TIME KEEPS TICKING AWAY... The universe is 13.7 Gy it occurred during the Big Bang.

. The solar system is 4.6 By old. It formed through squashing of space dust into the sun and then various planets through gravitational fields. The universe is composed of stars, planets, and suns, black holes, and other stuff. The earth is 4.1 billion years old. It formed by condensation of space dust. The eons are Phanerozoic (visible life 542 Ma to now), Proterozoic (buildup of oxygen 2.5 Ga to 542 Ma), Archean (birth of continents 3.8 to 2.5 Ga), Hadean (birth of oceans and atmospheres 4.6 to 3.8 Ga) Mesozoic (age of dinosaurs 251 to 65.5 Ma), Jurassic (breakup of Pangea 200 Ma to 145 Ma), Ordovician (southern continents breakup 489 Ma to 1.7 Ma), Pleistocene (modern continents, ice age 2.5 million to 11.7 thousand), Holocene (human life 11.7 k to present) Most earthquakes occur in the New Madrid fault zone. We can satisfy our need for oil for around 40 years. EARTH STRUCTURE AND DEFORMATION The most abundant elements in Earths crust are silica and oxygen. In order of density: core, mantle, crust The plate is the crust and the upper part of the mantle The plates on Earth move between 5 and 15 cm a year The asthenospehere is the inner plate and is hotter so it is ductile while the lithosphere is the rigid outer part that cracks. Transform boundaries move up and down, Convergent boundaries move towards each other, and Divergent boundaries move apart. Subduction is when a plate slips under another plate and causes trenches, mountain belts, volcanoes) Dipslip fault is parallel to fault plane dip, strikeslip fault is parallel to fault plane strike, oblique fault is a combo of dip and strikeslip, reverse is steeper than 35 degrees, thrust is less than 35 degrees, right lateral is top moving to right, left lateral is top moving to left The basin and range province were formed by divergent motion. Tsunamis are formed the crust going down and then quickly up again. We measure structures based on the sediments in them in layers. The epicenter is the point on the surface where the EQ is, the hypocenter is the actual point. ROCKS AND MINERALS Igneous rocks form from solidified magma under high temperature, metamorphic rocks form from a change due to heat or gasses etc under high temperature and pressure, sedimentary rocks form under high pressure from bits of old rocks Most of the crust is sedimentary rock, the crust is igneous rock, and metamorphic rock lie underneath the crust Hornfels (underwater mountain), Protolith (parent rock), Clastic (composed of broken pieces of other rocks), Chemical (broken apart by chemical reactions), Kimberlite (blue intrusive-igneous rock diamonds), Basalt (dark fine volcanic rock olivine and pyroxene), Rhyolite (pale fine volcanic rock granite porphyritic), Peridotite (dense coarse plutonic olivine most of

mantle), Andesite (dark fine volcanic between basalt and rhyolite), Arkose (coarse sandstone +25 percent feldspar), Quartz (silicon dioxide mineral), Volcanic glass (rapid solidification of lava without crystallization obsidian), Halite (rock sold colorless cubic crystals), Granite (hard igneous rock of feldspar) WEATHERING AND EROSION: BREAKING DOWN MOUNTAINS Beach sand is mainly silicon dioxide because this is most of crust and sand is sediment of crust. Frost-wedging (physical caused by freeze thaw and cracking), Abrasion (physical rubbing of rocks together), Hydrolysis (chemical breakdown with water), Oxidation (chemical reaction to oxygen), Hydration (physical water erosion), Dissolution (physical being dissolved) Physical and chemical happen simultaneously and speed up erosion. Stream flow follows path of least resistance. Headland erosion is caused by waves eroding a shore or cliff face Maximum stream velocity in a straight stream is in the middle and in curved channels Curved channels create oxbow lakes and bars, where they erode on one side and then deposit it on the other side Yazoo (delta in Mississippi), Oxbow (u-shaped bend in the course of a river), Gravel bar (sedimentation of debris in river), Delta (triangle sedimentation at base of river to body of water), Antecedent (preexisting), Superposed (placed on top of something preexisting), Stair step canyon (erosion of different materials), Groundwater (water held in pores and crevasses), Sheetwash (water on top of crust) USE, PERCEPTION AND PREDICTION OF EARTH SYSTEMS Fossils represent previous life and can be used to determine relative age of formations Groundwater is used in wells as drinking water and is not renewable. Hard groundwater has lots of minerals in it and over past 100 years we have bottled water and transported it and grown in population Relative age is determined by layers and fossils using carbon and relative dating, lowest is oldest, and crosscut is always younger Unconformity is not behaving the norm like erosion Wegner (continental drift theory), Hess (theory of plate tectonics), Milankovitch (timescale), Mohorovicic (discontinuity and modern seismology) Pisa is built on unstable weak ground Potential energy is stored while kinetic is the energy of motion