Therefore, the ignition will be guaranteed
at higher pressures as the Damkohler and Reynolds numbers increase linearly with pL
in realistic systems.
In conclusion, the most important parameters that have to be replicated for su-
personic combustion studies are chemical composition, temperature and velocity of the
free-stream, and the less important parameter is the product pL. Variation in pressure
aects the ignition time linearly, while variation in temperature has an exponential ef-
fect through the activation energy (and hence characteristic temperature ignition time,
) in chemical kinetics.
TABLE 2.1 Test gas (free-stream) ow properties simulating the burner entry conditions of three ight
Mach numbers. The corresponding values are from Fig. 1.1.
Flight Simulation Mach 8 Mach 10 Mach 13
(1) (2) (3)
Initial lling pressures
Driven section, He, psig 300 600 600
(2.17 MPa) (4.24 MPa) (4.24 MPa)
Driven section, 95%N
2
+5%CO
2
, psia 0.45 0.5 0.15
(3.10 kPa) (3.45 kPa) (1.04 kPa)
Expansion section, He, torr 70 20 2
(9.13 kPa) (2.67 kPa) (0.27 kPa)
Free-stream conditions
Total enthalpy, MJ/kg 2.9 0.05 3.9 0.1 6.2 0.15
Mach number 2.40 0.03 3.38 0.04 4.66 0.07
Static temperature, K 1400 1290 1250
Static pressure, atm 0.65 0.32 0.04
(65.9 kPa) (32.4 kPa) (4 kPa)
Velocity, m/sec (measured) 1800 20 2360 25 3200 50
Test time, sec (measured) 170 10 270 10 400 10
Test slug length, m (velocity test time) 0.31 0.64 1.28
Establishment length for laminar boundary
layer at L
1
= 50 mm, m
0.15 0.15 0.15
Maximum measured recirculation region
length, L
2
, (d
jet
= 2 mm)
1.5 d
jet
2 d
jet
4 d
jet
Establishment time for the jet upstream re-
circulation region, m based on (3070)L
2
0.09 - 0.21 0.12 - 0.28 0.24 - 0.56
Free-stream Reynolds number at the injec-
tion port, Re
x
= 50 mm
29,000 22,000 3,800
Boundary layer thickness upstream of the
injection port, mm
0.65 0.75 1.80
Shock speeds in the expansion section, m/s
(measured)
2468 3175 3650
Shock Mach number in the expansion sec-
tion
2.44 3.14 3.61
Maximum temperature that the test gas is
exposed to, T
2
, K
1690 1750 2140
D
r
iv
e
r
S
e
c
t
io
n
D
r
iv
e
n
S
e
c
t
io
n
E
x
p
a
n
s
io
n
S
e
c
t
io
n
D
u
m
p
T
a
n
k
A
m
p
lif
ie
r
s
&
I
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
C
o
u
n
t
e
r
s
ICCDCamera
forOH-PLIFImaging
578x384Array
Double
Diaphragm
8
C
h
a
n
n
e
l
D
a
t
a
A
c
q
u
is
it
io
n
S
y
s
t
e
m
Knife
Edge
Y
M
1
2
0
0
N
d
:
Y
A
G
L
a
s
e
r
H
D
5
0
0
D
y
e
L
a
s
e
r
HT1000
Frequency
Doubler
Longduration
XenonArc
LightSource
Dichroic
Mirror
IMACON468
UltrafastFramingCamera
forSchlierenImaging
(inc.8ICCDmodules,
each576x384)
I
m
a
g
e
A
c
q
u
is
it
io
n
C
o
m
p
u
t
e
r
s
Driven/Expansion
Diaphragm
Mirror2
Mirror1
Focusing
Mirror
FIGURE 2.1 Expansion tube facility (12 m in length and 89 mm inner diameter) and imaging system.
2.2 Experimental Facility
2.2.1 Expansion Tube
The expansion tube facility with its dedicated lasers and optical arrangement is
schematically illustrated in Fig. 2.1. The tube is 12 m in length (including dump tank)
with an inner diameter of 89 mm, and includes three sections: driver, driven and ex-
pansion. The driver section is lled with high pressure helium gas and is separated
by double diaphragms from the lower pressure driven section, which is lled with the
desired test gas. Mylar lm (6.35 m thick) is used as the diaphragm material at the
driven/expansion interface to separate the test gas from low pressure helium gas in the
expansion section.
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
IRdetector
Test
Section
1
1
4
10
10
5
20
2 3
4
contact surface
1 Quiescent Test Gas
2 Test Gas Behind Incident Shock
3 Expanded Driver Gas
4 Driver Gas
5 Expanded Test Gas
10 Expansion Gas
20 Expansion Gas
Behind Incident Shock
Expansion
Section
(He)
Driven
Section
(CO
2
/N
2
/O
2
)
Driver
Section
(He)
first disturbance arrival
rarefaction tail
rarefaction head
re
fle
c
te
d
ra
re
fa
c
tio
n
h
e
a
d
in
c
id
e
n
t
s
h
o
c
k
,
s
1
test time
t
i
m
e
,
s
e
c
x-distance, m
FIGURE 2.2 Expansion tube distance-time (x-t) diagram calculated for ight Mach 13 condition. Method
of characteristics was used to solve the ow gasdynamics properties assuming one-dimensional
inviscid theory. Test time is dened as the time that the test gas has uniform ow quantities
and determined by the time arrival of the contact surface to the tube exit, and that of the
rst subsequent rarefaction wave (reected rarefaction head in our case of high total enthalpy
simulations).
The operating sequence of an expansion tube is best represented by the distance-time
(x-t) diagram shown in Fig. 2.2. A run is initiated by bursting the double diaphragms,
which generates a shock wave propagating into the test gas and producing ow of
intermediate velocity with an increased pressure and temperature. The shocked test
gas is then accelerated by an unsteady and constant area expansion process from the
driven section into the lower pressure expansion section, while gaining total temperature
and total pressure. The test gas emerging from the downstream end of the expansion
thus has both a higher stagnation enthalpy and higher eective stagnation pressure than
the shock tube ow from which it originated. Further detail on the operating cycle of
an expansion tube can be found in the review papers of Erdos (1994) and Anderson
(1994).
A square viewing chamber of 2727 cm cross section is mounted at the exit of the
expansion tube (see Fig. 2.3). A rake of pitot tubes or an instrumented model with the
injection system, is positioned in this test section, which is equipped with an opposed
pair of square (1313 cm) quartz windows for observation and a fused silica slot on top
of the chamber for admission of the vertical laser sheet.
Six piezo-electric pressure transducers are mounted along the driven and expansion
sections for shock speed and wall pressure measurements. An additional transducer,
mounted 20.3 cm downstream of the driven/expansion diaphragms, is used to monitor
the unsteady expansion process at that location.
The expansion section is also equipped with sapphire viewing ports for optical mea-
surements during ow characterization experiments. In those tests, an InSb IR detector
(Judson J-10 InSb equipped by a Perry model 720 amplier) is mounted at a viewing
port (see Fig. 2.4) to detect the arrival of the test gas (at the viewing port) through
the emission of IR light by small amount of CO
2
(5%) seeded into the test gas (nitro-
gen). Also, for ow characterization tests, the injection system is replaced with a pitot
rake consisting of four pressure transducers across the diameter of the tube as shown
in Fig. 2.3. The test gas velocity can then be calculated by considering its arrival time
at the viewing port and at the pitot rake. Data from these sensors are recorded at
1 Msample/sec on a PC-based, 8-channel (12-bit) computer-scope. The ow imaging
techniques include Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence of OH radicals (OH-PLIF) and
schlieren imaging using an ultra-high-speed framing digital camera. Detailed descrip-
tion of these systems and their synchronization with the expansion tube operation are
provided in Chapter 3.
2.2.2 Injection System and its Calibration
The injection system is positioned right at the exit of the expansion tube inside
the test section (Fig. 2.5a). The system consists of a at plate with an attached high
FIGURE 2.3 Schematic of the test section (27 x 27 cm cross section) where a rake of 4 pitot probes, instru-
mented with pressure transducers, was located 2.5 cm downstream of the tube exit. The ow
history during the expansion tube operation was detected via pitot pressure information. Note
that the inner diameter of the tube is 8.9 cm.
speed solenoid valve (less than 1 msec response time, General Valve Series 9, Iota One
controller) which allows near-constant injection ow rates during the expansion tube
test time period. For the results presented here, an under-expanded transverse jet
of hydrogen with a 2 mm port diameter has been used. The jet port is located at a
distance 30 mm downstream of the tube exit and about 50 mm downstream of the at
plate leading edge. At this location, the boundary layer thickness, developing on the at
plate, is approximately 0.75 mm for the conditions presented in this paper. Table 4.1
summarizes the jet ow exit properties.
Calibration of the injected system was performed to determine the stagnation pres-
sure losses through it. This was accomplished by comparing the Mach disk height of an
underexpanded jet into still air with a well-known empirical correlation. Schlieren ow
visualization (Fig. 2.6) was used to measure the Mach disk height for dierent pres-
sure ratios. The expected jet Mach disk position, based on the correlation suggested
WallPressure
Transducer
Globar
FocusingLens
Band-PassFilter
4.263-4.303 m m
InSbIR
Detector
D @ x 104cm
Sapphire
OpticalPort
TestGas
5%CO/N
2 2
AccelerationGas
He
Pitot
Probe
CS
40.6cm 2.5cm
FIGURE 2.4 Optical set-up to measure the test gas velocity, assumed to be equal to the CS - contact surface
velocity. IR emission from 5%CO
2
seeded in the test gas nitrogen is collected by an InSb IR
detector at the viewing port located at 101.6 cm from the end of the tube. The test gas velocity
can then be calculated by considering its time of arrival at the viewing port and at the pitot
rake.
by Ashkenas and Sherman (1966) as a function of jet stagnation pressure (P
tot,jet
) to
eective back pressure (P
eb
) ratio, is given by:
y
1
d
jet
= 0.67
_
P
tot,jet
P
eb
_
1/2
(2.5)
On the basis of this correlation, measurements indicated a stagnation pressure loss
of 48% for hydrogen injection and 41% for ethylene injection during valve operation
(note that the fuels were supplied from ow lines of dierent length).
In addition, the valve actuation time and the tube ring have to be synchronized
such that the jet is fully developed by the time the steady test ow conditions are
obtained. Within that constraint, the time interval between the valve actuation and
the test gas arrival should be short enough to avoid signicant changes in the expansion
section initial pressure. To determine the jet development time, schlieren imaging was
used to observe the temporal development of the jet. This combined with the traces
obtained using a fast response pressure transducer located at the jet exit, allowed the
determination of the optimum valve actuation time ( 1.5 msec before start of test time).
(a) (b)
FIGURE 2.5 Schematic of a) Injection system, b) cavity/injection plate system.
2.2.3 Cavity/Injection Plate
The cavity/injection system (Fig. 2.5b) is designed with dierent cavity and jet
inserts to systematically study the following congurations: 1) 90
o
and 30
o
ush wall
gaseous fuel (hydrogen, ethylene) injection, 2) cavities with length-to-depth ratio of
L/D=3,5,7 with 90
o
, 60
o
and 30
o
rear-walls, 3) cavities with 30
o
upstream fuel injection.
In addition, a miniature pressure transducer (PCB dynamic piezo transducer, model
1105B12) was installed inside the cavity to measure the pressure oscillations and to
monitor the ow establishment time.
2.3 Test Flow Characterization in the Flight Mach 8 - 13
Range
There are several issues that have to be addressed to fully characterize the properties
of a supersonic ow generated in an impulse facility. Of particular concern are the
determination and characterization of ow conditions, the steady-ow test time, the
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Jet
Boundary
Barrel
Shock
MachDisk
P
j,
M=1
j
y
1
FIGURE 2.6 Schlieren visualization of an underexpanded gaseous injection into still air. (a)-(c) hydrogen
(d)-(e) ethylene jets. The exposure time of the images was 3 musec. Mach disk height, y1,
was measured for dierent pressure ratios, Pj/P
eb
, to calibrate the injection system.
core-ow size and the boundary layer eects on the ow properties.
2.3.1 Flow Conditions
A variety of ow conditions can be easily achieved using an expansion tube by simply
changing the initial lling pressures and the speed of sound of the gases at dierent
sections of the expansion tube. In our facility, helium gas was used in the expansion
and driver sections with a maximum lling pressure of 4.24 MPa (600 psig) in the driver
section.
The selection of correct initial pressures to achieve the required ow conditions,
however, is not straight-forward as the expansion tube combines two shock tubes in
tandem. We have, therefore, calculated the ow conditions that can be achieved in an
expansion tube as a function of initial lling pressures. Figure 2.7 presents maps of these
ow conditions estimated using simple one-dimensional inviscid theory (see Appendix A
for a given driver lling pressure of 4.24 MPa (600 psig). These maps provide guidelines
in the selection of the initial pressures for dierent conditions of interest.
Note the blank (forbidden) regions in the maps of Fig. 2.7. These are the regions
where the shocked test gas cannot expand into the expansion section as the pressure in
the expansion section is higher than the pressure of the shocked test gas.
In a conventional shock tube, for a given driver initial pressure, one must decrease
the driven section pressure to generate ows with higher velocities, temperatures and
Mach numbers. As the driven section initial lling pressure decreases the shock-induced
static pressure decreases as well. In expansion tubes, on the other hand, the ow velocity
and static pressure do not vary signicantly as the driven initial pressure is changed for
a given driver and expansion section pressures. As shown in Fig. 2.7, dierent velocities
can be achieved primarily by manipulating the expansion section initial pressure. For
lower expansion section pressures, the ow accelerates to higher velocities and expands
to lower pressures.
In our experiments, we have used the maps in Fig. 2.7 to simulate the required
burner entry conditions of ight Mach 8, 10 and 13 based on the estimated values
from Fig. 1.1. Simulation of our ight Mach 10 condition, for example, corresponds to
4 MJ/kg of total enthalpy and a Mach number of about 3.5. Therefore, according to
the maps in Fig. 2.7, initial lling pressures of the expansion and driven sections were
determined to be 2.67 kPa (20 torr) and 3.45 kPa (0.50 psia), respectively, to simulate
ight Mach 10 total enthalpy condition at the selected driver initial pressure of 4.24 MPa
(600 psig). Initial pressures required to simulate ight Mach 8 and 13 were chosen in a
similar manner and are marked on the maps of Fig. 2.7.
As discussed in the previous section, our experimental approach includes correct
replication of the velocity and temperature of the air entering the combustor. The
static pressure in our experiments, on the other hand, is lower than the expected values
in a supersonic combustor at those ight conditions. However, the correct replication of
pressure is not as crucial as the simulation of the required total temperature and burner
entry Mach number, in the basic study of ignition and ame-holding processes of dier-
ent injection schemes. Pressure dependence of the ignition process can be extrapolated
(a)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
2
Expansion Gas (Helium) Initial Pressure, P
10
(torr)
2400 K
2200 K
1800 K
1400 K
1000 K
600 K
400 K
300 K

1

a
t
m

0
.
8

a
t
m

0
.
6

a
t
m

0
.
4

a
t
m

0
.
3

a
t
m

0
.
2

a
t
m

0
.
1

a
t
m

0
.
0
5

a
t
m
Mach 13
Mach 10
Mach 8

1
.
4

a
t
m
(b)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
2
10
(torr)

6

2.5

3
4
0
0

m
/
s

3
2
0
0

m
/
s

3
0
0
0

m
/
s

2
8
0
0

m
/
s

2
6
0
0

m
/
s

2
4
0
0

m
/
s

2
2
0
0

m
/
s

2
0
0
0

m
/
s

1
8
0
0

m
/
s
7 6 MJ/kg
3.5
3 MJ/kg
5.5
4 MJ/kg
4.5
5 MJ/kg
6.5
Mach 13
Mach 10
Mach 8
FIGURE 2.7 Maps of estimated test gas (nitrogen) conditions (state 5) at the exit of an expansion tube:
a) pressure and temperature, b) total enthalpy and velocity of the test gas are plotted for
dierent initial driven and expansion section pressures. Calculations are performed using the
inviscid 1D equations for a given driver pressure of P
4
= 600 psig (helium). Note that the
eective lling pressure of the driver section is taken as P
4,e
= 686 psig, as its inner diameter
(10.2 cm) is larger than that of the driven and expansion sections (8.9 cm). This area dierence
is accounted for in the curves presented above.
to higher pressures since the Damkohler number is approximately proportional to pres-
sure in hydrogen-air combustion systems. Furthermore, the oxygen concentration can
be increased in the test gas if the combustion process is rate-limited due to low static
pressure.
Table 2.1 summarizes the initial lling pressures of the three test conditions charac-
terized in the Stanford expansion tube. Other factors, such as the maximum available
injector pressure, were taken into account in determining these test ow conditions.
The initial driver pressure for the Mach 8 condition, for example, was chosen to be
2.17 MPa (300 psig) instead of 4.24 MPa (600 psig) to provide reasonable penetration of
the fuel jet. Penetration of fuels injected transversely into supersonic ows is known to
be strongly correlated with the jet-to-free-stream momentum ux ratio (J) dened as
J =
_
u
2
_
jet
(u
2
)
=
_
pM
2
_
jet
(pM
2
)
(2.6)
where the subscript jet corresponds to the jet exit conditions and corresponds to
free-stream conditions ahead of a bow shock. In our experiments, the jet-to-free-stream
momentum ux ratio was typically J = 1.5 2.
2.3.2 Measurement of Flow Properties
The test ow conditions (pressure, temperature, velocity, Mach number and test
time), presented in Table 2.1, were determined using the combined data of wall pressure,
pitot pressure, and IR emission. Briey, the test ow characterization was performed
in the following stages:
1. the shock speeds at the driven and expansion sections were measured using six
piezo-electric pressure transducers mounted in the tube,
2. gasdynamic conditions of the post-shock test gas in the driven and expansion
sections were obtained from the measured shock speeds by a 1-D frozen-chemistry
code using standard thermochemical data,
3. the test gas temperature and sound speed at the exit of the tube were then
calculated assuming isentropic expansion of the shocked test gas in the driven
section to the expected value of the post-shock static pressure of the acceleration
gas in the expansion section,
4. the velocity of the contact surface was deduced by measuring the time interval
between its arrival at the IR detector port and the pitot probe located at the exit
of the tube,
5. test gas ow velocity was then estimated by equating the contact surface ve-
locity with that of the test gas immediately after it.
An example of IR emission from CO
2
seeded in the test gas, together with pitot and
static pressure traces measured in ight Mach 10 ow simulation is given in Fig. 2.8.
Note that in characterization experiments, instead of air, a mixture of 95%N
2
+5%CO
2
was used as a test gas, which provides an eective molecular weight (28.8 gr/mole)
equivalent to that value of the air. Based on the time history of the pitot pressure
at the tube exit, it is possible to identify the arrival of the shock wave, the period
of expansion section helium ow, the helium/test gas contact surface, and the steady
ow test time. It is evident that the contact surface is not a perfectly sharp boundary
between helium and test gas. Instead test gas concentration seems to increase over a
period of time.
A similar trend can be observed in IR emission which can be detected with the
arrival of the helium/test gas contact surface (CS) to the viewing port. The intensity
of IR emission increases through the CS passage as the CO
2
concentration in the CS
increases. At the end of the steady test gas the emission intensity decreases as the
test gas cools down with the arrival of the expansion waves (reected rarefaction tail).
During the steady ow test time, we observe that the IR emission is, however, not as
constant as the traces of the pitot and static pressures. Instead, an initial peak followed
by a monotonic increase are observed in the Mach 10 ow characterization (see Fig. 2.8).
In general, the intensity of IR emission increases with the volume of emitting gas, its
temperature and concentration. Since the IR emission is the integrated emission across
the tube including the wall boundary layer, it does not reect the properties of the
core-ow only. The monotonic increase of the intensity (subsequent to the drop from
its initial peak value) can be explained as due to an increase in the volume of the hotter
CO
2
in the growing boundary layer, while the initial peak signal can be attributed to
the small hot region formed by the reected shock during the break of the helium/test
gas diaphragm.
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Test Time
~270msec
CSVelocity:
236025m/s
4405msec
Dx=104cm
Rarefaction
Wave
Test Gas
CS
ShockWave
Arrival
HeliumFlowTime
~455msec
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
P
i
t
o
t
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
CS
Arrival
I
R
E
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
CS Test Gas
Rarefaction
Wave
ShockWave
Arrival
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
S
t
a
t
i
c
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
time, msec
Test Gas
Rarefaction
Wave
ShockWave
Arrival
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
M
a
c
h
n
u
m
b
e
r
FIGURE 2.8 Example of IR emission, pitot pressure, wall pressure records and the Mach number variation
based on the pitot-to-static pressure ratios, as a function of time for the Mach 10 ow condition.
t = 0 represents incident shock arrival at the pitot probe, placed 2.5 cm downstream of the tube
exit, while the wall pressure transducer and IR detector are positioned 40.6 cm and 101.6 cm
upstream of the tube exit, respectively (see Fig. 2.4). Note that the time scale of the static
pressure trace is shifted by 235 s to match the shock arrival at the pitot probe.
The steady test period was taken to be the time over which the pitot pressure
changed by no more than 5% from the average value. Accordingly the measured test
time was approximately 270 s. The steady test period is always limited by the arrival
of waves, either the unsteady expansion waves (rarefaction tail) or the reected waves
(reected rarefaction head) from the intersection of the driver gas interface with the
unsteady expansion waves. In any case, the arrival of waves is clearly identiable as
the test gas pressure rises sharply and the IR emission from cooling test gas begins to
decrease.
An average value of 2360 m/s for the test gas ow velocity was measured over the
104 cm length between the IR emission port and pitot rake (see stages 4 and 5 described
above). The test gas velocity was also estimated from measured shock speeds in the
expansion section using inviscid 1-D theory, resulting in 2130 m/s. The measured ve-
locity (2360 m/s) therefore exceeds the estimated inviscid value based on shock speed
by approximately 10%, as may be explained by the acceleration of the ow due to the
growing boundary layer on the tube walls.
The Mach number of the test gas was calculated using the measured contact surface
velocity and calculated sound speed as described in stage 3. The results indicated an
exit Mach number of 3.380.04 for the ight Mach 10 condition. Mach number variation
in the test gas can also be obtained from the pitot to static pressure ratio as shown in
Fig. 2.8. It is worth noting that while the static pressure of the test gas rose sharply
after the arrival of the reected rarefaction wave, the Mach number of the ow varied
little over the following 400 - 500 s.
Figure 2.9 presents an example of ight Mach 13 ow characterization traces which
have features similar to those of ight Mach 10 traces. The characterization results
show a relatively long test time of 400 s in the case of ight Mach 13 simulation; this
is much larger than the ideal values (180 s). The test gas velocity was measured to be
3200 m/s, about 23% faster than the shock-induced ideal ow velocity. This acceleration
of the test gas is again believed to be a result of the boundary layer developed on the
tube walls.
Shorter test times (170 s) are observed for low total-enthalpy conditions as shown
in Fig. 2.10 presenting an example of ight Mach 8 ow characterization traces. Note
that the static pressure stays constant for a longer period of time although the pitot
pressure increases signicantly by the arrival of the rst disturbances.
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
~180msec
CSVelocity:
320050m/s
3255msec
Dx=104mm
Rarefaction
Wave
Test Time
~400msec
CS
ShockWave
Arrival
Helium
FlowTime
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
P
i
t
o
t
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
CS Test Gas
I
R
E
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
CS
time, msec
Test Gas
Rarefraction
Wave
ShockWave
Arrival
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
S
t
a
t
i
c
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
FIGURE 2.9 Example of IR emission, pitot pressure and wall pressure traces as a function of time for the
Mach 13 ow condition.
In Fig. 2.11, we compare the measured values of the free-stream velocity with the ex-
pected values estimated using the measured shock speeds in the expansion section. The
results indicate that the measured velocities are always larger than the expected ideal
values. In addition, as the ight Mach number increases and therefore the static pres-
sure decreases the measured velocity approaches the shock velocity. These observations
suggest that boundary layer eects are signicant, causing the ow to be non-uniform.
As a result of the viscous eects, the shock slows down and the contact surface (test
gas) accelerates. At the limit of a suciently long expansion section, boundary layer
eects would cause the shock and the contact surface to equilibrate to a constant veloc-
ity. Accordingly, an additional calculation, taking into account the viscous eects based
on Mirels solution (Mirels 1963; Mirels 1966) for post-shock boundary layers, has been
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
CS
Test Time
~170msec
Velocity: 180020m/s
5785msec, Dx=104cm
Rarefaction
Wave
Test Gas
ShockWave
Arrival
HeliumFlowTime
~725msec
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
P
i
t
o
t
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
CS
Arrival
I
R
E
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
CS
time, msec
Test Gas
Rarefaction
Wave
ShockWave
Arrival
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
S
t
a
t
i
c
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
FIGURE 2.10 Example of IR emission, pitot pressure and wall pressure traces as a function of time for the
Mach 8 ow condition.
performed, and will be discussed in the following section.
2.3.3 Boundary Layer Eects on Test Time
The uniform ow time of test gas at the expansion tube exit is dened as the test
time; this period begins with the arrival of the driven/expansion contact surface at the
tube exit, and ends with arrival of the rst rarefaction wave (in our case, the rarefaction
head reected from driver/driven contact surface as shown in the x-t diagram in Figs. 2.2
and 2.11.
Under ideal conditions, where no wall eects exist, the shock wave and the contact
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,

m
/
s
3.6 3.4 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4
Expansion Section Shock Mach Number, M
s,2
Mach 13
P=0.04atm
Mach 10
P=0.32atm
Mach 8
P=0.65atm
Measured contact-surface velocity
Estimated shock-induced velocity
Measured shock velocity
FIGURE 2.11 Comparison of the measured contact-surface velocity (test gas velocity) with the shock-
induced gas velocity estimated using the measured shock speeds in the expansion section.
surface would move with constant velocities and the ow between them would be uni-
form. However, in a real shock tube, the ow becomes non-uniform as the boundary
layer develops at the tube walls. The presence of a wall boundary layer causes the
incident shock to decelerate and the contact surface to accelerate. Consequently, the
time duration of the ow between the shock and the contact surface (expansion section
helium ow time) is reduced. In conventional shock tubes, therefore, the test time is
reduced as a result of the boundary layer growth.
In expansion tubes, on the other hand, the eect of the boundary layer in accelerating
the contact surface can actually lead to an increase in test time as observed in our
experiments. We have measured 400 sec of steady test time at the Mach 13 condition,
while only 180 sec of test time is expected based on 1-D inviscid calculations (see x-t
diagram in Fig. 2.12a).
To study the boundary layer eects on the test time, we have performed an improved
calculation taking into account the viscous eects based on Mirels boundary layer
solution. The predicted contact surface velocity from this solution was implemented in x-
t diagram calculations and the results are plotted together with 1-D inviscid calculations
in Fig. 2.12a. The calculations (dashed lines in Fig. 2.12a) resulted in a test time of
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
0.0018
0.0021
0.0024
0.0027
0.0030
0.0033
0.0036
Inviscid Solution
Mirels' Model
inc. boundary layer
r
a
r
e
f
a
c
t
i
o
n
t
a
i
l
r
a
r
e
f
a
c
t
i
o
n
h
e
a
d
r
e
fle
c
te
d
r
a
r
e
fa
c
tio
n
h
e
a
d
I
n
v
is
c
id
C
S
In
c
id
e
n
t
S
h
o
c
k
(
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
)
(measured test time = ~ 400 msec)
C
S
w
ith
B
o
u
n
d
a
r
y
L
a
y
e
r
ideal test time
180 msec
450 msec
t
i
m
e
,
s
e
c
x-distance, m
(a)Mach13condition
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
0.0018
0.0021
0.0024
0.0027
0.0030
0.0033
0.0036
0.0039
0.0042
Inviscid
Mirels' Model
inc. boundary layer
I
n
v
i
s
c
i
d
C
S
In
c
id
e
n
t
S
h
o
c
k
(
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
)
(measured test time = ~ 270 msec)
C
S
w
it
h
B
o
u
n
d
a
r
y
L
a
y
e
r
ideal test time
140 msec
380 msec
t
i
m
e
,
s
e
c
x-distance, m
(b)Mach10condition
FIGURE 2.12 X-t diagrams for the expansion section only. 1-D inviscid calculations are plotted in straight
lines and results applying Mirels model to include the boundary layer eects are plotted in
dashed lines. One can see the improved test time as a result of the contact surface (CS)
acceleration due to the developing boundary layer behind the incident shock in the low pressure
expansion section helium ow. The incident shock velocity was measured and assumed to be
constant along the expansion section.
450 sec, agreeing well with the measured value of 400 sec. This eect can be explained
by the fact that the contact surface, accelerated by viscous eects, arrives at the test
section earlier than if viscous aects were negligible. Therefore, the test time duration
is increased as the time of arrival of the rst ow disturbance is delayed relative to the
contact surface arrival.
An additional interesting result can be observed from the x-t diagrams: the length
of the current expansion section is seen to be optimum to achieve a maximum test time
duration for ight Mach 13 simulation as the arrival of both the rarefaction wave and
the reected rarefaction head overlap at the end of the tube (see the dashed lines in
Fig. 2.12a.) Any variation in the length of the expansion section will cause the test
time to decrease. By contrast, the x-t diagram calculated for the Mach 10 condition
(Fig. 2.12b) demonstrates that the expansion section length is longer than its optimum
value. A 30% longer test time could have been achieved if the expansion section was
1.8 m shorter than its current length.
The calculation based on Mirels solution also gives an improved estimation of the
expansion section helium ow time of 170 sec, which compares well with that inferred
from the pitot pressure trace, 180 sec (within 5.5% accuracy). The test gas velocity
obtained from this calculation, 3300 m/s, shows improved agreement with the measured
value of 3200 (within 3%). These results, summarized in Table 2.2, conrm the impor-
tance of boundary layer eects and demonstrates that the viscous calculations based on
Mirels model provide good estimates of the test time and the test gas velocity at the
low pressure ight Mach 13 condition.
Mirels solution, performed for the ight Mach 10 condition (see Fig. 2.12b), results
in a less accurate prediction of ow properties. As summarized in Table 2.2, the cal-
culated test time based on Mirels solution overpredicts (by 41%) the actual test time.
The reason for the overprediction is that the initial lling pressure in the expansion
section is relatively high (20 torr), and therefore the wall boundary layer behind the
shock wave is not fully developed as assumed in Mirels solution. In addition, we have
assumed that the boundary layer properties of the test gas were similar to the properties
of the expansion section helium gas, which can be signicantly dierent as the pressure
increases.
We have shown that the ow test time is aected by the boundary layer development
in the expansion section tube walls in such a way that the steady test time duration is
TABLE 2.2 Summary of measured, ideal (inviscid 1-D) and predicted (based on Mirels solution) properties
of test gas for Mach 10 and 13 ow conditions.
Test Time Test Gas Helium Flow
Velocity Time
sec m/s sec
Measured 270 10 2360 25 455 2
Mach 10 Ideal 140 2130 660
Mirels 380 2510 520
Measured 400 10 3200 50 180 2
Mach 13 Ideal 180 2440 520
Mirels 450 3300 170
increased. Longer test times are important in supersonic ow experiments as the length
of the test period determines the maximum model length for which steady ow can be
fully established.
2.3.4 Core-Flow Size
The other parameter which limits the maximum model length is the radius of the
axially uniform ow called the useful core-ow. While the test time increases as the
boundary layer on the tube walls develops, the useful core-ow size, on the other hand,
becomes smaller. The thickness of the boundary layer developed in the acceleration
section can be large in comparison to the tube radius because of the low lling pressures
of the expansion section.
In our experiments, we characterized the useful core-ow size by measuring the pitot
pressure at dierent radial and axial locations. The results, plotted in Fig. 2.13, show
that at 12.7 mm (0.5) away from the tube exit, pitot pressure varied only 5% within
a 25 mm core-ow diameter for the three conditions that we have studied. As we moved
the pitot probe downstream of the tube exit, the core-ow size at the Mach 13 condition
did not change signicantly. On the other hand, the ight Mach 10 and 8 conditions
resulted in a deceased core-ow size as we moved away from the tube exit. At the
Mach 8 condition, the pitot pressure at the center line of the tube decreased by 15%
at 63.5 mm (2.5) downstream of the tube exit. This is expected for the ight Mach 8
condition, since the Mach number of the free-stream is only about 2.4, corresponding
to a steeper Mach wave angle.
In conclusion, the results indicate the existence of a 25 mm core-ow diameter that
is suitable for near-eld studies of transverse fuel jets injected from a 2mm diameter
orice. The injection plate is positioned as close as possible to the tube exit and 6.4 mm
(1/4) below the centerline to allow a maximum eld of study of the jet.
2.3.5 Flow Establishment Time
Undesirably, part of the steady test time is consumed during the ow establishment
process for the model under investigation. Correlations are available in the literature
(Rogers and Weidner 1993; Jacobs et al. 1992; Davies and Bernstein 1969; Holden 1971)
for predicting the ow establishment times for dierent ow features of the model. In
general, the test slug length, dened as the distance traveled by the volume of test
gas during the period of steady test time, must be larger than the characteristic length
of the ow device or process by some multiple. The criterion for the establishment of
ow over a at plate requires that the test slug length, i.e., the product of test time
and gas velocity, t u, satises (Davies and Bernstein 1969).
t u =
_
_
_
2 L
1
, for turbulent boundary layer
3 L
1
, for laminar boundary layer
(2.7)
where L
1
is the distance from the edge of the plate. The ow establishment criterion
for separated ows, on the other hand, is required to be tens of times larger than the
characteristic recirculation region length L
2
, as given by (Holden 1971) for the wake of
sphere
t u =
_
_
for separated ows
30 L
2
, based on pressure measurements
70 L
2
, based on heat transfer measurements
(2.8)
Note that L
2
is the length of the recirculation region and therefore smaller than the
characteristic distance L
1
by more than an order of magnitude, resulting in similar ow
establishment times.
(a)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

p
i
t
o
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20
Free-stream flow radius, mm
Distance from the tube exit
12.7mm (0.5")
38.1mm (1.5")
63.5mm (2.5")
Flight Mach 13 condition
useful core flow
~ 25 mm
(b)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

p
i
t
o
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20
12.7mm (0.5")
38.1mm (1.5")
63.5mm (2.5")
(c)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

p
i
t
o
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20
12.7mm (0.5")
38.1mm (1.5")
63.5mm (2.5")
FIGURE 2.13 Useful core-ow size in ight Mach 13, 10 and 8 conditions, (a), (b) and (c), respectively,
determined by measuring the radial variation of pitot pressure at dierent distances from the
tube exit.
Based on these correlations, we have estimated two ow establishment times in our
experiments and summarized the conclusions in Table 2.2. First, the boundary layer
ow establishment time was calculated by assuming laminar ow, as the local Reynolds
numbers at the injection port were relatively small. Second, the establishment time of
the recirculation region upstream of the injection port was estimated. In general, the
bow shock around the jet interacts with the approaching boundary layer and causes its
separation. This recirculation region length conned with the separation shock wave
was measured from schlieren images and used as the characteristic length, L
2
, of the
separation zone.
The estimated ow establishment values indicated that the test slug (1.28 m) for
the ight Mach 13 condition is fairly long as compared to the predicted ow estab-
lishment times (0.15 m for boundary layer and 0.56 m for the recirculation region heat
transfer establishment time =0.71 m in total). Therefore, about 0.60 m of a test slug
or 235 s of test time is still available for measurements. By contrast, at the ight
Mach 8 condition, ow establishment seems to consume most of the steady test time.
However, it is worth noting that the expansion section helium ow prior to the test gas
arrival contributes to the establishment of jet ow even though it is not considered as a
part of the test time. Furthermore, the useful test time in our experiments is determined
using the pitot probe after the ow is established around it. Therefore, the estimated
ow establishment times given in Table 2.2 are expected to be larger than the actual
ow establishment times, so that even at the ight Mach 8 condition, part of the slug
length is useful for measurements after the ow-eld is established.
To summarize, as the ight Mach number in our facility increases, a longer test
slug length becomes available for measurements. This is a result of the long test
times achieved with high-total enthalpy, low-pressure conditions and the fact that higher
speed implies faster ow establishment.
2.4 Summary
We used the Stanford expansion tube to generate high total enthalpy ow conditions
in the Mach 8-13 ight range. A variety of supersonic ow conditions are also simulated
in the facility for fundamental mixing studies of transverse jets. These conditions are
summarized in Chapter 5. See also Appendix B for maps of ideal ow conditions that
can be achieved using an expansion tube. The maps are calculated for dierent free-
stream gas (Nitrogen, Helium and Argon) and for two dierent initial driver pressures
(P
4
= 300 and 600 psig).
Chapter 3
Flow Visualization Techniques
Much of our basic understanding of the behavior of ows has come from ow visu-
alization. One of the best examples of this is the work of Brown and Roshko (1974),
which shows the existence of large scale structures in a two-dimensional shear layer using
shadowgraphs. A clear visualization of axisymmetric shear layers, as the one present in
the periphery of transverse jets in crossows, is more dicult to achieve due to three
dimensional eects, especially when the jet characteristic length is as small as d=2 mm.
The ow visualization of transverse jets in supersonic crossow studied in this work
was obtained using an ultra-high-framing-rate schlieren system and Planar Laser In-
duced Fluorescence (PLIF) of the hydroxyl radical (OH). The ability to image the ow
with good temporal and spatial resolution is particularly important, because of the high
velocities of the ows and also because it provides a means of examining the instanta-
neous turbulent structures that control the mixing and combustion processes.
3.1 Ultra-Fast Framing Rate Schlieren
The ability to capture the time evolution of unsteady supersonic ows is critical to
their understanding. Non-intrusive visualization techniques, such as schlieren and laser-
based planar ow imaging, are powerful and commonly used optical methods. However,
tracking the structural evolution of high-speed ows requires acquisition of images at
fast (typically MHz) repetition rates. In addition, very short exposure times (20-200 ns)
are required to resolve instantaneous features. As the spatial resolution is increased to
41
CHAPTER 3. FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES 42
avoid the blurring of turbulent structures, the exposure time must be reduced and the
repetition rate increased. It is challenging to fulll the temporal resolution requirements
of high-speed imaging while maintaining meaningful spatial resolution for supersonic
ows.
Before we introduce previous and current eorts towards the development of super-
sonic ow visualization at ultra-fast-framing rates, it is useful to present the motivation
behind such eorts. Of great interest is the study of shear layers formed at the interface
of two parallel or skewed uid streams. Since Brown and Roshko (1974) demonstrated
that large-scale coherent structures are dominant in subsonic shear layers and that their
structure and evolution control the mixing process, many researchers have concentrated
their eorts on measuring large-scale convection characteristics of shear layers in super-
sonic ows. However these studies were limited to double-pulse visualization techniques,
such as double-pulse schlieren by Papamoschou (1991), double-pulse Mie/Rayleigh scat-
tering by Elliott et al. (1995), double-exposure planar laser-induced uorescence (PLIF)
of acetone by Papamoschou and Bunyajitradulya (1997) and Fourguette et al. (1991)
and double-pulse imaging using simultaneous aceton/OH-PLIF by Seitzmann et al.
(1994). Those studies focused on measuring the convective velocity (U
c
) of large-scale
structures by capturing a maximum of two images that are temporally correlated.
Of particular interest to our research is the shear layer formed when a gaseous jet
interacts with a supersonic crossow stream, an example of skewed shear layers. This
is also a common fuel injection scheme in practical systems, such as a scramjet, and
therefore fundamental study of its mixing process is important. Although there have
been numerous studies of the shear layer properties of two parallel streams, there have
been relatively few works on jets in supersonic crossow. Among those studies only
Gruber et al. (997a) studied the large-eddy convection characteristics of jets in su-
personic crossow, again by capturing two consecutive Rayleigh/Mie scattering images.
Their results revealed the convection characteristics of helium and air jets injected into
a Mach 2 crossow. The highly compressible helium jet exhibited larger convection
velocities in the near-eld of the injection than the air jet of low compressibility. How-
ever, the accuracy of the velocity measurement was only about 10%, as the minimum
separation between the laser pulses was limited to 1 sec.
It is crucial to characterize the full life cycle of the ow-eld. For example, the large-
scale eddies, formed periodically at the early stages of shear layer development, undergo
structural evolution as they convect downstream while entraining, pairing, engulng,
stretching and tearing. Therefore, measurement of the formation frequency of these
eddies and their evolution should aid understanding of the origin and formation of the
jet vortical structure and, hopefully, provide tools in controlling its mixing properties.
Such studies require application of an ultra-high-speed imaging system.
In our experiments, we therefore selected a new fast-framing imaging system capable
of recording 8 consecutive high-resolution schlieren images at rates up to 100 MHz. Our
goal is to study the time evolution and convection properties of large-scale structures
present in the shear layer of the jet/free-stream interface. It is important to understand
how these structures and growth rate vary as ow conditions and fuel types are changed.
Moreover, most of the earlier jet studies were carried out in blow-down wind tunnels
where the free-stream conditions were usually of low temperature and therefore with
relatively low speeds. Free-stream velocity in the experiments of (Gruber et al. 997a),
for example, was about 515 m/s. In our experiments we employ an impulse facility which
can generate realistic conditions of a typical supersonic combustor with high velocities
(1800-3300 m/s) and high static temperatures (1300 K) (Ben-Yakar and Hanson 2000).
However, these facilities have short test times (0.2 - 2 ms) during which there is only a
brief opportunity to perform a ow-diagnostic measurement. As a result, application of
MHz imaging in impulse facilities becomes almost necessary as we can obtain multiple
images that are also time-correlated. In our facility, the amount of data obtained per
experiment is, therefore, increased by at least 8 times by the new ultra-high-speed
imaging system.
In the following sections, we present the components of the ultra-fast schlieren
imaging system and discuss issues of resolution, timing, synchronization and image-
processing techniques.
3.1.1 Previous and Current High Speed Imaging Eorts
High-speed imaging requires two components: a camera which can acquire at high
framing rates and a light source with either long duration time or high pulsing rate.
Early ow visualization at high-speed framing rates was performed using a rotating
mirror camera. Mahadevan and Loth (1994), for example, utilized a rotating mirror
camera to temporally resolve compressible mixing layer structures at approximately
350 kHz using schlieren and Mie scattering. A Xenon ash system with square pulse
durations up to 200 s was used as a continuous light source. The quality of images was
poor because of the low resolution and blurring of the images due to the convection of
the ow structures.
Patrie et al. (1993, 1994), on the other hand, performed 3-D snapshots of instanta-
neous ow structures using Mie scattering and laser-induced uorescence of ames and
turbulent jets. Their camera system included a high-speed image converter coupled by
ber optics to a CCD camera. Up to 20 sequential planar images were collected at the
rate of 10 MHz. The output of the system was a single digital image with 400 700
pixels, containing the sequence of 20 images, namely, each image was approximately
160 140 pixels for a 10 image set. This imaging system required post-processing al-
gorithms to correct the spatial distortion of the images caused by electrodynamic in-
teraction of the photoelectric currents within the camera. Island et al. (1996) used
the same imaging system to study the three-dimensionality of supersonic mixing layers.
The planar illumination for a 3-D scan was provided from a 2 s pulse duration of a
ashlamp-pumped dye laser with a pulse energy of 3 J at 590 nm. The laser output
was reected from a high-rpm rotating mirror. The pixel resolution was approximately
1 mm resolving only the largest scales of mixing.
Recently, several researchers including Huntley et al. (2000), Thurow et al. (2000)
and Wu et al. (000b) reported their eorts toward MHz-rate digital planar ow visualiza-
tion using a prototype CCD camera manufactured by Princeton Scientic Instruments,
Inc. (PSI) with pixel format of 180 90 or 180 180. This camera has a 32 image stor-
age buer built onto the image sensor chip itself, and can frame at rates up to 1 MHz.
The drawback of the PSI camera is the low pixel resolution of images (the pixel size is
50 m50 m) and the low ll factor of the light sensitive area which is about 14%.
Princeton Scientic Instruments, Inc has attempted to develop this unique high-speed
framing CCD camera under a government SBIR contract. However, further develop-
ment of this prototype camera is currently not possible because of the manufacturing
diculties of the chip.
The PSI camera is typically paired with a laser working in a pulse burst concept
(Wu et al. 000b). The bursttrain of 30-40 pulses was formed by applying a high-speed
Pockel Cell slicerto the long duration output (200 s) from a continuous wave (CW)
Nd:YAG ring laser. The energy of each of the individual pulses comprising the train was
0.5 - 1 mJ, with minimum separations of 1ms (1 MHz). With this energy level of pulses
the researchers succeeded in performing CO
2
-enhanced Filtered Rayleigh Scattering
measurements in supersonic ows.
As summarized above, since the early 90s, several research groups attempted to
perform high speed imaging of supersonic ows. Their results showed the excellent
potential of high speed 2-D and 3-D measurements. However, their imaging systems
were usually of low resolution and low light sensitivity.
In the following sections, we present initial results with a new commercial imaging
system that can capture images (free of distortions) at rates up to 100 MHz. The system
includes a fast framing rate camera (IMACON 468) combined with a long duration, high
intensity light source (Xenon ashlamp) to acquire 8 consecutive schlieren images of
supersonic ows with 578 384 pixel resolution. In this system, resolution and blurring
of the images can be controlled by adjusting the image exposure time which can be as
small as 10 ns.
A similar fast framing camera system with a maximum repetition rate of 1 MHz
is also being used by Kaminski et al. (1999) to study turbulent reacting ames. The
system performance was demonstrated at 8 kHz repetition rate using a custom-built
unit (BMI) of four double-pulsed Nd:YAG lasers with an accompanying dye laser. This
laser system allowed variable inter-framing times of 25 to 145 sec.
3.1.2 High-Speed Schlieren Imaging Components
The ultra-fast-framing schlieren system illustrated in Fig. 3.1 comprised three com-
ponents: 1) a high-speed framing camera, (Imacon 468, manufactured by Hadland Pho-
tonics), 2) a long duration light source, (Xenon ash-lamp), and 3) mirrors and knife
edge in a standard Z-arrangement.
The Imacon 468 consists of 8 independent intensied CCD cameras for high-speed
framing that can capture 8 consecutive images with variable exposure and interframing
times down to 10 ns. The single optical input is divided uniformly and distortion-free by
a special beam splitter into 8 dierent intensied CCD modules, each with a 576 384
array of 22 22 m size pixels.
The light source is a high intensity Xenon ash discharge unit (Hadland Photonics
model 20-50 ash system with an extension to 200 s duration). The unit has three
XenonFlash
LightSource
Mirror1
TestSection
Mirror2
Knife
Edge
Focusing
Lens
Camera
FiberOpticLink
ControlComputer&
ImageMonitor
InputTrigger
PowerSupply
I
M
A
C
O
N
4
6
8
FIGURE 3.1 Schlieren imaging set-up.
ranges providing 20 s, 50 s and 200 s durations of the light source with intensity
levels of each being 125 J, 375 J and 700 J per pulse, respectively.
In the optical set-up, two f/10, 200 cm focal length concave mirrors are used to
collimate the light through the test section, and then refocus it onto a knife edge (razor
blade). This knife edge (KE) at the focal point of the second schlieren mirror is used to
partially cut o the deected rays for observing the schlieren eect (visualization of the
density gradients). Blocking more of the light by moving the KE transverse to the optical
axis makes the system more sensitive, showing more features of the jet (Merzkirch 1965).
The KE, oriented horizontal or vertical with respect to the focused light, will emphasize
the density gradients in the horizontal or vertical directions respectively. In Fig. 3.2,
examples of schlieren images with dierent KE orientations are presented. These are
the images of an underexpanded hydrogen jet issuing into quiescent air. Signicant
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Knifeedge
Razorblade
Lightsource
atthefocalpoint
FIGURE 3.2 Examples of schlieren images of jet issuing into quiescent air as obtained for dierent positions
of the knife edge (razor blade) at the focal point. We use the set-up demonstrated in (d) where
the knife edge cuts the focused light at an angle to enhance both the vertical and the horizontal
density gradient eects.
dierences in the details of the ow-eld can be observed just by positioning the KE
at dierent orientations. In our experiments, the KE is positioned at 45
o
to emphasize
both the vertical and horizontal gradients.
The test object is then imaged with a single constant focal length lens onto the
intensied CCD camera. Two dierent focal length lenses (an f/12.5, 100 cm focal
length lens and an f/6, 49 cm focal length lens) were used to capture dierent sizes of
the eld of interest. For the images presented in this paper, de-magnication of 0.44
was required and obtained using a 100 cm focal length (f/12.5) lens.
3.1.3 Timing and Synchronization
Flow establishment, timing and synchronization are important issues that have to
be addressed very carefully in preparation of an experiment in an impulse facility. The
imaging system must be synchronized with the facility operation and the delay times
must be set to allow the data to be acquired during the short steady test time. There-
fore, test ow arrival and its steady duration are rst studied through characterization
experiments (see Chapter 2) to determine the required delay times. The general ap-
proach is to replace the injection plate with a pitot probe and to trace the ow history at
1 2
InjectionValve
P8trigin
Valveopens
P2trigin
Triggerpulse
totheimagingsystem
PulseGenerator
PitotPressure
8 3 4 5 6 7
Ultra-FastFramingCamera
HadlandImacon468
XenonFlashlamp
LightSource
DriverSection DrivenSection ExpansionSection
P8 P9 P10 P1 P2 P3 PressureTransducers:
1.1-1.2ms ~1.1ms
Shockwave
arrival
Testtime=270 s m
20,50or200 s m
Free-stream
flowisestablished
Exposuretime
typ.100-200ns
Interframingtime
typ.0.5-3 s m
FIGURE 3.3 Timing diagram of the high-speed rate imaging system and its synchronization with the expan-
sion tube test ow time.
the injection location by analyzing the pitot pressure. An example of the pitot pressure
trace is given in the timing and synchronization diagram described in Fig. 3.3. Based on
the time history of this pitot pressure, it is possible to identify the arrival of the shock
wave, the time period of expansion section ow, the pressure rise as the contact surface
between the test gas and expansion section gas arrives, and nally the steady ow test
time. The images can be acquired during the last 100 sec of the 270 sec window of
the steady ow test time, after the free-stream ow around the jet is established.
As described in Fig. 3.3, the imaging system and the injection plate are synchronized
by the instantaneous pressure rise of one of the piezoelectric transducers located on the
tube walls as the incident shock travels through. The injection system is triggered
early enough to allow the injector valve to actuate and the underexpanded jet to be
fully developed by the time the steady test ow conditions are obtained. Within that
constraint, the time interval between the valve actuation and the test gas arrival should
be short enough to avoid signicant changes in the expansion section initial pressure.
The delay times for the imaging system are then set to sample during the actual test
time when both the free-stream (expansion tube ow) and the ow around the jet are
established.
The high-speed camera, IMACON 468, and the long-duration light source receive
the delayed trigger pulse simultaneously. The gating/exposure times of the 8 intensiers
and their interframing times are then controlled by the image acquisition computer. The
rst ICCD is set to acquire after the build-up time of the light source as the uniform
light intensity is achieved.
3.1.4 Resolution Considerations
Each intensied CCD detector in the ultra-fast framing camera has an 8-bit dynamic
resolution (0 - 255 gray scale) 576 384 array with 22 22 m pixel size. For the results
presented in Chapter 4, the eld of view is about 28 18 mm (de-magnication of 0.44),
corresponding to a minimum spatial resolution of 50 50 m.
Visualization without blurring from the ow velocity requires careful consideration
of the gating/exposure time. First the characteristic length scales and velocities of the
ow-eld need to be known. In the experiments presented in Chapter 4, we study the
time evolution of jets issuing from a 2 mm sonic orice into a high speed (2360 m/s)
free-stream. Of particular interest is the convection characteristics of the jet-shear layer
large eddies with dimensions ranging between 1-2 jet diameters (2 - 4 mm). We expect
these structures to travel at speeds between that of the jet at the injector exit and
the free-stream ow, namely between 1205 - 2360 m/s (1.2 - 2.4 mm/ns) in the case of
hydrogen injection. Therefore, to achieve 1 pixel spatial resolution (50 50 m), the
exposure time must be in the range of 42 - 21 ns.
Exposure time of schlieren images are determined by optimizing the following com-
peting factors: 1) schlieren sensitivity, 2) spatial resolution, 3) dynamic range, and 4) signal
to noise ratio. The sensitivity to detect the smallest density gradients in the ow, is con-
trolled by the KE position when the light source intensity and the optical components
are xed. As the KE cuts o more deected rays, schlieren sensitivity increases while
less light reaches into the camera. For short exposure times, however, a high intensity
light source is required to cover the full dynamic range (256 gray levels). Therefore,
we performed an optimization between these counteracting eects to achieve the best
performance available from the system. We chose an exposure time of 100 ns to visualize
the ow-eld of 28 18 mm, even though shorter gating times as low as 10 ns are avail-
able in our ultra-fast-framing camera. During 100 ns, the large scale structures translate
120 - 240 mm which is about 2 - 10 % of their thickness (2 - 4 mm). This corresponds to
blurring of images by 2 - 5 pixels. In addition, the ICCD modules were set to intensify
30 - 40 % of their maximum potential. We found that larger gain results in noise levels
that confuse the details of the ow features.
Figure 3.4 represents 3 examples of schlieren images captured with dierent exposure
times, 100 ns, 200 ns and 3 s. Schlieren images with a 100 ns exposure time (Fig. 3.4a)
provide the instantaneous features of the ow-eld with an optimized spatial resolution
(2 - 5 pixels). Increase of the exposure time to 200 ns (Fig. 3.4b) results in a signicant
blurring of the features, as the ow structures translate larger distances (4 - 10 pixels).
Instantaneous ow features are eventually diminished with further increase of the inte-
gration time to the order of microseconds (Fig. 3.4c). While, the instantaneous features
of the ow are wiped out due to the integration during the long exposure time, these
images, on the other hand, provide information on the average features of the ow-eld.
Note that the noise level in the long exposure image is very low as the intensier is set
to its minimum value. Average features with laser-based diagnostic techniques can be
achieved only by capturing a large number of images as the integration time is xed
with the laser pulse width or the uorescence time. As noted in the introduction it is
very dicult to achieve multiple images in an impulse facility because of the short test
times. Observations obtained from the schlieren images of Fig. 3.4 will be discussed in
Chapter 4.
Temporal resolution, or the interframing time, was chosen so that we could capture
events occurring on very short time scales, less than or equal to the convection time of
the ow through the region of interest. For the jet diameter (2 mm) and free-stream ve-
locities up to 4000 m/s, studied in our investigation, framing rates of 2 MHz to 200 KHz
(interframing times between 0.5 - 5 sec) are needed to resolve and to follow the devel-
opment of the ow structures (convection of large eddies, uctuation of shock waves
around the jet.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 3.4 Examples of schlieren images with dierent integration/exposure times: a) 100 ns exposure
time, resolving the instantaneous features of the ow-eld, b) 200 ns exposure time, resulting
in blurring of the image, c) 3 s exposure time, averaging the general features while enhancing
the weak shocks such as upstream separation shock wave and downstream recompression wave.
( ) t D
Dt
y y
U ;
Dt
x x
U
1 2
cy
1 2
cx
-
=
-
=
-
-
=
1 2
1 2
x x
y y
arctan F
F
FIGURE 3.5 Timing diagram of the high-speed rate imaging system and its synchronization with the expan-
sion tube test ow time.
3.1.5 Image Processing and Analysis
Post image processing of the images was performed using several image processing
software packages (IPLab, Matlab, Adobe Photoshop and Premiere). Background im-
ages were acquired just prior to each test and subtracted from the schlieren image to
eliminate speckle from the imperfections in the test section windows. Normalization of
the intensity levels and the gamma-factor were changed to improve the contrast of
the images. Gamma-factor is a factor applied to intensity distribution of images to
enhance the perception of the human eye which has a non-linear sensitivity.
To compute the convection characteristics of the large-scale eddies each individual
structure was tracked with the cross-correlation method using the fast Fourier transform
(FFT). In this tracking procedure, we measured the displacement of a particular feature
in the streamwise and transverse directions. Guidelines for a fully automated classical
cross-correlation method can be found in Smith and Dutton (1999). We utilized an
FFT in our cross-correlation method to decrease the image-processing time.
The cross-correlation is calculated (see Fig. 3.5) from the complex conjugate multi-
plication of their Fourier transforms:
R
fg
(x, y, t) F(x, y, t + t) G
(x, y, t) (3.1)
The size of the interrogation window (128 128 pixels for the results presented in this
paper) is selected to be large enough to include the eddy and its later location while
maintaining the maximum resolution. Figure 3.5 describes the cross-correlation proce-
dure and presents a representative cross-correlation eld of the two images shown in
the same gure. The highest cross-correlation magnitude corresponds to the convection
distance of the large-scale structure. Therefore, the correlation peak was detected by
simply scanning the correlation plane R
fg
for the maximum correlation value R(i, j)
and storing its integer coordinates (i, j) with uncertainty of a 1/2 pixel. A subpixel
accurate displacement estimate could be achieved for example by applying three point
interpolation (Rael et al. 1998). However, the largest uncertainty in our measurements
originates in the determination of the interrogation region. In summary, displacement
measurement accuracy in our technique is 1 pixel which corresponds to a velocity
uncertainty of 50 m/s (2 % of the free-stream velocity) when the interframing time
is 1 s.
Once the displacement from image to image is known, the large-scale convection
velocity and the convection angle are determined using
U
c,x
=
x
2
x
1
t
, U
c,y
=
y
2
y
1
t
(3.2)
= arctan
_
x
2
x
1
y
2
y
1
_
(3.3)
where t is the interframing time between images. An interframing time of t = 1 s
was chosen based on the residence time of the eddies in the eld-of-view. It takes the
coherent structures about 8 s to travel 6 jet diameters near the injector port. For
interframing times larger than 3 s, it becomes dicult to track the structures as they
travel large distances.
3.2 OH-PLIF
PLIF imaging of reactive ows relied on OH, a naturally occurring combustion
radical, as the uorescent tracer. OH is an indicator of ignition and reaction zones. For
the purpose of this thesis, OH visualization provides information on whether ignition is
occurring at all, and if so, in which regions it does occur.
3.2.1 Excitation and Detection Strategy
The OH-PLIF measurements are obtained by excitation of the A
2
+
X
2
(1, 0)
band of OH, near 283 nm combined with detection of the strong (1,1) band near 315 nm
(ranged from 308 - 325 nm). This excitation strategy, which can be performed using a
frequency-doubled dye laser, was chosen to avoid uorescence trapping, the absorption
of the emitted OH uorescence by other OH molecules (Seitzmann and Hanson 1993).
In addition, the limited pulse energies (1-30 mJ) available from the frequency-doubled
dye laser sources provide a linear uorescence measurement regime.
The isolated Q
1
(7) transition at 283.266 nm is selected to minimize signal dependence
on temperature (i.e., ground state population). For J=7.5, the population term is only
weakly sensitive to temperature over a wide range of temperatures (i.e., 1500-3000 K).
The relative uncertainty in number density for a nearly constant pressure region is
approximately 10% due to Boltzmann temperature variations (Parker et al. 1995).
3.2.2 OH-PLIF Laser Source and Tuning
The UV laser radiation for excitation of the OH molecule is provided by the frequency-
doubled output of a dye laser pumped by a pulsed Nd:YAG laser (Lumonics models
YM-1200, HD-500, HT-1000). The 532 nm output of the Nd:YAG laser (400-450 mJ)
pumps the grating-tuned dye laser which provides approximately 60 - 70 mJ/pulse at a
wavelength of 566 nm using Rhodamine 590 dye. The dye laser beam formed as a 0.5 cm
wide sheet is frequency doubled using a KT*P crystal in a temperature controlled hous-
ing, which is angled-tuned with a stepper-motor system to provide maximum energy
(8 - 10 mJ/pulse at 283 nm).
At the exit of the frequency doubler, a Pellin-Broca prism is used to separate the
UV beam from the fundamental. The beam is raised and turned toward the test section
using four UV-enhanced turning mirrors and it expands to almost 35 mm near the test
section. The beam is then focused into a 300 - 400 m thick 35 mm wide sheet using
a f = 50 cm spherical lens. The top test section window, through which the laser sheet
reaches the injection plate, is made of fused-silica to provide a low UV-beam reection.
The laser tuning is performed using a uorescence measurement in an atmospheric
methane/air ame. The actual laser calibration (the dial oset) is determined by mea-
suring the OH-uorescence across multiple excitations in the wavelength range 280 -
285 nm and comparing the results to the estimated spectra using the programs LINES
and SPECTRA (Seitzmann 1991). The uorescence is collected using a Hamamatsu
photomultiplier tube (PMT) tted with Schott UG11 and WG-305 lters, and the re-
sulting PMT signal is integrated using a boxcar averager. The laser wavelength dial
oset did not drift signicantly from day to day and, therefore, it was not necessary to
perform this tuning procedure before each experiment.
The laser linewidth in the current experiments is broader than the absorption
linewidth by almost an order of magnitude. The absorption linewidth for OH is around
0.04 cm
1
for the temperature and the number densities present in the current work,
and the laser linewidth is approximately 0.3 cm
1
. The assumption of broad excitation
is then valid, minimizing the potential errors due to laser tuning and lineshape eects.
A real-time laser sheet correction is performed using a beam splitter/dye-cell/CCD
camera arrangement (McMillin, Seitzmann, and Hanson 1994). The laser sheet energy
distribution is measured by imaging the visible uorescence of a dye-cell containing
a Rhodamine 6G dye/methanol mixture which is excited by the partial reection of
the laser sheet. A Cohu 4810 CCD camera with an f/1.8 Nikon (50 mm) lens is used to
detect the visible uorescence from the dye cell. Post-image processing, performed using
commercially available software, includes remapping of the 1-D laser intensity prole
into 2-D sheet and normalization of the OH-PLIF image by this 2-D intensity prole.
3.2.3 OH-PLIF Imaging System and Its Spatial Resolution
The uorescence is collected onto the 578 384 pixel array of an ICCD (Princeton
Instruments) camera using a UV lens system (Nikon 50 mm, f/4.5). UG-5 and WG-305
Schott glass lters (2 mm thick) are used to block elastic laser scattering and background
emission which was minimal in the current experiments.
For the jet-in-crossow and the cavity experiments performed in this thesis, the
imaged region was 20 30 mm. The minimum ow feature that can be resolved with
an ideal detection system is 51 m corresponding to 51 51 m per pixel (based on
384 578 array with 23 m pixels, magnication=0.45). In a real system, however,
the minimum spatial resolution is actually limited to about 3 - 4 pixels (McMillin 1993)
because of the imperfections in the imaging system (focusing errors, limited spatial
resolution of the intensier). Thus, the gating time of the camera intensier is set to
collect photons for a maximum duration of 100 ns to prevent further resolution reduction
by ow motion. In conclusion, the resulting resolution of the PLIF imaging system is
200 - 250m (4 - 5 pixels).
3.2.4 Interpretation of OH-PLIF
The relationship between the uorescence signal and number density or mole fraction
has been described by Hanson et al. (1990). Briey, the uorescence is proportional to
the laser energy, the uorescence yield, the species number density, and the Boltzmann
population fraction for the absorbing transition. Eective combustion visualization with
OH PLIF requires that the variation in OH mole fraction in the region of interest aect
the uorescence signal more than changes in the other parameters described above. The
most critical issue, typically, is the temperature dependence of the Boltzmann fraction
of the absorbing state. At the combustion pressures in this work, the uorescence signal
can be modeled as (Hanson et al. 1990):
S
f
=
OH
_
f
J
T
_
(3.4)
where
OH
is the OH mole fraction, and f
J
is the Boltzmann fraction of OH molecules
in the absorbing state. For the absorption transition considered here - the Q
1
(7) tran-
sition of the A
2
+
X
2
(1, 0) band of OH, located at 283.31 nm - such eects play
a relatively minor role in interpreting the signal in the regions observed to contain OH,
and the uorescence intensity can be qualitatively linked to OH mole fraction.
3.3 Simultaneous Schlieren and OH-PLIF
Two intensied CCD cameras are used simultaneously to collect both schlieren and
OH-PLIF images. The uorescence signal is collected through the same exit window as
that of the schlieren system. To separate both light signals, we mount a 5 cm diame-
ter dichroic mirror at 45
o
to the optical axis perpendicular to the exit window. The
dichroic, designed for larger than 99% reectivity between 300 and 320 nm, reects the
OH uorescence but is transparent to the schlieren beam.
Figure 3.6 shows the triggering and timing diagrams of the simultaneous schlieren
and OH-PLIF imaging. A homemade ring box and two delay generators are used to
synchronize the laser/Xenon-lamp/cameras with the expansion tube operation. Because
of the long rise time of the Xenon ash lamp and also because of its emission in UV,
OH-PLIF was performed approximately 2 s before schlieren to avoid background noise
in OH uorescence. The ring box is designed to keep the laser operating (i.e, pulsing
at 10 Hz) until the initiation of the expansion tube operation to minimize shot-to-shot
pump laser energy uctuations. The laser pulsing is stopped when a ring pulse is sent
to double diaphragms to initiate the test, and then, the laser is pulsed once more to
acquire the OH-PLIF image during the useful test time. Operating the pump laser in
this fashion prevented laser misres.
(a)
DriverSection DrivenSection ExpansionSection
P8 P9 P10 P1 P2 P3
P2trigin
BNCpulse
generator
Firingbox
(home-made)
PLIFcamera
Gage-Scope
Dataacqsys
Setimage
delaytime
LaserSystem
forPLIF
ToYAGlaser
flashlamps
FromQ-switch
Set
delaytime
ICCD-1
Injection
Valve
Controller
Pressure
Transducers
Sclierencamera
ICCD-2
Schlieren
lightsource
P8trigin P10trigin
(b)
InjectionValve
P8trigin
Valveopens
P2trigin
Triggerpulse
totheimagingsystem
PulseGenerator
PitotPressureatthetestsection
OH-PLIFImaging
SchlierenImaging
1.1-1.2ms ~1.1ms
Shockwave
arrival
Testtime=270 s m
~2 s m
Flowestablished
Laserpulse
typ.10ns OH-PLIFcamera
exp.timetyp.150ns
Schlierencamera
exp.timetyp.100-200ns
XenonFlashlamp ~3 s m
FIGURE 3.6 a) Triggering diagram and timing connections of the imaging, the injection and the data acqui-
sition systems. b) Timing diagram of simultaneous OH-PLIF and schlieren and their synchro-
nization with the expansion tube test ow time.
Chapter 4
Time Evolution and Mixing
Characteristics of Hydrogen and
Ethylene Transverse Jets
In this part of the investigation, ow-eld properties of hydrogen and ethylene jets
injected into a supersonic ow are reported. The free-stream ow replicates a repre-
sentative supersonic combustor environment associated with a hypersonic airbreathing
engine ying at Mach 10. The structural evolution, the penetration and the convection
characteristics of both jets are analyzed.
4.1 Introduction
Early studies suggested that the jet-to-free-stream momentum ux ratio, J, is the
dominant parameter which controls the transverse jet penetration while the mechanism
for mixing is controlled mainly by the counter-rotating vortex pair. However, large scale
coherent structures are dominant in the jet shear layer and their structural evolution
might have a big inuence on the jet near-eld mixing process. In the studies of mixing
layers of two parallel streams (Brown and Roshko 1974) the mixing process was found to
be controlled by large scale vortical structures. It is therefore important to understand
how these structures and their growth rates evolve with time in the case of transverse
jets as the crossow and jet conditions are changed.
59
CHAPTER 4. EVOLUTION OF HYDROGEN AND ETHYLENE JETS 60
TABLE 4.1 Jet exit ow properties.
Jet exit conditions Hydrogen Ethylene
M
jet
1 1
U
jet
, m/s 1205 315
T
jet
, K 246 263
p
jet
, MPa 0.49 0.55
J 1.40.1 1.40.1
M
w,jet
, g/gmole 2 28
jet
1.42 1.27
d
jet
, mm 2 2
jet
0.1610
6
1.3210
6
Re
d
jet
=U
jet
d
jet
/
jet
150,000 477,000
4.2 Results and Discussion
We have studied the ow-eld properties of both hydrogen and ethylene transverse
jets using non-intrusive diagnostic techniques. Time-correlated schlieren images pro-
vides information on the structural evolution and convection characteristics of the jet,
and OH-PLIF maps the regions of ignition where the fuel and the crossow (air or
oxygen) are mixed and burn at the molecular level.
The jet exit ow properties for both fuels are presented in Table 4.1. Note that
the exit velocities of hydrogen and ethylene sonic jets are quite dierent because of
the substantial dierence in their molecular weights. Also included in Table 4.1 is the
jet-to-free-stream momentum ux ratio (J) that is chosen to be identical (J = 1.4) for
both cases and expected to result in similar penetration heights for each case, as was
suggested in previous studies. In this chapter, we will present results obtained from only
one value of J. It is worth noting that experiments with dierent values of J provide
similar results.
In the following sections, we will rst present the global ow-eld properties of a
transverse injection into a supersonic crossow. Then the characteristics of the large
scale eddies, their convection and mixing properties, the jet penetration and nally the
OH-PLIF results will be discussed.
4.2.1 General Flow-Field Features
Schlieren imaging provides a visual observation of both instantaneous and average
characteristics of the ow-eld depending on the exposure time of the image. While a
short duration schlieren image (100 - 200 ns exposure time) reveals some of the instanta-
neous vortex and shock structure of the ow-eld, a long duration schlieren image (3 s
exposure time) provides information on the average and more steady properties.
Two instantaneous schlieren images related to hydrogen and ethylene injection cases
are shown in Fig. 4.1. Free-stream uid (nitrogen) ows from left to right, and the fuel jet
(hydrogen or ethylene) enters from the bottom at x/d = 0. Several interesting features,
such as the large-scale structures at the jet periphery and the bow shock are very
apparent in those images. The large-scale eddies are periodically generated in the early
stages of the jet/free-stream interaction. While those eddies exist in both cases, they
demonstrate signicant dierences in their development as they convect downstream.
In the hydrogen case, these structures preserve their coherence with distance while in
the ethylene case they disappear beyond about 12 jet diameters downstream. This
result is not a schlieren contrast issue, rather it might be related to the enhanced
mixing characteristics of the ow-eld. As will be discussed in the following section
the schlieren contrast for ethylene injection is expected to be 3 to 4 times larger than
the hydrogen case in the absence of mixing (hot nitrogen vs. cold ethylene). Since
the molecular weight of ethylene is nearly similar to nitrogen, the schlieren contrast
will diminish when the hot free-stream uid begins to mix with the cold ethylene jet
while creating a region of reduced density gradient. The ethylene structures are bigger
and penetrate deeper into the crossow. Besides the bow shock, additional weak shock
waves are formed around the ethylene eddies indicating their subsonic motion relative
to the free-stream. A detailed examination of these large scale structures is performed
using high speed schlieren movies and will be discussed in the following sections.
Figure 4.1 also demonstrates that the bow-shock is almost merged with the jet close
to the injection location with a very small stand-o distance and curves sharply down-
stream. Its local shape appears to depend strongly on the large scale shear layer struc-
tures, especially close to the jet exit where the free-stream behind the steep bow shock
is subsonic. As a result the bow-shock reveals local uctuations in position, small in the
hydrogen case but signicant in the ethylene case. Figure 4.2 shows an example for the
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 4.1 Examples of hydrogen (a) and ethylene (b) injections into a supersonic crossow (nitrogen).
Exposure time of each image was 200 ns. The x-axis is normalized by the jet diameter d.
hydrogen ow-eld, visualized with a longer exposure time (3 s). Additional features
are emphasized and become visually observable: such as the upstream separation shock
wave and the downstream reattachment shock. The small instantaneous uctuations of
the bow shock are observed to average into a smoother and slightly thicker one.
The barrel shock and the Mach disk are, however, not very clear even in the long
exposure schlieren images, most probably due to the unsteadiness of the shear layer
FIGURE 4.2 An example of schlieren image with 3 s exposure time for hydrogen injection case. While the
unsteady features (coherent structures) are averaged to zero, some of the weak shocks such as
upstream separation shock wave and downstream recompression wave are emphasized.
vortical structures. Only the Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan of the underexpanded jet is
observable (the white region at the jet core) indicating that the jet is indeed underex-
panded. We have therefore attempted to estimate the displacement of the rst Mach
disk for our experiments by substituting an eective back pressure term in the Ashke-
nas and Sherman correlation given in Eq. 2.5. The eective back pressure introduced
in earlier works is a notion which permits an analogy between the very complicated
ow-eld of an underexpanded jet emerging into a supersonic crossow and that for the
simpler and well-understood case of a jet exhausting into a quiescent medium. Among
those previous studies, Schetz and Billig (1966) suggested P
eb
= 0.8P
, where P
is
the free-stream pressure behind a normal shock wave. Later on, Billig et al. (1971)
developed a correlation to predict the height of the Mach disk, y
1
, assuming that the
eective back pressure is equal to two thirds of the free-stream stagnation pressure
behind a normal shock: P
eb
= 2/3P
tot,
. More recently Everett et al. (1998) mea-
sured the pressure distribution around a sonic jet injected transversely into a Mach 1.6
free-stream using a pressure-sensitive-paint technique. Their averaged surface pressure
resulted in P
eb

= 0.35P
(for J<1.5) which diers greatly from the earlier works. This
discrepancy was attributed to the larger jet-to-momentum ux ratios (J) used in the
earlier works. We have adopted the back pressure values of Everett (P
eb

= 0.35P
),
as the value of J in our experiments is small. Using Eq. 2.5, the Mach disk height for
the current experiments was estimated to be around y
1
1.7 d
jet
which compares well
with the jet bending location (see discussion below).
The free-stream conditions behind the hydrogen bow shock could be estimated by
measuring the average bow shock position. Figure 4.3 presents two plots; the rst shows
the measured bow shock position and its angle (), while the second plot exhibits the
bow shock-induced free-stream velocity (U
2
) and its turning angle (). Calculations are
performed assuming a calorically perfect gas. In the region of 10 jet diameters studied in
this work, the bow shock starts almost at 90
o
and weakens downstream as it angle decays
continuously down to 20
o
-25
o
. Further downstream, the bow shock is expected to reach
its minimum strength or a Mach wave with an angle of 17.2
o
(M
=3.38). The induced

velocity of the free-stream behind the bow shock is subsonic upstream to the location of
the critical bow shock angle (
cr
67.6
o
), dened as the minimum angle for an oblique
shock to be attached to the wedge. It is interesting to see that the bow shock reaches this
angle around 1.8-1.9 jet diameters above the wall at the expected height of the upper
side of the Mach disk. Since the Mach disk occurs at a rather high Mach number on the
jet centerline, the jet loses most of its momentum and the subsequent trajectory of the
jet turns nearly parallel to the free-stream direction. Consequently, beyond the critical
angle, the bow shock curves sharply downstream and the shock-induced free-stream
velocity becomes supersonic varying between approximately 1050 m/s to 2260 m/s at
9.5 jet diameters downstream (note that the free-stream velocity is U
= 2360 m/s).
In the following sections, this estimated free-stream velocity behind the bow shock will
be compared to the measured convection velocity of the large-scale structures. Before
that we will rst discuss the temporal evolution of these structures.
4.2.2 Large Scale Coherent Structures
The most interesting observations are related to the coherent structures easily iden-
tied in instantaneous schlieren images. The large scale jet-shear layer vortices are con-
sidered important because of their role in the near-eld mixing. These intermittently
formed eddies tend to enlarge and engulf free-stream uid as they travel downstream
with the ow. We therefore studied the temporal evolution of large eddies and their
(a)
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
b
y/d
y
/
d
x/d
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
critical bow
shock angle:
b
cr
~67.6
B
o
w
S
h
o
c
k
A
n
g
l
e
,
b
(
d
e
g
)
(b)
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
q
max
=38.8
q
U
2
F
r
e
e
-
s
t
r
e
a
m
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
U
2
(
m
/
s
)
x/d
0
10
20
30
40
50
supersonic subsonic
B
o
w
S
h
o
c
k
A
n
g
l
e
,
b
(
d
e
g
)
FIGURE 4.3 (a) Bow shock position and its angle at the center-line of the jet as measured from the long
exposure schlieren image shown in Fig. 4.2. (b) The free-stream velocity behind the bow shock
and the ow turning angle based on the measured bow shock shape. For the calculations a
calorically perfect gas has been assumed.
properties for both hydrogen and ethylene jets utilizing the high-speed-framing rate
camera. Examples of instantaneous schlieren images are presented in Figs. 4.4 and 4.5
for hydrogen injection and in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7 for the ethylene case. While large-
scale eddies are visible in the early stages of the jet/free-stream interaction, there are
signicant dierences in their development for hydrogen and ethylene injection.
Hydrogen large scale coherent structures survive long distances. Coherence of these
shear layer eddies can be seen in Figs. 4.4 and 4.5, which constitute consecutive schlieren
images from two dierent experiments. Close to the jet exit, the spanwise rollers rise
periodically creating gaps in between the eddies. The evolution of these eddies occurs
primarily through engulfment of the cross-ow uid into the jet but also through merg-
ing/pairing of smaller eddies in the beginning of the shear layer (see eddy number 3
in Fig. 4.4). Beyond 3-4 jet diameters downstream, the separation between the eddies
becomes constant and no further merging is visible. The energetic structures elongate
in the transverse direction while the crossow uid lls the braid regions in between the
eddies.
Interesting features in the evolution of ethylene large-scale structures are demon-
strated in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7 through two examples of 8 consecutive schlieren images.
Larger structures appear in the near-eld of the ethylene jet and persist until the jet
bends with the crossow. In the bending region, the large scale structures begin to tilt
in the streamwise direction. Simultaneously, the shear between the accelerating cross-
ow and the jet increases, leading to the stretching of the large-scale structures. In the
case of ethylene injection the jet exit velocity (315 m/s) is four times smaller than in the
hydrogen case (1205 m/s). Therefore, for ethylene injection the eddies are exposed to
very large velocity gradients across the shear layer. As a result, these large-scale eddies
lose their coherence as they turn in the streamwise direction and break up into smaller
eddies through a tilting-stretching-tearing mechanism. Further downstream, beyond
6-8 jet diameters, the jet shear layer is not visually observable by schlieren imaging
anymore, as the vortical structures tear down into smaller scale turbulence.
The ow visualization of large scale structures using schlieren is based on the prin-
ciple of refraction of light. The contrast in schlieren imaging, dened as the relative
change in the illumination, is expressed in terms of the optical index of refraction (n)
and parameters related to schlieren system (Saad 1985):
I
I
=
fL
ny
1
dn
dy
(4.1)
where f is the focal length of the focusing lens, L is the width of the test section and
y
1
is the size of the image of the light source (where the knife edge is positioned to
cut the deected beam). For a given schlieren system, the parameters f, L and y
1
are
constant. The contrast is, therefore, directly proportional to the gradient of the index
of refraction in the ow:
I
I

dn
dy
(4.2)
The index of refraction of a gas is expressed as a function of density () and a constant
characteristic of the gas (), :
n = 1 +

s
(4.3)
where
s
is the density at standard conditions (273 K and atmospheric pressure). The
density ratio for a specic gas is equal to:
s
=
PT
s
P
s
T
(4.4)
Substituting from Eqs. 4.4 and 4.3 gives:
I
I

d
dy
(

s
)
d
dy
(
PT
s
P
s
T
) (4.5)
Consequently, the ow visualization of large scale structures based on schlieren is
a result of the dierences in the pressure, the temperature and the characteristic
constant of the free-stream uid and the jet uid. As the jet turns in the streamwise
direction the static pressure between the hot free-stream (1300 K) and the cold jet
(300 K) approaches to equilibrium. The schlieren contrast between unmixed jet and
free-stream uids can therefore be expressed in terms of:
I
I
(
T
s
T
)
(
T
s
T
)
jet
(4.6)
By substituting the values of and T in Eq. 4.6 we found that the schlieren contrast
between the ethylene jet and the free-stream nitrogen (or air) should be 3 to 4 times
larger than the hydrogen jet case. The loss of the visibility of the ethylene jet shear layer
structures can, therefore, be attributed to the loss of the coherence of the vortical struc-
tures and also to enhanced molecular-mixing. When the ethylene large structures burst
into smaller scale turbulent structures due to stretching, molecular mixing between the
crossow and the ethylene jet might be enhanced. As a result, the observable schlieren
contrast degrades as the dierence between /T across the shear layer decreases.
Although the large scale eddies seem to be two-dimensional, recall that they are
part of the unsteady Kelvin-Helmholtz spanwise rollers wrapping around the jet. They
are only the traces of three-dimensional transverse vortex tubes whose cores coiled up
around the jet with their legs connected downstream of the jet exit. The schematic in
Fig. 4.8 shows a diagram of the three-dimensional unsteady structures as adapted from
Brizzi et al. (1995). Similar ow-eld features were also observed by Fureby and Ben-
Yakar (2000), where a similar geometry and conditions are being studied by large eddy
simulation. In the simulation results for the hydrogen injection case, large -shaped
vortices develop that grow as they convect downstream. We suggest that the vortex
tubes on the sides of the -vortices are stretched by increased shear stresses in the
regions of steep velocity gradient.
Time evolution of the tearing mechanism of ethylene eddies can be easily followed
in the sequence of schlieren images. For example, the temporal development of eddy
number 0 in Fig. 4.6 is captured during the 10.6 s of visualization time. This eddy,
generated by merging of two individual smaller eddies, is an energetic structure which
penetrates deep into the free-stream. The initially almost round eddy stretches in the
transverse direction due to the increasing velocity gradients across the layer while it is
tilting in the clockwise direction. In the 8
th
image the eddy numbered 0 has almost
entirely dispersed into smaller eddies as the side arms of the vortex tube cannot continue
to sustain the large shear stresses. Eddy number -1 in Fig. 4.7 is another example
for the tilting-stretching-tearing mechanism. We have plotted the evolution of this
eddy in a y-x diagram shown in Fig. 4.9, by tracking dierent parts of its structure
across the shear layer. While the bottom part of the eddy travels at the slower jet
velocity, the upper part of it is exposed to higher crossow velocities. The shear stress
steepens further downstream as the crossow behind the weaker bow shock accelerates.
Consequently, the eddies begin to stretch in the transverse direction while continuously
tilting towards the fast crossow stream.
1) t = 0.1 s 5) t = 4.1 s
2) t = 1.1 s 6) t = 5.1 s
3) t = 2.1 s 7) t = 6.1 s
4) t = 3.1 s 8) t = 7.1 s
FIGURE 4.4 An example of 8 consecutive schlieren images of underexpanded hydrogen injection (d=2 mm)
into a supersonic crossow (nitrogen) obtained by high-speed-framing camera. Exposure time of
each image is 100 ns and interframing time is 1 s. Free-stream conditions are: U=2360 m/s,
M=3.38, T=1290 K, p=32.4 kPa; and jet-to-free-stream momentum ratio is: J=1.40.1.
a) (Image 1) t = 0.1 s
b) (Image 3) t = 2.1 s
c) (Image 5) t = 2.1 s
d) (Image 7) t = 3.1 s
FIGURE 4.5 The second example of 4 of 8 consecutive schlieren images of hydrogen injection into ight
Mach 10 condition. Exposure time of each image is 100 ns and interframing time is 1 s.
1) t = 0.1 s 5) t = 4.1 s
2) t = 1.1 s 6) t = 5.1 s
3) t = 2.1 s 7) t = 6.1 s
4) t = 3.1 s 8) t = 7.1 s
FIGURE 4.6 Time evolution of an ethylene jet in a supersonic crossow (nitrogen) as observed from 8
consecutive schlieren images. Exposure time of each image is 100 ns and interframing time is
1.5 s. Free-stream conditions are: U=2360 m/s, M=3.38, T=1290 K, p=32.4 kPa;
and jet-to-free-stream momentum ratio is: J=1.40.1.
1) t = 0.2 s 5) t = 5.0 s
2) t = 1.4 s 6) t = 6.2 s
3) t = 2.6 s 7) t = 7.4 s
4) t = 3.8 s 8) t = 8.6 s
FIGURE 4.7 The second example of an ethylene transverse jet ow-eld in a supersonic crossow as observed
from 8 time correlated schlieren images. Exposure time of each image is 200 ns and interframing
time is 1.2 s.
FIGURE 4.8 Schematic of the three-dimensional shape ( shape) of the unsteady vortical structures formed
intermittently (Brizzi et al. 1995).
Space-time trajectories of large structures:
Following the sequential high-speed-framing rate schlieren images, space-time trajec-
tories (x-t diagram) of the identiable coherent structures have been traced. Figure 4.10
presents two x-t diagrams of hydrogen eddies as analyzed from the schlieren images of
Figs. 4.4 and 4.5. The spacing between the core of the eddies varies with distance,
eventually reaching an average value of almost 3 jet diameters. Occasionally, big gaps
of the order of 4 to 5 jet diameters in dimension (see Fig. 4.10b) are created as the
smaller eddies are amalgamated into the larger ones.
Two x-t diagrams showing the trajectories of the identiable ethylene eddies are
plotted in Fig. 4.11. None of the coherent large scale eddies could be traced beyond
6-8 jet diameters downstream. The spacing between the initial eddies is larger than the
ones in the hydrogen case because of the large amounts of the crossow intrusion in
between the eddies, and also because of the larger size of the eddies formed near the jet
exit. Information on the eddy formation frequency can also be obtained from the x-t
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
frame
number:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
y
/
d
x/d
tilting
stretching
FIGURE 4.9 Development of a large-scale ethylene structure (eddy number -1 in Fig. 4.7) as it goes
through the tilting and stretching processes. Four dierent parts of the eddy structure were
independently tracked in the duration of the 8.6 s ow visualization time.
diagrams. Only 2 eddies are formed during the 10.6 s time evolution of the ethylene
jet, while in the hydrogen case 4 eddies are formed in even a shorter time period of
7.1 s. Experiments with dierent sonic jets (see Chapter 5) revealed that the eddy
formation frequency scales linearly with the jet exit velocity.
4.2.3 Convection Characteristics
Once the centers of the large scale eddy structures are identied (as shown in the
x-t diagrams), their convection velocity and the angle of inclination may be computed.
For that purpose, each individual structure was tracked from image to image using
cross-correlation techniques, as explained in Chapter 3.
The resulting large-scale convection characteristics are summarized in Figs. 4.12
and 4.13, for hydrogen and ethylene cases respectively. Data for each case were collected
from 16 images (two experiments per case). Included also in the gures are the reference
lines for the jet exit velocity and for the free-stream velocity. The uncertainty in the
determination of the eddy displacement is 1 pixel (45 m/s) in the hydrogen case
(a)
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
U
c,x
=Dx/Dt
Dt
Dx
F
r
a
m
e
N
u
m
b
e
r
x/d
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
T
i
m
e
,
m
s
e
c
eddy4
eddy3
eddy1
eddy2
(b)
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
F
r
a
m
e
N
u
m
b
e
r
x/d
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
T
i
m
e
,
m
s
e
c
eddy4
eddy3
eddy1
eddy2
FIGURE 4.10 Space-time trajectories of large-scale eddies present in the hydrogen jet shear layer. The center
of the eddies are tracked from the 8 successive schlieren images shown (a) in Fig. 4.4 and (b) in
Fig. 4.5.
(a)
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
U
c,x
=Dx/Dt
Dt
Dx
F
r
a
m
e
N
u
m
b
e
r
x/d
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
eddy0
T
i
m
e
,
m
s
e
c
eddy1
eddy2
(b)
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
bottompart
middle part
upper part
F
r
a
m
e
N
u
m
b
e
r
x/d
0
2
4
6
8
eddy-1 eddy0
T
i
m
e
,
m
s
e
c
eddy1
eddy2
FIGURE 4.11 Space-time trajectories of ethylene large scale eddies as tracked from 8 time-correlated
schlieren images: (a) x-t diagram of the example shown in Fig. 4.6, (b) x-t diagram of the
example shown in Fig. 4.7.
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
U
jet
=1205 m/s
U
=2360 m/s
U
c,x
U
c,y
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
m
/
s
x/d
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
A
n
g
l
e
,
F
(
d
e
g
)
x/d
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 4.12 Convection features of coherent large scale structures present in the hydrogen jet/free-stream
shear layer. The data were subtracted by analyzing the eddy displacement in 8 consecutive
schlieren images of 2 experiments (images shown in Figs. 4.4 and 4.5). (a) the convection
velocity of eddies in streamwise and transverse directions, U
c,x
and U
c,y
, respectively; (b) the
convection angle of eddies.
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
A
n
g
l
e
,
F
(
d
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
x/d
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
U
jet
=315 m/s
U
=2360 m/s
U
c,x
U
c,y
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
m
/
s
x/d
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 4.13 Convection features of eddies present in the ethylene jet/free-stream shear layer. The data
were subtracted by analyzing the eddy displacement in 8 consecutive schlieren images of 2
experiments (images shown in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7). (a) the convection velocity of eddies in
streamwise and transverse directions, U
c,x
and U
c,y
, respectively; (b) the convection angle of
eddies.
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
measured, U
c
measured free-streamvelocity
behind the average bowshock, U
2
U
=2360 m/s
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
U
c
(
m
/
s
)
x/d
(a)hydrogeninjection
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
U
2
U
jet
=315 m/s
U
=2360 m/s
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
U
c
(
m
/
s
)
x/d
(b)ethyleneinjection
FIGURE 4.14 Measured convection velocity of large eddy structures in the hydrogen and ethylene jet shear
layers. The results are compared with the estimated values of the free-stream velocity imme-
diately behind the bow shock.
and 2 pixels (62-71 m/s) in the ethylene case. It is important to note that some of
the eddy positions were tracked manually, especially near the injector exit where the
cross-correlation method was not able to identify the initial small eddies at the vicinity
of the bow shock.
According to the results of Fig. 4.12, the hydrogen eddies initially travel fast in
the transverse direction with velocities close to the jet exit velocity. As the jet bends
downstream, the eddies start to accelerate monotonically in the streamwise direction
and achieve almost 90% of the free-stream velocity 9 jet diameters downstream. At this
location, the jet moves at shallower angles to the crossow direction (around 0
o
-10
o
)
with reduced transverse convection velocities (between 0-400 m/s). This reveals that
beyond 9 jet diameters the jet shear layer eddies are convected almost parallel to the
free-stream while the transverse penetration of the jet is just slightly increasing.
Convection properties of the ethylene eddies (Fig. 4.13) are somewhat dierent from
those in the hydrogen case. A large scattering of the velocity both in the transverse
and streamwise directions is visible. The convection characteristics were measured not
only by following the coherent large structures but also by tracking parts of the eddies
that had began to lose their coherence. We observe that the upper part of the eddies
tend to travel at higher velocities in both streamwise and transverse directions than the
lower part of the eddies (see also Fig. 4.9). The transverse velocity (y-component) of
some eddies is higher than the jet exit velocity. As the eddies stretch due to the large
velocity gradient across the jet shear layer, the transverse velocities, specially at the
upper part of the eddy, becomes as high as 700 m/s. The convection velocity in the
streamwise direction is, on the other hand, much lower than the free-stream velocity. A
result that can be attributed to the stronger (steeper) bow shock present for ethylene
injection as the eddies rise up higher into the crossow. The convection angle of the
ethylene eddies, shown in Fig. 4.13b, are larger than the hydrogen ones, again a result
of the higher penetration of the energetic ethylene eddies in the transverse direction as
will be discussed in the following section.
The free-stream velocity behind the bow shock, U
2
, is computed based on the average
bow shock position measurements as explained in section 4.2.1. The results for the
hydrogen injection are plotted in Fig. 4.14a together with the measured total convective
velocities. We observe that the convection velocities of the low density hydrogen eddies
are mainly inuenced by the free-stream, as most of the eddies follow the shock-induced
lowU
2
lowU
2
highU
2
free-stream
entrainment
DU
2
bowshock
large-scale
eddies
ethylene
nitrogen
FIGURE 4.15 Schematic showing the low- and high-speed regions of the bow shock-induced free-stream
velocity around the large-scale ethylene eddies.
free-stream velocity. For the ethylene case, it is not possible to compute an average
shock-induced free-stream velocity because of the bow shock uctuations. Instead, we
have measured two instantaneous bow shock positions and plotted the corresponding
shock-induced free-stream velocities in Fig. 4.14b together with the total convective
velocity across the ethylene shear layer. We observe large uctuations in the values
of U
2
varying in a wide range, between 1400 m/s to 2300 m/s around a single eddy.
Figure 4.15 illustrates the low- and high-speed regions of U
2
. Large velocity variation
in the values of U
2
around the ethylene eddies, as opposed to monotonic increase in
the hydrogen case, might be contributing to the tilting and stretching of eddies while
contributing to the mixing process. Also, the reduced convective velocity of ethylene
eddies provides longer ow residence time, crucial for the completion of the mixing
process in shorter distances.
4.2.4 Penetration and Shear Layer Properties
The upper boundary of the jet is dened by the maximum penetration of its shear
layer vortices while the penetration bandwidth can be related to the visible thickness
of the jet shear layer. By measuring the visually observable upper edge of the jet
in schlieren images, jet maximum penetration and bandwidth data became available.
Brown and Roshko (1974), in their mixing layer studies, have shown that the visi-
bleshear layer width, as would be measured in a schlieren image, corresponds to about
1% concentration of molecularly mixed uid. The results are presented in Fig. 4.16 to
quantify the penetration properties and to compare it to previous studies.
We observe signicant dierences in the penetration data and its width between
hydrogen and ethylene injection. While the hydrogen jet penetrates 5.5 jet diameters
into the free-stream at about 10 jet diameters downstream of the injection port, the
ethylene jet penetrates as much as 8 jet diameters at the same location. This result is
not surprising after studying the jet large-scale structure development in the previous
sections. It is very surprising, however, when it is compared to previous studies (Schetz
and Billig 1966; Rogers 1971; Papamoschou and Hubbard 1993; Gruber et al. 1995).
These earlier studies showed that the jet transverse penetration into the crossow is
mainly controlled by the jet-to-free-stream momentum ux ratio (J). Therefore, both
jets studied here should have comparable transverse penetration into the crossow as
the two cases have essentially the same momentum ux ratio. However, it is very clear
from the results that the transverse penetration height of ethylene jet is higher than the
hydrogen jet case.
A power law t to the penetration data has been proposed by various authors (Mc-
Daniel and Graves 1988; Rothstein and Wantuck 1992; Gruber et al. 1995) who found
that the upstream boundary layer properties, that is laminar/turbulent and the bound-
ary layer thickness play an important role in the penetration of the jet. The most
comprehensive and recent study was performed by Gruber et al. (1995), who suggest a
power law t of the form of:
y
dJ
= c
_
x
dJ
_
1/3
(4.7)
where the constant c has the value of 1.23 for circular injection. Their measurement
technique relies on Mie scattering from ice particles in the free-stream, and denes the jet
penetration as the trajectory where the jet concentration is about 10%. The thickness
of the approaching boundary layer (/d=1) and the range of the jet-to-momentum ratio
(J = 1 3) of their experiments were similar to the ones in our experiments, so that
a comparison can be made. Therefore, the above correlation is plotted for J = 1.4
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Rothstein&Wantuck
McDaniel &Graves
Gruber et al.
present work
d@6d
y
/
d
x/d
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Rothstein&Wantuck
McDaniel &Graves
Gruber et al.
present work
d@3d
y
/
d
x/d
(a)hydrogeninjection
(b)ethyleneinjection
FIGURE 4.16 Transverse penetration data of (a) hydrogen jet and (b) ethylene jet. The data points were
obtained by manually tracking the visually observable outer edge of the jet from 8 consecutive
schlieren images for J = 1.40.1. Both of the gures include analysis of 2 experiments namely
16 images. For comparison, also shown in the gures is the penetration correlation given by
other studies.
in Fig. 4.16 together with our results measured for J = 1.4 0.1. Two additional
empirical correlations suggested by McDaniel and Graves (1988) and Rothstein and
Wantuck (1992) are also included in Fig. 4.16 for further comparison.
The penetration band in our experiments lies on top of the expected 10% penetra-
tion trajectory based on Grubers correlation. The measurement of the visible jets
penetration as measured in schlieren images corresponds to 1% of the jet concentration,
while Grubers results correspond to 10%. Therefore, it is reasonable that the pene-
tration measurements based on schlieren are somewhat lower than the ones based on
10% concentration measurements. A better agreement is achieved with the correlation
of Rothstein and Wantuck (1992) who used OH uorescence to visualize the jet pene-
tration. Their experimental conditions (hydrogen jet injected into a high temperature
air crossow) are similar to our hydrogen injection case.
In summary, the penetration data for the hydrogen case agrees relatively well with
the previous studies. The dierences in the observed penetration between hydrogen and
ethylene data are most probably due to the tearing mechanism explained above. The
thickness of the ethylene shear layer (the penetration width) grows to 6 jet diameters,
twice as much as the hydrogen case at the end of the eld of view. The practical
impact of this result is signicant as it indicates a mechanism for enhanced fuel (jet)
distribution. It might eventually be possible to enhance and control the fuel penetration
based on the ow properties.
It seems that there is an additional mechanism which controls the jet penetration
besides the jet-to-free-stream momentum ux ratio. This mechanism is expected to be
associated with the jet shear layer properties which control its growth rate and therefore
the near-eld mixing of the transverse jet. Jet-to-free-stream density and velocity ratios
are the two main parameters which might inuence the large scale vortical structure
development of the jet. In the next chapter (Chapter 5), we discuss the eects of these
two parameters on the penetration and the development of the jet.
4.2.5 OH-PLIF Results
To gain further insight into the coherence and the mixing properties of the injection
ow-eld we have examined the ignition characteristics of hydrogen and ethylene jets
using Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence of OH radicals. The presence of OH, a natu-
rally occurring combustion product, indicates that the fuel and the oxidizer are mixed
at the molecular level and the conditions for ignition to occur are met. As the total
enthalpy of the free-stream in our experiments is high (4 MJ/kg), namely the total
temperature is about 4000 K, autoignition of a transverse fuel jet is achieved.
Figure 4.17 contains three instantaneous side-view images of OH-PLIF captured at
the center-line of hydrogen and ethylene transverse jets injected into a reacting crossow.
OH-PLIF is a two-dimensional visualization technique which maps the auto-ignition
locations illuminated by a roughly 0.4 mm thick laser sheet. The rst image (Fig. 4.17a),
related to a hydrogen jet injected into air, demonstrates a continuous and a very thin
lament along the jet shear layer periphery. The side-view 2-D visualization clearly
shows the presence of the large scale shear layer vortices. Since a relatively cold hydrogen
jet is injected into hot air, there will be a signicant variation of temperature with
equivalence ratio through the mixing layer around the jet. The ignition time is a strong
function of the mixture temperature, which will be higher at low equivalence ratios (fuel
lean). The self-ignition point is therefore on the lean side of the mixing layer around
the jet. Namely, ignition is likely to occur as soon as a fuel particle meets with the high
temperature oxidizer. Since OH appears only quite near the hydrogen jet we suspect
that the mixing is only occurring in the nite-thickness interfacial diusion region that
separates the unmixed uids.
Figures 4.17b and 4.17c are related to an ethylene jet injected into air and pure
oxygen crossows, respectively. Due to longer ignition delay times associated with
ethylene, self-ignition could only be achieved when a higher concentration of oxygen was
used in the crossow. In contrast to hydrogen, OH radicals in the ethylene case could
be detected in a wide region distributed across the jet. This is most likely a result of the
enhanced molecular-mixing related to stretching-tilting-tearing mechanism discussed
above. An additional interesting observation is related to the intense OH signals taking
place in the vicinity of the Mach disk. This is the region where ethylene is self-igniting
even when it is injected into air (see Fig. 4.17b). At this location, the ethylene jet
becomes subsonic behind the Mach disk and begins to lose its transverse momentum
letting the high temperature crossow intrude deep inside the jet. Santiago and Dutton
(1997), have also shown that the regions of high turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) exist
in the jet shear layer near the Mach disk leading to better mixing properties.
(a)
x/d
(b)
x/d
(c)
x/d
FIGURE 4.17 OH-PLIF results mapping the ignition regions at the jet center-line of: a) hydrogen injection
into air, b) ethylene injection into air, c) ethylene injection into pure oxygen.
In conclusion, OH-PLIF results demonstrated that signicant dierences exist in
the near-eld ignition properties for ethylene and hydrogen injection. These results
support the tearing mechanism suggested to enhance the near-eld mixing properties
of the ethylene jet.
4.3 Summary
In this part of the thesis, we have summarized results that are related to hydrogen
and ethylene fuel jets because of their relevance to supersonic combustion. Signicant
dierences related to the development of large-scale coherent structures were found to
be present in the jet shear layer. The results demonstrate features not observed in
previous studies where the free-stream conditions were limited to low velocities and low
temperatures. In the current eort, the use of an impulse facility made it feasible to
achieve high temperature and high velocity conditions relevant to a realistic supersonic
combustor environment. The application of supersonic ow visualization at ultra-fast-
framing rates enabled a detailed study of the temporal evolution of the fuel jets.
Further investigations of the experimental results are presented in the next chapter,
which examines the dominant inuences of dierent parameters on the stability and
structural characteristics of the shear-layer formed in the jet periphery.
Chapter 5
The Eect of Velocity and
Density Ratio on Transverse Jets
In the previous chapter, we studied the temporal evolution of the shear layer struc-
tures of ethylene and hydrogen jets because of their relevance to supersonic combus-
tion. The large dierence in the molecular weights of these two gases revealed two
important observations: 1) a tilting-stretching-tearingmechanism which caused the
ethylene large-scale structures to lose their coherence and to burst into smaller eddies
and 2) higher transverse penetration of the ethylene jet for a similar momentum ux
ratio, J, as the hydrogen jet due to highly energetic ethylene eddies which penetrate
deep into the free-stream.
In the current chapter, we report our study of the fundamental origin of these phe-
nomena. The parameters expected to be inuential in the stability, and the structural
characteristics, of the jet shear layer are the jet-to-crossow density and velocity ratios.
These two parameters are, however, coupled through the molecular weight of the jet.
An increase in the jets molecular weight reduces the exit velocity and increases the
density. Therefore, to understand the role of each parameter on the instability of the
large-scale eddies, we must decouple the two parameters and study them independently.
The rst part of this chapter discusses the eect of systematically changing the
jet molecular weight. The second part presents the independent inuence of the jet-
to-crossow density and velocity ratios on the ow features. To decouple these two
parameters, a variety of free-stream conditions are used. Also we discuss possible ow
88
CHAPTER 5. VELOCITY AND DENSITY RATIO EFFECTS 89
instabilities, such as centrifugal instabilities associated with curved shear layers which
could potentially cause the spanwise rollers to lose their coherence.
5.1 Eect of Jet Molecular Weight
Gaseous jets with ve dierent molecular weights (M
w,jet
=2, 4, 8, 16 and 28 g/mole)
are studied. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 summarize the composition and the properties of these
jets. The experiments are designed for similar jet-to-crossow momentum ux ratio in
the range J = 1.67 1.85. Note the high Reynolds numbers associated with the jet
exit properties. Also included in Table 5.2 are the jet-to-free-stream velocity ratio (r),
the density ratio (s) and a convective Mach number parameter (M
A
c
, see section 5.1.5)
dened to estimate the compressibility level of the jet shear layer for the cases studied
here.
r =
U
jet
U
(5.1)
s =

jet
=
(M
w
/T)
jet
(M
w
/T)
(5.2)
5.1.1 Flow Visualization Results
Examples of instantaneous schlieren images obtained using the ultra-fast framing
camera are presented in Fig. 5.1 for visual observations of the ow-eld. A systematic
increase in the jet molecular weight gradually changes the structural characteristics of
the jet shear layer. Large-scale structures, which dominate the jet shear layer in all cases,
become larger with the increase of the molecular weight. The heavier jets penetrate
deeper into the free-stream. Consequently, the shape of the bow shock changes as it
wraps around the large eddies. This process starts to be visible for M
w
=16 and becomes
very pronounced for M
w
=28.
The coherent structures occur less frequently with increasing M
w
, which results in a
larger spacing between the eddies. This is followed by large intrusions of the crossow
between the eddies. In the case of M
w
=28, the fast crossow stream sweeps the jet as the
eddies lose their coherence. In the case of N
2
injection shown in Fig. 5.1e (M
w
=28) the
large-scale structures are not visible beyond x/d 8 10. In Chapter 4 we postulated
that the reason the large-scale structures lose their coherence is related to the tilting-
stretching-tearing mechanism which is due to the large velocity dierences between
TABLE 5.1 The general ow exit properties of gaseous jets with dierent molecular weights.
Jet Gas M
w,jet

e
T
e
U
e
= a
e

e
g/mole K m/s Pas
(T=T
e
)
1) H
2
- Hydrogen 2 1.42 246 1205 7.76 10
5
2) 85.7%H
2
+14.3%CH
4
4 1.40 248 850 8.28 10
6
3) 57.2%H
2
+42.8%CH
4
8 1.37 252 600 9.30 10
6
4) CH
4
- Methane 16 1.32 257 420 1.14 10
5
5) N
2
- Nitrogen 28 1.40 248 320 1.54 10
5
TABLE 5.2 The specic ow exit properties of gaseous jets used in the study of the jet molecular weight
eect. The free-stream used in these experiments simulates the ight Mach 10 ow condition.
Jet M
w,jet
p
e,e
J = / Re
d
r s M
A
c
g/mole atm m
2
/s
(T=250 K)
1) 2 6.3 1.84 0.1 1.24 10
5
194,000 0.51 0.37 0.52
2) 4 5.9 1.72 0.1 7.14 10
6
238,000 0.36 0.74 0.43
3) 8 6.5 1.85 0.1 3.69 10
6
324,000 0.25 1.46 0.35
4) 16 6.1 1.67 0.1 2.46 10
6
342,000 0.18 2.87 0.27
5) 28 6.1 1.76 0.1 1.84 10
6
349,000 0.14 5.20 0.22
the jet and the crossow. We will provide more evidence supporting this hypothesis in
section 5.2.
5.1.2 Penetration and Shear Layer Thickness
Figure 5.2 includes plots of the transverse penetration height and the penetration
width of jets with dierent molecular weights but with almost identical jet-to-momentum
ux ratios (J =1.67-1.84). The data are obtained by identifying the visually observable
upper edge of the jet shear layer in the instantaneous schlieren images. The penetration
proles clearly demonstrate an increasing improvement in the penetration height for
increasing values of the jet molecular weight. The same trend can also be observed
for the growth rate of the jet shear layer. In Chapter 4 we suggested a relationship
a) M
w
= 2 g/mole b) M
w
= 4 g/mole
c) M
w
= 8 g/mole d) M
w
= 16 g/mole
e) M
w
= 28 g/mole
FIGURE 5.1 Examples of instantaneous schlieren images of jets with dierent molecular weights. Free-
stream conditions are: U=2360 m/s, M=3.38, T=1290 K, p=32.4 kPa.
between the jet shear layer thickness and the width of the maximum jet penetration.
Accordingly, the visible jet shear layer thickness,
vis
, ranges between 4d-7d at 22
jet diameters downstream where the thicker shear layer is associated with the larger
M
w
. The peak transverse penetration in the low M
w
(2 g/mole) case is about y/d=6.5
while in the high M
w
(16 g/mole) case is about y/d=10. The penetration height and
therefore its width are expected to increase further downstream especially for the higher
M
w
cases.
These observations are not in agreement with other studies which state that identical
penetration heights should be observed independent of the jet molecular weight. During
the last 30-40 years of studies, the jet penetration height was believed to scale with the
momentum ux ratio J. For comparison with previous results two empirical correlations
proposed by Gruber et al. (1995) and Rothstein and Wantuck (1992) are also plotted
in Figs. 5.2a- 5.2d for J = 1.75. Gruber et al. measured the penetration of hydrogen
and air jets injected into a cold free-stream ow based on 10 % of the jet concentration.
Rothstein and Wantuck, on the other hand, used OH uorescence imaging to detect
the hydrogen penetration injected into a high temperature reacting crossow. The
penetration measurements obtained in this work are higher than those observed in
previous studies for all cases except the hydrogen case (M
w
=2 g/mole) which agrees
reasonably well with Rothsteins correlation. Also, note that penetration proles of
Rothstein and Wantuck are almost 20 % higher than those reported by Gruber et al. The
variation between these works are likely due to dierences in experimental conditions
and measurement techniques as we will discuss next.
We may explain the agreement between our hydrogen injection results and the
measurements of Rothstein and Wantuck through similarities in our experimental ap-
proaches. The free-stream velocity and temperature in both works are high (r < 1 in
both experiments) and the measurement techniques are quite similar. In our reacting
experiments (see Chapter 6), we demonstrated that OH radicals lie on the periphery of
the hydrogen jet shear layer observed through a simultaneous OH/PLIF and schlieren
imaging. Therefore, measurements based on OH emission and schlieren imaging should
provide similar penetration proles.
Experimental procedure may also explain the discrepancy between the results of
Gruber et al. and Rothstein and Wantuck. The free-stream velocity and temperature
in the experiments of Gruber et al. are lower (r > 1, s < 1) than those in the work of
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
0
2
4
6
8
10 Rothstein1992
Gruber et al. 1995
a) M
w
=2
d
vis
@4d y
/
d
x/d
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
0
2
4
6
8
10
b) M
w
=4
d
vis
@5d
y
/
d
x/d
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
0
2
4
6
8
10
c) M
w
=8
d
vis
@6d
y
/
d
x/d
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
0
2
4
6
8
10
d) M
w
=16
d
vis
@7d
y
/
d
x/d
FIGURE 5.2 Jet transverse penetration along the axial distance, x/d. Data for four gases with dierent
molecular weights are presented: a) M
w
= 2, J = 1.84, b) M
w
= 4, J = 1.72, c) M
w
= 8,
J = 1.85, d) M
w
= 16, J = 1.67. For comparison, empirical correlations suggested by Gruber
et al. (1995) and Rothstein and Wantuck (1992) are also included for J = 1.75.
Rothstein and Wantuck.
As will be argued in the second part of this chapter, the velocity ratio, r, is an im-
portant factor in the development and growth rate of the jet shear layer structures and,
therefore, directly aects the penetration of the jet. An increase in the jet molecular
weight decreases the jet exit velocity and hence the velocity ratio, r. In our experi-
ments, higher penetration is observed for lower values of r. The penetration results
of Lee et al. (1995) are an example which supports our ndings. They measured jet
penetration using PLIF (Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence) measurements of NO of a
non-reacting injectant (N
2
) and OH of a reacting injectant (H
2
) in a high temperature
supersonic ow. The penetration height indicated by NO uorescence was signicantly
larger than that indicated by OH uorescence for the same J. Their reasoning for this
phenomena, however, was not complete. They related the dierences between N
2
and
H
2
injections to the frictional losses in the H
2
injector and to the consumption of H
2
near the stoichiometric ratio. First, the frictional losses can only drop the penetration
height by 5 % at most. Second, combustion between the cold hydrogen and the hot
oxygen takes place in the lean region of the mixture where the mixture temperature
is high and not near the stoichiometric value, as Lee et al. suggested. We propose,
therefore, that the velocity ratio dierences between the two cases (r = 1.1 for H
2
vs.
r = 0.3 for N
2
) cause the dierent penetrations observed by Lee et al. (1995). Namely,
the smaller the r, the better the penetration.
Another noteworthy observation was recently recorded by Mathur et al. (1999) in a
high temperature (850 K), high velocity (1750 m/s) free-stream ow. Flame spreading
angles of ethylene gas (M
w
=28) injected from a ush wall injector were measured and
found to be twice as large as the predicted spreading. Mathur et al. concluded that some
other mechanism, in addition to the transverse momentum of the fuel, must cause the
rapid spreading of the ame around the ethylene jet. Indeed, their jet-to-free-stream
velocity ratio was r = 0.18, similar to the case with M
w
=16 g/mole studied in our
investigation.
Here we suggest that variables other than the jet-to-free-stream momentum ux ra-
tio, J, inuences the penetration trajectory. We can achieve higher penetration heights
as the molecular weight of the jet is increased systematically. Increase in the jets molec-
ular weight decreases the jet exit velocities, namely the r. Our ndings are also consis-
tent with previous investigations where similar experimental conditions were studied.
We can provide an improved explanation for their observations and for the discrepancies
shown in the previous works by taking into account the velocity ratio, r, in addition to
the momentum ux ratio, J.
5.1.3 Convection Characteristics
Figures 5.3a - 5.3b summarize the convection velocity of large scale eddies in the
transverse and streamwise directions. Also included in the gures are the velocity of
the jets at the exit of the injector and the velocity of the free-stream. The convection
characteristic of nitrogen eddies (M
w
=28 g/mole) could not be measured beyond x/d=8,
as they lose their coherence through the bursting mechanism explained in the previous
chapter.
From consideration of the y-momentum equation, the pressure rise behind the Mach
disk implies that the jet uid loses its momentum in the y-direction. As the jet loses
its y-momentum, the shear layer eddies accelerate in the free-stream direction because
of the crossow which applies drag forces on the jet. Further downstream, the eddies
eventually convect with velocities that are closer to the free-stream velocity independent
of the jets molecular weight. The only dierence between the cases is the distance where
the eddies achieve their maximum velocity. Low density eddies (low M
w
) could follow
the free-stream velocity earlier than the denser ones with larger M
w
. For example in the
case of M
w
=2, the maximum convection velocity was achieved around x/d=7, while in
the case of M
w
=16 the plateau was reached just after x/d=16. This result is consistent
with the fact that drag forces are the main cause of the convection of the eddies in the
streamwise direction. For the same drag force, acceleration of heavier eddies is slower
than the acceleration of lighter eddies.
5.1.4 Characteristic Large Eddy Frequencies (Possible Transverse Jet
Modes)
Since coherent structures include concentrated regions of vorticity which are the
main mechanisms for the entrainment of the crossow into the jet shear layer, under-
standing the origin of vorticity is essential for understanding the structures. We have,
therefore, measured the characteristic formation frequency of the large scale eddies in
the jet shear layer using the ultra-fast-framing schlieren system. Before presenting
0 5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
~2100 m/s
a) M
w
=2 U
c,x
U
c,y
U
jet
=1205 m/s
U
=2360 m/s
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
m
/
s
x/d
0 5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
~2000 m/s
b) M
w
=4 U
c,x
U
c,y
U
jet
=850 m/s
U
=2360 m/s
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
m
/
s
x/d
0 5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
~1950 m/s
c) M
w
=8 U
c,x
U
c,y
U
jet
=600 m/s
U
=2360 m/s
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
m
/
s
x/d
0 5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
~2050 m/s
d) M
w
=16 U
c,x
U
c,y
U
jet
=420 m/s
U
=2360 m/s
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
o
n
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
m
/
s
x/d
FIGURE 5.3 Convection velocity of large scale structures in the streamwise (M
c,x
) and transverse (M
c,y
)
directions as a function of axial distance x/d. The results for each case (for each molecular
weight of jet) are obtained from 4-5 experiments each including 8 consecutive schlieren images.
the results, we rst summarize the possible instability modes of free-jets and jets-in-
crossows.
Free-jets generally have two dominant instability frequencies associated with dier-
ent sizes of vortices. The rst is originated by the instability of the shear layer at the jet
orice. The initial vortex shedding frequency, also called the most amplied frequency,
f
j
, scales with the initial shear layer momentum thickness,
j
, and jet exit velocity, U
j
.
The corresponding initial vortex shedding Strouhal number,
St
j
=
f
j
U
j
(5.3)
is found to be scattered from 0.01 to 0.018 (Gutmark and Ho 1983). The second
dominant jet instability mode is related to larger scale structures present downstream
of the jet potential core. The characteristic frequency of this mode is referred to as
the preferred mode frequency, f
j
of the jet. The initial vortices of the shear layer
grow by merging and entrainment as they convect downstream. At the end of the jet
potential core the dominant frequency is governed by the jet column instability (Crowe
and Champagne 1971). The preferred mode frequency, f
j
, scales with the jet exit
diameter and velocity, d and U
j
to yield the preferred mode Strouhal number
St
d
=
f
j
d
U
j
(5.4)
While many researchers conrmed the existence of a preferred mode, their experi-
mental results surveyed by Gutmark and Ho (1983) revealed that the value of St
j
varies
widely between 0.24 to 0.64. These discrepancies were attributed to the various initial
conditions of dierent facilities.
To determine the origin of the large scale structures of sonic jets in crossows, an
analogy between this and the case of a free-jet has been presented. Using the concept
of the preferred mode frequency, we obtain a dominant preferred Strouhal number
for the transverse injection case.
Figure 5.4 represents the measured dominant frequency of the eddy formation in the
beginning of the jet shear layer and the corresponding Strouhal number as measured for
dierent jet exit velocities. The measurements are obtained by analyzing 5-10 dierent
experiments for each case. Each experiment includes 8 time correlated schlieren images.
The appropriate interframing time between the images allows us to identify the newborn
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0.8
1.0
1.2
S
t
j
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
f
j
,
k
H
z
U
jet
, m/s
FIGURE 5.4 Formation frequency of the large scale structures and the corresponding preferred mode
Strouhal number, St
d
= f
j
d/U
j
, as a function of the jet exit velocity. The data were
collected from the time evolution observation of the jet from 8 consecutive schlieren images.
Each data point was obtained by averaging 5-10 experiments with the error bars representing
the deviation from the mean value.
eddies during the ow visualization time (ranging between 10-30 s). The results show
that the characteristic frequency of the eddy formation is scaled linearly with the jet
exit velocity. This suggests that the shear layer eddies are associated with the preferred
instability mode of the jet. The corresponding preferred mode Strouhal number can
therefore be calculated based on Eq. 5.4. The results indicate that this preferred mode
corresponds to a Strouhal number of about St
d
= 1 for all the cases studied in this work.
A comparison with previously published results is not possible due to the lack of
such measurements in supersonic crossows. The only comparison that can be made
is with the results of Fric (1990) performed in subsonic ows. From his measurements,
the preferred mode frequency of the subsonic transverse jet was found to decrease with
distance along the jet. Merging of the eddies was the main reason for the decrease in the
frequency, changing the Strouhal number from St
d
1 2 down to 0.2 around x/d5.
1.5x10
5
2.0x10
5
2.5x10
5
3.0x10
5
3.5x10
5
4.0x10
5
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
S
t
q
j
/
S
t
q
j
,
m
i
n
1.5x10
5
2.0x10
5
2.5x10
5
3.0x10
5
3.5x10
5
4.0x10
5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
f
j
,
k
H
z
Re
jet
FIGURE 5.5 Formation frequency of the large scale structures and the initial vortex shedding Strouhal
number, St
j
= f
j
/U
j
, as a function of the jet Reynolds number.
St
d
0.2 is smaller than the values quoted for free jets. In our experiments, the number
of eddies are counted just before the bending of the jet as they become identiable.
Further downstream, the vortex merging does not happen very often. St
d
1 can
therefore be presented as the preferred mode Strouhal number for the transverse jets
in supersonic crossows for the geometry examined in this work. This Strouhal number
is larger than those quoted for free-jets. It is also larger than the ones measured for
transverse jets in subsonic ows.
We can also calculate the Strouhal number based on the initial shear layer mo-
mentum thickness,
j
. However, the appropriate data are not available to estimate
the momentum thickness of the jet shear layer exiting the injector port. We therefore
normalized the St
j
with its minimum value assuming that
j
=
_
Re
jet
. Figure 5.5
summarizes the ndings showing that the formation frequency is not associated with
the initial vortex shedding frequency. St
j
appears to increase with increasing Re
jet
.
These results suggest that the shear layer eddies are independent of the exit shear layer
instability characteristics, because the characteristic length scale of the mode has been
shown to be the jet diameter and not the thickness of the exit shear layer. The most
amplied frequency of the jet column instability is the origin of its large-scale structures.
5.1.5 Jet Compressibility Analysis
In studies of mixing layers of two parallel streams, it has been shown that compress-
ibility levels control the growth rate of the mixing layer which decreases with increasing
compressibility. We have therefore attempted to analyze the eect of compressibility on
transverse jets.
Convective Mach number, M
c
, is a key compressibility parameter which is based on
the velocity of the large scale structures relative to either free-streams. Papamoschou
and Roshko (1988) dened a convective Mach number for each stream:
M
c1
=
U
1
U
c
a
1
; M
c2
=
U
c
U
2
a
2
(5.5)
where U
1
and U
2
are the high and low speed streams, respectively (refer to Fig. 5.6).
Assuming that entrained uid stagnates isentropically in the frame of the structures,
the pressure-matching condition at the stagnation point yields:
M
c1
=
_
1
M
c2
(5.6)
U
c
U
1
=
1 + r
s
1 +
s
(5.7)
assuming
1
=
2
M
c1
= M
c2
= M
c
=
U
1
U
2
a
1
+ a
2
(5.8)
At low compressibilities (M
c
< 0.5) the structure of a non-reacting shear layer is
two-dimensional and the large eddies travel with the average convective Mach number,
M
c
. As the compressibility increases, this theory seems to fail as the central mode
stabilizes and a transition from a two- to three-dimensionality occurs. Beyond M
c
=0.5,
experimental results by Papamoschou (1991 and 1997) and by Dimotakis (1991) showed
that convective velocities follow the stream selection rule which is based on the exis-
tence of fast and slow modes. If one stream is supersonic and the other subsonic,
the convective velocity of structures will be closer to that of the fast stream (fast mode),
(a) (b)
Jet
Boundary
y
1
P =?
eb
P M=1
j, j
x
1
1
1'
2
M>1
BowShockInduced
Free-Stream
A
B
C
M>1
1
M >1
1 '
U
2
U
1
U
c
U -U
2 c
U -U
c 1
StationaryFrame
ConvectiveFrame
FIGURE 5.6 Flow-eld schematics used in the jet compressibility analysis. Letters A, B and C indicate the
zones of the jet shear layer.
and when both streams are supersonic the convective velocity will favor the slow speed
stream (slow mode).
One could basically adapt the convective Mach number concept to scale the com-
pressibility of transverse jets. However, because of the three-dimensional complexity of
the ow-eld and lack of the velocity eld information, there is an additional diculty
in predicting the convective Mach number of transverse jets in supersonic crossows.
Neither crossow nor jet-ow properties are uniform. The underexpanded jet acceler-
ates inside the barrel shock and eventually gets compressed through the Mach disk,
while the crossow changes its properties continuously behind the curved bow shock.
We, therefore, suggest separating the jet ow-eld into three dierent zones to ana-
lyze the compressibility eects. The schematic of the proposed regions are illustrated in
Fig. 5.6 and indicated with letters A, B and C. Zone A is close to the jet exit where the
y-component of the free-stream velocity is negligible. The convective Mach number in
zone A (M
A
c
) can therefore be calculated using the equation 5.8 and by assuming that
U
1
= U
jet
and U
2
= 0. Figure 5.7 shows the estimated values of M
A
c
together with the
visible thickness of the jet shear layer, (
vis
) at x/d22 as obtained from penetration
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
C
o
n
v
e
c
t
i
v
e
M
a
c
h
N
u
m
b
e
r
,
M
C
A
U
j
(m/s)
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
d
vis
M
c
A
S
h
e
a
r
L
a
y
e
r
T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
,
d
v
i
s
/
d
FIGURE 5.7 Estimated convective Mach number in zone A, M
A
c
, (refer to the schematic in Fig. 5.6) and
the measured visible jet shear layer thickness,
vis
, at x/d22 as obtained from penetration
width measurements.
width measurements (see Section 5.1.2). A decrease in
vis
is observed for increasing
values of M
A
c
, indicating that the compressibility properties in the initial region of the
jet shear layer aect its growth rate.
For zone B, the convective Mach number model, given by Gruber et al. (997b),
guided our calculations. Gruber et al. suggested quantifying the compressibility level
of transverse jets at a single point in the jet shear layer near the Mach disk (zone B
in our case). For this calculation, the jet velocity just upstream of the Mach disk (U
1
)
is estimated. Figure 5.8a presents the estimated values of U
1
with error bars obtained
for a range of assumed pressure ratios (P
1
/P
). Also included in this plot is the range

of the free-stream velocity downstream of the bow shock, which is determined using
the oblique shock relations for a range of shock angles (45
o
< < 65
o
) measured
in section 4.2.1). Evident in Fig. 5.8 is that the free-stream velocity behind the bow
shock is faster than the heavy jets (M
w
= 28 and 16) and slower than the light jets
(M
w
= 2 and 4). In the experiments of Gruber et al. the free-stream velocity was
slower than both the heavy and the light jets and therefore a comparative convective
Mach number could be identied to quantify the compressibility level of jets. In the
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
U
behindthe bowshock
U
=2360 m/s
(a) B-zone
M
a
x
i
m
u
m
J
e
t
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
,
U
1
(
m
/
s
)
U
j
(m/s)
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
U
behindthe bowshock
U
=2360 m/s
(b) C-zone
J
e
t
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
B
e
h
i
n
d
t
h
e
M
a
c
h
d
i
s
k
U
1
'
(
m
/
s
)
U
j
(m/s)
FIGURE 5.8 Estimated velocity elds for the jet and the free-stream in zones B and C.
current experiments, however, it is dicult to nd a clear dependence of
vis
on M
B
c
.
We, therefore, suggest the use of the convective Mach number in zone A (M
A
c
) as an
indicator for the jet compressibility level.
Figure 5.8b presents an estimate for the expected velocities in zone C. The value of jet
velocity U
1
, immediately after the Mach disk, is calculated using the normal shock and
isentropic relations. The free-stream velocity behind the bow shock is again estimated
using the measured bow shock angle as described above. The plot indicates that the
supersonic free-stream is signicantly faster than the jet which becomes subsonic behind
the Mach disk. It is possible that in this region the stream selection rule mentioned
above applies. According to this rule the convective velocity of structures will be closer
to that of the fast stream (fast mode) as one stream is supersonic and the other subsonic.
In the previous section, the jet shear layer eddies in zone C and beyond are indeed
demonstrated to convect with velocities close to the fast free-stream values.
In summary, we propose the convective Mach number in zone A as an indicator
of the jet compressibility level. The growth rate of the shear layer scales with M
A
c
.
The convective velocity of the eddies, on the other hand, seems to follow the stream
selection rule as observed in the shear layers of two parallel streams.
5.2 Eect of Density and Velocity Ratios
In this part of the investigation, we pursue the decomposition of the molecular weight
eect into its constituent parameters, velocity and density. For a given pressure and
temperature of the jet:
U
j

M
w,j
and M
w,j
(5.9)
Therefore, by changing the jet molecular weight, its density and velocity are also
changed. By using dierent free-stream conditions we can control the jet-to-free-stream
velocity and density ratios independent of each other. For that purpose, 24 dierent
experimental conditions, summarized in Table 5.3, are studied. The stability of the jet
shear layer eddies are analyzed by the aid of the ow visualization.
5.2.1 Flow Visualization Results
Having examined the eect of jet molecular weight, we showed that the coherence
of the large scale eddies is signicantly aected by the increase of the jet molecular
weight. The eddies burst into smaller structures by the tilting-stretching-tearing
mechanism discussed in the previous chapter. This bursting mechanism will hence-
forth be referred as the instability of the eddies. We observed the stability of the
eddies by visual observations based on schlieren imaging. In such work, the eddies are
identied as unstable when the structures lose coherence and signicant distortions
in the bow shock shape can be observed.
Examples of schlieren images for selected experiments are shown in Figs. 5.9, 5.10
and 5.11. The rst set of experiments numbered as 1 to 5 in Table 5.3, is performed in
the ight Mach 10 condition. These experiments are already discussed in detail in the
studies of jet molecular weight eect (see Section 5.1). Here we will discuss the rest of
the experiments, numbered from 6 to 24.
The rst goal is to eliminate the density ratio eect by simulating conditions with
a similar velocity to the Mach 10 case, but with much lower static temperature so that
the density ratio varies minimally when the jet molecular weight is changed. Therefore,
the free-stream conditions (600/9/6) for the second set of experiments (experiments no.
6-8) have static temperature of only 243 K. Results of these experiments show that the
jet becomes unstable again as the velocity ratio is decreased to below 0.17 (see Figs. 5.9b
TABLE 5.3 Summary of the dierent conditions used in the study of jet instability analysis.
No Free-stream M
w,

M
w,j
r s
Condition m/s atm K U
j
/U

j
/
1 600
a
/0.5
b
/20
c
28 1.32 2360 0.32 1290 3.38 2 0.51 0.37
2 (ight 4 0.36 0.74
3 Mach 10) 8 0.25 1.46
4 16 0.18 2.87
5 28 0.14 5.20
6 600/9/6 28 1.4 2420 0.083 243 7.75 2 0.50 0.07
7 16 0.17 0.54
8 28 0.13 0.98
9 600/4/6 28 1.4 2572 0.1 392 6.48 2 0.47 0.11
10 16 0.16 0.87
11 600/0.3/60 28 1.29 2037 0.72 1840 2.46 2 0.59 0.53
12 16 0.21 4.09
13 28 0.1 7.42
14 300/0.45/70 28 1.32 1760 0.61 1410 2.37 2 0.69 0.41
15 (ight 16 0.24 3.14
16 Mach 8) 28 0.18 5.69
17 600/4/20 28 1.38 2212 0.29 516 4.89 2 0.55 0.15
18 300/10/15 40 1.667 1686 0.124 207 6.46 16 0.25 0.32
19 28 0.19 0.58
20 300/10/15 4 1.667 2560 0.26 220 3.04 28 0.13 6.21
21 80
a
/5
b
28 1.38 520 1.9 550 1.1 2 2.32 0.16
22 28 0.62 2.22
23 100/0.5 28 1.33 1058 0.585 1077 1.62 2 1.14 0.31
24 28 0.30 4.34
The free-stream conditions are represented by the expansion tube initial lling pressures
with nomenclature referring to Fig. 2.2. a. P
4
, psig, b. P
1
, psia, c. P
10
, torr.
and c) even though the density ratio stays at low values at which the Mach 10 condition
showed stable ow structures. The bow shock which stays smooth in the hydrogen
injection case (Fig. 5.9a) is distorted in the case of methane and nitrogen injections.
Additional shock waves are generated around shear layer structures as the velocity of
the free-stream becomes supersonic relative to the convection of the eddies. Tilting of
the eddies is visible in the region close to the wall. Note also the shock waves generated
from leading edge of the plate. These are actually weak Mach waves which are clearly
visible owing to the high sensitivity of the schlieren system. The same ow features
are obtained in the third set of experiments (experiments no. 9 an 10) presented in
Figs. 5.9d and e, as the ow conditions (600/4/6) are similar to the second set.
The second goal is to eliminate the velocity ratio eect by generating conditions of
high density ratio while keeping the free-stream velocity low. For that purpose we run
the facility in a shock tube mode, namely without the second diaphragm between the
expansion and driven sections (experiments no. 21 to 24). As shown in Figs. 5.11b and
5.11d, the jet eddies stay coherent for high values of s (experiments no. 22 and 24) at
which jet eddies in the Mach 10 condition lose their stability. The eddies stay coherent
without large intrusions of air into the jet. It is worth noting that these span the range
of velocity conditions at which most of the previous studies were performed. Therefore,
not many signicant dierences in the ow eld could be observed in those studies.
Finally, note the shock waves emitting from the injection location (see Figs. 5.11a and
c). In these experiments the jet exit velocity is larger than the free-stream velocity,
r > 1. Note also the large stand-o distance of the bow shock because of the low Mach
numbers.
The results are presented in a density versus velocity ratio (s-r) diagram shown in
Fig. 5.13. Separate regions of stable and unstable ows can clearly be identied. The
plot indicates that the density ratio, s, has a little eect on the instability of the jet
shear layer structures while the velocity ratio, r, is the main controlling parameter. We
therefore propose to use an eective velocity ratio, , which will be presented in the
following section.
5.2.2 Denition of an Eective Velocity Ratio,
We propose to dene an eective velocity ratio, , as a measure of the magnitude
of the velocity dierence across the jet shear layer. We assume that near the jet exit
port, the jet issues in the y-direction at velocity U
j
and the free-stream ows in the
x-direction at velocity U
. This conguration, shown schematically in Fig. 5.12, is a

special case of skewed mixing layers with a skewing angle of 90
o
between high- and low-
speed streams. The jet uid is expected to convect in the direction of the total velocity
vector. Therefore, the eective shear will be proportional to the velocity dierence in
that direction. The components of U
j
and U
in the direction of the total velocity

a) H
2
injection in 600/9/6 (No.6) d) H
2
injection in 600/4/6 (No.9)
b) CH
4
injection in 600/9/6 (No.7) e) CH
4
c) N
2
FIGURE 5.9 Schlieren images at selected conditions given in Table 5.3.
a) H
2
injection in 600/0.3/60 (No.11) d) CH
4
injection in 300/10(Ar)/15 (No.18)
b) CH
4
injection in 600/0.3/60 (No.12) e) N
2
injection in 300/10(Ar)/15 (No.19)
c) N
2
injection in 600/0.3/60 (No.13) f) N
2
injection in 300/10(He)/15 (No.20)
a) H
2
injection in 80/0.5 (No.21) c) H
2
injection in 100/0.5 (No.23)
b) N
2
injection in 80/0.5 (No.22) d) N
2
injection in 100/0.5 (No.24)
D
U
j
U
a
Ucos() a
j
Usin() a
j
U=Usin()- a
Ucos() a
DU
FIGURE 5.12 Velocity vector eld (U
, U
j
) for a skewed mixing layer and the eective velocity ratio, .,
described in the total velocity vector direction.
vector are:
U
j
= U
j
sin() and U
= U
cos() (5.10)
The velocity dierence U is therefore equal to:
U
U
=
U
j
sin() U
cos()
U
(5.11)
by substituting tan() = U
j
/U
, the eective velocity ratio, , can then be calculated

as the ratio of the velocity dierence U to the free-stream velocity U
=
U
U
=
1 r
2
1 + r
2
(5.12)
Therefore, when = 0, there is no shear, and when
= 1, the shear is a maximum as

the free-stream velocity is much higher than the jet velocity.
Figure 5.14 presents the experimental results in a new velocity-density diagram
where the eective velocity ratio is used instead of r. Again two distinct regions
of stable and unstable ows are identiable. Clearly, a critical value for the eective
velocity ratio exists in the vicinity of
cr
0.94 beyond which the jet ow becomes
unstable as the tilting-stretching and tearing mechanism becomes important.
5.2.3 Discussion on the Eect of the Curvature - Centrifugal Instabil-
ity Analysis
Certain congurations possessing curvature are prone to centrifugal instabilities.
Curvature introduces centrifugal forces which tend to produce streamwise vortical struc-
tures of the Taylor-Gortler type. Rayleigh (1880) showed that the stability condition
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
6 9
11
2
14
15
17
18
22
24
4
13
16
19
20
5
7
8
10
Stable
Unstable
r
r
=
j
s
=
U
U
r
j
Stable Unstable
1
FIGURE 5.13 Jet-to-free-stream density ratio vs. velocity ratio. The number near the data points corre-
sponds to the experimental conditions summarized in Table 5.3. Unstable ow jet is dened
when the large structures lose coherence downstream of the injection port and signicant dis-
tortions in the bow shock shape can be observed.
2
2
r 1
r 1
U
U
+
-
=
D
= l
r
r
=
j
s
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
6 9
11
12
14
15
17
18
22
24
4
13
16
19
20
5
7
8
10
Stable
Unstable
cr
l
Stable Unstable
FIGURE 5.14 Jet-to-free-stream density ratio vs. the eective velocity ratio, . The number near the
data points corresponds to the experimental conditions summarized in Table 5.3.
s
stable
unstable
s
r r
Experimentalresults Rayleigh-Syngecriterionfor
centrifugalstability:
. cons r 2 s < +
r
r
=
j
s
=
U
U
r
j
(a) (b)
unstable
stable
FIGURE 5.15 Schematics illustrating the stability regions based on a) Rayleigh criterion for centrifugal forces
in the curved mixing layers as given in Eq. 5.15 where cons. = 3 + 2

vis
h
max
and b) current
experimental results.
for an inviscid ow depends on the gradient of angular momentum. Synge (1933)
gave a stability criterion taking into account that a density dierence may also pro-
duce an unstable layer. The associated instability mechanism is therefore known as the
Rayleigh-Synge criterion and is given in the form of:
d
dr
_
U
2
r
2
_
> 0 (5.13)
for dr > 0, this criterion can be written as follows:
d
+ 2
dU
U
+ 2
dr
r
> 0 (5.14)
by substituting d =
j
, dU = U
U
j
and dr/r =
vis
/h
max
we obtain:
+ 2
U
j
U
< 3 + 2

vis
h
max
(5.15)
where the curvature radius is assumed to be the maximum jet penetration height, h
max
.
Eq. 5.15 (s + 2r < const), therefore, provides a criterion for the stability of the curved
jet shear layer in case the centrifugal forces play an important role on the stability.
However, comparison of Equation 5.15 with the results presented in Fig. 5.13 indicates
the opposite trends. As shown in Fig. 5.15, the regions where a curved jet shear layer
is stable are actually the regions of the unstable jet shear layer as observed in our
experiments. Therefore, we can conclude that instabilities associated with curved shear
layers do not contribute to the instabilities in the case of a normal injection into a
crossow.
Chapter 6
Autoignition and Flame-Holding
Capability of a Hydrogen
Transverse Jet
This chapter describes the experimental eorts in characterizing the ignition and the
ame-holding capabilities of a transverse jet injected into high total enthalpy supersonic
crossows. The use of an expansion tube provides a correct simulation of true ight
combustion chemistry, including ignition delay and reaction times. The experiments are
designed to map the hydroxyl radical (OH) in the near-eld of an underexpanded hy-
drogen jet injected into ight Mach number 8, 10 and 13 total enthalpy ow conditions.
6.1 Ignition and Flame-Holding Considerations
The stabilization of ames in supersonic ow is a dicult issue for two primary rea-
sons: First since ow times are short, ignition delays can result in signicant travel of the
jet plume through the combustor. Second, strain rates tend to be high in compressible
ows which can suppress combustion.
Transverse injection is a commonly used ame stabilization scheme in supersonic
combustors. It provides ame stabilization: 1) by organization of an upstream recir-
culation zone, 2) by formation of coherent structures containing unmixed fuel and air,
where a diusion ame occurs as the gases are convected downstream, provided the
114
CHAPTER 6. IGNITION OF HYDROGEN JET 115
strain rates are not too high.
Transverse injection schemes have two main points where the ignition is likely to
occur: the region behind the jet bow shock where high temperatures and pressures are
obtained, and the recirculation regions ahead of and behind the base of the jet where
long residence times and high temperatures exist. The residence time of the hydrogen-
air mixture in the bow shock region is short, since the mixture expands around the
jet ow-eld immediately after compression in the bow shock. For the higher Mach
number ows, however, ignition may still be initiated in the bow shock region due to
the relatively high static temperature, though a more likely place for ignition to occur is
in the recirculation region upstream the jet exit as will be shown in the results section.
In scramjet combustors, where relatively cold hydrogen is injected into hot air, there
is a signicant variation of temperature with equivalence ratio () through the mixing
layer around the jet. Since the temperature of the mixture will be higher at low equiv-
alence ratios, and since ignition time is a strong function of the mixture temperature,
it is expected that the self-ignition point will be on the lean side of the mixing layer
around the jet (
= 0.2 (Huber et al. 1979)). The ignition delay times associated with
hydrogen-air mixtures will be discussed in Section 6.3.2.
In order for self-ignition (and therefore combustion) to be accomplished in a owing
combustible mixture, it is necessary that four quantities have suitable values: static
temperature, static pressure, fuel-air ratio, and the residence time at these conditions.
In a reacting system, ignition is considered accomplished when sucient free radicals are
formed to initiate the reaction, even though no appreciable heat has yet been released.
When the conditions of spontaneous ignition exist, the distance l
i
at which it occurs in
a medium owing at a velocity u is:
l
i
= u
i
(6.1)
Since the ignition delay time
i
varies inversely with pressure (because of the two body
reactions involved in the ignition chemistry of hydrogen and air) the product
i
p is
eectively constant for a given temperature and fuel-air equivalence ratio. This allows
the use of the binary scaling law for the ignition of hydrogen-air mixtures in the following
form,
pl
i
u
constant (6.2)
This means that for a given combustor entry temperature (typically in the range of
1440-1670 K, Heiser and Pratt 1994), the ignition lengths are directly proportional to
ight velocity, V
0
, by
l
i

u
p

1
V
3
0
(hyrogen fuel) (6.3)
Remember that supersonic burner entry pressures and velocities are scaled with the
ight velocity according to: p
3
1/V
2
0
and u
3
1/V
0
(see Chapter1). Equation 6.3
indicates that the ignition lengths in a hydrogen-fueled scramjet become very large
at high ight speeds. The ignition lengths are even larger if hydrocarbon fuels are
employed. Because of the larger dependence of the ignition delay time on pressure, the
ignition length in a hydrocarbon-fueled scramjet has a larger dependence on 1/V
0
as:
l
i

u
p
n

1
V
2n+1
0
(ethylene fuel) (6.4)
where n > 1. This is one of the reasons why hydrocarbon fuels are not likely to be used
for high-ight Mach numbers.
In the supersonic combustion area, a general consensus is: storable JP-type hydro-
carbon fuels can be used up to Mach 6-8. Liquid methane could be used to somewhat
higher Mach numbers, but speeds in excess of about Mach 10 requires liquid hydrogen.
Mainly because hydrogen fuel is characterized by fast reaction rates and high heat re-
lease per kilogram of fuel (120 MJ/kg
fuel
). On the other hand, hydrocarbon fuels have
signicant shortcomings in supersonic combustion when compared to hydrogen. The
hydrocarbon fuels have relatively long ignition delays and limited cooling capability.
Furthermore, at low speed ight conditions (ight Mach below 8), the total tempera-
ture of the free-stream is lower introducing diculties on ame stabilization inside the
supersonic combustor. These considerations will require some innovative thinking (see
Chapter 7) especially when the fuel of choice is a heavy hydrocarbon (JP-7, decane,
etc.)
The main objective of this study is therefore to investigate the combustion char-
acteristics of a hydrogen transverse jet in order to obtain a picture of its near-eld
autoignition and ame-holding capability. The second objective is to compare the hy-
drogen jet autoignition capability with that of the ethylene jet.
6.2 Ignition and Flame-Holding Results
6.2.1 Simultaneous OH-PLIF/Schlieren Results
Figure 6.1 demonstrates an example of simultaneous schlieren and a side view OH-
PLIF image overlaid in a single image (Fig. 6.1c). These images are obtained at the
ow conditions simulating ight Mach 10. Apparent in the images are the regions
containing OH molecules, indicating the location of the reaction zone. The structural
evolution of the reaction zone is in good agreement with the jet position determined by
the schlieren imaging although there is a small shift between their position due to the
fact that schlieren image was taken 2 s after the PLIF image. A signicant and fairly
uniform level of OH along the outer edge of the jet plume attached to the recirculation
area upstream of the injector is visible. However, farther downstream a decrease of OH
uorescence is obtained as the mixture expands around the jet ow-eld. As explained
in Section 3.2.4, the uorescence signal in this case is essentially proportional to the
OH mole fraction. Therefore the decrease in signal level observed in the sheet corrected
PLIF images is a direct indication of the decrease in OH mole fraction.
6.2.2 Top View OH-PLIF Images
In order to achieve a more complete picture of the combustion, we have also obtained
top PLIF views of the jet. A set of 4 instantaneous top view images collected at 4
dierent heights above the jet exit is shown in Fig. 6.2 (the white dots in the images
indicate the center of the jet exit.) The results show OH around the jet while the center
of the plume has no OH-formation. The bottom image at 1-jet diameter above the
plate shows two main features: 1) the jet spreads very quickly in the lateral direction
(up to about 8-jet diameters) assuming that the ame is around the jet-air interface, and
2) the OH concentration downstream of the jet remains nearly constant. By contrast,
the other three images obtained at 2, 2.5 and 3-jet diameters height demonstrate the
same tendency of the side views, namely that the OH signal level decreases as the jet
moves downstream.
Region Illuminated by
PLIF Sheet
0 2 4 6 8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
x/d
14
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Air
(a) (b)
(c)
FIGURE 6.1 Simultaneous OH-PLIF and schlieren images visualizing hydrogen injection into supersonic
crossow. Free-stream conditions are M = 3.57, T = 1300 K, P = 0.32 atm, V = 2500 m/s.
The jet-to-freestream momentum ux ratio is J = 1.4. a) Schlieren image, b) OH-PLIF im-
age demonstrating the ignition and combustion regions of jet-in-crossow at high enthalpy
condition, c) Overlaid OH-PLIF and schlieren images.
(a) y/d=3
(b) y/d=2.5
(c) y/d=2
(d) y/d=1
FIGURE 6.2 Instantaneous top-view OH-PLIF images obtained at dierent height above the injection
plate. Free-stream conditions are M=3.57, T=1300K, P=0.32atm, V=2500m/s. The jet-to-
freestream momentum ux ratio is J=1.4. a) y/d=3, b) y/d=2.5, c) y/d=2, d) y/d=1 above
the injection plate.
6.2.3 Comparison of Ignition in Flight Mach 8-13 Total Enthalpy Range
Figure 6.3 compares examples of OH-PLIF imaging conducted at the center-line of
the hydrogen jet injected in ight Mach 10 and 13 conditions. Each image includes 2
separate subimages from dierent tests: the rst has been acquired near the jet exit
while the second has been acquired farther downstream.
Apparent in the images is the isolated thin lament along the outer edge of the
plume. The center of the plume itself has no OH-signals indicating poor mixing of the
air with the core of the hydrogen jet. The OH radicals are primarily produced in the
hot separation region upstream of the jet exit and behind the bow shock and convected
downstream with the shear-layer vortices.
Ignition in our experiments is likely due to the hot and radical-rich separation region
upstream of the jet exit where the boundary layer and jet uids mix subsonically. Al-
though these recirculation kernels in general are small in volume, in high enthalpy ows
the temperature of these zones can be as high as the stagnation temperature of the bulk
ow. In Mach 10 condition, a low signal level of OH in the recirculation zone/boundary
layer upstream of the injector is visible. In Mach 13 condition, on the other hand, a
fairly uniform and intense OH signal level is observed even when air is used as the free-
stream gas. The high concentration of OH radicals in the upstream recirculation region
can be attributed to high recovery temperatures associated with high total enthalpy
ows. The ignition process will initiate instantaneously in the upstream recirculation
region as the delay times eectively approach zero ( 15 s) at the Mach 13 condition.
Figure 6.4 presents two instantaneous OH-PLIF images obtained at the center-line of
the hydrogen jet injected at Mach 8 ight conditions. Limited amounts of OH are visible
on the leading edge of the jet, mainly behind the steep regions of the bow shock. The
ignition is quenched farther downstream. It is evident from these results that improved
injection schemes for better ame-holding would be required for practical applications
in scramjet engines ying at low Mach numbers (below 10).
b)Mach13
Oxygen
M
= 4.7
V
= 3200 m/s
P
= 0.04 atm
T
= 1250 K
H
2
, J=5
x/d
a)Mach10
Air
M
= 3.4
V
= 2360 m/s
P
= 0.32 atm
T
= 1290 K
x/d
H
2
, J=1.4
FIGURE 6.3 Instantaneous OH-PLIF acquired at center-line axis of the hydrogen jet injected into ight Mach
10 and 13 conditions. The images are obtained by combination of 2 dierent instantaneous
images: near the exit of the jet (5 < x/d < 1) and downstream of the jet (1 < x/d < 10).
Mach 8
Air
M
= 2.4
V
= 1800 m/s
P
= 0.65 atm
T
= 1400 K
H
t,
= 2.9 MJ/kg
x/d
H
2
x/d
H
2
J=2.3
FIGURE 6.4 Two instantaneous OH-PLIF images acquired at center-line axis of the hydrogen jet injected
into ight Mach 8 conditions.
6.3 Discussion of the Ignition Process
6.3.1 Ignition Characteristics of Hydrogen
Ignition of hydrogen and air in high-temperature turbulent ow elds associated
with supersonic combustors can be characterized purely by radical runaway as opposed
to thermal runaway (Im et al. 1994; Im et al. 1998; Sung et al. 1999). Thus, the heat
release of combustion is not essential for the propagation of the ignition/combustion
process.
The well-known explosion limits of a hydrogen-oxygen system are plotted in Fig. 6.5
(after Sung et al. 1999). Nishioka and Law (1997) have shown that the state of the
second explosion limit is an important boundary in the ignition response of a hydrogen-
air laminar mixing layer. The crossover temperature, T
c
, for the second explosion limit
is dened as the temperature at which the rate of the main chain-terminating reaction
H + O
2
+ M HO
2
+ M (R1)
equals that of the rate-controlling branching reaction
H + O
2
OH + O (R2)
Reaction (R2) is a two-body, temperature-sensitive branching reaction with an activa-
tion energy of 68.8 kJ/mole (16.44 kcal/mole), while (R1) is a three-body, temperature
insensitive terminating reaction because HO
2
is relatively inactive. Thus increasing
temperature promotes (R2) and hence the overall ignitability. When the mixture tem-
perature in the ow, T
mix
, is larger than T
c
, the system response is controlled by (R2).
The chain-branching ignition in coow mixing layers leads to a continuous growth
of the radical pool. If the temperature is suciently above crossover, then the eect of
three body recombination reactions, responsible for most of the heat release in H
2
-O
2
combustion, is negligible, and the two streams mix and react initially without signi-
cant chemical heating. This gives rise to a thermally frozen branched-chain explosion
(Sanchez et al. 1997).
As a point of reference, we rst calculated the ignition delay times,
ign
, for hydrogen-
air mixtures. The chemical kinetics software package Chemkin, developed by (Kee et al.
1980), was used for the delay time calculations. The reaction mechanism was taken
from GRI-Mech 2.12 (Bowman et al.). The ignition times based on the time when
[OH] =1/2 [OH]
max
are plotted in Fig. 6.6. If the pressure and fuel-air mixture are
held constant, the eect of temperature on ignition time can be readily shown in this
FIGURE 6.5 Explosion limits of a stoichiometric hydrogen-oxygen mixture (after Sung et al., 1999).
gure. Note that the ignition time has a strong exponential dependence on temperature.
Over the range 1000 K to 1700 K,
i
varies by about a factor of 100. At temperatures
between 800-1000 K (depending on pressure) the ignition time approaches innity and
self-ignition cannot occur.
We have earlier discussed that at temperatures above the crossover temperature, T
c
,
the hydrogen-air system response is controlled by the two-body reaction (R2). Thus the
product p
i
forms a single curve in Fig. 6.6b for all the pressures at high temperatures.
We however observe a deviation from the binary scaling law at a critical temperature
depending on pressure. This critical temperature is lower for low pressures consistent
with the second explosion limit discussed above.
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
4
a
t
m
2
a
t
m
1
a
t
m
p
=
0
.3
a
t
m
H
2
-air for f=1
I
g
n
i
t
i
o
n
T
i
m
e
(
m
s
e
c
)
1000/T(K)
(a)
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
10
1
10
2
10
3
0.3atm
1atm
2atm
4atm
H
2
-air for f=1
p
t
i
g
n
(
a
t
m
-
m
s
e
c
)
1000/T(K)
(b)
FIGURE 6.6 Variation of ignition delay times
ign
of a stoichiometric mixture of H
2
and air with temperature
and pressure. Calculations are perfomed using Chemkin and the GRI mechanism. a)
ign
vs.
T, b) p
ign
vs. T
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
1
10
100
1000
T
mix
=1265K
Tm
ix
=
1
1
2
0
K T
mix
=1527K
T
air
=
3
2
0
0
K
T
air
=
2
4
0
0
K
T
air
=
1
8
0
0
K
T
a
ir
=
1
5
0
0
K
T
a
ir
=
1
3
0
0
K
Tm
ix
=
1
0
1
0
K
T
mix
=1425K
T
mix
=1650K
T
mix
=1720K
I
g
n
i
t
i
o
n
T
i
m
e
(
m
s
e
c
)
Equivalence Ratio, f
FIGURE 6.7 Variation of ignition time with fuel-air equivalence ratio, , for cold H
2
(T
jet
= 300 K) injected
into hot air. The values of the ignition delay time are calculated for dierent air temperatures,
T
air
.
6.3.2 Ignition in Supersonic Combustors
In scramjet combustors, auto-ignition is achieved by injecting a relatively cold fuel
into hot air. Therefore there is a signicant variation of temperature and equivalence
ratio, , inside a supersonic combustor. In order to approximate the variation of temper-
ature with , a simplied one-dimensional enthalpy balance between the cold hydrogen
and the hot air is used. The gases are assumed to be nonreacting, thermally and calor-
ically perfect and ideally mixed without compressibility eects. Based on this model,
the enthalpy balance between the two streams can be written as
n
air
C
p,air
(T
air
T
mix
) = n
H
2
C
p,H
2
(T
mix
T
H
2
) (6.5)
where n is the number of moles which is related to the equivalence ratio ; C
p
is the
specic heat at the mixed mean temperature. The mixture temperature, T
mix
, can then
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1600
2000
2400
2800
3200
3600
t
ign
=43 ms
t
ign
=10 ms
t
ign
=5 ms
t
ign
=2 ms
t
ign
=1 ms
T
2
F
r
e
e
-
s
t
r
e
a
m
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
T
2
(
K
)
x/d
0
1
2
3
4
5
P
2 F
r
e
e
-
s
t
r
e
a
m
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,
P
2
(
a
t
m
)
FIGURE 6.8 The free-stream temperature and pressure (T
2
and P
2
) behind the bow shock, measured from
schlieren images as discussed in Section 4.2.1 (see Fig. 4.3). Ignition delay times are calculated
for several conditions of air assuming = 0.2. The free-stream ow properties simulate the
ight Mach 10 conditions.
be calculated by rearranging Eq. 6.5 as
T
mix
=
T
air
+ T
H
2
1 +
(6.6)
where =
n
H
2
C
p,H
2
n
air
C
p,air
.
Representative ignition delay times are plotted in Fig. 6.7 as a function of for
various values of T
air
. The results indicate that OH is likely to be formed in the hot,
lean regions of the mixing layer (
= 0.2) where the temperatures are the highest. For

air temperatures below 1800 K the ignition delay times are much larger than 10 s, which
exceeds the residence time of the hydrogen within the imaged region studied here (based
on the hydrogen large-scale convection velocities of 2 mm/s and 10 jet diameters).
6.3.3 Ignition of a Hydrogen Transverse Jet
The transverse jet interacts strongly with the crossow, producing a bow shock and
localized highly three-dimensional ow-eld around it. Therefore, it is very dicult
to formulate the ignition characteristics of this eld. We can however try to estimate
characteristic time scales of the ignition process in an attempt to explain the OH-PLIF
results.
The OH-PLIF images shown in Figs. 6.3 and 6.4 are taken at the center-line of the
jet. At this location, the average free-stream ow properties behind the bow shock were
estimated using schlieren images (see Section 4.2.1 for more details). Figure 6.8 shows
these estimated values of static temperatures and pressures of free-stream behind the
bow shock, T
2
and p
2
respectively, at the ight Mach 10 condition.
Considering the values of T
2
and p
2
and using the Eq. 6.6 we calculated the ignition
delay times at several locations along the x-axis of the jet. We assumed that the cold
hydrogen (T
H
2
= 300 K) interacts with hot air at the lean side of the jet shear layer
where =0.2. The results shown in Fig. 6.8 indicate that an instantaneous autoignition
can be achieved close to the jet exit as the ignition delay times are of the order of
1-2 s. Further downstream beyond x/d 6, the ignition delay times become larger
(
ign
> 10 s) exceeding the maximum ow residence time of the imaged region. As the
air temperature behind the weaker bow shock begins to decrease below 1800 K (T
mix
<
1120 K for = 0.2) OH radicals can only be formed downstream of the imaged region,
beyond x/d = 10. This might be the reason for the reduced OH mole fractions observed
downstream the injection location at the ight Mach 10 condition (see Fig. 6.3a). OH
radicals generated near the jet exit are convected downstream with the shear-layer
vortices. However, since new radicals are not formed instantaneously downstream of
the injector the OH concentration dilutes and therefore the OH-PLIF signal is reduced.
6.3.4 Ignition of Ethylene Transverse Jet
In scramjet engines the hydrocarbon fuel may be partially cracked to C
1
-C
3
species
through its use as a coolant before reaching the combustor. It is anticipated that this
partially reacted fuel will burn as well as ethylene, namely with combustion properties
(such as ignition delay) approaching that of ethylene. We therefore studied the near-
eld ignition characteristics of ethylene jet as it is a good simulant for hydrocarbons in
scramjets and the OH-PLIF results were summarized previously in Section 4.2.5.
Here, we calculated the ignition delay times for ethylene-air mixtures using two
dierent chemical reaction systems. Due to the large number of elementary reactions
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
p=1atm, f=1
H
2
-air
C
2
H
4
-air usingGRI-mechanism
C
2
H
4
-air usingLLNL-mechanism
C
2
H
4
-O
2
usingLLNL-mechanism
I
g
n
i
t
i
o
n
T
i
m
e
(
m
s
e
c
)
T(K)
FIGURE 6.9 Comparison of ignition delay of a stoichiometric mixture of C
2
H
4
(ethylene) and air/oxygen
at 1 atm with a stoichiometric mixture of H
2
and air. Two dierent reaction mechanisms are
used to calculate the ignition delay times of C
2
H
4
.
involved in the ignition process of ethylene, a large number of data for reaction rates is
required. This makes the ignition delay times of ethylene fuel dicult to calculate. The
most comprehensive data is available in the GRI Mechanism 3.0 (Smith et al.). The
latest version of GRI-Mech was recently updated by Marinov et al. (1998) at LLNL
(Lawrence Livermore National Labs.). The calculated ignition delay times are plotted
in Fig. 6.9. Note that the LLNL chemical mechanism which is optimized for ignition
processes estimates longer ignition delay times than the GRI mechanism.
As shown in Fig. 6.9, longer ignition delay times are associated with the ethylene-air
mixtures compared to the values of hydrogen-air. Indeed, when we performed react-
ing experiments where ethylene fuel was injected into air simulating ight Mach 10
conditions, no ignition could be observed in the near-eld of the transverse jet (see
Fig. 4.2.5b).
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
C
2
H
4
- air
C
2
H
4
- O
2
C
2
H
4
- air for f=1
p=1 atm
p=2 atm
p=0.3 atm
I
g
n
i
t
i
o
n
T
i
m
e
(
m
s
e
c
)
T(K)
FIGURE 6.10 a) Variation of ignition delay of a stoichiometric mixture of C
2
H
4
(ethylene) and air/oxygen
at various pressures.
Although, in our experiments the air composition, Mach number and static tem-
perature corresponds to typical scramjet combustor entrance values, its static pressure
(0.32 atm) is somewhat below that of the actual systems (1.3 - 2.6 atm). This limitation
can be circumvented partially by using higher concentration of oxygen in the test gas. As
plotted in Fig. 6.10, the ignition delay times of a stoichiometric ethylene-oxygen mixture
at p = 0.3 atm are smaller than those for an ethylene-air mixture at similar conditions.
Indeed, in our experiments when ethylene was injected into pure oxygen crossow (see
Fig. 4.2.5c), autoignition in the near-eld of ethylene transverse jet could be achieved.
Eventough ethylene-oxygen delay times are smaller than the ones for ethylene-air, still
they are almost an order of magnitude larger than these for hydrogen-air. The reason
for ethylene autoignition in our experiments can be attributed to the longer residence
time of ethylene large-scale eddies which have slower convective velocities than the hy-
drogen ones. OH-radicals could be observed across the jet shear layer as opposed to
thin-lament observed around the hydrogen jet. The improved mixing properties of
high molecular weight transverse jets might be the primary reason for these results (see
more explanation in Chapters 4 and 5.
Note that ethylene has higher temperature or activation energies for ignition than
hydrogen. Hydrocarbons have eective activation energy for ignition in excess of 150-
200 kJ/mole compared with about 60 kJ/mole for hydrogen. While autoignition of ethy-
lene fuel seems to require higher temperatures and pressures, hydrogen fuel combustion
is more challenging because of the lower reaction rates. From experiments presented in
this thesis, we therefore learned that autoignition of an ethylene transverse jet could be
achieved at ight Mach 10 conditions. This result indicates that hydrocarbons might
be a useful fuel in scramjets ying at Mach 10 conditions. This is an important result
as the long ignition delay time of ethylene (hydrocarbons) relative to hydrogen is a key
limitation for hydrocarbon-fueled scramjets. However, once ignition in hydrocarbon fu-
els is achieved, the combustion process would be completed faster than the hydrogen
fueled scramjet.
Chapter 7
Cavity Flame-Holders
This chapter describes ongoing research eorts in the scramjet community, in gen-
eral, as well as our preliminary study on cavity ame-holders, a concept for ame-holding
and stabilization in supersonic combustors.
During the last few years, cavities have gained the attention of the scramjet commu-
nity as a promising ame-holding device, owing to results obtained in ight tests and
to feasibility demonstrations in laboratory scale supersonic combustors. However, com-
prehensive studies are needed to determine the optimal conguration which will yield
the most eective ame-holding capability with minimum losses. In this chapter, we
summarize the oweld characteristics of cavities and research eorts related to cavities
employed in low- and high-speed ows. Open questions impacting the eectiveness of
the cavities as ame-holders in supersonic combustors are discussed (Ben-Yakar and
Hanson 2001).
7.1 Review of Previous Research
7.1.1 Cavity Flow-Field Characteristics
Supersonic ow over cavities has been extensively studied (McMillin et al. 1994;
Roudakov et al. 1993; Vinagradov et al. 1995; Ortweth et al. 1996; Owens et al.
1998; Ben-Yakar et al. 998a; Angus et al. 1993; Roudakov et al. 1996; McClinton
et al. 1996; Huellmantel et al. 1957) for many years because of their relevance to
aerodynamic congurations. A cavity, exposed to a ow, experiences self-sustained
132
CHAPTER 7. CAVITY FLAME-HOLDERS 133
oscillations which can induce uctuating pressures, densities and velocities in and around
the cavity, resulting in drag penalties. This problem motivated many experimental and
computational studies which have been directed toward improving the understanding
of the physics of cavity ows and the means to control their nature.
Cavity ow regimes: In general, cavities can be categorized into two basic ow
regimes depending primarily upon the length-to-depth ratio, L/D (see Fig. 7.1). In all
cases, a shear layer separates from the upstream lip and reattaches downstream. For
L/D < 7 10 the cavity is termed open as the upper shear layer reattaches to the
back face. The high pressure at the rear face as a result of the shear layer impingement,
increases the drag of the cavity. For L/D > 1013 the cavity is termed closed as the
free shear layer reattaches to the lower wall resulting in signicantly increased drag (see
Fig. 7.1b). The critical length-to-depth ratio, at which a transition between dierent
cavity ow regimes occurs, depends also on the boundary layer thickness at the leading
edge of the cavity, the ow Mach number and the cavity width.
Cavity oscillations: The cavity pressure uctuations consist of both broadband
small amplitude pressure uctuations typical of turbulent shear layers, as well as discrete
resonances whose frequency, amplitude, and harmonic properties depend upon the cavity
geometry and external ow conditions.
Experimental results reviewed by Zhang and Edwards (1990) found open cavities
to be dominated either by longitudinal or transverse pressure oscillations (Fig. 7.1a)
depending on L/D ratio and the Mach number (M
). In the short cavity lled by a

single large vortex, the oscillation is controlled by a transverse mechanism, while in the
long cavity lled by vortices, the oscillation is controlled by a longitudinal mechanism.
The transition from transverse oscillation to longitudinal oscillation has been found to
occur near L/D = 2 at Mach 1.5 and between L/D =2 to 3 at Mach 2.5.
There are currently two primary models used to explain the longitudinal cavity
oscillation process (Fig. 7.2). The unsteady motion of the shear layer above the cavity
is the paramount mechanism for cavity oscillations and results in mass addition and
removal at the cavity trailing edge (rear wall). The shear layer impinging on the rear wall
causes free-stream ow to enter the cavity. As a result of the impingement, the cavity
pressure increases and creates an acoustic wave (compression wave) which propagates
upstream at the local sound speed and impacts the front wall. The rst model proposes
that this acoustic wave induces small vortices at the leading edge of the front wall which
Transverse
Mechanism
Longitudinal
Mechanism
OPEN CAVITY FLOW (L/D < 7-10)
CLOSED CAVITY FLOW (L/D > 10-13)
transition at
L/D ~ 2-3
C
p
0
C
p
0
D
L
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 7.1 Flow-eld schematics of cavities with dierent length to depth ratios, L/D, in a supersonic
ow. a) Open cavity ow for L/D < 7 10; shear layer reattaches to the back face while
spanning over the cavity. Small aspect ratio cavities (L/D < 23) are controlled by transverse
oscillation mechanism while in larger aspect ratio cavities longitudinal oscillation becomes the
dominant mechanism. b) Closed cavity ow for L/D > 10 13; shear layer reattaches to the
lower wall. The pressure increase in the back wall vicinity and the pressure decrease in the
front wall results in large drag losses.
grow as they are convected downstream. Due to instabilities, the shear layer deects
upwards and downwards resulting in a shock/impingement event on the rear wall of the
cavity. The second model, on the other hand, assumes that the acoustic wave reection
from the front wall, rather than the shedding vortices, is the cause of the shear layer
deection and therefore the impingement event on the rear wall. The oscillation loop
is closed when the instability (caused either by vortex shedding or a reected acoustic
wave) propagates downstream and the mass added in the beginning of the loop is ejected
at the trailing edge again.
Typically, the frequency of the longitudinal oscillations is expressed in terms of the
Shear layer impingement
at the rear wall
Sheddingvortices and
reflected acoustic waves
FIGURE 7.2 Typical longitudinal cavity oscillations are caused by the impingement of the free shear layer
on the rear wall which generates travelling shocks inside the cavity. The shear layer spanning
the cavity becomes unsteady as a result of these acoustic waves deecting the shear layer up
and down, and/or by the shock induced vortices generated at the front wall leading edge of
the cavity. As a result unsteady waves emanate from the cavity.
Strouhal number based on the cavity length (impingement length, L).
S
L
=
f
m
L
U
(7.1)
Multiple peaks of comparable strength in unsteady pressure spectra were observed in
compressible ow-induced cavity oscillations. These resonant frequencies can be pre-
dicted using the Rossiters semi-empirical formula (Rossiter 1964), developed based on
the coupling between the acoustic radiation and the vortex shedding (model 1),
f
m
=
m
M
+
1
k
L
(7.2)
M
and U
are the free-stream Mach number and ow speed, respectively; f

m
is the
resonant frequency corresponding to the m
th
mode, and a and k are empirical constants.
While k represents the ratio of the speed of the convection of the shear layer vortices
to the free-stream ow speed (U
), is the phase shift between the acoustic waves

and the shear layer instability. This equation is modied by Heller and Bliss (1975) for
compressible ows by taking into account the eect of the higher sound speed within the
cavity, which is approximately equal to the free-stream stagnation sound speed. Their
model assumes that the pressure uctuations are a result of the interaction of the shear
layer with the reected acoustic waves (model 2),
f
m
=
m
M
_
1+
1
2
M
2
+
1
k
L
(7.3)
where
is the ratio of specic heats. Heller and Delfs (1996) determined from their
experiments that a = 0.25, k = 0.57 for cavities with L/D ratio of 4 or more and
estimated the dierence between the formula and experiments as 10%.
Therefore, the oscillatory frequency of a particular mode in a shallow cavity decreases
with increasing length or L/D ratio of the cavity. However, the dominant oscillatory
mode (the mode with the largest amplitude) jumps from a lower mode to a higher mode
as the L/D ratio increases.
Stabilization techniques for cavity oscillations: Several passive (Perng and
Dolling 1998; Zhang et al. 1998) and active (Sarno and Franke 1994; Vakili and Gauthier
1994; Lamp and Chokani 1997) control methods have been proposed and developed to
suppress the cavity oscillations (Fig. 7.3). Since the shear layer interaction with the
rear cavity wall is the main factor for uctuations as discussed above, the stabilization
or control of the shear layer can ultimately suppress the cavity oscillations. Passive
control methods, which are usually inexpensive and simple, utilize mounted devices
such as vortex generators and spoilers upstream of the cavity or a slanted trailing edge
that modies the shear layer so that the reattachment process does not reect pressure
waves into the cavity. These methods are found to be very eective in suppressing the
cavity oscillations. However, since those are permanent devices, the performance of a
cavity at dierent conditions may actually be worse than the performance of a cavity
without passive control.
A visual observation of a cavity ow-eld stabilized by an oblique rear wall is shown
in Fig. 7.4. This gure contains two instantaneous schlieren images from our recent
experimental eorts demonstrating the stabilizing eect of a slanted back wall upon
the shear-layer reattachment with the back wall. While the cavity with a 90
o
back
wall (Fig. 7.4a) emits shock waves at the trailing edge as the pressure increases due to
shear layer impingement and recompression of the ow, the angled back wall shown in
Reduced
CavityOscillations
Injection
Small Upstream
Disturbances
Enhanced
Shear Layer Growth
Angled Back Wall
(No Reflected Acoustic Waves)
q
q
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 7.3 Dierent concepts can be employed to suppress the cavity oscillations: a) Cavities with an
angled back wall suppress the unsteady nature of the free shear layer by eliminating the gener-
ation of the travelling shocks inside the cavity due to the free-shear-layer impingement. b) In
addition, small disturbances produced by spoilers or by the secondary jet injection upstream of
the cavity can enhance the free-shear-layer growth rate. The thickening of the cavity shear layer
alters its instability characteristics, such that its preferred roll-up frequency is shifted outside
of the natural frequency of the cavity, and as a result the oscillations are attenuated.
Fig. 7.4b leads to a steady shear-layer reattachment process.
Active control methods, on the other hand, can continuously change to adapt to
dierent ow conditions. Forcing of the shear layer can be accomplished by various
mechanical, acoustical or uid injection methods. The use of steady or pulsating mass
injection upstream or at the leading edge of the cavity is one of the most commonly
studied techniques. Various researchers (Sarno and Franke 1994; Vakili and Gauthier
1994; Lamp and Chokani 1997) have examined the feasibility of this technique. Vakili
and Gauthier (1994) observed signicant attenuation of cavity oscillations with up-
stream mass injection. This was attributed to the thickening of the cavity shear layer,
which altered its instability characteristics, such that its preferred roll-up frequency was
shifted outside of the natural frequencies of the cavity.
Cavity Drag: Two components produce pressure drag in the cavity. First, the
pressure in the backward facing step may be lower than the free stream pressure. This
(b)
(a)
Shear Layer
Recirculation Zone
O
b
l
i
q
u
e
S
h
o
c
k
W
a
v
e
M=3.5
M>1
D=3mm
L = 15 mm
Reflected Acoustic Waves
C
p
0
D=3mm
9 mm
L = 17.2 mm
Floor
Front
Wall
Back
Wall
C
p
0
Floor
Front
Wall
Back
Wall
20
Trailing Edge Vortex
FIGURE 7.4 Instantaneous schlieren images with 200 ns of exposure time demonstrating the eect of the
back wall angle on the oweld structure of a cavity exposed to a supersonic ow. The free-
stream was generated in an expansion tube to simulate Mach 10 total enthalpy conditions at
the supersonic combustor entry: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K, p
= 32 kPa.
The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the cavity is approximately 1mm. a) Cavity
with L/D = 5 shows the unsteady nature of the shear layer at the reattachment with the
trailing edge of the back wall. b) Cavity with slanted back wall (20
o
) stabilizes the shear layer
reattachment process.
results in a net force in the positive x-direction (drag force) acting on the base area
(base pressure higher than freestream would result in a thrust force). Second, the
reattachment of the shear layer at the back wall produces a region of high pressure that
imparts a force in the positive x-direction acting on the forward facing area.
In Fig. 7.5, the magnitude of pressure uctuations on the oor of the cavity and
the drag coecient for dierent L/D are given, as adapted from Zhang and Edwards
(1990). Their experimental results demonstrate a sharp rise of the oscillatory level and
the drag when the oscillatory mode inside the cavity changes from a transverse mode
to a longitudinal one. The magnitude of the uctuations decreases gradually with the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.20
M=1.5
M=2.5
C
a
v
i
t
y
D
r
a
g
L/D
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
M=1.5
M=2.5
P
r
m
s
/
(
r
U
2
/
2
)
L/D
Longitudinal
Mode
Transverse
Mode
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 7.5 Eect of length-to-depth ratio, L/D on a) magnitude (root-mean-square) of pressure uctua-
tions on the bottom of the cavity (at x/D = 0.33), b) drag of the cavity at Mach 1.5 and 2.5
ows. The values were adapted from Zhang and Edwards (1990).
increasing L/D of the cavity, while the average drag coecient, however, rises signi-
cantly. As the L/D of the cavity increases, the shear layer thickens at the reattachment
point damping the oscillations and simultaneously increasing the pressure on the back
wall of the cavity. Subsequently, the time-mean pressure on the upstream wall of the
cavity drops as a result of the momentum diusion across the shear layer. These com-
bined eects of increasing pressure in the back wall of the cavity and decreasing pressure
in the upstream wall of the cavity, increase the drag of the cavity. The drag penalties
become larger as the cavity L/D ratio reaches a critical value at which the closed cavity
oweld is established.
The drag coecient of an open cavity is aected greatly by the cavity back wall
geometry. Gruber et al. (999a) studied the drag penalties of open cavities with = 16
o
and 30
o
angled back wall, where is dened as the angle relative to the horizontal wall
(see Fig. 7.3). They concluded that the drag coecient increases for shallower back wall
angles. First, the small back wall angles lead to the formation of an expansion wave
(rather than a compression wave) at the cavity leading edge that reduces the pressure
on the backward facing step adding drag. Second, the shear layer deects farther into
the cavity which results in a larger area of recompression on the angled back wall, again
increasing the drag.
In contrast to Gruber et al. (999a) ndings, numerical calculations of Zhang et al.
(1998) resulted in a reduced average drag coecient as the back wall angle is decreased
from = 90
o
to = 67.5
o
and 45
o
. The observations from these two references agree,
however, that the pressure on the upstream face of the cavity decreases with decreasing
back wall angle. It is possible that in the 67.5
o
and 45
o
cases studied by Zhang et al.
(1998), the compressive nature of the separation wave at the upstream corner of the
cavity actually keeps the shear layer from deecting into the cavity and could result in
lower levels of pressure drag than the 16
o
case that Gruber et al. (999a) studied. In
a dierent study, Samimy et al. (1986) used a cavity with a 20
o
of back wall angle to
create an undisturbed free shear layer. This geometry was chosen such that the wall
pressure across the cavity would stay unchanged, thereby minimizing the drag losses
associated with the shear layer deection inside the cavity. These observations suggest
that there might be a critical back wall angle (between = 45
o
to 16
o
) at which the
drag penalties of a cavity are minimal.
A qualitative description of the pressure distribution along the back wall surface of
cavities with and without an angled wall is plotted in Fig. 7.4. In a rectangular cavity,
below the shear layer reattachment point, the trailing edge vortex accelerates the ow
and causes a pressure decrease in the middle of the back wall. On the other hand, in
the cavity with the angled wall, the high pressure at the corner of the cavity disappears
and a monotonic increase of pressure takes place behind the reattachment point. The
drag coecient depends strongly on the back wall pressure distribution as it is altered
by the cavity geometry. Further comprehensive studies are required to complete our
understanding of cavity geometry, particularly the eect of the back wall angle on the
drag penalty.
Cavity Residence Time: Residence time, , of the ow inside a cavity is a direct
function of the mass exchange rate in and out of the cavity. In the open cavities, mass
and momentum transfer mechanism are controlled by the longitudinal oscillations and
the vortex structure inside the cavity. Computational visualizations of Gruber et al.
(999a) demonstrate the existence of one large vortex stationed near the trailing edge of
the cavity and a secondary vortex near the upstream wall. The mass exchange of the
cavity is controlled by the large trailing vortex which interacts with the unstable shear
layer. The mass exchange between the vortices inside the cavity, on the other hand,
is relatively small, and therefore as the trailing edge vortex occupies larger volume
inside the cavity, the mass exchange increases and ow residence time inside the cavity
decreases. Consequently, the steady-state numerical calculations showed that the ow
residence time in a large cavity (L/D = 5) is smaller than the value in a small cavity
(L/D = 3), in contrast with expectation. Although the volume of the cavity increases
(increases ) with increasing length, the mass exchange rate, on the other hand, increases
even more (decreases ), resulting in a decreased residence time. However, it is not yet
clear how the ow residence time inside a cavity is aected by the unsteady nature of the
cavity. The steady state computations (Gruber et al. 999a) mentioned above, estimated
that 1 msec is the order of magnitude of residence time in an L/D = 5 cavity with 9
mm depth size in a Mach 3 cold ow. This value decreases for slanted wall cavities.
As summarized above, the cavity is a basic uid dynamic conguration which gen-
erates both fundamental and practical interest. A cavity is often characterized by a
strong oscillation inside the cavity driven by the instability of the shear layer. Hence,
these oscillations may be controlled and suppressed by the stabilization of the shear
layer.
7.1.2 Cavity in Reacting Flows
In the past few years, the use of cavities has been considered as a means of perfor-
mance improvement in a supersonic combustor. Basically there are two main directions
in which several research groups have focused their eorts: 1) cavity-actuated mixing
enhancement, 2) trapping a vortex within the cavity for ame-holding and stabilization
of supersonic combustion. Some recently performed studies, investigating the above
concepts are summarized in the following sections.
Cavity-Actuated Supersonic Mixing Enhancement
It is known that the normalized growth rate of the mixing layer between supersonic
air and gaseous fuel in a scramjet combustor decreases as the convective Mach number
increases due to compressibility eects (Papamoschou and Roshko 1988). Researchers
suggested that cavity ow oscillations can actually be used to provide enhanced mix-
ing in supersonic shear layers. A shear layer develops instability waves in its initial
region. This long wavelength Kelvin-Helmholtz instability which leads to large rollers
are suppressed at high convective Mach numbers. As a method to enhance the K-H
instability, Kumar et al. (1989) suggested using oblique oscillating shock waves of high
frequency, and Yu and Schadow (1994) concluded that for the required frequency exci-
tation, transverse acoustic waves emanating from cavities are powerful enough to aect
mixing in a signicant manner.
Yu and Schadow (1994), therefore, suggested use of cavities to enhance the mixing
of supersonic non-reacting and reacting jets, where the cavity was attached at the exit
of the jet circular nozzle, Fig. 7.6b. When the cavity was tuned for certain frequencies,
large scale highly coherent structures were produced in the shear layer substantially
increasing the growth rate. The spreading rate of the initial shear layer with convective
Mach number M
c
= 0.85 increased by a factor of three, and for jets with M
c
= 1.4
by 50%. Finally, when the cavity-actuated forcing was applied to reacting supersonic
jets, 20 30% reduction in the afterburning ame length with modied intensity was
observed.
Sato et al. (1999) also studied the eect of an acoustic wave, emitted from a cavity
and impinging on the initial mixing layer, Fig. 7.6a. Their results revealed that the
mixing was enhanced by the acoustic disturbance and the rate of the enhancement was
controlled by the cavity shape while the total pressure losses were negligibly small.
This novel use of cavity-induced oscillations in turbulent compressible shear layers to
control the mixing rate, which have been demonstrated in the experiments mentioned
above, encourages the use of unstable cavities in high speed propulsion applications.
However, before implementing such techniques, one must consider and evaluate the
potential thrust loss and noise generation associated with the technique.
CAVITY
supersonic jet
cavityactuated
mixing layer
initial mixing layer
SUPERSONIC
NOZZLE
CAVITY
acoustic wave
mixinglayer
M>1
fuel injection
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 7.6 Cavity-actuated supersonic mixing enhancement concepts: (a) Sato et al. (1999), studied the
inuence of acoustic waves, emitted from a cavity and impinging on the initial mixing layer.
(b) Yu and Schadow (1994) used the same concept to enhance the mixing of supersonic reacting
jets.
Cavity as a Flame-Holder
While an unstable cavity can provide enhancement in the turbulent mixing and com-
bustion as discussed above, a stable cavity can be used for ame-holding applications.
In an eort to reduce the combustor length required for ecient high speed combustion,
during the past few years, the scramjet community has proposed the use of wall cavities
to stabilize and enhance supersonic combustion. The main idea is to create a recircula-
tion region inside the cavity with a hot pool of radicals which will reduce the induction
time, such that autoignition of the fuel/air mixture can be obtained. However, for a
stable combustion process, the cavity recirculation region has to be suciently stable
to provide a continuous ignition source (pilot ame). As discussed above, it is possible
to control the self-sustained oscillations occurring in cavities either by proper design of
the cavity or by a passive/active control system.
In the following sections, we will rst discuss the literature for low-speed and then
the recent advances in high-speed combustors which utilize cavity ame-holders.
Cavity TV - Trapped Vortex concept in low-speed ows: Recently, cavities
have been employed in low-speed ows to stabilize combustion utilizing the so-called
trapped-vortex concept (Hsu et al. 1998). In this concept, a stationary vortex is
established or trapped inside the cavity by optimal design of the dimensions, namely,
by optimal cavity length to depth ratio (L/D). It is known that a vortex will be trapped
in the cavity when the stagnation point is located at the downstream end of the cavity
which also corresponds to the minimum drag conguration (Heller et al. 1970). Based
on this evidence, Hsu et al. (1998) designed an experimental cavity to investigate the
low-speed ame stability characteristics of a trapped-vortex combustor, while Katta
and Roquemore (998a, 998b) performed numerical calculations for this geometry. Their
results showed that a vortex is locked in a short cavity (L/D < 1).
However, when a vortex is trapped in the cavity, very little uid is entrained into the
cavity, resulting in very little exchange of the main ow and cavity uid. When ame
stabilization is a consideration, a continuous exchange of mass and heat between the
cavity and the main ow is required. To overcome this problem, it has been suggested
to directly inject both fuel and air into the cavity in a manner that reinforces the vortex
and increases mass transfer of the reactive gases with the freestream.
The main conclusions revealed from low-speed cavity ame-holder studies can be
summarized as follows:
1. In non-reacting ows, a stable cavity ow was observed at an optimal dimension
(L/D = 0.6) that produces minimum drag, namely, minimum pressure drop. This
was also the optimal cavity length which provided the most stable ame.
2. A sucient amount of fuel and air must be injected directly into the cavity to
obtain good performance characteristics of a combustor with a trapped-vortex
cavity.
3. The uid injection inside the cavity had a strong impact on the stability of the
vortex inside the cavity. When jets were injected in such a way that they reinforced
the vortex, the ame stabilization capability of the cavity was enhanced.
4. The optimum size (L/D) for steady ow should be larger in the case of cavities
with uid injection than for cavities with no injection.
Cavity ame-holders in high-speed ows: In the scramjet community, there
is a growing interest in the use of cavity ame-holders. In a 1997 Air Force/NASA
workshop (Tishko et al. 1997), an integrated fuel injector/cavity ame-holder was
mentioned as one of the new concepts that may provide potential performance gain in
a scramjet engine. It was indeed very encouraging to see this new concept employed
and ight-tested in the scramjet engine by the Central Institute of Aviation Motors
in Moscow (Roudakov et al. 1993; Vinagradov et al. 1995; Ortweth et al. 1996;
Owens et al. 1998; Roudakov et al. 1996; McClinton et al. 1996). The combustor of
the axisymmetric scramjet engine, illustrated in Fig. 7.7, included three fuel injection
stages, two with cavity ame-holders (D = 20 mm by L = 40 mm and D = 30 mm by
L = 53 mm) and one with a step ame-holder (D = 17 mm). The injection of the fuel
(hydrogen) was performed within the cavity ame-holders from the front-facing wall at
30
o
to the engine axis and just upstream of the step at 45
o
. With this integrated injec-
tion/cavity ame-holder approach, numerical studies (McClinton et al. 1996) showed
that autoignition and ame-holding within the cavity could be obtained at Mach 6.5
ight, even without the spark ignition plugs. Their analysis also revealed that without
the cavity, the ignition is unlikely due to the small injector dimension (d
j
= 1.252 mm)
and low combustor operation pressure (p 0.4 atm) as estimated previously by Huber
et al. (1979). Finally, the joint Russian / U.S. eort demonstrated in the ight test
performed on February 12, 1998 that a positive thrust from the scramjet engine could
be successfully achieved.
One can nd several recent studies investigating cavities for ame stabilization of a
supersonic combustor. Some of these works, performed for dierent kinds of fuels (solid,
liquid and gaseous fuels), are summarized as follows.
The combustion of kerosene in a scramjet requires additional ignition and ame-
holding elements because of the long ignition times and reduced reaction rates as com-
pared to hydrogen. Owens et al. (1998) tried to determine the ame stability of kerosene
injected upstream of a cavity ame-holder with Mach 1.8 free-stream conditions. Due
to the low stagnation temperatures of 1000 K, ignition was provided by pilot hydrogen
fuel injected into the cavity. Flame-holding could be achieved only when large ow rates
71 175 248 274
30 68
Cavity 1
20 x 40
Cavity 2
30 x 53
Injector
30
Injector
30
Injector
Step
FIGURE 7.7 Axisymmetric combustor of the Scramjet engine which was ight-tested by Russian-
CIAM/NASA joint program (1998). In this engine two cavities with angled-rear wall were
used for ame-holding purposes. The dimensions are in mm (McClinton et al. 1996).
of hydrogen were used. In this case the enlargement of the recirculation region led to
entrainment of additional quantities of fresh air contributing to the ame stability. An
additional investigation of scramjet combustors operating on kerosene was performed by
CIAM (Vinagradov et al. 1995). In their conguration, the combustion was sustained
by a row of hydrogen fuel injectors placed in front of a cavity.
The use of cavities as ame-holders in solid fuel supersonic combustors has been also
studied (Ben-Yakar et al. 998a; Angus et al. 1993). In the experiments of Ben-Yakar
et al. (998a), self-ignition and sustained combustion of PMMA (Plexiglas) solid fuel with
no external aid (such as reactive gas injection or a pilot ame) was demonstrated under
supersonic hot-air ow conditions. This was accomplished by a recirculation region
formed inside a cavity which was positioned at the entrance of the combustor. Typically,
in a subsonic solid fuel ramjet, a step is used for ame-holding purposes, and it is
known that larger step heights (leading to bigger recirculation zones) can provide better
ame stabilization. However, in supersonic ows where a large step is required, the
free-stream ow velocity would increase as well by the sudden expansion, deteriorating
the ame-holding capability. Under those considerations, a cavity consisting of a step
followed by an angled wall was chosen as a ame-holder in the supersonic solid fuel
experiments mentioned above. The results revealed that both the cavity length (L) and
the step height (D) have signicant eect in sustaining the combustion. While short L
caused ameout even for relatively large D, the inverse, namely small D, did not permit
sustained combustion even though L was quite long. Ultimately, cavity length-to-depth
ratio between 1.7 < L/D < 2 showed a regime of sustained combustion.
Besides the use of cavities in liquid and solid fueled supersonic combustors, there are
other research groups (Yu et al. 1998; Yu et al. 1999; Niioka et al. 1995; Mathur et al.
1999; Davis and Bowersox 997a; Davis and Bowersox 997b) concentrating on character-
ization of cavity ame-holders in gaseous supersonic combustors. Initial experimental
eorts were performed by Yu et al. (1998, 1999). They analyzed ow stability and
ame-holding characteristics of several wall cavities with various sizes and aspect ratios
(L/D = 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and inclined cavity) in a Mach 2 air-stream. Pressure oscillations,
observed in cold ow experiments, were diminished in reacting ow, when the thin shear
layer above the cavity disappeared by three fuel jets injected at 45
o
upstream of the
cavity. Typically, small aspect ratio (1 < L/D < 3) cavities appeared to be good ame-
holders, which is consistent with the trapped vortex concept discussed above. The
narrow cavities (L/D = 0.5) provided very steady ame-holding, however they had rela-
tively little eect on the downstream emission characteristics. With the inclined cavity,
which was also the longest cavity tested (L/D = 5), no ame-holding was observed.
Additional experiments were conducted by Niioka et al. 1995 in Mach 1.5 airow. They
achieved ame stabilization using two struts and by injecting hydrogen gas in the in-
terval between the two parts. They showed that ame stability could be controlled by
the cavity length which controls the competition between the mass transfer rate and
the chemical reaction rate, i.e., the Damkohler number.
Wright-Patterson Air Force Research Laboratories have also initiated a program
(Mathur et al. 1999; Davis and Bowersox 997a; Davis and Bowersox 997b) to examine
the eectiveness of cavities in supersonic ows. Experiments on a cavity with upstream
ethylene fuel injection were performed in the supersonic combustor facility operating at
conditions that simulate ight Mach numbers between 4 and 6. Initial results demon-
strate ame-holding and large ame spreading in the cavity vicinity. In parallel, Mach 3
cold ow research is also in-progress to study the fundamental aspects of cavities. The
results showed that:
1. The cavity geometry had an eect on mass entrainment rate and residence times.
A decrease in cavity residence time was observed in cavities with longer length
and slanted walls.
2. In general, the length of the cavity determined the mass entrainment, while the
cavity depth determined the cavity residence time.
3. Larger cavities (L/D = 7) had signicantly higher drag coecients than the
smaller cavities (L/D = 3). Reduction of the back wall angle below 90
o
resulted
in additional drag penalties.
4. Cavities with oset ratios larger than 1 (upstream wall height is larger than the
back wall height) caused the cavity base to experience lower pressures and there-
fore larger drag penalties.
In addition, Davis and Bowersox (997a, 997b) used a combined CFD/perfectly
stirred reactor methodology as a design guide for sizing of the cavity. He recom-
mends that initial cavity size can be estimated based on the minimum residence time
required to obtain ignition by assuming a perfectly stirred reactor cavity ow. Similar
to Gruber et al. (999a), he concluded that cavity depth, D, which mainly controls
the residence time, can be estimated using their numerically obtained empirical equa-
tion: D =
r
U/40, where
r
is the required residence time for ignition and U is the
free-stream velocity.
7.1.3 Outstanding Questions
As discussed above, during the last few years, cavities have gained attention as
promising ame-holding devices. However, comprehensive studies still need to be per-
formed to determine optimal congurations which yield the most eective ame-holding
capability with minimum losses.
We can pose the following questions concerning the eectiveness of the cavities as
stable ame-holders in supersonic combustors:
1. Can the TV concept be used in supersonic combustors? Several investiga-
tors have recognized the aerodynamic advantages of trapping vortices inside small
aspect ratio cavities (L/D < 1) both as a means of reducing the drag penalties of
cavities and also obtaining stable ame-holding in a low-speed combustor. Stable
small aspect ratio cavities may possibly be adapted to provide sustained combus-
tion in supersonic ows. However, the cavity ow residence time associated with
high-speed ows will be smaller than in low-speed ows and might eliminate its
ame-holding capability. Therefore, stable cavities may possibly be adapted to
provide sustained combustion in supersonic ows as long as the Damkohler num-
ber is larger than unity (namely, the residence time inside the cavity is sucient
to initiate the ignition process). For example in the ight tested scramjet engine,
designed by CIAM and NASA, fuel was injected within the cavity ame-holder
to provide autoignition and ame-holding (McClinton et al. 1996). Otherwise,
autoignition was unlikely due to the low total enthalpies of the Mach 6 ight
condition, and small injector dimensions and the low combustor pressures of the
design point.
2. What are the cavity dimensions and its geometry? Open cavities with
L/D < 7 10 are good candidates for ame-holding owing to their reduced drag
coecients relative to the closed cavities. The dimensions of an open cavity have
to be derived from ignition and ame-holding considerations. The cavity depth
can be determined according to the required residence time to initiate ignition.
The cavity length, on the other hand, has to be chosen to provide sucient volume
of radicals to sustain the combustion further downstream.
3. Can an unstable cavity be used to establish ame-holding? While a
stable cavity is preferable to sustain continuous and stable combustion, an unstable
cavity can be used to enhance mixing and ignition by the shock waves emitted as
a result of strong cavity oscillations. However, unstable cavities are unlikely to
provide a continuous ame-holding region inside the cavity as will also be shown
in our preliminary ignition experiments (see Section 7.2).
4. How does fuel injection aect the cavity ow-eld? Jet injection upstream
or inside the cavity can alter the shear layer specications (its thickness and sta-
bility) directly, and therefore, the cavity performance. Raman et al. (1999), for
example, have found that jet interaction with a cavity can produce dierent oscil-
lation frequencies.
5. How does the cavity ow-eld aect a fuel jet injected upstream? Shock
waves emanating from a cavity can enhance the mixing of fuel jets injected up-
stream of the cavity. As shown by several researchers, the acoustic waves of an
unstable cavity can be used to enhance mixing. On the other hand, a stable cav-
ity can also enhance mixing. As the jet reaches to the back wall it interacts with
the strong trailing edge shock wave of the cavity. It is known that an oblique-
shock-wave-jet interaction enhances the molecular mixing between supersonic air
and gaseous fuel by the vorticity generated due to the baroclinic torque. This
might have immediate signicance to the spreading rate of the jet and mixing
enhancement of the fuel-air, resulting in enhanced combustion eciency.
6. Is local wall heating inside the cavity a problem? High total temperatures
of air stagnating inside the cavity can result in excessive heat transfer to the walls.
However, the transpiration technique of mass addition from a porous surface can
be used as a way to cool the cavity surfaces. This method can, furthermore,
decrease the skin friction losses on the cavity oor surface and reduce the drag
losses associated with the shock wave structure of the cavity (Castiglone et al.
1997). Fuel mass bleeding inside the cavity can alter the shear layer bending
towards the cavity by increasing the cavity pressure distribution. In this way,
the strong trailing edge reattachment shock wave can be eliminated or reduced
in strength. Therefore, an optimized transpiration cooled cavity may also be
designed to improve the pressure losses and the drag penalties.
7. At which ight conditions can a cavity ame-holder be eective? At
high ight Mach numbers, beyond Mach 8, the velocity and the total enthalpy of
air entering the combustor is high. In this hypersonic ight regime, hydrogen fuel
is preferred owing to its reduced combustion characteristic times. Ignition of the
hydrogen-air system can be purely characterized by radical runaway without the
need for thermal feedback (substantiated by direct numerical analysis of Im et al.
(1998)). Therefore, for a hydrogen-air system, a cavity ame-holder, in which
the high-stagnation temperatures will initiate ignition by radical runaway, can be
designed even though no appreciable heat has yet been released. As we move into
lower ight speeds, below Mach 8, application of a ame-holder becomes crucial.
In this supersonic ight regime, the selection of a cavity ame-holder is required
to achieve longer ow residence times inside the cavity because of the reduced
total enthalpies and longer ignition delay times associated with hydrocarbon fuels,
which are the candidate fuels for supersonic ight below Mach 8. Consequently,
cavities can be utilized in a wide range of ow conditions, in both supersonic and
hypersonic airbreathing propulsion systems.
L/D=3
L/D=5
x/D=1.5
P P
x/D=0.5
cavitypressure
transducers
FIGURE 7.8 Position of pressure transducers located at the bottom of the cavity to measure the history
of the ow oscillations inside the cavity. Pressure transducer located farther downstream at
x/D = 1.5 provided a more accurate oscillation frequency measurements.
7.2 Preliminary Cavity Results
Here, we will summarize our preliminary results, where the primary objective is to
demonstrate the feasibility of the experimental set-up to provide information for cavity
ame-holder studies. These appear to be the rst cavity experiments performed in such
high total enthalpy ows.
The pressure is measured within the cavity to monitor the time dependent acoustic
eld. The fast response pressure measurements are performed at 1.5 D downstream the
forward face of the cavity as illustrated in Fig. 7.8. Established cavity oscillations are
observed and a sequence of oscillation cycles could be captured during the limited test
time ( 300 s) of the ow facility.
Figure 7.9 shows examples of the cavity pressure development at x/D = 1.5 during a
typical expansion tube run. These pressure traces are obtained for 4 dierent geometries:
a) L/D = 3, b) L/D = 5, c) L/D = 5 with hydrogen injection upstream of the cavity
and d) L/D = 7. After the arrival of incident shock wave, dierent ow regimes exist
including: a time during which helium is owing; a period during which the contact
region is passing; and a window in which there is a steady ow of test gas before the
arrival of rarefaction waves. These ow periods can clearly be visualized in cavity
pressure measurements where the pressure rises by the arrival of contact surface. After
0 200 400 600 800 1000
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
~53ms
Test Gas
L/D=7
P
c
a
v
i
t
y
,
A
U
t, msec
0 200 400 600 800 1000
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
~18ms
Test Gas L/D=3
P
c
a
v
i
t
y
,
A
U
t, msec
0 200 400 600 800 1000
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
~38ms
Test Gas
L/D=5
P
c
a
v
i
t
y
,
A
U
t, msec
0 200 400 600 800 1000
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
~38ms
Test Gas
L/D=5 with
30
o
injection
P
c
a
v
i
t
y
,
A
U
t, msec
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 7.9 Examples of cavity pressure traces in arbitrary units: a) L/D = 3, b) L/D = 5, c) L/D = 5
with upstream hydrogen injection, d) L/D = 7. t = 0 represents incident shock arrival at the
cavity. The free-stream (N
2
) conditions represent Mach 10 total enthalpy at the supersonic
combustor entry: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K, p
= 32 kPa.
TABLE 7.1 Summary of cavity oscillation frequencies, f
m
, for dierent cavity length to depth ratios, L/D.
The table includes the expected values based on Rossiters formula and the ones measured in
our experiments.
L/D Rossiters formula Present data Dierence
f
m
, kHz T
m
, s T
m
, s %
3 52.2 19.2 18 1 -6.3 5
5 31.3 31.9 37 1 16.0 4
7 22.4 44.7 53 2 18.6 2
a period of ow establishment time (about 200 s), several cycles of distinct pressure
oscillations are observed during the steady ow test time.
The measured frequencies, averaged from several experiments, together with the
expected frequencies estimated from Rossiters empirical formula are summarized in
Table 7.1. A good agreement within 6 % could be achieved for the frequency measure-
ment of L/D = 3. For larger L/D ratios, the agreement is weaker and the dierence
between the measured and the expected frequencies reaches up to 20 %. This dierence
might be due to the dierence in total temperature (4000 K) of the ow tested in
our experiments. Note that the formula of Rossiters contains two empirical parameters
derived from cold ow experiments. However, before any conclusion can be made, we
have to analyze the ow-eld dynamics of dierent cavity geometries in more detail.
These results show that 2-D cavities with the geometry chosen here (D = 3 mm,
L/D =3, 5, 7) can be studied in an expansion tube facility despite the limited test time.
However, a longer test time is required to achieve accurate values of the acoustic eld
frequencies inside/around the cavity.
7.2.1 Visual Observation of Cavities Using Ultra-Fast Schlieren
Flows around two-dimensional cavities are investigated to show the eects of vari-
ations in length-to-depth ratio (L/D) of the cavity. For this purpose cavities with
L/D =3, 5 and 7 are tested. In addition, a 30 degrees angled rear wall was tested for
the cavities with L/D =3 and 5. All the cavities have the same depth of 3 mm. The
dierent length-to-depth ratios are formed by removable back wall inserts.
Figure 7.10 summarizes examples of instantaneous schlieren images (200 ns exposure
time) obtained for cavities with L/D = 3, 5, and 7 that we have tested. In all cases,
the boundary layer separates from the upstream lip and reattaches downstream.
As the boundary layer separates from the leading edge of the cavity, a free shear layer
forms. Depending upon the pressure inside the cavity the shear layer deects upwards
or downwards producing a compression or an expansion wave consequently. For the
cavity with L/D = 3 (Fig. 7.10a) a compression wave appears at the leading edge of
the cavity. As the cavity length is increased to L/D = 5 (Fig. 7.10b) this compression
wave weakens. Eventually, for the cavity with L/D = 7 (Fig. 7.10c), it diminishes and
an expansion wave at the leading edge takes place instead of the compression wave.
The strongest shock wave appears from the trailing edge of the cavities which is con-
sistent with the numerical observations of Zhang et al. (1998). The shear layer deects
downward near the trailing edge of the cavity and creates a high pressure stagnation
point on the downstream face (the dark regions as can be seen in schlieren images in
Figs. 7.10a and 7.10b). While this strong shock wave seems to be attached to the trail-
ing edge of the cavities with L/D = 3 and 5, it moves upstream o the back wall for
the cavity with L/D = 7.
There are generally two basic ow regimes that a cavity can yield depending upon
the length-to-depth ratio, L/D (see Fig. 7.1). A cavity is termed open if the shear
layer reattaches to the back face while the drag of the cavity is small (Fig. 7.1a). Beyond
some critical L/D ratio, the cavity is termed closed as the free shear layer reattaches
to the lower wall resulting in signicantly increased drag. Based upon this description,
in our experiments cavities with L/D = 3 and 5 demonstrate open cavity ow-eld
features, while a cavity with L/D = 7 seems to be in the transition regime between
open and closed cavity.
These results are also consistent with the numerical calculations of Baurle and Gru-
ber (1998). Their results showed that larger cavities (L/D = 7) have signicantly higher
drag coecients than the smaller cavities (L/D = 3).
Figures 7.10d and 7.10e demonstrate instantaneous ow-eld structure of cavities
with a back wall angled at 30 degrees. These schlieren images reveal that the leading
edge compression waves observed for the cavities with L/D = 3 and 5 do not exist with
an angled aft wall cavity. However, the strong trailing edge shock wave still exits as the
shear layer reattaches at the angled back wall.
Additional experiments are performed in order to study the inuence of upstream
(a) L/D = 3 (d) L/D = 3 with 30
o
angled back wall
(b) L/D = 5 (e) L/D = 5 with 30
o
angled back wall
(c) L/D = 7
FIGURE 7.10 Schlieren images demonstrating the dierences in the ow-eld structure of cavities with
dierent length-to-depth ratios and back wall angle. The depth of the cavities is constant
and equal to D = 3 mm. The free-stream was generated to simulate Mach 10 total enthalpy
conditions at the supersonic combustor entry: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K,
p
= 32 kPa. The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the cavity is approximately
1mm.
(a) L/D = 3
(b) L/D = 3 with 30
o
back wall and upstream injection
(c) L/D = 5 with upstream injection
FIGURE 7.11 Schlieren images demonstrating jet interaction with dierent cavities. The hydrogen jet is
injected into a non-reacting free-stream 3 mm upstream of the cavity from a d = 1 mm orice.
The injection is performed at angle of 30
o
to the plate. The free-stream, N
2
, represents the
ight Mach 10 burner entry conditions.
fuel injection onto the cavity ow eld. The results shown in Fig. 7.11 include 30 degrees
hydrogen injection from a 1 mm diameter orice positioned at 3 mm upstream of the
cavity leading edge. Those schlieren observations present no signicant dierences in the
cavity ow eld structure due to the upstream injection. On the other hand, some cavity
inuence on the jet can be observed. The jet seems to be disturbed as it propagates
over the cavity for the case of L/D =3 and 5 by the compression waves at the leading
edge. As this leading edge shock wave diminishes for the cavities with an angled wall
the jet is not disturbed as it spans over the cavity until it reaches to the trailing edge.
As the jet reaches to the back wall it interacts with the strong trailing edge shock
wave emitting from the cavity. This shock wave - jet interaction at the trailing edge of
the cavity might have an important role in reacting cases. It is known that an oblique
shock wave - jet interaction enhances the molecular mixing between supersonic air and
gaseous fuel. The vorticity generated when a shock wave interacts with a shear layer
(due to the baroclinic torque) has immediate signicance to the mixing enhancement in
supersonic ows resulting in enhanced combustion eciency.
Furthermore, the trailing edge shock is expected to direct the fuel jet towards the
airow, increasing the fuel penetration, the static pressure, the static temperature, and
therefore the reaction rates.
Since the fuel jet penetration is expected to decrease as the angle of injection de-
creases, an improved transverse penetration and lateral spreading of the fuel might be
achieved by interaction of the jet with the cavity leading edge shock wave.
7.2.2 Preliminary Ignition Results of Injection/Cavity Schemes
The ignition of a hydrogen jet interacting with a cavity is studied using OH-PLIF.
Several instantaneous OH-PLIF images obtained at the center-line of the jet are pre-
sented in Fig. 7.12 for cavity with L/D = 3 and in Fig. 7.13 for cavity with a 30
o
angled
back wall. Hydrogen is injected 3 mm upstream the cavity leading edge at an angle
of 30
o
and the free-stream (air) properties represent the ight Mach 10 burner entry
conditions: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K, p
= 32 kPa.
For a cavity with L/D = 3, ve images (see Fig. 7.12) are obtained from dierent
experiments. The unsteady nature of the jet/cavity interaction is apparent as the in-
tensity level of OH radicals change from experiment to experiment. Figure 7.12a shows
an ignition along the jet/cavity shear layer with a little OH uorescence signal inside
the cavity. As the jet interacts with the hot cavity air an auto-ignition can be achieved
at the interface. The jet/cavity shear layer impinging on the back wall causes jet and
free-stream ows to enter the cavity. Figures 7.12b-e show signicant levels of OH con-
centration inside the cavity. The intensity dierences between the images might be a
result of the breathing motion of the cavity. However, quenching of OH is observed
downstream of the cavity for all of the ve experiments, indicating that this cavity
conguration can not provide ame-holding.
The OH-signal levels from shot to shot are more uniform inside the cavity with an
angled back wall as the cavity oscillations are suppressed (see Fig. 7.13). This cavity
conguration provides a continuous ignition downstream of the cavity. Also visible in
Fig. 7.13a is the ignition on the upper side of the jet, most likely induced by the shock
wave attached to the cavity back wall.
In summary, the few OH-PLIF images indicate no ignition around the jet even in
the high total enthalpy conditions of ight Mach 10 due to the shallow injection angle.
Addition of a cavity downstream the injection port does provide ignition in the near-
eld. However, the ame-holding capability of these cavities need to be examined in
more detail.
(a)
(b) (c)
(d) (e)
FIGURE 7.12 Instantaneous OH-PLIF images demonstrating the ignition regions of a hydrogen jet interact-
ing with a L/D = 3 cavity. The images are obtained from 5 single shots at the same condi-
tions. Hydrogen is injected 3 mm upstream the cavity leading edge at an angle of 30
o
. The
free-stream (air) properties represent the ight Mach 10 burner entry conditions: M
= 3.4,
U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K, p
= 32 kPa. Note that a schlieren image is also included to

indicate the ow-eld properties around the cavity.
(a)
(b) (c)
FIGURE 7.13 Instantaneous OH-PLIF images demonstrating the ignition regions of a hydrogen jet interact-
ing with a cavity with L/D = 3 and 30
o
back wall. The images are obtained from 5 single
shots at the same conditions. Hydrogen is injected 3 mm upstream the cavity leading edge at
an angle of 30
o
. The free-stream (air) properties represent the ight Mach 10 burner entry
conditions: M
= 3.4, U
= 2360 m/s, T
= 1290 K, p
= 32 kPa. Note that a schlieren

image is also included to indicate the ow-eld properties around the cavity.
Chapter 8
Concluding Remarks
8.1 Summary of Major Results and Conclusions
8.1.1 Experimental Aspects
We have demonstrated the feasibility of using an expansion tube to generate clean
(radical-free), high-total enthalpy supersonic ows of air associated with hyperve-
locity combustors.
Characterization experiments with test gas mixtures of 95%N
2
+ 5%CO
2
were
performed to study the facilitys performance such as the free-stream ow proper-
ties, the useful test time and the core-ow size available for mixing and combustion
studies of a 2 mm jet in crossow. Our experimental approach included simulation
of the required total enthalpy (3-6 MJ/kgair) of ight Mach 8, 10 and 13 condi-
tions by simulating the required burner entry Mach number, burner entry static
temperature, and consequently the burner entry velocity. As the burner entry
static temperatures were chosen to be in the range of 1250-1400 K, velocities of
1800, 2360 and 3200 m/s were generated for the ight Mach 8, 10 and 13 condi-
tions, respectively. On the other hand, simulated static pressures were below the
desired values because of the limited maximum pressures available in the current
driver section and the limited maximum pressures at which the jet injector valve
could operate with sucient speed.
The steady test time duration and the core-ow size of the expansion tube ow
161
CHAPTER 8. CONCLUDING REMARKS 162
were characterized. These are important parameters which dene the model di-
mensions where a fully established ow can be achieved. In addition, primary
eects of the boundary layer on expansion tube ow were observed. In particu-
lar, test times ranging between 170 - 400 s, higher than the ideal values, were
observed. In contrast with shock tunnels, the expansion tube allows an increased
duration of useful test times, as the corresponding ight Mach number of the test
ow increases. The boundary layer developed on the tube walls increases the con-
tact surface velocity and therefore delays the arrival of the rst disturbance wave.
However, in our experiments the static pressure of the free-stream was low for
high enthalpy ows, causing the boundary layer eects to increase the test time.
Simulation with higher pressures might result in shorter test times, and therefore
shorter useful test slug lengths would be available.
We have demonstrated that Mirels solution for boundary layer eect implemented
in x-t diagrams is a useful tool for prediction of test time and for optimizing the
expansion section length to achieve the maximum test duration.
Pitot pressure surveys at the exit of the expansion tube have identied an inviscid
test core of approximately 25 mm diameter over which the pitot pressure is con-
stant to within 5%. While the core-ow size in Mach 10 and 13 conditions did
not diminish signicantly at 6.35 cm downstream of the tube exit, the core-ow
size for the Mach 8 condition dropped by half. Since the Mach wave angle is
steeper for small free-stream Mach numbers, the boundary layer information at
the tube exit reaches to the centerline in a smaller distance at the ight Mach 8
condition.
Finally, compared to large facilities that can average a limited number of experi-
ments per day, many experiments per day in this facility can be performed with
the eort of just one student. Therefore, this facility provides a useful tool for
basic study of near-eld features of dierent fuel injection congurations that have
potential for future application in scramjet engines.
8.1.2 Flow Visualization Techniques
We used two non-intrusive ow diagnostic techniques: Planar Laser-Induced Fluores-
cence of OH radicals (OH-PLIF) and schlieren imaging with an ultra-fast-framing-rate
digital camera. While schlieren showed the location of shock waves and jet penetration,
OH-PLIF mapped the regions of combustion.
Ultra-Fast Framing Rate Schlieren
We have presented the rst demonstration of an ultra-fast ow visualization sys-
tem (at framing rates up to 100 MHz) based on schlieren imaging. High-temporal
and high-spatial resolutions allowed both qualitative and quantitative study of
supersonic ows. The system included a fast-framing camera (IMACON 468),
capable of acquiring 8 full resolution images in a 576 384 pixel format with in-
terframing times and exposure times down to 10 ns and a Xenon ashlamp system
capable of providing up to 200 s duration of a uniform light source. Supersonic
movies were obtained by assembling the consecutive images. These movies ba-
sically slow the ow motion by one million times, elucidating the instantaneous
unsteady features. For example, the pulsating nature of periodically formed eddies
causing the bow shock to uctuate is very apparent and can be easily followed.
Qualitative ow observations as well as quantitative measurements such as veloc-
ity, propagation angle and formation frequency of large-eddy structures, jet pen-
etration and the width of the jet shear layer were obtained. A cross-correlation
technique using fast Fourier transforms has been employed to analyze the 8 con-
secutive images. Among those measurements, the spatial-temporal development
(x-t diagram) of unsteady structures and their frequency of formation were part
of the unique measurements available only by analysis of time correlated multi-
ple images. For example, due to pairing and stretching, the spatial gap between
eddies is not necessarily a measure of the eddy formation frequency. Therefore,
only high-speed framing rate imaging could provide such information, necessary
for understanding the origin of the jet shear layer vortical structures, which are
the dominant mechanism in the near-eld mixing of jets.
We have shown optimum exposure and inter-framing times which require the op-
timization of four main factors including the schlieren sensitivity, the spatial res-
olution, the dynamic range and the signal-to-noise ratio. The image area was
28 18 mm and the exposure time was 100 ns. In other words, the spatial res-
olution was 100 100 m in the near-eld (x/d < 2) and 250 250 m in the
far eld (x/d > 8) depending on the large-scale structure movement during the
exposure time. The corresponding resolving power was 2-5 pixels, achieved by
the optimization of the four factors discussed above. Resolution considerations
became important with increasing velocities and decreasing region of interest. In
our experiments, we could achieve very high quality schlieren images even though
light deections were minimum since the jet diameter was only 2 mm. The inten-
sied CCD cameras and the high intensity light source allowed us to control the
sensitivity of the imaging system and achieve the required quality for quantitative
data analyses.
The application of a high-speed-framing rate imaging system became even more
important as it was combined with an impulse facility operation. The unique
free-stream conditions with high-speed and high-temperatures studied in this in-
vestigation could only be generated for very short times. Therefore, the use of
the ultra-fast schlieren system was crucial because it increased signicantly the
amount of data available from a single experiment.
OH-PLIF and Simultaneous Measurements
The OH-PLIF measurements were obtained by excitation of the A
2
+
X
2
(1, 0)
band of OH, near 283 nm, and by the detection of the (1,1) band near 315 nm. A
broader excitation assumption was valid as the linewidth of the laser beam, pro-
vided from a frequency-doubled dye laser source, was broader than the absorption
linewidth. The isolated Q
1
(7) transition at 283.266 nm was selected to minimize
signal dependence on temperature. Therefore, the uorescence intensity could be
related directly to OH mole fraction.
Simultaneous OH-PLIF and schlieren imaging could be implemented using two
intensied CCD cameras and a dichroic mirror to separate the OH uorescence
from the schlieren beam.
8.1.3 Characteristics of Hydrogen and Ethylene Transverse Jets
We studied the ow-eld properties of hydrogen and ethylene jets injected into ight
Mach 10 conditions at similar jet-to-free-stream momentum ux ratio. The results reveal
signicant dierences in the development of large-scale coherent structures present in
the jet shear layer. Previously, the momentum ux ratio was found to be the main
controlling parameter of the jet penetration; the results here demonstrated the existence
of an additional mechanism which altered the vortical structure, the penetration and
the mixing properties of the jet shear layer. These new observations became possible
by the simulation of high velocity and high temperature free-stream conditions which
could not have been achieved in the facilities that have been widely used in previous
studies. The details of the main results can be summarized in the following points:
Visual observations, supported by the qualitative measurements of the convec-
tion velocity and jet penetration, reveal large dierences between the hydrogen
and ethylene injection cases. Special attention was given to the large scale co-
herent structures present at the jet/free-stream interface. Instantaneous images
provided a well-resolved representation of the coherent structures at the jet pe-
riphery. While the hydrogen eddies persisted for long downstream distances, in
the ethylene case the eddies dissipated quickly. It is conjectured that increasing
stresses due to the steep velocity gradient across the shear layer are responsible
for this change. The large variation in the molecular weight between hydrogen
and ethylene leads to signicantly dierent exit velocities at the sonic orice. Be-
cause of the low jet exit velocity of ethylene (315 m/s), the shear layer vortical
structures tilt and stretch in the direction of the fast crossow (2360 m/s). The
large structures eventually became unstable and were torn apart by the stretching
of the vortical structures.
The above observations were supported by PLIF imaging of OH radicals which
maps the regions of auto-ignition. These ignition regions can be related to homoge-
nously mixed regions since molecular mixing is required before the fuel and the
oxidizer react. Ethylene injection demonstrated high concentration of OH radicals
across the jet while in the hydrogen case only a thin amelet could be observed
around the large eddy structures. Clearly, molecular mixing of the ethylene jet
was dramatically altered during or after the onset of the tilting-stretching-tearing
process.
Eddy convection characteristics and jet transverse penetration were also dier-
ent between the two cases. Hydrogen structures tended to travel with velocities
(2200 m/s) that were closer to the free-stream velocity as they align with the
free-stream ow in the far-eld (x/d > 9). The convection velocity of ethylene
structures were slower than the hydrogen eddies due to the low jet exit velocities.
Tracking dierent parts of the ethylene large eddies, a wide convection velocity dis-
tribution was shown to exist across the shear layer ranging between 750-1750 m/s.
The dierences in the bow shock steepness could result in the observed dierences
in the convection velocity between the cases. The properties of the free-stream (the
bow shock shape and the shock-induced ow properties) were directly inuenced
by the convection characteristics of the large-scale eddies.
The ethylene jet penetrates deeper into the free-stream than the hydrogen jet.
This was an unexpected result as all of the previous studies showed that the jet-
to-free-stream momentum ux ratio (J) was the primary penetration controlling
mechanism. We therefore expected to observe identical penetration heights as the
J was identical for both cases in our studies. This interesting and surprising result
could again be attributed to the evolution of the jet shear layer under large velocity
gradients. The thickness of the penetration band, used as the representation of
the jet-shear-layer thickness was considerable in the ethylene injection case, due
to the tilting-stretching-tearing mechanism and also due to the larger growth rate
of the jet shear layer.
8.1.4 Density and Velocity Ratio Eects
Following the observations of the previous section, we investigated the stability of
the jet shear layer at various speed ratios and density ratios via ow visualization
(schlieren). The high shear stresses induced by the large velocity dierence across
the jet shear layer had a large eect on the structure of the layer. For the unstable
case, we noticed: 1) loss of Kelvin-Helmholtz structures with the tilting-stretching-
tearing mechanism, 2) increased growth rates with decreasing values of jet-to-
free-stream velocity ratio, 3) large intrusions of crossow in between the eddies,
4) distortion of the bow shock around the large eddies. Stable layers showed well-
dened Kelvin-Helmholtz rollers.
An eective velocity ratio parameter, = (1 r
2
)/
1 + r
2
was suggested. The
results plotted in a density-eective velocity ratio (s-) diagram demonstrated two
separate regions of stable and unstable jet shear layers.
8.1.5 Ignition and Flame-Holding Capability of a Hydrogen Trans-
verse Jet
The problem of hydrogen transverse injection and its ame-holding capability was
studied in very high-speed, high-total-enthalpy ow conditions. The experiments ap-
plied simultaneous OH-PLIF and schlieren imaging to map the regions where combus-
tion occurs relative to the jet position. The main results are summarized as follows:
At the ight Mach 10 condition, OH uorescence was mainly observed along the
outer edge of the jet plume. Simultaneous OH-PLIF/schlieren revealed that the
structural evolution of the reaction zone is in good agreement with the jet shear
layer position determined by the schlieren imaging. The ignition was initiated in
the recirculation region upstream of the jet. The ignition product OH, convected
downstream along with the large eddies, was mainly detected along the jet shear
layer periphery in a continuous and very thin lament.
At the ight Mach 13 condition, OH-PLIF demonstrated high signal levels of OH
uorescence starting in the upstream recirculation region and along the jet shear
layer. The ignition delay times in this condition were eectively zero ( 1 5s)
due to the high total enthalpies (namely high total temperatures) of the free-
stream.
At the low total enthalpy Mach 8 condition, the ignition was limited to a small
region behind the bow shock and no OH uorescence could be observed farther
downstream.
8.1.6 Cavity Flame-Holders
In this part of the thesis, we have rst provided a review of cavities in supersonic ows
and their use for ame-holding in supersonic combustors. Second, we have performed a
preliminary investigation, where the primary objective was to demonstrate the feasibility
of the experimental set-up to provide information for cavity ameholder studies. These
appear to be the rst cavity experiments performed in such high total enthalpy ows.
In the rst part of the review, the basic ow-eld features of cavities studied by
various researchers are summarized, including: dierent ow regimes of cavities
based upon the length-to-depth ratio (open and closed), oscillations, techniques
to suppress these oscillations, drag penalties for dierent cavity geometries, and
ow residence time inside a cavity which is crucial to initiate the ignition. Both
experimental and numerical studies still need to be performed to answer some of
the contradictory results that have been observed by dierent investigators (drag
penalties of angled back wall cavities, amplitude of pressure uctuations, ow
residence time inside an unsteady cavity).
In the second part of the review, studies demonstrating the feasibility of cavities
to achieve ignition and to enhance ame-holding in subsonic and supersonic com-
bustors, are described. Finally, we have introduced several questions followed by
comments that need to be addressed in the development of cavities for practical
combustors.
Through a combination of simultaneously performed fast response pressure mea-
surements, established cavity oscillations were observed and a sequence of os-
cillation cycles were captured during the limited test time ( 270 s) of the ow
facility. The results demonstrated that short duration pulse facilities can be used
to study gasdynamic aspects of cavities, though with small dimensions (depth of
D = 3 mm), in hypersonic ows.
In the rst part of the preliminary study, ows around 2-D cavities (D = 3 mm,
L/D =3, 5 and 7) in a supersonic ow were investigated. Signicant changes
in the shock wave structure around the cavities were observed as the length-to-
depth ratio were systematically changed. Leading edge shock waves diminished
in cavities with large L/D. In all cases a strong reattachment shock wave at the
trailing edge of the cavity was observed. A transition from an open cavity ow
to a closed cavity ow was obtained for L/D = 7. An angled back wall reduced
the leading edge shock strength. Schlieren movies of the cavities reveal the shock
wave uctuations around the jet are caused by the pressure oscillations inside the
cavity.
In the second part of the preliminary study, ignition properties of a 30
o
hydrogen
jet combined with a downstream cavity (L/D = 3) were investigated. While
both cavities (with and without an angled back wall) provided an autoignition in
and around the cavity, ame-holding seems to require an improved cavity design.
Recommended congurations are presented in the following section.
8.2 Recommendation For Future Work
Recommended future work can be summarized in the following topics:
Extension of Ignition Measurements of Transverse Jets
We have shown that a fundamental supersonic combustion study can be performed
using an expansion tube, providing realistic free-stream conditions with relatively accu-
rate chemical composition. We therefore recommend the study of the near-eld ignition
mechanism of transverse jets in more detail by taking advantage of the various free-
stream conditions. For example, this study can be performed using a set of free-stream
conditions with reasonably similar velocities and total enthalpies but with signicantly
dierent static temperatures. Table 8.1 summarizes a set of recommended conditions
which were actually characterized in the expansion tube. Maps of Fig. 2.7 guided us in
determining the appropriate initial pressures.
Observation of the ignition processes for decreased static temperatures, while keeping
the other ow parameters constant, can reveal information about the source of the
ignition and the parameters controlling the ignition process.
Ignition in Cavity Flame-Holders
The eects of the jet in crossow in conjunction with a cavity can easily be studied
in the current facility setup. Fig. 8.1 shows three possibilities to produce a reacting jet
in crossow which is stabilized by a cavity ame-holder. A preliminary examination
of a 30
o
angled hydrogen injection upstream of the cavity showed autoignition inside
the cavity. However, a detailed investigation is still required to reveal the ame-holding
TABLE 8.1 Recommended free-stream ow conditions for further ignition studies.
Condition U
H
tot
m/s atm K MJ/kg
600/0.5/20 2360 25 0.32 1290 3.38 0.04 3.84
600/1/20 2365 27 0.31 977 3.86 0.03 3.52
600/2/20 2286 26 0.30 717 4.32 0.05 3.06
600/3/20 2143 45 0.29 604 4.39 0.09 2.62
600/4/20 2212 24 0.29 516 4.89 0.05 2.68
properties of the conguration. Injection in the upstream wall of the cavity might
provide a larger volume of combustible mixture of fuel and air within the cavity ow.
Injection further downstream might provide a pool of radicals both upstream, as well as
downstream of the jet. It is however impossible to predict the interaction of jet/cavity
shear layers in those congurations. A detailed experimental study is therefore needed
for a better understanding of the coupling between the jet and the cavity ow. Finally,
it should be noted that for hydrocarbon fuels with chemical kinetic rates notably slower
than hydrogen, a cavity may be the only viable means for ame stabilization.
Shock Wave/Jet Interaction
Oblique shock wave impingement into the jet is one method known to enhance the
molecular mixing between supersonic air and gaseous fuel. Waves are also unavoidable
in SCRAMJETS and often originate in the inlet isolator leading to the combustion zone
or from ramps and the bow-shock in front of the jet in crossow. Thus, we propose
to use wedge generated waves to interact with the jet injection ow-eld. A schematic
showing the expected features of shock impingement into a transverse jet is drawn in
Fig. 8.2.
It is well known that vorticity is generated when a shock wave interacts with a shear
layer due to the baroclinic torque (in general, the pressure gradient caused by the shock
and the density gradient in the shear layer will not be colinear). Amplied turbulence
and vorticity have immediate signicance to the mixing enhancement in supersonic
ows. Furthermore, the shock directs the airow towards the fuel jet, increasing the air
entrainment rate, the static pressure, the static temperature, and therefore the reaction
Jet
Shear Layer - Jet
Interaction
Jet
Free Shear Layer
Injectant
Free Shear Layer
Jet
(c)
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.1 Flow-eld schematics demonstrating dierent concepts of angled jet injection combined with
cavity ame-holder. a) upstream injection, b) base injection , c) cavity injection.
rates. There are few works (Hwanil and Driscoll 1996; Menon 1989; Marble 1994) which
have studied the eect of shock-wave/shear-layer interaction on mixing enhancement in
a supersonic combustor. The results indicated that the spreading rate of the shear-
layer may be enhanced by the shock impingement, resulting in enhanced mixing and
combustion eciency.
Shock wave jet interaction can easily be studied using the current facility/injection
system. A 25
o
angled wedge is actually designed to generate an oblique shock wave as
illustrated in Figure 8.3. The wedge, positioned 22 mm above the injection plate, has a
window made of sapphire to pass the OH-PLIF laser sheet into the imaged region.
A typical schlieren image demonstrating the oblique shock wave jet interaction is
shown in Fig. 8.4. The relatively strong shock, generated by the 25
o
wedge, directs the
air ow inward toward the hydrogen jet. In a dierent experiment in which simultaneous
INJECTANT
(Hydrogen)
BOWSHOCK
BARREL SHOCK
RECIRCULATION
ZONE
M M
>1 >1
RECIRCULATION
ZONE
BOUNDARYLAYER
SEPARATED
REGION
SHOCK-ENHANCED
COMBUSTION
MACHDISK
SHOCK GENERATOR PLATE
OBLIQUE
SHOCK
FIGURE 8.2 Flow-eld schematic of a shock-wave/jet interaction.
FIGURE 8.3 Schematic of the 25
o
wedge to generate a shock wave above the injection plate.
OH-PLIF and schlieren was applied (see Fig. 8.4b), no change in the OH signal level
was observed behind the shock impingement; meanwhile the thin lament of OH was
directed along the jet contour.
PLIF Sheet
Jet: Hydrogen, d
jet
= 2 mm, M
jet
=1, J=3
M
= 4.7
V
= 3200 m/s
P
= 4 kPa
T
= 1250 K
Air
25 25
o o
Slit for
OH-PLIF
Laser Sheet
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
y/d
jet
RegionIlluminatedby
PLIFSheet
y/d
jet
FIGURE 8.4 (a) An oblique shock wave impinging the hydrogen jet as visualized using schlieren imaging.
The shock was produced by a 25
o
angled wedge mounted above the injection plate. Flight
Mach 13 free-stream condition. (b) Combined OH-PLIF and schlieren images visualizing the
eect of shock/jet interaction on OH number density.
Appendix A
Expansion Tube Equations
In this appendix we summarize the equations used to calculate the test gas properties
at the exit of the expansion tube assuming one-dimensional, adiabatic and inviscid ow.
The nomenclature corresponds to Fig. 2.2 which denes the ow states at dierent
sections of the expansion tube.
As the expansion tube includes two-shock tubes in tandem, the common shock tube
equations (Gaydon and Hurle 1963) can be used in the intermediate calculations to fully
describe the test gas conditions at the exit of an expansion tube. Initially, the shock
wave strength and the post-shock conditions of the test gas (dened as state 2) in the
driven section and that of the acceleration gas (dened as state 20) in the expansion
section, must be calculated using the slightly modied shock tube equations. The test
gas ow conditions at the exit of the tube (state 5) can then be obtained by assuming
an isentropic expansion from the pressure in state 2 to the pressure in state 20.
Initially, as the primary (driver/driven) diaphragm is broken, the high-pressure
driver gas expands into the lower pressure driven section. A shock wave is formed
propagating into the test gas in the driven section. We can estimate the strength of this
incident shock for a given set of initial lling pressures. Assuming that the shock tube
is of uniform area, and that the driver gas expands isentropically from the driver into
the driven section, we nd that
P
4
P
1
=
2
1
M
2
s1
(
1
1)
1
+ 1
_
1

4
1
1
+ 1

a
1
a
4
_
M
s1
1
M
s1
__
_
2
4
4
1
_
(A.1)
where M
s1
is the shock Mach number in the driven section. The propagation of the
175
APPENDIX A. EXPANSION TUBE EQUATIONS 176
shock wave along the tube induces a velocity in the test gas behind the wave and causes
an increase in the pressure and temperature. These shock-induced properties of the
test gas can, therefore, be calculated using the calorically perfect and 1-D normal shock
relations, given by:
U
lab
2
=
2a
1
1
+ 1
_
M
s1
1
M
s1
_
(A.2)
P
2
P
1
=
2
1
M
2
s1
(
1
1)
1
+ 1
(A.3)
T
2
T
1
=
_
1
M
2
s1
(
1
1)
2
_ _
1
1
2
M
2
s1
+ 1
_
_
1
+1
2
_
2
M
2
s1
(A.4)
U
2
, P
2
and T
2
represent the velocity in the laboratory reference frame, the pressure and
the temperature of the shocked test gas in the driven section, respectively.
When the secondary diaphragm breaks due to the shock-induced high pressure in
the driven section, a new shock is formed propagating into the expansion section. The
expression to calculate the shock strength in this section, taking into account the velocity
of the test gas in the driven section (the driver gas in Eq. A.1 was motionless), therefore,
includes an additional term, resulting in:
P
2
P
10
=
2
10
M
2
s2
(
10
1)
10
+ 1
_
1

2
1
10
+ 1

a
10
a
2
_
M
s2
1
M
s2
_
+

2
1
2
M
2
_
_
2
2
2
1
_
(A.5)
where M
2
= U
lab
2
/
2
R
2
T
2
.
Equations to predict the shock-induced properties of the acceleration gas are similar
to that of the driven section gas:
U
lab
20
=
2a
10
10
+ 1
_
M
s2
1
M
s2
_
(A.6)
P
20
P
10
=
2
10
M
2
s1
(
10
1)
10
+ 1
(A.7)
T
20
T
10
=
_
10
M
2
s2
(
10
1)
2
_ _
10
1
2
M
2
s2
+ 1
_
_
10
+1
2
_
2
M
2
s2
(A.8)
APPENDIX A. EXPANSION TUBE EQUATIONS 177
As the shocked test gas in the driven section is suddenly confronted with the much
lower pressure acceleration gas in front of it, simultaneously expands and accelerates to
match the pressure and velocity of the shocked acceleration gas (helium), namely:
P
5
= P
20
(A.9)
U
5
= U
20
(A.10)
The corresponding temperature of the expanded test gas can be obtained by assum-
ing an isentropic expansion from condition 2 to condition 5.
T
5
T
2
=
_
P
5
P
2
_
_
2
1
2
_
(A.11)
Appendix B
Maps of Estimated Expansion
Tube Test Conditions
178
APPENDIXB. MAPS OF ESTIMATEDEXPANSIONTUBE TEST CONDITIONS 179
(a)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
10
(torr)
2200 K
1800 K
1400 K
1000 K
600 K
400 K
300 K

0
.
8

a
t
m

0
.
6

a
t
m

0
.
4

a
t
m

0
.
3

a
t
m

0
.
2

a
t
m

0
.
1

a
t
m

0
.
0
5

a
t
m
800 K
(b)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
10
(torr)
2.5

3
2
0
0

m
/
s

3
0
0
0

m
/
s

2
8
0
0

m
/
s

2
6
0
0

m
/
s

2
4
0
0

m
/
s

2
2
0
0

m
/
s

2
0
0
0

m
/
s

1
8
0
0

m
/
s
6 MJ/kg
3.5
3 MJ/kg
5.5
4 MJ/kg
4.5
5 MJ/kg

1
6
0
0

m
/
s
2 MJ/kg
FIGURE B.1 Maps of estimated test gas (nitrogen) conditions at the exit of an expansion tube: a) pressure
and temperature, b) total enthalpy and velocity of the test gas are plotted for dierent ini-
tial driven and expansion section pressures. Calculations are performed using the inviscid 1D
4
= 300 psig (helium).
(a)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
10
(torr)
3200 K

0
.
8

a
t
m

0
.
6

a
t
m

0
.
4

a
t
m

0
.
3

a
t
m

0
.
2

a
t
m

0
.
1

a
t
m

0
.
0
5

a
t
m
400 K
300 K
200 K
1400 K
4000 K
2000 K
2600 K
600 K
1000 K
4800 K
Temperature Pressure
(b)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
10
(torr)
2 MJ/kg

3
0
0
0

m
/
s
M = 8

2
6
0
0

m
/
s

2
4
0
0

m
/
s

2
2
0
0

m
/
s

2
0
0
0

m
/
s

1
8
0
0

m
/
s

1
6
0
0

m
/
s

2
8
0
0

m
/
s
M = 4
M = 5
M = 6
M = 3
M = 7
M = 2
4 MJ/kg
6 MJ/kg
Velocity Mach number Total enthalpy
5 MJ/kg
M = 1.5
3 MJ/kg
FIGURE B.2 Maps of estimated test gas (Argon) conditions at the exit of an expansion tube: a) pressure
and temperature, b) total enthalpy, velocity and Mach number of the test gas are plotted for
4
(a)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
A
r
g
o
n
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
2
10
(torr)

1
.
8

a
t
m

1
.
2

a
t
m

0
.
8

a
t
m

0
.
4

a
t
m

0
.
2

a
t
m

0
.
1

a
t
m

0
.
0
5

a
t
m
400 K
300 K
200 K
1400 K
4000 K
2000 K
2800 K
600 K
1000 K
5000 K
(b)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
A
r
g
o
n
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
2
10
(torr)
6
2 MJ/kg

3
4
0
0

m
/
s

2
2
0
0

m
/
s
M = 4
M = 10
M = 3
M = 2
4 MJ/kg
6 MJ/kg
5 MJ/kg
3 MJ/kg
M = 8
M = 6

3
0
0
0

m
/
s

2
6
0
0

m
/
s

1
8
0
0

m
/
s
Temperature Mach number Total enthalpy
M = 5
FIGURE B.3 Maps of estimated test gas (Argon) conditions at the exit of an expansion tube: a) pressure
4
(a)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
H
e
l
i
u
m
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
10
(torr)

0
.
8

a
t
m

0
.
6

a
t
m

0
.
4

a
t
m

0
.
3

a
t
m

0
.
2

a
t
m

0
.
1

a
t
m

0
.
0
5

a
t
m
400 K
300 K
200 K
600 K
1000 K
(b)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
H
e
l
i
u
m
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
10
(torr)

3
2
0
0

m
/
s

2
4
0
0

m
/
s

2
0
0
0

m
/
s

1
6
0
0

m
/
s

2
8
0
0

m
/
s
M = 4
M = 3
M = 2
4 MJ/kg
6 MJ/kg
5 MJ/kg
M = 1

3
6
0
0

m
/
s
8 MJ/kg
7 MJ/kg
FIGURE B.4 Maps of estimated test gas (Helium) conditions at the exit of an expansion tube: a) pressure
4
(a)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
H
e
l
i
u
m
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
2
10
(torr)

1
.
8

a
t
m

1
.
2

a
t
m

0
.
8

a
t
m

0
.
4

a
t
m

0
.
2

a
t
m

0
.
1

a
t
m

0
.
0
5

a
t
m
400 K
300 K
200 K
600 K
1000 K
800 K
(b)
0.1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
D
r
i
v
e
n

G
a
s

(
H
e
l
i
u
m
)

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

P
1

(
p
s
i
a
)
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100
2
10
(torr)

4
0
0
0

m
/
s
M = 4
M = 3
M = 2
6 MJ/kg
5 MJ/kg

3
2
0
0

m
/
s

1
6
0
0

m
/
s
M = 5
M = 1

3
6
0
0

m
/
s

2
8
0
0

m
/
s

2
4
0
0

m
/
s
9 MJ/kg

2
0
0
0

m
/
s
8 MJ/kg
7 MJ/kg
4 MJ/kg
FIGURE B.5 Maps of estimated test gas (Helium) conditions at the exit of an expansion tube: a) pressure
4
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Adela Ben-Yakar - Experimental Investigation of Mixing and Ignition of Transverse Jets in Supersonic Crossflows

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EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF MIXING AND

IGNITION OF TRANSVERSE JETS IN SUPERSONIC

=32.4 kPa; and jet-to-free-stream momentum

=32.4 kPa; and jet-to-

= 32 kPa. The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the

= 32 kPa. The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge

= 32 kPa. Note that

= 32 kPa. Note that a schlieren image is also included to indicate the

=3.38). The induced

). Also included in this plot is the range

. This conguration, shown schematically in Fig. 5.12, is a

in the direction of the total velocity

, the eective velocity ratio, , can then be calculated

= 1, the shear is a maximum as

= 0.2) where the temperatures are the highest. For

). In the short cavity lled by a

are the free-stream Mach number and ow speed, respectively; f

), is the phase shift between the acoustic waves

= 32 kPa. Note that a schlieren image is also included to

= 32 kPa. Note that a schlieren

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