Electronic Components

Electronic components
An electronic component is a basic electronic element and may be available in a discrete form having two or more electrical terminals (or leads). These are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a printed circuit board, in order to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). A component may be classified as : Passive components are ones which cannot introduce net energy into the circuit they are connected to. They also cannot rely on a source of power except for what is available from the (AC) circuit they are connected to. Among passive components are familiar two-terminal components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and most sorts of diodes.
Active components rely on a source of energy (usually from the DC circuit, which we have chosen to ignore) and are usually able to inject power into a circuit. This includes amplifying components such as transistors, triode vacuum tubes (valves), and tunnel diodes.
Passive components can be further divided into lossless and lossy components:
Lossless components do not have a net power flow into or out of the component. This would include ideal capacitors, inductors, transformers, and the (theoretical) gyrator. Lossy or dissipative components do not have that property and generally absorb power from the external circuit over time. The prototypical example is the resistor
Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values. Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico): means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
There are two types of capacitors: 1. Polarised 2. Unpolarised

Polarised capacitors (large values, 1F +)
Examples:
Electrolytic Capacitors:
Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10F in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.
Tantalum Bead Capacitors
Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed in a small size. Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and polarity in full. However older ones use a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the value in F. The standard colour code is used, but for the spot, grey is used to mean 0.01 and white means 0.1 so that values of less than 10F can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows the voltage (yellow 6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to the right when the spot is facing you: 'when the spot is in sight, the positive is to the right'.
For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68F For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8F For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68F
Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F)
Examples:
Circuit symbol:
Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labelling systems! Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be! For example 0.1 means 0.1F = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point: For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: the 1st number is the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF. Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating. For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!) For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code
A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course there are many still Colou Numb r er around. The colours should be read like the resistor code, 0 the top three colour bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the Black 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating).
Brown Red Orang e Yello w Green Blue Violet Grey White 1 2 3
Colour Code
For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F. Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band. For example: wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22F.
Polystyrene Capacitors
4 5 6 7 8 9
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed without units. Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so you should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint.
Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)
You may have noticed that capacitors are not available with every possible value, for example 22F and 47F are readily available, but 25F and 50F are not! Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make capacitors every 10F giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits and capacitors cannot be made with that accuracy. To produce a sensible range of capacitor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the value increases. The standard capacitor values are based on this idea and they form a series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten. The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 22, 47, ... then it continues 100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases (values roughly double each time). The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc. Notice how this is the E3 series with an extra value in the gaps. The E3 series is the one most frequently used for capacitors because many types cannot be made with very accurate values. Variable Capacitor Symbol
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small adjustments - see below) as well as the main variable capacitor.
Variable Capacitor
Photograph Rapid Electronics
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor. Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is Trimmer Capacitor Symbol necessary to vary the time period.
Trimmer capacitors
Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built.
Trimmer Capacitor
A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer! Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF. Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable resistors.
Connectors and Cables
Battery clips and holders
The standard battery clip fits a 9V PP3 battery and many battery holders such as the 6 AA cell holder shown. Battery holders are also available with wires attached, with pins for PCB mounting, or as a complete box with lid, switch and wires. Many small electronic projects use a 9V PP3 battery but if you wish to use the project for long periods a better choice is a battery holder with 6 AA cells. This has the same voltage but a much longer battery life and it will work out cheaper in the long run. Larger battery clips fit 9V PP9 batteries but these are rarely used now.
PCB terminal block Terminal block
Photographs Rapid Electronics
Terminal blocks and PCB terminals
Terminal blocks are usually supplied in 12-way lengths but they can be cut into smaller blocks with a sharp knife, large wire cutters or a junior hacksaw. They are sometimes called 'chocolate blocks' because of the way they can be easily cut to size. PCB mounting terminal blocks provide an easy way of making semipermanent connections to PCBs. Many are designed to interlock to provide more connections.
Crocodile clips
Crocodile clips
4mm terminal and solder tag
The 'standard' crocodile clip has no cover and a screw contact. However, miniature insulated crocodile clips are more suitable for many purposes including test leads. They have a solder contact and lugs which fold down to grip the cable's insulation, increasing the strength of the joint. Remember to feed the cable through the plastic cover before soldering! Add and remove the cover by fully opening the clip, a piece of wood can be used to hold the jaws open.
4mm plugs, sockets and terminals
These are the standard single pole connectors used on meters and other electronic equipment. They are capable of passing high currents (typically 10A) and most designs are very robust. Shrouded plugs and sockets are available for use with high voltages where there is a risk of electric shock. A wide variety of colours is available from most suppliers. Plugs Plugs may have a screw or solder terminal to hold the cable. Check if you need to thread the cable through the cover before connecting it. Some plugs, such as those illustrated, are 'stackable' which means that they include a socket to accept another plug, allowing several plugs to be connected to the same point - a very useful feature for test leads.
Sockets These are usually described as 'panel mounting' because they are designed to be fitted to a case. Most sockets have a solder contact but the picture shows other options. Fit the socket in the case before attaching the wire otherwise you will be unable to add the mounting nut. Terminals In addition to a socket these have provision for attaching a wire by threading it through a hole (or wrapping it around the post) and tightening the top nut by hand. They usually have a threaded stud to fit a solder tag inside the case.
2mm plugs and sockets
These are smaller versions of the 4mm plugs and sockets described above, but terminals are not readily available. The plugs illustrated are stackable. Despite their small size these connectors can pass large currents and some are rated at 10A.
DC power plugs and sockets
These 2-pole plugs and sockets ensure that the polarity of a DC supply cannot be Photographs Rapid Electronics accidentally reversed. The standard sizes are 2.1 and 2.5mm plug diameter. Standard plugs have a 10mm shaft, 'long' plugs have a 14mm shaft. Sockets are available for PCB or chassis mounting and most include a switch on the outer contact which is normally used to disconnect an internal battery when a plug is inserted. Miniature versions with a 1.3mm diameter plug are used where small size is essential, such as for personal cassette players.
Jack plugs and sockets
These are intended for audio signals so mono and stereo versions are available. The sizes are determined by the plug diameter: " (6.3mm), 3.5mm and 2.5mm. The 2.5mm size is only available for mono.
" (6.3mm) jack plug and socket
Screened plugs have metal bodies connected to the COM contact. Most connections are soldered, remember to thread cables through plug covers before soldering! 3.5mm jack plug and socket Sockets are designed for PCB or chassis mounting. " plug connections are similar to those for 3.5mm plugs shown below. " socket connections are COM, R and L in that order from the 3.5mm jack line socket mounting nut, ignore R for (for fitting to a cable) mono use. Most " sockets Photographs Rapid Electronics have switches on all contacts which open as the plug is inserted so they can be used to isolate internal speakers for example. The connections for 3.5mm plugs and sockets are shown below. Plugs have a lug which should be folded down to grip the cable's insulation 3.5mm jack plug and socket connections and (the R connection is not present on mono plugs) increase the strength of the joint. 3.5mm mono sockets have a switch contact which can be used to switch off an internal speaker as the plug is inserted. Ignore this contact if you do not require the switching action.
L = left channel signal R = right channel signal COM = common (0V, screen)
Do not use jack plugs for power supply connections because the contacts may be briefly shorted as the plug is inserted. Use DC powerconnectors for this.
Phono plugs and sockets
These are used for screened cables carrying audio and video signals. Stereo connections are made using a pair of phono plugs and sockets. The Photographs Rapid Electronics centre contact is for the signal and the outer contact for the screen (0V, common). Screened plugs have metal bodies connected to the outer contact to give the signal additional protection from electrical noise. Sockets are available for PCB or chassis mounting, singly for mono, or in pairs for stereo. Line sockets are available for making extension leads.
Coax plugs and sockets
Construction of a screened cable
Photographs Rapid These are similar to Electronics the phono plugs and sockets described above but they are designed for use with screened cables carrying much higher frequency signals, such as TV aerial leads. They provide better screening because at high frequencies this is essential to reduce electrical noise.
BNC plugs and sockets
These are designed for screened cables carrying high frequency signals where an undistorted and noise free signal is essential, for example oscilloscopeleads. BNC plugs are connected with a push and twist
BNC plug, photograph Rapid Electronics
DIN plug
action, to disconnect you need to twist and pull. Plugs and sockets are rated by their
impedance (50 or 75 ) which must be the same as the cable's impedance. If the connector and cable impedances are not matched the signal will be distorted because it will be partly reflected at the connection, this is the electrical equivalent of the weak reflection which occurs when light passes 5 way 180 DIN socket through a glass window.
(chassis mounting)
DIN plugs and sockets
These are intended for audio signals but they can be used for other low-current purposes where a multi-way connector is required. They are available from 3 way to 8 way. 5 way is used for stereo audio connections. The contacts are numbered on the connector, but they are not in numerical order! For audio use the 'common' (0V) wire is connected to contact 2. 5 way plugs and sockets are available in two versions: 180 and 270 (the angle refers to the arc formed by the contacts). Plastic covers of DIN plugs (and line sockets) are removed by depressing the retaining lug with a small screwdriver. You may also need small pliers to extract the body from the cover but do not pull on the pins themselves to
avoid damage. Remember to thread the cable through the cover before starting to solder the connections! Soldering DIN plugs is easier if you clamp the insert with the pins. Wires should be pushed into the hollow pins - first 'tin' the wires (coat them with a thin layer of solder) then melt a little solder into the hollow pin and insert the wire while keeping the solder molten. Take care to avoid melting the plastic base, stop and allow the pin to cool if necessary. Mini-DIN connectors are used for computer equipment such as keyboards and mice but they are not a good choice for general use unless small size is essential.
D connectors
These are multi-pole connectors with provision for screw fittings to make semi-permanent Photographs Rapid connections, for example on computer Electronics equipment. The D shape prevents incorrect connection. Standard D-connectors have 2 rows of contacts (top picture); 9, 15 and 25-way versions are the most popular. High Density D-connectors have 3 rows of contacts (bottom picture); a 15way version is used to connect computer monitors for example. Note that covers (middle picture) are usually sold separately because both plugs and sockets can be fitted to cables by fitting a cover to a chassis mounted connector. PCB mounting versions of plugs and sockets are also available. The contacts are usually numbered on the body of the connector, although you may need a magnifying glass to see the very small markings. Soldering D-connectors requires a steady hand due to the closeness of the contacts, it is easy to accidently unsolder a contact you have just completed while attempting to solder the next one!
IDC communication connectors
These multi-pole insulation displacement connectors are used for computer and telecommunications equipment. They automatically cut through the insulation on wires when installed and special tools are required to fit them. They are available as 4, 6 and 8-way versions. The 8-way RJ45 is the standard connector for modern computer networks. If you regularly use these you Photographs Rapid Electronics may be interested in our network lead tester project. Standard UK telephone connectors are similar in style but a slightly different shape. They are called BT (British Telecom) connectors.
Cables Cable... flex... lead... wire... what do all these terms mean?
A cable is an assembly of one or more conductors (wires) with some flexibility. A flex is the proper name for the flexible cable fitted to mains electrical appliances. A lead is a complete assembly of cable and connectors. A wire is a single conductor which may have an outer layer of insulation (usually plastic).
Single core equipment wire
This is one solid wire with a plastic coating available in a wide variety of colours. It can be bent to shape but will break if repeatedly flexed. Use it for connections which will not be disturbed, for example links between points of a circuit board.
Typical specification: 1/0.6mm (1 strand of 0.6mm diameter), maximum current 1.8A.
Stranded wire
This consists of many fine strands of wire covered by an outer plastic coating. It is flexible and can withstand repeated bending without breaking. Use it for connections which may be disturbed, for example wires outside cases to sensors and switches. A very flexible version ('extra-flex') is used for test leads.
Typical specifications: 10/0.1mm (10 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 0.5A. 7/0.2mm (7 strands of 0.2mm diameter), maximum current 1.4A. 16/0.2mm (16 strands of 0.2mm diameter), maximum current 3A. 24/0.2mm (24 strands of 0.2mm diameter), maximum current 4.5A. 55/0.1mm (55 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 6A, used for test leads.
'Figure 8' (speaker) cable
'Figure 8' cable consists of two Photograph Rapid Electronics stranded wires arranged in a figure of 8 shape. One wire is usually marked with a line. It is suitable for low voltage, low current (maximum 1A) signals where screening from electrical interference is not required. It is a popular choice for connecting loudspeakers and is often called 'speaker cable'.
Signal cable
Photograph Rapid Electronics Signal cable consists of several colourcoded cores of stranded wire housed within an outer plastic sheath. With a typical maximum current of 1A per core it is suitable for low voltage, low current signals where screening from electrical interference is not required.
The picture shows 6-core cable, but 4-core and 8-core are also readily available.
Screened cable
The diagram shows the construction of screened cable. The central wire carries the signal and the screen is connected to 0V (common) to shield the signal from electrical interference. Screened cable is used for audio signals and dual versions are available for stereo.
Screened cable (mono)
Screened cable (stereo)
Screened cable (stereo)

Photograph Rapid Electronics Photographs Rapid Electronics Construction of a screened cable
Co-axial cable
This type of screened cable (see above) is designed to carry high frequency signals such as those found in TV aerials and oscilloscope leads.
Mains flex
Flex is the proper name for the flexible Photograph Rapid Electronics cable used to connect appliances to the mains supply. It contains 2 cores (for live and neutral) or 3 cores (for live, neutral and earth). Mains flex has thick insulation for the high voltage (230V in UK) and it is available with various current ratings: 3A, 6A and 13A are popular sizes in the UK.
Mains flex is sometimes used for low voltage circuits which pass a high current, but please think carefully before using it in this way. The distinctive colours of mains flex should act as a warning of the mains high voltage which can be lethal; using mains flex for low voltage circuits can undermine this warning.
Diodes
Example: Function
Circuit symbol:
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves. Forward Voltage Drop Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph). Reverse Voltage When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of 100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are LEDs (which have their own page) and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page). Connecting and soldering
Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small print, you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes!
Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.
Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering them.
Testing diodes
You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!
Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.
General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from the weak radio signal. For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important, silicon diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they have a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a reverse voltage is applied.
Protection diodes for relays Signal diodes are also used to protect transistors and ICs from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected 'backwards' across the relay coil. Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away Maximum Maximum quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the Diode Reverse Current induced voltage becoming high enough to cause Voltage damage to transistors and ICs. 1N4001 1A 50V 1N4002 1A 100V 1N4007 1A 1000V 1N5401 3A 100V Rectifier diodes (large current) 1N5408 3A 1000V
Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits where a large current must pass through the diode.
All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum current and maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with a current of less than 1A. Also see: Power Supplies
Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available in special packages containing the four diodes required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and maximum reverse voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labelled .
The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct. Also see: Power Supplies
Note that some have a hole through their centre for attaching to a heat sink Photographs Rapid Electronics
Various types of Bridge Rectifiers
Zener diodes
Example: a = anode, k = cathode Circuit symbol:
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. The diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in series to limit the current. Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and breakdown voltage which are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZY... Their breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for example. Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power: The minimum voltage available is 2.4V. Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.
Integrated Circuits (Chips)

Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They are complex circuits which have been etched onto tiny chips of semiconductor (silicon). The chip is packaged in a plastic holder with pins spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid which will fit the holes on stripboard and breadboards. Very fine wires inside the package link the chip to the pins. Pin numbers
The pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC (chip) starting near the notch or dot. The diagram shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the same for all sizes.
IC holders (DIL sockets)

ICs (chips) are easily damaged by heat when soldering and their short pins cannot be protected with a heat sink. Instead we use an IC holder, strictly called a DIL socket (DIL = Dual In-Line), which can be safely soldered onto the circuit board. The IC is pushed into the holder when all soldering is complete.
IC holders are only needed when soldering so they are not used on breadboards.
Commercially produced circuit boards often have ICs soldered directly to the board without an IC holder, usually this is done by a machine which is able to work very quickly. Please don't attempt to do this yourself because you are likely to destroy the IC and it will be difficult to remove without damage by de-soldering. Removing an IC from its holder If you need to remove an IC it can be gently prised out of the holder with a small flatblade screwdriver. Carefully lever up each end by inserting the screwdriver blade
between the IC and its holder and gently twisting the screwdriver. Take care to start lifting at both ends before you attempt to remove the IC, otherwise you will bend and possibly break the pins.
Static precautions
Many ICs are static sensitive and can be damaged Antistatic bags for ICs when you touch them because your body may have become charged with static electricity, from your clothes Photograph Rapid Electronics for example. Static sensitive ICs will be supplied in antistatic packaging with a warning label and they should be left in this packaging until you are ready to use them.
It is usually adequate to earth your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling the IC but for the more sensitive (and expensive!) ICs special equipment is available, including earthed wrist straps and earthed work surfaces. You can make an earthed work surface with a sheet of aluminium kitchen foil and using a crocodile clip to connect the foil to a metal water pipe or window frame with a 10k resistor in series.
Datasheets
PDF files
To view and print PDF files you need an Acrobat Reader which may be downloaded free for Windows, Mac,RISC OS, or UNIX/Linux computers. If you are not sure which type of computer you have it is probably Windows.
Datasheets are available for most ICs giving detailed information about their ratings and functions. In some cases example circuits are shown. The large amount of information with symbols and abbreviations can make datasheets seem overwhelming to a beginner, but they are worth reading as you become more confident because they contain a great deal of useful information for more experienced users designing and testing circuits.
Datasheets are available as PDF files from: DatasheetArchive.com Datasheets.org.uk DatasheetCatalog.com
Sinking and sourcing current
IC outputs are often said to 'sink' or 'source' current. The terms refer to the direction of the current at the IC's output.
If the IC is sinking current it is flowing into the output. This means that a device connected between the positive supply (+Vs) and the IC output will be switchedon when the output is low (0V). If the IC is sourcing current it is flowing out of the output. This means that a device connected between the IC output and the negative supply (0V) will be switched on when the output is high (+Vs). It is possible to connect two devices to an IC output so that one is on when the output is low and the other is on when the output is high. This arrangement is used in the Level Crossing project to make the red LEDs flash alternately. The maximum sinking and sourcing currents for an IC output are usually the same but there are some exceptions, for example 74LS TTL logic ICs can sink up to 16mA but only source 2mA.
Using diodes to combine outputs

The outputs of ICs must never be directly connected together. However, diodes can be used to combine two or more digital (high/low) outputs from an IC such as a counter. This can be a useful way of producing simple logic functions without using logic gates!
The diagram shows two ways of combining outputs using diodes. The diodes must be capable of passing the output current. 1N4148 signal diodes are suitable for low current devices such as LEDs. For example the outputs Q0 - Q9 of a 4017 1-of-10 counter go high in turn. Using diodes to combine the 2nd (Q1) and 4th (Q3) outputs as shown in the bottom diagram will make the LED flash twice followed by a longer gap. The diodes are performing the function of an OR gate. Example projects: Traffic Light | Dice | Model Lig hthouse
The 555 and 556 Timers
The 8-pin 555 timer IC is used in many projects, a popular version is the NE555. Most circuits will just specify '555 timer IC' and the NE555 is suitable for these. The 555 output (pin 3) can sink and source up to 200mA. This is more than most ICs and it is sufficient to supply LEDs, relay coils and low current lamps. To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor.
The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin package. The two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their maximum output current of about 20mA (with 9V supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a standard 555. For further information please see the page on 555 and 556 timer circuits.
Logic ICs (chips) Logic ICs process digital signals and there are many devices, including logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers, counters and display drivers. They
can be split into two groups according to their pin arrangements: the 4000 series and the 74 series which consists of various families such as the 74HC, 74HCT and 74LS.
For most new projects the 74HC family is the best choice. The older 4000 series is the only family which works with a supply voltage of more than 6V. The 74LS and 74HCT families require a 5V supply so they are not convenient for battery operation. The table below summarises the important properties of the most popular logic families:
Property Technology Power Supply Inputs 4000 Series CMOS 3 to 15V 74 Series 74 Series 74 Series 74HC 74HCT 74LS High-speed CMO High-speed CMOS TTL Low-power S TTL compatible Schottky 2 to 6V 5V 0.5V 5V 0.25V
'Float' high to logic 1 if unconnected. 1mA must be drawn out to hold them at logic 0. Can sink up to 16mA (enough to light an LED), butsource only about 2mA. To switch larger currents use a transistor. One output can drive up to 10 74LS inputs or 50 74HCT inputs.
Outputs
Fan-out
Very high impedance. Very high impedance. Unused inputs must Unused inputs must be be connected to +Vs or 0V. Inputs cannot be connected to +Vs or 0V. reliably driven by 74LS outputs unless a Compatible with 74LS 'pull-up' resistor is used (see below). (TTL) outputs. Can sink and Can sink and source about 5mA Can sink and source about 20mA, (10mA with 9V source about 20mA, enough to light an supply), enough to enough to light an LED. LED. To switch light an LED. To To switch larger currents larger currents use switch larger currents use atransistor. atransistor. use a transistor. One output can drive One output can drive up to 50 CMOS, 74HC or up to 50 CMOS, 74HCT inputs, but only 10 74LS inputs. 74HC or 74HCT
inputs, but only one 74LS input.
Maximum Frequency Power consumption

of the IC itself
about 1MHz A few W.
about 25MHz A few W.
about 25MHz A few W.
about 35MHz A few mW.
Mixing Logic Families It is best to build a circuit using just one logic family, but if necessary the different families Driving 4000 or 74HC inputs from a may be mixed providing the power supply is 74LS output using a pull-up resistor. suitable for all of them. For example mixing 4000 and 74HC requires the power supply to be in the range 3 to 6V. A circuit which includes 74LS or 74HCT ICs must have a 5V supply.
A 74LS output cannot reliably drive a 4000 or 74HC input unless a 'pull-up' resistor of 2.2k is connected between the +5V supply and the input to correct the slightly different logic voltage ranges used. Note that a 4000 series output can drive only one 74LS input.
Quick links to individual ICs 4000 4001 4002 4011 4012 4017 4020 4023 4024 4025 4026 4028 4029 4030 4040 4049 4050 4060 4068 4069 4070 4071 4072 4073 4075 4077 4081 4082 4093 4510 4511 4516 4518 4520
4000 Series CMOS
This family of logic ICs is numbered from 4000 onwards, and from 4500 onwards. They have a B at the end of the number (e.g. 4001B) which refers to an improved design introduced some years ago. Most of them are in 14-pin or 16-pin packages. They use CMOS circuitry which means they use very little power and can tolerate a wide range of power supply voltages (3 to 15V) making them ideal for battery powered projects. CMOS is pronounced 'see-moss' and stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.
However the CMOS circuitry also means that they are static sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling them will be adequate. ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use them. For the more sensitive (and expensive!) ICs special equipment is available, including earthed wrist straps and earthed work surfaces. For further information, including pin connections, please use the quick links on the right or go to 4000 Series ICs.
74 Series: 74LS, 74HC and 74HCT There are several families of logic ICs numbered from 74xx00 onwards with letters (xx) in the middle of the number to indicate the type of circuitry, eg 74LS00 and 74HC00. The original family (now obsolete) had no letters, eg 7400.
Quick links to individual ICs 7400 7402 7403 7404 7405 7408 7409 7410 7411 7412 7414 7420 7421 7427 7430 7432 7442 7447 7486 7490 7493 74132 74160 74161 74162 74163 74192 74193 74390 74393
The 74LS (Low-power Schottky) family (like the original) uses TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) circuitry which is fast but requires more power than later families. The 74HC family has High-speed CMOS circuitry, combining the speed of TTL with the very low power consumption of the 4000 series. They are CMOS ICs with the same pin arrangements as the older 74LS family. Note that 74HC inputs cannot be reliably driven by 74LS outputs 74HC4017 because the voltage ranges used for logic 0 are not quite 74HC4020 compatible, use 74HCT instead. 74HC4040 74HC4060 The 74HCT family is a special version of 74HC with 74LS 74HC4511 TTL-compatible inputs so 74HCT can be safely mixed with 74LS in the same system. In fact 74HCT can be used as low-power direct replacements for the older 74LS ICs in most circuits. The minor disadvantage of 74HCT is a lower immunity to noise, but this is unlikely to be a problem in most situations. Beware that the 74 series is often still called the 'TTL series' even though the latest ICs do not use TTL! For further information, including pin connections, please use the quick links on the right or go to 74 series ICs. The CMOS circuitry used in the 74HC and 74HCT series ICs means that they are static sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling them will be adequate. ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use them.
PIC microcontrollers
A PIC is a Programmable Integrated Circuit microcontroller, a 'computer-on-a-chip'. They have a processor and memory to run a program responding to inputs and controlling outputs, so they can easily achieve complex functions which would require several conventional ICs.
Programming a PIC microcontroller may seem daunting to a beginner but there are a number of www.picaxe.co.uk systems designed to make this easy. The PICAXE system is an excellent example because it uses a standard computer to
program (and re-program) the PICs; no specialist equipment is required other than a low-cost download lead. Programs can be written in a simple version of BASIC or using a flowchart. The PICAXE programming software and extensive documentation is available to download free of charge, making the system ideal for education and users at home. For further information (including downloads) please see www.picaxe.co.uk If you think PICs are not for you because you have never written a computer program, please look at the PICAXE system! It is very easy to get started using a few simple BASIC commands and there are a number of projects available as kits which are ideal for beginners. The system is stocked by Rapid Electronics.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Example: Function Connecting and soldering
LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method).
Circuit symbol:
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs. Testing an LED
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply! It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect the LED the correct way round! For an accurate value please see Calculating an LED resistor value below.
Colours of LEDs
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours.
The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent. Tri-colour LEDs
The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.
The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different lengths of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to give the third colour. Bi-colour LEDs
A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above.
Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. LED Clip The 'standard' LED has a round cross-section of 5mm diameter and this is probably the best type for general Photograph Rapid Electronics use, but 3mm round LEDs are also popular.
Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to install on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in holes. Other cross-section shapes include square, rectangular and triangular. As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing angle. This tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60 but others have a narrow beam of 30 or less.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide selection of LEDs and their catalogue is a good guide to the range available.
Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED, otherwise it will burn out almost instantly.
The resistor value, R is given by: R = (VS - VL) / I VS = supply voltage VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs) I = LED current (e.g. 10mA = 0.01A, or 20mA = 0.02A) Make sure the LED current you choose is less than the maximum permitted and convert the current to amps (A) so the calculation will give the resistor value in ohms ( ). To convert mA to A divide the current in mA by 1000 because 1mA = 0.001A. If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will make the LED less bright.
For example If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current I = 20mA = 0.020A, R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350 , so choose 390 greater). (the nearest standard value which is
Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where: V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case) I = the current through the resistor
So R = (VS - VL) / I For more information on the calculations please see the Ohm's Law page.
Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED.
All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use this for VL. Example calculations: A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least 3 2V + 2V = 8V, so a 9V battery would be ideal. VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up). If the supply voltage VS is 9V and the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A, Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200 , so choose R = 220 (the nearest standard value which is greater).
Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between them is generally not a good idea.
If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it. Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs individually. If LEDs are in parallel each one should have its own resistor.
Reading a table of technical data for LEDs

Suppliers' catalogues usually include tables of technical data for components such as LEDs. These tables contain a good deal of useful information in a compact form but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used.
The table below shows typical technical data for some 5mm diameter round LEDs with diffused packages (plastic bodies). Only three columns are important and these are shown in bold. Please see below for explanations of the quantities.
IF max. Standard Red 30mA Standard Bright red 30mA Standard Yellow 30mA Standard Green 25mA High intensity Blue 30mA Type Colour VF typ. 1.7V 2.0V 2.1V 2.2V 4.5V VF VR max. max. 2.1V 5V 2.5V 5V 2.5V 5V 2.5V 5V 5.5V 5V Luminous Viewing Wavelength intensity angle 5mcd @ 10mA 60 660nm 80mcd @ 10mA 60 625nm 32mcd @ 10mA 60 590nm 32mcd @ 10mA 60 565nm 60mcd @ 20mA 50 430nm
Super bright Low current IF max. VF typ. VF max. VR max. Luminous intensity Viewing angle Wavelength
Red Red
30mA 1.85V 2.5V 5V 500mcd @ 20mA 30mA 1.7V 2.0V 5V 5mcd @ 2mA
60 60
660nm 625nm
Maximum forward current, forward just means with the LED connected correctly. Typical forward voltage, VL in the LED resistor calculation. This is about 2V, except for blue and white LEDs for which it is about 4V. Maximum forward voltage. Maximum reverse voltage
You can ignore this for LEDs connected the correct way round.
Brightness of the LED at the given current, mcd = millicandela. Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60, others emit a narrower beam of about 30. The peak wavelength of the light emitted, this determines the colour of the LED. nm = nanometre.
Flashing LEDs
Flashing LEDs look like ordinary LEDs but they contain an integrated circuit (IC) as well as the LED itself. The IC flashes the LED at a low frequency, typically 3Hz (3 flashes per second). They are designed to be connected directly to a supply, usually 9 - 12V, and no series resistor is required. Their flash frequency is fixed so their use is limited and you may prefer to build your own circuit to flash an ordinary LED, for example our Flashing LED project which uses a 555 astable circuit.
LED Displays
LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the most familiar pattern being the 7-segment displays for showing numbers (digits 0-9). The pictures below illustrate some of the popular designs:
Bargraph
7-segment
Starburst
Dot matrix
Pin connections of LED displays
There are many types of LED display and a supplier's catalogue should be consulted for the pin connections. The diagram on the right shows an example from the Rapid Electronics catalogue. Like many 7-segment displays, this example is available in two versions: Common Anode (SA) with all the LED anodes connected together and Common Cathode (SC) with all the cathodes connected together. Letters a-g refer to the 7 segments, A/C is the common anode or cathode as appropriate (on 2 pins). Note that some pins are not present (NP) but their position is still numbered.
Pin connections diagram Rapid Electronics
Also see: Display Drivers.
Transistors
Function
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE. For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. Transistor circuit symbols The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors.
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different
circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page. Connecting
Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on.
If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue Transistor leads for some common case styles. to identify the leads. The drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles. Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from above. Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common transistors.
Soldering
Crocodile clip Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering Photograph Rapid Electronics. so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the transistor body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink. Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink (described below) which may be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.
Heat sinks
Heat sink
Photograph Rapid Electronics Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through them. Heat sinks are needed for power transistors because they pass large currents. If you find that a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding air.
For further information please see the Heat sinks page.
Testing a transistor
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it: 1. Testing with a multimeter Testing an NPN transistor Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low resistance range.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total): The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only. The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only. The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used. 2. Testing in a simple switching circuit Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right which uses the transistor as a switch. The supply voltage is not critical, anything between 5 and 12V is suitable. This circuit can be quickly built on breadboard for example. Take care to include the 10k resistor in the base connection or you will destroy the transistor as you test it!
A simple switching circuit to test an NPN transistor
If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is pressed and not light when the switch is released. To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the supply voltage. Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known base current and measures the collector current so as to display the transistor's DC current gain hFE.
Transistor codes
There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:
Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478
The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings. The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.
Choosing a transistor
Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their typical use or maximum powerrating.
To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table below shows the most important technical data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books will usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless you are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained below. NPN transistors
Code BC107 BC108 BC108C BC109 BC182 Structure NPN NPN NPN NPN NPN Case style TO18 TO18 TO18 TO18 IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes 100mA 45V 110 300mW Audio, low power BC182 BC547 100mA 20V 100mA 20V 200mA 20V 110 300mW 420 600mW 200 300mW 100 350mW
General purpose, BC108C BC183 low power BC548 General purpose, low power Audio (low BC184 BC549 noise), low power General purpose, BC107 BC182L
TO92C 100mA 50V
low power General purpose, BC107 BC182 BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW low power BC107B BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW Audio, low power General purpose, BC108B BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW low power Audio (low BC109 BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW noise), low power General purpose, BFY51 2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW low power General purpose, BC639 BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW medium power General purpose, BFY51 BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW medium power General purpose, TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W high power General purpose, TIP31C TIP41A TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W high power General purpose, TIP31A TIP41A TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W high power General purpose, TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W high power General purpose, 2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W high power Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Code BC177 BC178 Structure PNP PNP Case style TO18 TO18 IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes BC477 100mA 45V 125 300mW Audio, low power 200mA 25V 120 600mW
General purpose, BC478 low power Audio (low BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW noise), low power BC177 BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW Audio, low power General purpose, BC178 BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW low power General purpose, TIP32C TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W high power General purpose, TIP32A TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W high power Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
Structure
This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the two types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it must be the same type. There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most common case styles in the Connecting section above. This information is also available in suppliers' catalogues. Maximum collector current. Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction.
Case style
IC max. VCE max.
You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.
hFE
This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since the gain is roughly constant for various currents but it varies from transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts. Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with their own symbol. There are too many to explain here.
Ptot max.
Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor, note that a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as amplifiers, the power is roughly IC VCE. For transistors operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is more important. This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have separate tables for different categories.
Category
Possible substitutes These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have a different case style so you will need to take care when placing them on the circuit board.
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the amplified current from the first is amplified further by the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs are sold as complete packages containing the two transistors. They have three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor.
You can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors. For example: For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220. For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.
The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 hFE2 = 220 40 = 8800. The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.
Switches
Selecting a Switch
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:
Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)
Ratings (maximum voltage and current) Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)
Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:

Pole - number of switch contact sets. Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double. Way - number of conducting positions, three or more. Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released. Open - off position, contacts not conducting. Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one position conducts. Switch Contact Ratings Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be different ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls to zero many times each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch contacts.
For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need to check the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and motors) because they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off. Standard Switches Type of Switch ON-OFF Circuit Symbol Example
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST A simple on-off switch. This type can be used to switch the power supply to a circuit. When used with mains electricity this type of switch must be in the live wire, but it is better to use a DPST switch to isolate both live and neutral.
SPST toggle switch
(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary A push-to-make switch returns to its normally open (off) position when you release the button, this is shown by the brackets around ON. This is the standard doorbell switch.
Push-to-make switch
ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary A push-to-break switch returns to its normally closed (on) position when you release the button.
Push-to-break switch
ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case. It is often called a changeover switch. For example, a SPDT switch can be used to switch on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the other position.
A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple onoff switch by connecting to COM and one of the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are interchangeable so switches are usually not labelled.
SPDT toggle switch
ON-OFF-ON
SPDT Centre Off A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It has a third switching position in the centre which is off. Momentary (ON)OFF-(ON) versions are also available where the switch returns to the central off position when released.
SPDT slide switch (PCB mounting)
SPDT rocker switch
Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST A pair of on-off switches which operate together (shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol). A DPST switch is often used to switch mains electricity because it can isolate both the live and neutral connections.
Photograph Rapid Electronics DPST rocker switch
Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT A pair of on-on switches which operate together (shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol). A DPDT switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for a motor as shown in the diagram.
ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It has a third switching position in the centre which is off. This can be very useful for motor control because you have forward, off and reverse positions. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are also available where the switch returns to the central off position when released.
DPDT slide switch
Wiring for Reversing Switch
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of switches and they have kindly allowed me to use their photographs on this page. The photographs are from their Image Gallery CD-ROM.
Special Switches Type of Switch Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)

This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a standard on-off switch: push once to switch on, push again to switch off. This is called a latching action.
Example
Microswitch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)

Microswitches are designed to switch fully open or closed in response to small movements. They are available with levers and rollers attached.
Keyswitch
A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.
Tilt Switch (SPST)

Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this bridges the contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be used as a sensor to detect the position of an object. Some tilt switches contain mercury which is poisonous.
Reed Switch (usually SPST)

The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a small magnet near the switch. They are used in security circuits, for example to check that doors are closed. Standard reed switches are SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover) versions are also available. Warning: reed switches have a glass body which is easily broken! For advice on handling please see the Electronics in Meccano website.
DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)

This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the example shown has 8 switches. The package is the same size as a standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit. This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the code of a remote control.
Multi-pole Switch
The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also known as a 6-pole changeover switch. It can be set to have momentary or latching action. Latching action means it behaves as a pushpush switch, push once for the first position, push again for the second position etc.
Multi-way Switch
Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions. They may have several poles (contact sets). A popular type has a rotary action and it is available with a range of contact arrangements from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way.
The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a stop under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch you can buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop. Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-pole switch (many contact sets) described above.
Resistors
Example: Function Circuit symbol:
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor The Resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the Colour Code current passing through the LED. Colour Number Connecting and soldering Black 0 Brown 1 Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. Red 2 Orange 3 Yellow 4 Resistor values - the resistor colour code Green 5 Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an Blue 6 omega . Violet 7 Grey 8 1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M . White 9 1k = 1000 1M = 1000000 .
Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands. Each colour represents a number as shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands: The first band gives the first digit. The second band gives the second digit. The third band indicates the number of zeros. The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands. So its value is 270000 On circuit diagrams the = 270 k . is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.
Find out how to make your own Resistor
Colour Code
Calculator
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm) The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means 0.1 and silver which means 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.
For example: red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7 green, blue, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code) The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code. Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390). 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351
A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance: silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%. If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%. Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely required. Resistor shorthand
Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which avoids using a decimal point because it is easy to miss the small dot. Instead the letters R, K and M are used in place of the decimal point. To read the code: replace the letter with a decimal point, then multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K, or 1000000 if the letter was M. The letter R means multiply by 1.
For example:
560R 2K7
means 560 means 2.7 k = 2700
39K 1M0
means 39 k means 1.0 M = 1000 k
Real resistor values (the E6 and E12 series)

You may have noticed that resistors are not available with every possible value, for example 22k and 47k are readily available, but 25k and 50k are not!
Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make resistors every 10 giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits. In fact it would be difficult to make resistors sufficiently accurate. To produce a sensible range of resistor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the value increases. The standard resistor values are based on this idea and they form a series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten. The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 20% tolerance) 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc. Notice how the step size increases as the value increases. For this series the step (to the next value) is roughly half the value. The E12 series (12 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 10% tolerance) 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82, ... then it continues 100, 120, 150 etc. Notice how this is the E6 series with an extra value in the gaps. The E12 series is the one most frequently used for resistors. It allows you to choose a value within 10% of the precise value you need. This is sufficiently accurate for almost all projects and it is sensible because most resistors are only accurate to 10% (called their 'tolerance'). For example a resistor marked 390 could vary by 10% 390 = 39 , so it could be any value between 351 and 429 . Resistors in Series and Parallel
For information on resistors connected in series and parallel please see the Resistance page,
Power Ratings of Resistors
Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher power is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V). The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
or
High power resistors (5W top, 25W bottom) Photographs Rapid Electronics
P = I R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)

I = current through the resistor in amps (A) R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( ) V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)
P = V / R
Relays
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical. The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification. Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay. The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diodeacross the relay coil. The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT. The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO: COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch. NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off. NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.
Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
Physical size and pin arrangement If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's catalogue. 2. Coil voltage The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated value. 3. Coil resistance The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
1.
Relay coil current =
supply voltage
coil resistance
For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current. 5. Switch ratings (voltage and current) The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC". 6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc) Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the page onswitches.
4.
Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode(eg 1N4148) is connected 'backwards' across the relay coil to provide this protection. Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.
Reed relays
Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are normally operated with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through the coil to create a magnetic field and close the reed switch.
Reed Relay
Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000 for example) and a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable of switching much more
rapidly than standard relays, up to several hundred times per second; but they can only switch low currents (500mA maximum for example). The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14pin DIL socket ('IC holder'). For further information about reed switches please see the page on switches.
Relays and transistors compared Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For
switching small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However, transistors cannot switch AC (such as mains electricity) and in simple circuits they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil! The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:
Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors. Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays can switch many contacts at once. Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second. Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Disadvantages of relays:
Lamps
Function and Construction
Lamps emit light when an electric current passes through them. All of the lamps shown on this page have a thin wire filament which becomes very hot and glows brightly when a current passes through it. The filament is made from a metal with a high melting point such as tungsten and it is usually wound into a small coil. Filament lamps have a shorter lifetime than most electronic components because eventually the filament 'blows' (melts) at a weak point.
Circuit symbols
There are two circuit symbols for a lamp, one for a lamp used to provide illumination and another for a lamp used as an indicator. Small lamps such as torch bulbs can be
used for both purposes so either circuit symbol may used in simple educational circuits.
(for example a car headlamp or torch bulb)
Lamp used for lighting
(for example a warning light on a car dashboard)
Lamp used as an indicator
Selecting a Lamp
There are three important features to consider when selecting a lamp:
Voltage rating - the supply voltage for normal brightness. Power or current rating - small lamps are usually rated by current. Lamp type - please see the table below.
The voltage and power (or current) ratings are usually printed or embossed on the body of a lamp. Voltage rating This is the supply voltage required for normal brightness. If a slightly higher voltage is used the lamp will be brighter but its lifetime will be shorter. With a lower supply voltage the lamp will be dimmer and its lifetime will be longer. The light from dim lamps has a yellow-orange colour.
Torch lamps pass a relatively large current and this significantly reduces the output voltage of the battery. Some voltage is used up inside the battery driving the large current through the small resistance of the battery itself (its 'internal resistance'). As a result the correct voltage rating for a torch lamp is lower than the normal voltage of the battery which lights it! For example: a lamp rated 3.5V 0.3A is correct for a 4.5V battery (three 1.5V cells) because when the lamp is connected the voltage across the battery falls to about 3.5V.
Power or current rating This is the power or current for the lamp when connected to its rated voltage. Low power lamps are usually rated by their current and high power lamps by their power. It is easy to convert between the two ratings: P = I V where: P = power in watts (W) I = current in amps (A) or V = voltage in volts (V) I=P/V
Examples:
A lamp rated 3.5V 0.3A has a power rating P = I V = 0.3 3.5 = 1.05W A lamp rated 6V 0.06A has a power rating P = I V = 0.06 6 = 0.36W A lamp rated 12W 2.4W has a current rating I = P / V = 2.4 / 12 = 0.2A
Lamp Type
Type of Lamp MES Miniature Edison Screw
Example
These are the standard small lamps. The bulb diameter is usually about 10mm, but tubular bulbs are also available. MES lamps have one contact on the base and the body forms the other contact. They are available with a good range of voltage and power (or current) ratings. Lens ended versions are available to produce a focused beam of light.
LES
Lilliput Edison Screw
Smaller than MES, these have a bulb diameter of about 5mm.

MCC
Miniature Centre Contact
These have a bayonet style fitting, like a standard mains lamp in the UK. They have one contact on the base and the body forms the other contact. The bulb diameter is about 10mm.
SBC
Small Bayonet Cap
These have a bayonet style fitting, like a standard mains lamp in the UK. They have two contacts on the base so the metal body is not connected in the circuit. SBC lamps have high power ratings (24W for example) and their bulbs are large with a diameter of up to about 40mm. Note the two filament arrangements in the lamps shown, horizontal on the left, vertical on the right.
Pre-focus
This type of lamp is used in torches and lanterns. The flange at the top of the metal body is used to hold the lamp in place. Lampholders are not readily available so this type is unsuitable for most projects.
Wire ended
These are very small lamps with a bulb about 3mm diameter and 6mm long. Take care to avoid snapping the wires where they enter the glass bulb.
Grain of Wheat
These are similar to the wire ended lamps above but they have stranded wire leads usually about 150mm long. The bulb is about 3mm diameter and 6mm long - the size of a grain of wheat!
Rapid Electronics stock a wide range of lamps and they have kindly allowed me to use their photographs on this page. The photographs are from their Image Gallery CDROM.
Connecting and soldering

Lamps may be connected either way round in a circuit and the supply may be AC or DC.
screw terminals solder tags
Lampholders
Photographs Rapid Electronics Most lamps are designed to be used in a lampholder but the small 'wire ended' and 'grain of wheat' lamps have wires which may be soldered directly onto a circuit board. Lampholders usually have screw terminals or solder tags to attach wires. Some small holders have contacts which may be soldered directly to a circuit board.
Lamps in Series Several lamps can be successfully connected in series provided they all have identical voltage and power (or current) ratings. The supply voltage is divided equally between identical lamps so their voltage rating must be suitable for this. For example Christmas tree lights may have 20 lamps connected in series to a 240V supply, so each lamp will have 240V 20 = 12V across it.
A disadvantage of connecting lamps in series is that if one lamp blows all of them will go out because the circuit is broken. Christmas tree lamps have a special feature to overcome this problem; they are designed to short circuit (conduct like a wire link) when they blow, so the circuit is not broken and the other lamps remain lit, making it easier to locate the faulty lamp. Sets also include one 'fuse' lamp which blows normally. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which converts brightness (light) to resistance. It is made from cadmium sulphide (CdS) and the resistance decreases as the brightness of light falling on the LDR increases.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance in darkness and bright light, these are the typical results for a standard LDR: Darkness: maximum resistance, about 1M . Very bright light: minimum resistance, about 100
.
For many years the standard LDR has been the ORP12, now the NORPS12, which is about 13mm diameter. Miniature LDRs are also available and their diameter is about 5mm.
An LDR may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required when soldering.
circuit symbol
Thermistor
A thermistor is an input transducer (sensor) which converts temperature (heat) to resistance. Almost all thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) which means their resistance decreases as their temperature increases. It is possible to make thermistors with a positive temperature coefficient (resistance increases as temperature increases) but these are rarely used. Always assume NTC if no information is given.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance at various temperatures, these are some typical readings for example:

circuit symbol
Icy water 0C: high resistance, about 12k . Room temperature 25C: medium resistance, about 5k .
Boiling water 100C: low resistance, about 400 .
Suppliers usually specify thermistors by their resistance at 25C (room temperature). Thermistors take several seconds to respond to a sudden temperature change, small thermistors respond more rapidly.
A thermistor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required when soldering. If it is going to be immersed in water the thermistor and its connections should be insulated because water is a weak conductor; for example they could be coated with polyurethane varnish.
Piezo transducer
Piezo transducers are output transducers which convert an electrical signal to sound. They require a driver circuit (such as a 555 astable) to provide a signal and if this is near their natural (resonant) frequency of about 3kHz they will produce a particularly loud sound.
circuit symbol
Piezo transducers require a small current, usually less than 10mA, so they can be connected directly to the outputs of most ICs. They are ideal for buzzes and beeps, but are not suitable for speech or music because they distort the sound. They are sometimes supplied with red and black leads, but they may be connected either way round. PCB-mounting versions are also available. Piezo transducers can also be used as input transducers for detecting sudden loud noises or impacts, effectively behaving as a crude microphone.
Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers are output transducers which convert an electrical signal to sound. Usually they are called 'speakers'. They require a driver circuit, such as a 555 astable or an audio amplifier, to provide a signal. There is a wide range available, but for many electronics projects a 300mW miniature loudspeaker is ideal. This type is about 70mm diameter and it is usually available with resistances of 8 and 64 . If a project specifies a 64 speaker you must use this higher resistance to prevent damage to the driving circuit.
Most circuits used to drive loudspeakers produce an audio (AC) signal which is combined with a constant DC signal. The capacitor in series to block DC DC will make a large current flow through the speaker due to its low resistance, possibly damaging both the speaker and the driving circuit. To prevent this happening a large value electrolytic capacitor is connected in series with the speaker, this blocks DC but passes audio (AC) signals. See capacitor coupling. circuit symbol Loudspeakers may be connected either way round except in stereo circuits when the + and - markings on their terminals must be observed to ensure the two speakers are in phase. Correct polarity must always be observed for large speakers in cabinets because the cabinet may contain a small circuit (a 'crossover network') which diverts the high frequency signals to a small speaker (a 'tweeter') because the large main speaker is poor at reproducing them. Miniature loudspeakers can also be used as a microphone and they work surprisingly well, certainly good enough for speech in an intercom system for example.
Buzzer and Bleeper

These devices are output transducers converting electrical energy to sound. They contain an internal oscillator to produce the sound which is set at about 400Hz for buzzers and about 3kHz for bleepers.
Buzzer (about 400Hz)
Bleeper (about 3kHz)
Buzzers have a voltage rating but it is only circuit symbol approximate, for example 6V and 12V buzzers can be used with a 9V supply. Their typical current is about 25mA. Bleepers have wide voltage ranges, such as 330V, and they pass a low current of about 10mA. Buzzers and bleepers must be connected the right way round, their red lead is positive (+).
Inductor (miniature)
Inductor (coil)
An inductor is a coil of wire which may have a core of Ferrite rod air, iron or ferrite (a brittle material made from iron). Photographs Rapid Electronics Its electrical property is called inductance and the unit for this is the henry, symbol H. 1H is very large so mH and H are used, 1000H = 1mH and 1000mH = 1H. Iron and ferrite cores increase the circuit symbol inductance. Inductors are mainly used in tuned circuits and to block high frequency AC signals (they are sometimes called chokes). They pass DC easily, but block AC signals, this is the opposite of capacitors.
Inductors are rarely found in simple projects, but one exception is the tuning coil of a radio receiver. This is an inductor which you may have to make yourself by neatly winding enamelled copper wire around a ferrite rod. Enamelled copper wire has very thin insulation, allowing the turns of the coil to be close together, but this makes it impossible to strip in the usual way - the best method is to gently pull the ends of the wire through folded emery paper. Warning: a ferrite rod is brittle so treat it like glass, not iron!
An inductor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required when soldering.

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Electronic components

There are two types of capacitors: 1. Polarised 2. Unpolarised

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F)

Capacitor Colour Code

Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)

Connectors and Cables

Battery clips and holders

Terminal blocks and PCB terminals

4mm terminal and solder tag

Photographs Rapid Electronics

4mm plugs, sockets and terminals

2mm plugs and sockets

Photograph Rapid Electronics

DC power plugs and sockets

Jack plugs and sockets

" (6.3mm) jack plug and socket

Phono plugs and sockets

Coax plugs and sockets

Construction of a screened cable

BNC plugs and sockets

Photographs Rapid Electronics

DIN plugs and sockets

IDC communication connectors

'Figure 8' (speaker) cable

Screened cable (mono)

Screened cable (stereo)

Screened cable (stereo)

Signal diodes (small current)

Various types of Bridge Rectifiers

Integrated Circuits (Chips)

IC holders (DIL sockets)

Datasheets are available as PDF files from: DatasheetArchive.com Datasheets.org.uk DatasheetCatalog.com

Sinking and sourcing current

Using diodes to combine outputs

The 555 and 556 Timers

inputs, but only one 74LS input.

Maximum Frequency Power consumption

about 1MHz A few W.

about 25MHz A few W.

about 25MHz A few W.

about 35MHz A few mW.

4000 Series CMOS

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs

Calculating an LED resistor value

Connecting LEDs in series

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Reading a table of technical data for LEDs

Photographs Rapid Electronics

Pin connections of LED displays

Pin connections diagram Rapid Electronics

Also see: Display Drivers.

For further information please see the Heat sinks page.

A simple switching circuit to test an NPN transistor

Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478

TO92C 100mA 50V

IC max. VCE max.

You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.

Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)

SPST toggle switch

SPDT toggle switch

SPDT slide switch (PCB mounting)