WRITING, STYLE AND CONTEXTS: ACADEMIC, BUSINESS AND GLOBAL ENGLISH

Theoretical introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 The sign ................................................................................................................................................... 1 Any utterance can be socially oriented...................................................................................................... 2 The relation between language and knowledge. .................................................................................... 2 Variability of language ......................................................................................................................... 3 Dialect ................................................................................................................................................. 3 Rhetoric ....................................................................................................................................................... 4 The art of good and effective speech ..................................................................................................... 4 Dimostration and agrumentation ........................................................................................................... 5 The domains of reason ............................................................................................................................. 6 Slang language ......................................................................................................................................... 7 EAP: English for Academic Purposes ........................................................................................................... 7 Can be seen .............................................................................................................................................. 7 Use the appropriate adverbs in the right place ........................................................................................... 8 Non sbagliato dire x ma meglio dire y ............................................................................................... 10 The lexicon ............................................................................................................................................ 10 Coherence and cohesion ......................................................................................................................... 12 Transition signal, transition maker .......................................................................................................... 12 Addition ............................................................................................................................................. 12 Enumeration ....................................................................................................................................... 13 Comparison ........................................................................................................................................ 13 Contrast.............................................................................................................................................. 13 Concession ......................................................................................................................................... 14 Conditions .......................................................................................................................................... 14 Exemplification .................................................................................................................................. 14 Reputazio ........................................................................................................................................... 14 Causes ................................................................................................................................................ 15 Consequence ...................................................................................................................................... 16 Likelihood .......................................................................................................................................... 17 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 17 The paragraph ........................................................................................................................................ 17

Theoretical introduction
The sign
Language is not just word, is much more than that. Style is not a selection of words. Saussure is a general linguists, father of semiology: a new discipline dealing with signs and meaning. The sign is a two side entity: The sign is formed by: y Signified: meaning y Signifier: the material aspect of language The signifier is useful to transmit meaning. There are lots of code, a code is a system of signs. Patterned system of signs with rules: a set of signifier. [Se dico cane il suono che produco il significante, il concetto di cane il significato, si parla di significato perch ognuno penser a un tipo di cane diverso.] Come il suono auditivo, il grafema visuale.
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[Tutte le lingue hanno codici:] Language is a two level code: y Level of content: set of signified y Level of expression: set of signifier Are arbitrary and conventional relation. E.g.: In one language we say blackboard in another we say lavagna. y y Langue: a very general abstract and theoretical dimension of language IDEAL Parole: actual and material linguistic performance is individual INDIVIDUAL

(Hyemslow) DENOTATION: the definition meaning CONNOTATION: semantic, cultural, personal, emotional surplus. [Nella connotazione si nasconde lideologico] Quando si impara una lingua si impara ci che denotativo e ci che connotativo. (Althusser) (es. ci che di natura politica e religiosa) When we first learn a denotation we are also being positioned within the intention of ideology by learning dominant connotation at the same time. Connotation are fragments of ideology. (Roland Barthes)

Any utterance can be socially oriented

The language is a social product that carries out signification processes. Meaning making process. (Sapir and Wharf)

The relation between language and knowledge.

The way we perceive reality is filtered by language. Language is in large part what users have made of it. (Hymes) Semantic competence: according to Umberto Eco we are an encyclopedia Modeling system you need models to represent reality. Language: the priming modeling system. Knowledge: an operation of separation. In Pavia they have three words for frog. Or the continuum of colors is differently divided among cultures. Sapir and Whorf hypothesis: Linguistic influence: the language influence the way we perceive reality. Linguistic determinism: the language determines how we perceive reality. Language as a prison [glottocentrismo)] La conoscenza il prodotto del linguaggio? No perch a volte non si trovano le parole per descrivere un sentimento. There is a mutual relationship between language and culture.
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But which come first? La conoscenza viene filtrata dal linguaggio. Ma la mia esperienza non determinata dal linguaggio. Any code is a way to disclose thoughts with sensorial experience. Encode message decode

Sender encoding message decoding receiver 1 Mentalese (transformational grammar) 2 Sintassi Secondo Chomsky il livello di conoscenza universale.

Variability of language
Language varies (e.g. Ciao, Buongiorno, salve, ehi veccio) The language has different expression. The meaning is the same. We switch different kind of language according to the people we are talking to. Context of communication account for the variability of language. (Causa) (Giustifica, cagiona, causa) (Conseguenza) Sociolinguistics makes language predictable. We also share knowledge about which kind of those who take part to the communication. The context is a mental construct is not just the place. A particular situation makes us respond with a particular variation of language. There are linguistics manners. David Crystal Gi a cinque anni I bambini sono in grado di imitare gli stili. y American English y Australian English y British English These are English varieties. Standard English is the official one Langue Sometimes the meaning can be grasped just according to the context Standard varieties associated with prestige Lower varieties stigma [connotazione negativa] dialects [Se la lingua un mezzo di espressione qualsiasi lingua va bene.] Peter Trudgill Sociolinguistics Standard English is the English language. [Tutti gli altri sono prodotto di mancanza di intelligenza]. I cant say that.

Dialect
[Il dialetto una lingua abbandonata dagli intellettuali]. A dialect is a language with no army. The distinction between a language and a dialect is a social criteria [Prima viene il dialetto poi la standardizzazione]. M.A.K Halliday, the father of discourse analysis
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Dialect Language user TIME (when? E.g. Shakespeare English)

PLACE (where? E.g. Australian English) MILIEU (by whom? Different social classes)

Register Language use TENOR: relationship between the speakers: y Distant relationship y No distance MODE (oral or written English and rhetoric) FIELD

Language varies through time and is a social factor. Language has meaning of different kinds. The semantic component related to the field is called ideational (the meaning, the argument) IDEATIONAL field TEXTUAL mode (rhetorical devices) INTERPERSONAL tenor (relationship between the interlocutors) Text generating activity Labov in New York realized that people who lived in different borough were more likely to use different expressions. Working class people speaking to upper class people tried to change their pronunciation. PROCESS OF ACCOMODATION The step of audience design you inadvertently ask yourself what kind of language am I supposed to use now. Gender: male/female The first thing you realize is the gender y To converge [scegliere la lingua che presume che il tuo interlocutore parli] y To diverge (you really want to use a language very different)

Rhetoric
The art of good and effective speech
V sec A.C. Utile per scrivere in un linguaggio accademico. Fifth Century before Christ In Sicily the lands of the farmer were took by a dictator. The people wanted to regain their lands back. They were arguing for their thesis. What kind of discursive practice could they use to persuade the dictator? Corax and Tisias are the fathers of rhetoric. What was their assumptions? To appear to be true is more important than to be true (Very cynical view).

La verit ci che si crede vero, per esempio fintanto che Copernico non disse che la terra era tonda si credeva che fosse piatta. Pejorative use of the term rhetoric.
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Plato, the sophist

the Greek philosopher who uses rhetoric to disguise reality.

Epistemic: the objective reality Doxa: regno dellopinione Rhetoric is the practice of good speech and it is also theory, rules you have to follow to achieve theories. Rhetoric is a practice. According to Aristotele Multitropy or politropy [Politropia] The ability to find the adequate form of the discourse according to the audience. Your discourse have to fit the target, the audience you are aiming at. Aristotele attributes this concept to the Pythagorean. Kairos: momento adeguato, momento supremo per avere certi scambi comunicativi. The content determines the language you are going to use. [Come sei retorico, come parli ampolloso]. Rhetoric came to be dispraised because became the tool of liar. (Fedro) Rhetoric is likely to became bad rhetoric bad rhetoric (la attacca perch non etica) y Many people use rhetoric for the purposes to mystify reality. y Excess, attention drawn towards the form to the detriment of content. Un eccesso di relativismo ti porta a non avere le basi, un allontanamento progressivo. La retorica pu essere buona retorica. PEREMAN Il trattato dellargomentazione DISSERTATION: you just need to make your argument to be true. During the 50s that the thing that he has to do with demonstrative evidence need to be related to reason. Statement that cannot be proved are immediately associated with irrationality, impulsive, emotional state, passion. Where you can use demonstrative evidence. For the Cartesian philosophy everything that is not liable to demonstration is immediately regarding to irrationality. Non uccidere irrazionale perch non c una prova scientifica che mi dimostra la validit di questo assunto. Letica non irrazionalit.

Dimostration and agrumentation

[Tra la distinzione tra dimostrazione e argomentazione]. Try to be persuasive. Business nei confronti del mercato, lo studente nei confronti della commissione. My opinion may not be liable to be true. Convinzione Persuasione Logica Retorica
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Ragionamento dimostrativo vale indipendentemente dalle persone a cui diretto Largomentazione cambier A demonstrative reasoning which works regardless of the people it refers to, it aims at. Ragionamento persuasive che vale solo in un determinato auditorio. Persuasive reasoning that only applies to a certain audience. Si vuol dimostrare che letica pertinente. Ethics pertains to rationality, is relevant to

The domains of reason

Ragione pratica: meglio non uccidere I genitori Ragione pura: quella della logica e della matematica (e.g. teorema di pitagora) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) To be linked To persuade To argue for an opinion To employ a stylized language To create a figurative sense To suggest an implicature (imply meaning) To unveil ones rhetoric tactics

This are seven tasks of rhetoric. It is used to be linked/to be appreciated. Persuading someone to buy a product or to share an opinion. Is not just literacy, it is a matter of argumentation. To make a figurative set from a literacy one. Indirect ways to convey meaning starting from indirect way of expression. There are many data that you cant express directly. To decode, We are using the standpoint of someone listening. You can use rhetoric for the intention of listening. Good rhetoric: another kind of reasoning which cannot demonstrate. You can use this argumentation in sermons, in politician speech. An attempt to define the theory of argumentation. The theory of rational, non-demonstrative evidence. The facts and the value to be a state. Anytime what is a state. Demonstrative reasoning is powerless. We can implicate this opinion: killing is bad! You may use violence but also a violence that is neglected. Physiological and physical violence. The other option is to use rhetoric. What you will do is to find good reason why killing is not good. To support a thesis: y CONFIRMATION y REFUTATION Loads of different perspective. To use linguistics try to achieve your goal. Call for a few days ago Baniasco called for a new argumentation.

Function and meaning of the persuasive discourse. Within your course this is the base why rhetoric has become so important. Rhetoric comes before because we dont need a mediation: the ideology, our father where used to comply by a gun. The fact that is referring to an audience how your arguing for. The audience influences what and how you are arguing. Have a look at your audiences define this speech. Video argument clinic: The excess of bad rhetoric, he was very keen on rhetoric. Going back to the good one. How the use of certain structure and expression. Language is primary in established identity. Ireland has been conquered by English empire for many century. This brought Irish language to differentiating. The language is a primary in established identity. Ireland has been conquered by English empire for many century.

Slang language
To establish collective and individual identity. Do not confuse Slang for varieties. The American English is a variety of English. The slang is a language by small and peripheral groups. It is not a national variety of language and sometime can vary. The slang can be improved, which use a language not to disclose their communication with other people. The basic function of slang is to identify social groups and to keep people out. A synonym could be jargon. The people using a slang. The different social groups. The slang is used by people who also use a standard variety of language. THE SLANG THE STANDARD LANGUAGE THE CONDITION The academic language is indeed a variety of English. Your own Identity may range differently your characteristic come to surface while writing. DIGLOSSIA (questioni geografiche, contesto nazionale e della ragione) He coined this term, diglossia means two language. Two languages spoken by two people at the same time. The local variety of Italian, the standard and the variety. Creol is a mix of two language, the language spoken by Jamerican people.

EAP: English for Academic Purposes

Can be seen as
Tackle with = deal with Marketing is a social product through which individuals We should probably use other phases x is x means x is generally defined as Consist of Amounts to=corrisponde a, consiste in To hedge=means of protection or defends an intentionally noncommittal

Possibly (use to mitigate or weaken the certainty of a statement). Marketing should be thought of as= for introducing a passive form of Academic English The passive form in English is to stress the subject who receive the action. Hanno rapinato la banca The bank has been robbed. English use passive more than Italian As a matter of fact English politicians you are supposed to use the passive form very frequently Can be seen as Can be considered Can be regarded Can be seen as Can be defined as Can be argued to be Marketing can thus argued to be taken Marketing is generally taken to be

Use the appropriate adverbs in the right place

Seems to be Marketing seems to be Arguably, (=some people may argue this, it is provocative) Can arguably be seen(=Im not so sure about this) Seemingly, (=apparentemente) Presumably, (=perhaps) Supposedly, (=perhaps) Apparently, Conceivably, Conceive=imagine This expression denote a sort of embarrassment and disappointment Likely Likelihood=possibly You are very likely to marry a rich man. ALLEGEDLY=fonte ufficiale, stando alla teoria (=imply you are a bit sceptical about this but this is the official version). Lo puoi mettere alla fine o allinizio. Dealing with government report... Vanishes Thing that means talk about x relates to is concerned with focuses on deals with Define a subject using an object take into account take into consideration to account for= to explain the reason for something/to justify Accounted for by = causato The sceptical attitudes of these people is accounted for by this situation.
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to list= to put into sequence to mention to catalogue Gibbons lists the reasons of the lack of a national film in Ireland. To differ from (more English)= to be different from Langue differs from the parole. On line advertising differs from unprinted media. Unlike in the novel in the movie Distinguish between online ads and printed ads Online ads should be distinguished from One can/may distinguish between (used in Academic Writing) Argue for his thesis May argue for his thesis One may argue for their theses Use of to differentiate One can differentiate between Online advertising and printed advertising To express gradualness This is increasingly used Extent/degree To what degree online advertising differs from printed advertising. To what extent online advertising differs from printed advertising. Collocates: To some degree, to certain degree To some extent (inf) Limitedly Remarkable= considerable Significant To full degree, To such extentformulated previously Actual extent= vero reale effettivo [skape loot= capro espiatorio] To reduce lessened, aumented To increase

To establish/ to determine (=quantificare, individuare) To pinpoint To evaluate to present a certain phenomenon by describing the main aspects To characterize

To mention what makes that item specific To discuss

Non sbagliato dire x ma meglio dire y

Ways Means [ meglio] by means of which we carried out by all means/ by no means A means to investigate a way of investigate Aspects features But also as well as [use it if it makes sense] My students are too fond of but also use employ (=adoperare, ricorrere) Employ a linguistic device To employ techniques Problem issue Familiar with conversant with From than on ever since They have never talked each other ever since. A story does not grow/develop a story unfolds (svolgersi, dipanarsi) / unravel (literary term) Criticism critical analysis (lavoro di analisi critica) Critique (you are not agree) To criticize (the verb) When you are writing your dissertation you feel the influence of your mother tongue

The lexicon
The main problem is the syntax (the structure, the organization of the sentence) You have to deploy, A tip: rileggere con la consapevolezza che il testo va cambiato. Beginning End

[Time reference, place reference] .. [time reference] Clause (inciso, parte assestante) To move beyond a certain problemno English!! One may go as/so far as to say/ claim/ argue Tendency (be carful, semantic prosody) as far as + (affirmative) so far as + (negative, interrogative) To allow to enable (create a condition and provide the skills by means of which someone will be able to carry out an action) Questo mi permette di fare unanalisi This enable me to carry out such analysis
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Malgrado, nonostante se, sebbene Even if Even though (anche se) The meaning is adversative Verba dicendi Reporting verbs Acknowledge (= you accept the importance of that notion) riconoscere, ammettere, accettare Acknowledgement (=ringraziamenti) Benvenga la critica= we acknowledge the critique To add to (si aggiunge ma crea delle difficolt) Chinese tourism add to German tourism in Trento. In whole practical term By all means a tutti gli effeti

Affirm (non usare questo verbo in eccesso) Agree (I agree on a topic/ a subject) agree with someone Argue There is a general agreement on that. (= unanime lopinione per cui il marketing)= As to why Marketing Assert (asserire) Assume (= you accept the concept and you start from here) The assumption here is that In reading Baudelaire starts move on the assumption that(concept that is a kind of ground). Believe (very general) Claim (similar to assert) Scholars claim, Claims rivendicazioni Inductive Starts from presumptions Comment / k m nt/ /k ment/
/r k (r)d/ / rek (r)d/

Thesis

deductive Stars from assumptions The verb shifts the stress forward, at the end of the verb

Conclude Jump to conclusion Conjecture Congetture/immaginare Envisage (immaginarsi) You envisage a situation in which tourists are too many. Content You content the hypothesis (=you start from the critique of someone else) Deny negare Denial (n.) Discern to know (To be able to distinguish in a unity) (To be able to separate the basic form of knowledge) Emphasize Enumerate [high register] to list enumerare Estimate
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Explain Find It was found [provato] that Results found that Students were found to make systematic mistakes. Tourism was recorded to decrease in the last few years. Hypothesize (formulating hypothesis) Illustrate (consists of some kind of evidence) The use of internet is not just increasing, is also changing. Feltrinelli has a bookshop online Our approach to the Internet is illustrated by the Online book. Imply (suggest) This implies that A situation/statistic suggests Point out Infer dedurre Hence, it should be inferred that Quindi se ne deduce che Maintain ritenere What can be noticed is that Observe Query To make queries to corpora. Recognize Recommend It is recommended that the whole staff use the protective gloves. Reject respingere Remark Report Notify to somebody

Coherence and cohesion

Halliday, Cohesion in English chapter 5 Cohesion is one of the most important element of the text. Text texture fabric A text implies unity, and stay together with two main elements: y Coherence: the absence of logical contradiction in a text Its raining, therefore I take the umbrella. y Cohesion: in order to write a cohesive text you have to know the grammar and the vocabulary. A text is based on grammatical and lexical ties (=bonds).

Transition signal, transition maker

Conjunction, linking adverbs, linking phrases.

Addition
In addition, Moreover inoltre Furthermore, [+formal] And Also But, Another Additional Further Besides, Beside this theory we made.
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Beside what previously mentioned. Above mention= submenzionamento

Enumeration
Enumeration= list A, B, C, and D. Oxford/serial comma my parents, Elena Mattedi, and Andrea Binelli. Qualcuno potrebbe pensare che E. M. e A. B. siano i tuoi genitori. Se metto la virgola siamo sicuri di no. Comparison Compare to (if Im looking for similarities) paragonare Comparable to a lion. Compare with (if Im looking for differences) comparare Comparable with the general situation in Tuscany. Perch si dice busier e non *most busier anche se la parola busy ha due sillabe. Bu sy busier He avy heavier Hanno due sillabe ma c la y alla fine.

Confermazio
More common Commoner [+f] I went there as well/too Not only the teacher liked ..., but also Likewise (In a similar manner/fashion) In these understanding a ragione di questo The same opinion account for two statements. In the very same understanding. The understanding is a theoretical assumption. In this scenario Both can be tricky As beautiful as Such as [+f](followed by examples) Like (qualcuno non ha idea di ci che seguir) Scholars such as Chomsky, Halliday. Similar to Dismissal from

Contrast
Confutazio: you are presenting a thesis to people that are not agree. Ma, sebbene (contrastivo) Tourism marketing is very important. However, Nevertheless, Nonetheless, [+f] In contrast, (you are stating the opposite) On the contrary, and yet Yet
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But, (the comma emphasize your earnest determination, usually used by politician) After all, (=in an case) At any rate,

Concession
Anche se, malgrado, sebbene Though Even though (better than even if) Whereas She is beatiful even though she wears ugly clothes. It is a more general remark. She is beautiful even if she wears ugly clothes. Now in this situation. Nonostante qualcosa Despite [for] increased sales the net profit decrease In spite of [inf] In the face of [col] Compared to To differ

Conditions
She looks beautiful whatever she wears. No matter what she wears, she looks beautiful. In case of fire in the case of In the event of a fire[+f] I will give you the car on condition that you clean it. Provided that Granted that siamo tutti daccordo (very Oxfort) my observation is I would give you the car if you needed it. (hypothesis) If you were in need of money. Im quite sceptical. Should you be interested please contact me. (Qualora tu fossi interessato per favore contattami). Should a crisis arise

Exemplification
For example e.g. (exempli grazia) i.e. (is est) For instance That is to say This is vale a dire Namely... segnatamente specificamente precisamente (introduce una specificazione) Namely Rules and Representations (1980), Lectures on Government and Binding (1993),

Reputazio
Infatti In fact (used after addressing a subject from a point of view, and may be used to argue against) In realt la vostra economia non sta salendo. Changes, deny what has been said in the previous sentence.
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Figures are pointing out that effettivamente As a matter of fact [quite inf] Indeed, (close to infatti) Otherwise Unless a meno che non/a meno che Vorrei andare a quella festa a meno che tu non mi chieda di non andare. Problema della doppia negazione. Unless (un privativo + less negazione) Negazione della negazione. Do not call my face unless you drive by. Venire Or else altrimenti Do not open the window or else They would tell us They told you They would tell us (repetition) = use to tell us Firstly, First, Secondly, Second, (more elegant) Thirdly, Third, Finally First of all Primarily The dissertation is primarily concerns with The following chapter will be primarily focused on Panini (the grammarian) From Quintilian Through middle age scholar until to modern scholar. Last but not least [ugly] Last, Lastly Finally (a statement that dont have too much to do with previous arguments) Eventually alla fine (the results of previous argument) If it rains, I will take the umbrella. As soon as goes into the present. I will write that business report as soon as you ask me. Above all [-f] First, Oxford Foremost, Most importantly, most significantly Credo che la cosa pi importante da osservare sia. Tourism has drawbacks/problems/issues.

Causes
Cause= reason The first point to be made is To begin with Laconismo Laconico (=persona di poche parole) In the first place (a kind of precondition that makes the rest vanish).

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Because Since dato che As poich

to introduce causal clauses

She went away, as Paolo made his way to the room. (mentre) rewrote Because/Since the referees components I improved my ms (=manuscript). corrected Thanks to the referees components I rewrote my ms. I had to rewrite the manuscript. Due to the referees components I had to rewrite the manuscript. On account of the referees comments. Owing to Because of Consequence Effect = result As a result of, As a consequence of, Accordingly ne segue che (in the middle of the sentence) da questo punto di vista in ragione di questo per tanto se ne deduce I accordingly rewrote my manuscript. A receive the referees comments and I rewrote the manuscript. The company was contacted by customer association. Consequently, Hence, [+f] Hence, the necessity to cope with this problem appear to be a result. In EAP avoid so Therefore, thus dunque Thus anche cos in tal modo in tal senso cos Thus company replied that I received the referees comment, I rewrote my manuscript, thus trying(Is better to insert two commas) Thus trying...(=Attempting to make it clear). The verb result This resulted in two hard work day. (crea le condizioni per qualcosaltro) Questo ci fa riflettere, ci porta a concludere che This brings up to believe that (not wrong) This reflects the belief that This may lead one to reason argue observe INFER infierire, dedurre It may lead to infer that To conclude that, to argue that
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Its quite consequential It follows that

Likelihood
In order of probability 1. Can 2. May happen 3. Might 4. Could Maybe Perhaps [+f] Conclusion To conclude In conclusion, To sum up [inf] In summary, In brief, In short, It is clear that The evidence suggest that This discussion shows that The paragraph Its the most important bone of the dissertation. It starts with an indentment. Layout

y y y y y y y y

Paragraph cannot be too long, your paragraph has to be half a page You only change the paragraph Transition signals, stick my text together References to previous scholar are highly accepted Avoid plagiarism MLA Chicago style Insert quotation, reference notes. List of work cited

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