CLAY PIPE ENGINEERING MANUAL

National Headquarters Lake Geneva, Wisconsin Western Region Office Corona, California

Price $25.00

Copyright 2006 by National Clay Pipe Institute

Printed in U.S.A.

CLAY PIPE ENGINEERING MANUAL

Foreword
p The Clay Pipe Engineering Manual has been prepared by the National Clay Pipe Institute and is offered by the member manufacturers of the Institute as an aid to those requiring engineering reference data applicable to the design and construction of sewer systems and other projects in which Vitrified Clay Pipe should be used.
Design and construction techniques encountered throughout the country are many and varied. Those described here are considered sound, although it is recognized that there may be other equally satisfactory methods. Technical data presented are considered reliable, but no guarantee is made or liability assumed. The recommendations in this Manual should not be substituted for the judgment of a professional engineer as to the best way of achieving specific design requirements. The Engineering Staff of the Institute and of its member companies are available to assist the reader. An electronic version of this document is available for download at NCPI.org.

Acknowledgements
The National Clay Pipe Institute wishes to acknowledge the following members of the NCPI Technical Services Committee who both individually and collectively have contributed to this edition. Richard Brandt Rudy Brandt Jeff Boshert, P. E. Mark Bruce John Butler Dan Cross David Gill Steve King, P. E. Edwin C. Lamb, P. E. Todd McClave David Rausch Edward Sikora Pat V. Symons Larry G. Tolby Michael VanDine, P.E. Bryan Vansell

Equally appreciated are the efforts of the many others who generously gave their time and talent throughout the development of this manual.

NATIONAL CLAY PIPE INSTITUTE 2006

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.

Chapter 1.

VITRIFIED CLAY PIPE An Engineering Material The Manufacture of Vitrified Clay Pipe100-Year Sewers Research and Development GRAVITY SEWER DESIGN

Chapter 2. Part I.

Planning and Layout 10 Sewer PlanningDesign PeriodDrainage AreaDesign Flows Population EstimatesConvert Population Data to Average FlowPeak FactorsExtraneous FlowsInflowInfiltration Advantages of Flexible Compression JointsSummations of Flow Flow MonitoringLand Use CoefficientsSample Land Use Map Flow EstimatingPeak Factor Table

18 Part II. Hydraulic Design Basic Premises for Calculating Flow in SewersFlow Characteristics DiagramThe Hydraulic ProfileDesign RequirementsDetermination of Pipe SizesSelecting the Sizes for the New Sewer LineTypical Plan and ProfileQuantity and Velocity EquationsThe Manning Equations Discussion of Values for nDesign Capacity GraphsComputer DesignConveyance Factors and Tables Chapter 3. CORROSION IN SANITARY SEWERS 29 Vitrified Clay Pipe is Chemically InertHydrogen Sulfide Acid Resistance Aggressive Soils and Other Hostile Environments RIGID CONDUITS, UNDERGROUND

Chapter 4. Part I.

Structural Analysis 32 Importance of Predetermining Loads AccuratelyComputer DesignLoads Can be Accurately DeterminedTrench Load EquationsFrictional Forces in the BackfillThe Effect of Trench WidthMarston EquationLoad Computation DiagramBackfill Soils Classification ChartEmbankment LoadsSuperimposed LoadsConcentrated LoadsTable of Load CoefficientsWheel LoadsDistributed LoadsImpact LoadsTrench Width, Depth of Fill and Soil Characteristics Using Trench Load Tables Typical Load Computation for Highway Work Summary

Part II. Structural Design 44 Design Load Versus Actual LoadThe Effect of Trench Width The Effect of Moving the Trench Box or Removing the Sheeting The Effect of Sloping Trench WallsSupporting Strength of Vitrified Clay PipePhysical Properties of Vitrified Clay Pipe Bearing Strength Tests Foundation Proper Bedding to Develop Design Supporting Strength 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page No.

Bell or Coupling HolesBedding MaterialsSuitable Bedding Material Native BeddingBedding Sieve Analysis General Guidelines Load FactorsField Supporting StrengthSupporting Strength in Trench Conditions Design Saftey Factor Sample Problems Solutions Bedding DiagramsUse of Concrete to Develop Added Support Principles of Concrete Design 59

Chapter 5.

TRENCH LOAD TABLES Based on Marstons Equations Showing Loads on Pipe by Backfilling With Various MaterialsTRENCH LOAD, A Computer Design Trench Load Program

Chapter 6.

CONSTRUCTION 90 ExcavationTrench WallsUse of Shoring, Sheeting and Trench BoxFoundation and Trench Bottom Preparation Pipe LayingPipe Joining Industrial Application Pipe BeddingInitial Backfill Final BackfillCompactionMechanical Compaction Water CompactionSpecialized EncasementPiling and Special Foundations DewateringGeotextilesService Connections

Chapter 7.

TRENCHLESS TECHNOLOGY A Technology for Clay PipeMicrotunnelingPipe Bursting Pilot Tube Method

101

Chapter 8.

CONSTRUCTION OF SPECIAL STRUCTURES ManholesManhole Frames, Covers and StepsDrop ManholesTerminal Cleanout StructuresAboveground SewersMeasuring and Sampling Flow in Sewers INSPECTION AND TESTING QualificationsOn the JobDutiesAcceptance Testing Test MethodsInfiltration TestingCalculation of Infiltration RateAir TestingSummary of Method ProceduresSafety

103

Chapter 9.

107

Chapter 10.

RESIDENTIAL BUILDING SEWERS Lateral SewersTrench ExcavationInstallation Backfilling

112

Chapter 11.

APPENDIX Applicable StandardsVelocity HeadsHydraulic Properties of Clay Pipe at Design DepthHydraulic Properties of Circular SewersMetric Units and SymbolsConversion Table Conversion FactorsRadius of Curvature and Angle of Deflection for Curvilinear SewersPerforated Clay PipeIndex

114

Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 1
VITRIFIED CLAY PIPE An Engineering Material
Vitrified clay pipe is truly unique in its corrosion and abrasion resistant qualities. It is manufactured from clays and shales, the earthy mineral aggregates which are the end products produced by the weathering forces of nature. Through centuries of time the soluble and reactive minerals have been leached from rock and soil, leaving an inert material. This chemically inert material is transformed into a dense, hard, almost homogeneous, clay body through firing in kilns at temperatures about 2000oF (1100oC). At this point vitrification occurs, as the clay mineral particles become fused into an inert, chemically stable compound, integrally bonded by its very nature, independent of any outside or artificial agent. Only specialized raw clay materials, found in hydrous alumina silicates, are suitable for the manufacture of vitrified clay pipe. The requisite characteristics are: 1. Plasticity essential for extrusion, 2. Suitable vitrification properties and 3. Stability at high temperatures. Clay pipe manufacturers blend the fire clays and shales to develop the inherent strength and load bearing capacities of the pipe. As noted in the manufacturing chart on pages 6 and 7, the principal steps in the manufacture of clay are mining, blending, grinding, pugging, forming, finishing, drying, firing and testing the pipe and joint. The high quality of vitrified clay pipe manufacture and performance is maintained in accordance with Standards issued by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). These specifications are prepared by a committee consisting of engineers from the consulting, governmental, laboratory testing and educational fields. The engineering team continually reviews and upgrades clay pipe standards for quality and performance as the latest manufacturing methods and automated processes are introduced. When clay pipe manufacturers apply modern day automated procedures to natures perfect material conforming to standards established by recognized technical societies, the finest engineering material available today for gravity sewers is produced. It should be noted that Vitrified Clay is the only piping material exclusively designed to convey the full range of materials that a community or an industry may discharge into it. It will not rust, shrink, elongate, bend, deflect, erode, oxidize or deteriorate. It is structurally sound, with a permanently fused body independent of chemically reactive bonding agents. 5

For these reasons, vitrified clay pipe can satisfy all of the following factors which must be considered in the selection of materials for sewer construction. 1. Life expectancy: over 100 years of proven performance. 2. Chemically inert: resistant to internal and external attack from solvents, acids, alkalies, gases, etc. 3. Flow characteristics: low friction coefficient. 4. Structural integrity: inherent load bearing capacity. 5. Joint tightness: factory applied flexible compression joints. 6. Abrasion resistance: exceptional resistance to abrasion and scour. 7. Availability: available in a full range of sizes, fittings and adapters. 8. Handling: easy to handle and install. 9. Economics: best total value considering cost of material, installation, maintenance and useful life.

is one of mans most enduring materials. The manufacture of Clay Pipe involves many important steps. This manufacturing process produces a homogeneous, heat-bonded, chemically inert material which provides a permanent and durable product for all sewer systems. Vitrified Clay Pipe installed over one-hundred-fifty years ago are still operational.

VITRIFIED CLAY PIPE . . .

1. MINING THE CLAY Vitrified Clay Pipe is made of selected clays and shales. Laboratory tests determine the correct properties of all raw materials for maximum strength and other physical characteristics.

Industrial users regularly specify clay pipe to carry aggressive effluent.

2. BLENDING THE CLAYS Many clays are aged to various degrees and then blended in the proper combinations.

3. GRINDING THE CLAYS Clay are ground in heavy, perforated metal pans by large crushing wheels. The clay is ground fine enough to fall through the perforations in the metal pan.

4. PUGGING THE CLAYS Ground raw materials are mixed with water in a pug mill. This material is forced through a vacuum, de-airing chamber to produce a smooth, dense mixture.

5. FORMING THE PIPE The moistened clay is extruded under extreme pressure to form the pipe.

6. FINISHING THE EXTRUDED PIPE Automatic machines trim and finish the moist pipe.

7. DRYING THE PIPE The pipe is transferred to large, heated drying rooms to remove moisture.

8. SETTING THE KILN The pipe is then set on tunnel kiln cars, as illustrated, or in the familiar beehive kiln.

9. FIRING THE PIPE The temperature in the kiln is gradually increased to the intense heat required for vitrification of the pipe, which is approximately 2000OF (1100OC).

10. TESTING THE PIPE AND JOINT Representative samples are tested for performance. 7

100 - YEAR SEWERS

These are only a few of the many municipalities where vitrified clay pipe sewers have served for one hundred years or more.
Date First Clay Pipe Was Installed Date First Clay Pipe Was Installed

City

City

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

Washington, D.C. Philadelphia, PA Boston, MA Sydney, N.S. Wales Manchester, England Liverpool, England London, England Clinton, IA Edinburgh, Scotland Rigby, England Croydon, England Darlington, England Chicago, IL Cleveland, OH New York, NY Erie, PA Grand Rapids, MI St. Louis, MO Hartford, CT Indianapolis, IN Los Angeles, CA New Haven, CT St. Paul, MN Portland, OR Raleigh, NC Lawrence, KS Baltimore, MD Portland, ME San Francisco, CA Jacksonville, FL Albany, GA St. Joseph, MO

1815 1829 1829 1832 1845 1846 1848 1850 1850 1851 1851 1852 1856 1861 1866 1868 1869 1869 1870 1872 1873 1873 1873 1873 1873 1874 1875 1875 1876 1876 1876 1876

33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59 60. 61. 62. 63.

Davenport, IA Kansas City, MO New Bedford, MA Bucyrus, OH Omaha, NE Camden, NJ Memphis, TN Parkersburg, WV Providence, RI Nashville, TN Rome, GA Rockford, IL Terre Haute, IN Sioux City, IA Red Wing, MN Reno, NV Fargo, ND Dallas, TX Denver, CO Napa, CA Sacramento, CA Woodland, CA Kalamazoo, MI Le Mars, IA Salt Lake City, UT San Jose, CA Phoenix, AZ Massilon, OH Santa Cruz, CA Atlanta, GA Highlands, NJ

1877 1877 1877 1877 1878 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1881 1884 1888 1890 1892 1892 1895 1895 1895

National Clay Pipe Institute (NCPI)

The National Clay Pipe Institute is an organization established for the purpose of providing technical information concerning vitrified clay pipe to the consulting engineering profession and to the various federal, state and local agencies involved in the design and construction of sanitary sewer systems. NCPI maintains offices in Corona, California and in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. These offices provide engineering information pertaining to the design and construction of sewerage systems. Sponsored research is routinely conducted at major universities and by NCPI member manufacturers to further improve the product and to develop advanced techniques related to the design and installation of sewer lines. Typical projects include:

Finite

element analysis of trench loads and bedding factors. Corrosive and abrasive conditions encountered by sewer systems and the resistance of various types of sewer piping materials to these conditions.

Computer analysis of factors relating to the selection, performance and economic justification of sewer pipe materials.

Innovative and alternative design and installation technologies i.e. deep burial, flat slopes, trenchless technology, rehabilitation and replacement criteria. The design of compression type joints, including the chemical resistance of jointing materials.

Installation and performance of clay

pipe in varying embedment conditions.

The physical properties of vitrified clay pipe as related to the mineralogical characteristics of types of clays required in clay pipe manufacture.

NCPI Field test to evaluate Controlled Low Strength Material as a pipe bedding.

Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 2
GRAVITY SEWER DESIGN
Part I - Planning and Layout Sewer Planning
Planning for the economical development of a sewer system requires information on current flows and forecasts of future flows. The projection of flow increases should provide sufficient lead time to formulate economic proposals, secure approvals, arrange financing, design, construct and place in operation the necessary sewers to carry domestic, commercial and industrial wastewater from a community to a point of treatment. of additional capacity is minimal compared to the cost of relief lines installed at a later date. Mainline sewers should be designed for the population density expected in the areas served, since the quantity of domestic sewage is a function of the population and of water consumption. Trunk and interceptor sewers should be designed for the tributary areas, land use and the projected population. For these larger sewers, past and future trends in population, water use and sewage flows must be considered. The life expectancy of the pipe is critical. Clay pipe has a demonstrated life expectancy in excess of 100 years.

Design Period
A design period must be chosen and sewer capacity planned that will be adequate. Professional planners are reluctant to predict land use or population changes for more than 20 years into the future. However, when planning, designing, financing and construction are considered together with the relatively minor additional cost of providing extra capacity, a 50 year hydraulic design period should be considered. Planners should design for ultimate development where special conditions exist such as remote areas near the boundary of a drainage area. Also to be considered are areas where special construction, such as tunnels and siphons, may be required. The cost 10

Drainage Area
A drainage area is the territory being considered within which it is possible to find a continuously downhill surface route from any point to the established outlet. Drainage areas should also include areas that are tributary by gravity that will be served by future sewer construction and areas that are not tributary by gravity which could be served by pumping or other means. It should be noted that natural drainage boundaries do not necessarily coincide with political boundaries.

Design Flows
A sanitary sewer has two main functions: (1) to carry the peak discharge for which it is designed and (2) to transport suspended solids so that deposits in the sewer are kept to a minimum. It is essential, therefore, that the sewer have adequate capacity for the peak flow and that it function properly at minimum flows. The peak flow determines the hydraulic capacity of sewers, pump stations and treatment plants. Minimum flows must be considered in design of sewers and siphons to insure reasonable cleansing velocities.

included. The minimum and maximum average daily quantities for the initial and final years of the design period are necessary for designing siphons and treatment plants. A value of 100 gcd has been found to be a reasonable average flow. This does not include commercial and industrial flows. An over-all figure of about 125 gcd may be used to convert population to average flow including commercial and industrial flow. The Land Use Coefficients (page 13) can be used to predict flow from future land use. These coefficients should be adjusted in accordance with flow studies in the local area. These rates make no allowances for flow from foundation drains, roofs or yard drains, none of which should be connected to a sanitary sewer. Plot a projection of average flow for the drainage area. A factor is applied to account for the variation between average flow and peak flow. This variation is primarily the result of the time of concentration since peak flows do not reach a point in a sewer at the same time. The use of a higher factor for small area flows (mainline sewers) as compared to large area flows (trunk sewers) is justified because small flows are particularly sensitive to changes, where a slight increase in rate of flow represents a large percentage increase. Larger areas and larger flows have a greater time of concentration that reduces the resulting variation.

Population Estimates
The best tool to use for estimating future sewage flow is population data. Forecasts of commercial and industrial flows are also helpful. A long range population forecast is needed and, if possible, an estimate of future commercial and industrial development. A larger value for gallons/capita/day (gcd) should be used when these estimates are not available. Population data should be collected for the total drainage area. Population projections for large areas are generally more accurate than for smaller areas because historic records are more readily available and local changes have less influence.

Convert Population Data to Average Flow

Convert population data to quantity of sewage using an average gallons/capita /day (gcd). This per capita flow varies from 50 to 140 and in some areas as high as 160 where industrial flows are

Peak Factors
The Peak Factor Table (page 17) may be used to raise average flow to peak flow. Peak Factors are the relationship between average daily dry weather flow and the highest dry weather peak of the year and varies from 1.3 to 3.5. 11

This method yields a reasonable estimate of the peak factors. As flows increase, the peak factor decreases. If possible, the peak factors should be adjusted to flow studies in the local area.

Extraneous Flows
Sanitary sewer design quantities should include consideration of the various non-sewage components which inevitably become a part of the total flow. The cost of transporting, pumping and treating sewage obviously increases as the quantity of flow delivered to the pumps or treatment facility increases. Thus, extraneous flow should be kept within economically justifiable limits by proper design and construction practices and adequately enforced connection regulations.

holes and or connections and improperly laid house laterals. Laterals frequently have a total length greater than the collecting system and may contribute as much as 90% of infiltration. House connections should receive the same specifications, construction and inspection as public sewers. In the past, sewer designers allowed higher amounts of infiltration to aid in transporting solids. Infiltration must now be kept to a minimum.

Advantages of Flexible Compression Joints

Flexible compression joints conforming to ASTM C 425 Compression Joints for Vitrified Clay Pipe and Fittings have replaced all other forms of joining vitrified clay pipe. Obsolete field joining systems can be major contributors to infiltration. The advantages of limiting infiltration, exfiltration and roots while providing flexibility and durability have been widely demonstrated. A tight and flexible joint is clearly desirable whether the sewer is above or below ground water.

Inflow
A very few illicit roof drains connected to the sanitary sewer can result in a surcharge of smaller sewers. For example, a rainfall of 1 in. per hour on 1,200 sq. ft. of roof area, would contribute more than 12 gpm. Connection of roof, yard and foundation drains to sanitary sewers should be legally prohibited and steps taken to eliminate them. Water from these sources and surface run off should be directed to a storm drainage system. Tests indicate that leakage through manhole covers may be from 20 to 70 gpm with a depth of 1 in. of water over the cover. Such leakage may contribute amounts of storm water exceeding the average sanitary flow.

Infiltration
Prominent sources of excessive infiltration can be poorly constructed man12

Summations of Flow
Starting at the upper end of the sewer under review, add projected average flows for 50 or more years in the future. As the projected average flows from each drainage area are totaled, multiply by the appropriate peak factor (page 17) to determine the peak flow for each reach of the line. These values are the design capacities for the proposed sewer (page 15).

Flow Monitoring
A sewer flow monitoring program is necessary to determine when existing sewers will reach hydraulic design capacity. Monitoring methods vary from high water markers that record maximum depths to hand held mechanical tools or electronic devices. With a history of flow data, projections can forecast the year the peak flow will reach the design capacity of the sewer.

Check adjacent population, gaugings, water consumption, rainfall and any other available data to determine if the measured quantity of flow is reasonable. If adjacent measurements or the estimate is greatly different from the gauged amount, the cause should be identified and corrected before proceeding with a relief sewer. With a long range projection of peak flow based on population and a short range projection based on past gaugings, a reasonable estimate utilizing both can be made. As new or more reliable information becomes available, the projection should be updated. Planning for relief sewers must begin with sufficient lead time before the projection reaches the design capacity of the sewer. Sewer line modeling computer programs are available to analyze existing systems and establish quantities for the design of relief sewers.

LAND USE COEFFICIENTS

13

14

15

1. The coefficients of discharge used in this example are as follows: (cfs per acre from page 13) Low Density Medium Density High Density Commercial LD MD HD Comm .0031 .0116 .0 217 .006

sum of upstream Qavs the subtotal is converted to Qpk with the Pf. The Qpk or Qd downstream from MH D in this example is 4.5 cfs. 4. If a larger sewer was being studied, this entire area could be considered one Drainage Area with the same procedures followed to accumulate Qav and then convert to Qpk using the Peak Factors. 5. If a relief sewer was proposed that would intercept a portion of this Study Area the average flow from Drainage Areas or parts of Drainage Areas tributary to the new line would be added to the relief line and subtracted from the existing line. The average flows would be totaled and converted to Peak using Peak Factors. 6. The estimated Qav and Qpks are shown on the Sample Land Use Map. The Qavs are shown because they can be easily added and subtracted and are useful when studying alternate routes, etc. The Qpks are the quantities to be used to determine the adequacy of an existing sewer or to design a new one. These Qpks can also be called Qd.

2. Peak Factors (Pf) are shown in the Peak Factor Table (page 17). 3. Qav flows are accumulated as they become tributary to the line. See Sample Land Use Map (page 14) and Sample of Flow Estimating Calculations (page 15). Dr. Area 1 average flow is totaled and converted to Qpk in Manhole (MH) A, Dr. Area 2 is added at MH B, Dr. Area 3 is added at MH C, Dr. Area 4 is added at MH D. Dr. Area 5 is served by a number of house connection sewers directly tributary to the study sewer all along the Drainage Area. To simplify calculations the flow from this area has been lumped together and added at one point. The point arbitrary selected was MH D so Dr. Areas 4 and 5 are both added at that point. As each Qav is added to the

Many industries specify vitrified clay pipe to carry wastes. The chemical composition of the discharged effluent can vary greatly.

16

17

GRAVITY SEWER DESIGN

Part II - Hydraulic Design Basic Premises for Calculating Flow in Sewers
This section on hydraulics of sewers deals only with uniform flow. Standard hydraulic handbooks should be consulted for special conditions. Since the flow characteristics of sewage and water are similar, the surface of the sewage will seek to level itself when introduced into a channel with a sloping invert. This physical phenomenon induces movement known as gravity flow. Most sewers are of this type. The flow in a pipe with a free water surface is defined as open channel flow. Steady flow means a constant quantity of flow and uniform flow means a steady flow in the same size conduit with the same depth and velocity. Although these conditions seldom occur in practice, it is necessary to assume uniform flow conditions in order to simplify the hydraulic design. There are times when sewers become surcharged, encounter obstacles requiring an inverted siphon or require pumping. Under these conditions the sewer line will flow full and be under head or internal pressure. The Flow Characteristics Diagram demonstrates the theory and terminology applied to flow in open channels. To simplify the diagram, all slopes are subcritical and it is assumed that at point D a constant supply of water or sewage is being supplied. Between D and E the slope of the conduit is greater than is required to carry the water at its initial velocity, and is greater than the retarding effect of friction, which causes acceleration to occur. At any point between E and F, the potential energy of the water equals

18

the loss of head due to friction and the velocity remains constant. This is uniform flow. Between F and G the effect of downstream conditions are causing a decrease in the velocity.

The Hydraulic Profile

Three distinct slope lines are commonly referred to in hydraulic design of sewers as shown on page 18. 1. The Slope of the Invert of the Sewer. This is fixed in location and elevation by construction. Except in rare cases, the invert slopes downstream in the direction of flow. 2. The Slope of the Hydraulic Gradient (H.G.) . This is sometimes referred to as the water surface. In open channel flow, this is the top surface of the liquid flowing in the sewer. Except for a few cases, the hydraulic gradient slopes downstream in the direction of flow. 3. The Energy Gradient (E.G.). This is located above the hydraulic gradient, a distance equal to the velocity head which is the velocity squared divided by two times the acceleration due to gravity (v2/2g). This slope is always downstream in the direction of flow. For uniform flow, the slope of the energy gradient, the slope of the hydraulic surface and the slope of the invert are parallel to one another but at different elevations.

the pipe but not high enough to induce excessive turbulence. The minimum scouring velocity is 2 feet per second. Clay pipe is being used successfully where velocities exceed 20 feet per second. 2. Where changes are made in the horizontal direction of the sewer line, in the pipe diameter, or in the quantity of flow, invert elevations must be adjusted in such a manner that the change in the energy gradient elevation allows for the head loss. 3. Sanitary sewers through 15-inch diameter should be designed to run half-full at peak flow and larger sewers designed to run three-quarters full at peak flow. This also provides necessary air space to transfer sewer gases. After flow estimates have been prepared, (page 15) including all allowances for future increases and the layout of the system has been determined, the next step is to establish the slope for each line. Using the land use map (page 14) working profile sheets are prepared. The profile sheets show the surface elevations, subsurface structures and any other control points, such as house connections and other sewer connections. A typical profile for sewer design is shown on page 21. Using the profile sheet, a tentative slope of the sewer is determined beginning at the lower end and working upstream between street intersections or control points. The slope is located as shallow as possible to serve the adjacent area and tributary areas with consideration to street grade and any control points or obstructions.

Design Requirements
In sewer system design the following hydraulic requirements must be met: 1. The velocity must be sufficiently high to prevent the deposition of solids in

19

Determination of Pipe Sizes

Knowing the peak flow and the tentative slope, a tentative pipe size can be selected for each reach. Diagrams based on Mannings Equations showing quantity, slope, pipe size and velocity can be used to find pipe sizes. The diagrams show quantities for one-half depth for small pipe up through 15inch diameter and three-quarters depth for 18-inch and larger sizes. The n values range from .009 to .013 (pages 24-26). Enter the diagram with Q and slope and read the larger pipe size. Except for cases where there are large head losses, the tentative pipe size will be the final pipe size.

Further downstream, the outflow from MH F is 9.4 cfs, and a 21-inch pipe is necessary. As a final check, plot the pipe lines on the profile, set the outlet elevation and work upstream through each confluence, making sure there is adequate clearance for substructures, and that the line meets all other controls. The pipe size will have to be rechecked if the slope has been changed for any reason. Knowing the quantity of flow and the pipe size, the velocity can be calculated using the Manning Equation, the Velocity Variation Table (page 22) or the Design Capacity Graphs (pages 2426). The velocity head can be calculated to give the energy gradient. In many cases, especially with large diameter sewers, it is necessary to carefully plot the energy gradient of the sewer to determine that the hydraulic design requirements are met. In these cases, start at the downstream end of the profile and mark the energy gradient at that point. Where the flow enters another sewer it will be the energy gradient of that sewer. A line to represent a tentative location for the energy gradient for the first section of sewer being designed is then drawn upstream following the available surface slope to the next control point on the profile. As discussed earlier, this could be a point where flow is added, a street intersection, an abrupt change in surface slope or other control points. Care must be taken to see that the final design of the sewer provides adequate cover and that the sewer clears all subsurface obstructions. The profile can now be finalized.

Selecting the Sizes for the New Sewer Line

Using the flows (Qd) from the Sample Land Use Map (page 14), the pipe sizes may be selected after determining the slope of the line and the n value to be used. The slope is obtained by drawing a preliminary profile showing control points, such as, sewers to be intercepted, major substructures, ground lines, outlet sewer, etc. The n value is selected by the user or specifying agency. If the available slope is .004 along this reach and n equal to .011 was selected for design, use the n = .011 Design Capacity Graph shown on page 25. Locate the intersection of the .004 slope and Qd and read the larger pipe size. In the reach downstream from MH A the Qd is .96 cfs. This Qd intersects the .004 slope between a 10-inch and a 12-inch pipe. The larger pipe is usually selected. In the reach downstream from MH B, the Qd is 1.53 cfs, indicating that a 15-inch pipe will be required. 20

21

Quantity and Velocity Equations

The following equations are provided to show the basis for flow diagrams and to supply equations for more accurate hydraulic calculations. The designer is reminded that precise calculations of hydraulic data are not possible except under controlled conditions.

prevent settlement of solids in the pipe. Conversely, velocities exceeding 20 feet per second should be avoided where possible. Clay Pipe can handle high velocities without damage, however, manholes, structures and angle points must be designed carefully to avoid problems.

Q is the quantity of flow measured in cubic feet per second. n is a coefficient of roughness which is used in Mannings Equation to calculate flow in a pipe. (See the following discussion of n values.) a represents the cross-sectional area of the flowing water in square feet. r represents the hydraulic radius of the wetted cross-section of the pipe measured in feet. It is obtained by dividing a by the length of the wetted perimeter. s represents the slope of the energy gradient. It is numerically equal to the slope of the invert and the hydraulic surface in uniform flow.

The Manning Equations

The most commonly used velocity and quantity equations are:

V= Q=

1.486 n 1.486 n

r 2 / 3 s 1 / 2 ( Velocity ) ar 2 / 3 s 1 / 2 ( Quantity )

V is the velocity of flow (averaged over the cross-section of the flow) measured in feet per second. For sewers flowing at design depth,V should exceed 2 feet per second to

22

Discussion of Values for n

The value of n for smooth bore pipe is affected by depth of flow, velocity of flow and quality of construction. In controlled experiments, using clean water, values of n under 0.009 have consistently been obtained for vitrified clay pipe and some other sewer materials. Many design engineers recommend that a more conservative value of n be used in design because of (1) the variations in n due to variable flow conditions, (2) the deposition of debris, grit and other foreign materials which find their way into a sewer system, (3) the

build-up of slime and grease on all pipe surfaces, (4) the loss of hydraulic capacity of flexible pipe due to ring deflection and (5) misalignment due to construction or settlement. Based upon current data, it appears that n values of .009 - .013 can be applied to all types of smooth bore pipe. After pipe lines have been in place for several years, measurements may indicate n values which differ from the design value. These new values can be used for future flow calculations. Factors for determining Qs at different n values are shown on the Design Capacity Graphs (pages 24-26).

These photographs reproduced from Flow of Water Through Culverts, Bulletin 1, University of Iowa Studies in Engineering, illustrate the effect of pipe smoothness on the flow.

Flow is retarded by increased friction.

A typical smooth bore clay pipe.

23

24

25

26

Computer Design
The National Clay Pipe Institute has developed a hydraulic design program, HYFLOW, using the Manning equations. This program can select pipe size, flow quantities or velocity in gravity flow sanitary sewers. It is available from the Institute or one of the member companies.

Example No. 2 Determination of the Depth of Flow When the Q is Known The same 10-inch sewer has a design capacity of 1.2 cfs. The estimated flow will be 0.7 cfs. To find the depth, divide 0.7 by 1.2 which equals 58%. Enter Table with 58% and read d/D of 0.37. Multiply by the diameter 0.83 feet to find depth of 0.31 feet. Examples 3 and 4 demonstrate the use of the .75D Table for pipe 18-inch and larger in diameter. Example No. 3 Determination of the Quantity of Flow The depth of flow in a 21-inch sewer is 1.12 feet. d/D is 1.12 divided by 1.75 or 0.64. Use the .75D Table and read 81%. If the Qd from the Design Capacity Graph for this line is 9.2 cfs, multiply 81% times 9.2 for a Q of 7.5 cfs. Example No. 4 Determination of the Depth of Flow When the Q is Known If the Q is 8 cfs and Qd is 9.2 cfs, divide 8 by 9.2 to find the Conveyance Factor of 87%. Enter the Table with 87% and read d/D of 0.67. The depth for a Q of 8 cfs is 0.67 times the diameter 1.75, which is 1.17 feet. Vitrified clay pipe is chemically inert.

Conveyance Factors
Conveyance Factors equal Q/Qd expressed as a percent. Q is the amount of flow at any depth and Qd is the amount of flow when the depth is at design depth. Design depth for pipe 15-inch and smaller, is one-half full (.5D) and for pipe 18-inch and larger, three-quarters full (.75D). Depths are expressed in terms of d/D, where d is the depth and D is the diameter. The Conveyance Factor Tables are shown on page 28. Examples 1 and 2 demonstrate the use of the .5D Table for pipe 15-inch and less in diameter. Example No. 1 Determination of Percentage of Design Capacity of an Existing Sewer The depth of flow measured in a 10inch sewer is 0.35 feet. The diameter of a 10-inch pipe expressed in feet is 0.83 feet. Use the .5D Table to calculate d/D (pg. 28). 0.35 divided by 0.83, equals 0.42. Enter table with 0.42 (.4 vertical and .02 horizontal) and read 73%. For the size, slope and n, read Qd from the appropriate Design Capacity Graph. If 1.2 cfs is the Qd then multiply by 0.73 to find Q equal to 0.9 cfs.

27

28

Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 3
CORROSION IN SANITARY SEWERS Vitrified Clay Pipe is Chemically Inert
It is not vulnerable to damage due to domestic sewage , sulfide attack, most industrial wastes and solvents or aggressive soils. action takes place by the bacterial conversion of sulfates into sulfides. The sulfides form hydrogen sulfide gas which first diffuses into the sewage and then, unless destroyed or neutralized, escapes into the sewer atmosphere. Once the gas is created within the line and released to the atmosphere above the sewage, it comes in contact with the moist surface in the upper part of the pipe and is oxidized very rapidly, by the action of bacteria, into dilute sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid collects on the exposed arch of the pipe and begins a chemical attack unless the pipe material is chemically inert and invulnerable to corrosive acid action. In solution, H2S is in equilibrium with its partly ionized form HS. The two comprise what is called dissolved sulfide. The proportion of dissolved sulfide existing as H2S varies with pH. At pH = 6, the H2S concentration is 91% of the dissolved sulfide; at pH = 7, the proportion is 50%; and at pH = 8, the proportion is 9.1%. Actual field investigations of hydrogen sulfide and acid formation in sewers reveal the crown moisture to have a pH = 2 even though the pH of the sewage was close to neutral (pH = 7). Under certain conditions, the sulfides which originally form in the slime layer, and which diffuse into the 29

Hydrogen Sulfide
The relationship between the chemistry of sewage to the pipe materials conveying it is of primary concern in the design of sanitary sewer systems. A brief outline of the factors involved in the ever-present generation of hydrogen sulfide gas is provided to point out the variety of conditions which can exist and must therefore be anticipated in sanitary sewers. The protection of the sewer system from the ravages of sewer gas attack is of fundamental importance in designing and providing permanent, trouble-free lines. Failure to fully and properly evaluate any of the contributing factors may lead to subsequent failure of the sewer line. Factors contributing to sulfide generation and evolution are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Temperature of sewage Strength of sewage Velocity of flow Age of sewage pH of sewage Sulfate concentration

Sulfides are generated in the slime layer which forms between the sewer pipe and the flowing sewage. This

sewage, are destroyed more rapidly than they are formed. Under other conditions, accumulation, or build-up takes place. From the chemical standpoint, it is recognized that for hydrogen sulfide gas generation to occur, there must be a supply of sulfate present. Sulfate is always present in sewage. Even in a community where the water supply contains no sulfate, the sewage will contain sulfate in sufficient concentration to produce severe sulfide conditions. It has been amply demonstrated that sulfide is produced just as rapidly where there is little or no sulfate in the water supply where a large amount is available. Sulfide generation will continue until all sulfate and other sulfur compounds in the sewage have been converted to sulfide.

The factor which determines whether sulfide build-up occurs in a stream of sewage is whether or not oxygen is absorbed at the surface of the stream fast enough to oxidize the hydrogen sulfide diffusing out of the slime. The oxygen demand varies from one sewage to another. Oxygen absorption depends principally upon flow velocity. A high flow velocity may reduce sulfide buildup depending upon the strength and temperature of the sewage. However, high velocity may also be damaging if any hydrogen sulfide is present in a stream of sewage. The rate of sulfide release increases with increased flow rate. Turbulence, due to junctions, changes of pipe size, drops, etc. will cause a relatively rapid release of hydrogen sulfide gas.

A. Bacteria in the slime under flowing sewage converts to sulfides.

B. Sulfides in the liquid make their way to the surface and are released into the sewer atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide gas.

C. Hydrogen sulfide gas in atmosphere makes contact with moisture in arch in pipe which contains more bacteria. Bacterial action converts gas to sulfuric acid.

D. If pipe is of corrodible material, sulfuric acid attacks it causing ultimate failure. Vitrified clay pipe is chemically inert and not vulnerable to acid attack.

30

One of the major causes for the increasing sulfide damage in modern sewer systems is the dumping of vast quantities of organic matter from household garbage grinders into such systems. This condition increases deposits in sewer lines, thus retarding the flow and providing a source of increased sulfide generation. It also substantially increases the B. O. D. which increases the difficulty of meeting the oxygen required to limit sulfide build-up. Force mains are a cause of sulfide problems in sewers, particularly if the sewage is retained for any appreciable length of time. High sulfide concentrations will not damage the interior of the filled pipe, but may cause odor nuisances and damage to downstream structures. Sewage temperature is a contributing factor in the rate of development of sewer gas. Household appliances such as dishwashers, washing machines, etc., have resulted in large quantities of hot water being discharged into the sewer system. When consideration is given to the fact that for every increase of 10 degrees in sewer temperature, there is a 100% increase in the effective B.O.D., it shows why it is difficult to prevent hydrogen sulfide generation in sewers. When corrodible pipe materials are attacked by sulfuric acid, disintegration begins on the upper surface of the pipe leaving a soft residue. Sometimes the soft or pasty material is washed away by high water exposing new surfaces to corrosive attack. Even when this does not occur, acid formed at the exposed surface continues to diffuse through this residue and attacks the underlying pipe material. When the

arch is too weak to support the earth load, it collapses and the sewer becomes inoperable.

Acid Resistance
Test procedures to determine the acid resistant qualities and other properties of vitrified clay pipe are also outlined in ASTM C 301.

Aggressive Soils and Other Hostile Environments

Some sanitary sewers are subject to constant attack by a multitude of wastes from industry, homes and businesses. Ordinary domestic sewage includes detergents, drain cleaners, scouring powders, bleaches and other household chemicals. From business and industry come other and more aggressive chemicals, solvents, acids and alkalis. Sanitary sewer pipe may also be subject to corrosion from acidic or alkaline soils, electrolytic decomposition attack and temperature induced damage. Different pipe materials display various levels of resistance to these factors. Cement bonded and metallic pipe materials normally require special protection. Temperature and solvent sensitive plastic materials should be avoided where the potential exists for these factors to occur. Preliminary soils and site investigation should be required if conditions in the area selected for installation are unknown or suspected to cause damage to candidate materials.

31

Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 4
RIGID CONDUITS, UNDERGROUND
Part I - Structural Analysis

This section deals with the examination and evaluation of all those forces which affect or influence the structural stability and useful life of vitrified clay pipe. Methods are outlined by which trench loads may be considered and analyzed for the purpose of accomplishing required structural support.

all else, maintain structural stability. Nearly all building codes impose legal standards upon designers to insure against the failure of building structures. Standard practice in highway work and railroad work also provides for predetermined structural safety.

Computer Design
The National Clay Pipe Institute has developed TRENCH LOAD, a computer program which can be used to determine backfill loads, safety factors and bedding classes. It is available from the Institute or one of the member companies.

Importance of Predetermining Loads Accurately

There is a tendency to think of sewer pipe from the hydraulic standpoint only and to neglect the importance of pipe as a structural element. It must, above 32

Loads Can be Accurately Determined

Just as the safety of ordinary structural members involves the application of mechanics to cases of assumed live loadings, the safety in underground pipe work involves application of soil mechanics for determining the load on the pipe. The amount of load to be supported by the pipe can be computed and the result will be safe and accurate in the same sense that predetermination of beam strength is safe and accurate. To provide engineers with a convenient method of predetermining loads and strength requirements for clay pipe, complete reference tables are included in Chapter 5. These tables show the estimated load according to pipe size, trench depth and width and type of backfill. Other references (pages 44-51) provide data for determining the effect of the type of bedding or support given to the pipe. Essentially, any structure installed below the surface of the earth supports the weight of all the materials above it, depending upon certain characteristics of the fill. These characteristics, (principally internal soil friction) tend to increase or diminish the backfill load on the pipe structure. This is true for both trench and embankment loads. Considering a structure of circular cross-section such as a sewer pipe, the backfill material directly above the pipe is that material which lies between vertical planes tangent to the outside of the pipe barrel (page 34). The net load on the pipe exclusive of live load, is the actual weight of such backfill material plus or minus an amount which depends on whether internal soil friction assists in the support of the mass of backfill over the pipe or not.

Trench Load Equation

To determine a reliable equation for computing the relationship between various kinds of loads and the required test strength of pipe, a series of studies have been made at the Engineering Experiment Station of Iowa State College. The result is the Marston Equation named for its originator, Anson Marston, who was President of the American Society of Civil Engineers and Dean Emeritus of the College. It is a widely recognized, conservative equation for computing trench loads on pipe. An understanding of the Marston Equation, and the factors involved, is helpful when using the trench load tables. 33

Frictional Forces in the Backfill

Since the depth of the backfill between the pipe and the trench sidewalls is greater than the depth of the backfill directly over the pipe, it will settle or compact more than the material directly over the pipe. This movement will be restricted by friction between the backfill particles on each side of the primary tangent planes. The increased settlement of the backfill on both sides of the pipe tends to tranfer load to that portion of the backfill located directly above the pipe, thereby transmitting additional load to the pipe. Secondary vertical planes are assumed to be between the primary planes and the walls of the trench as shown in the drawing. As mentioned previously, the backfill between the primary and secondary planes is prevented from settling to a maximum amount by the action of a frictional force along the primary vertical planes. This increases the load supported by the pipe in the trench condition.
Cross section of a typical trench showing primary and secondary planes.

The drawing above demonstrates the cross-section of a typical sewer trench showing the location of planes tangent to the sides of the pipe. These are called the primary planes. When the backfill in a trench is compacted uniformly, uniform settlement (further compaction) can be expected with the passage of time. The depth of the backfill between the primary tangent planes will be reduced through such settlement by a fairly definite amount, depending upon the nature and compaction of the original backfill. The backfill between the trench walls and the primary planes on either side of the pipe will also settle in time. 34

The remainder of the backfill which lies between the secondary planes and the trench walls is supported in part by friction along the trench walls. This reduces the load on the pipe.

The Effect of Trench Width

It will be seen that, as the secondary plane is moved away from the pipe, the differential settlement on opposite sides of the plane will become less. It is therefore possible to locate a definite position where the differential settlement on opposite sides of the secondary plane is so small that no frictional forces are transmitted across it. When this location is within the cross section of the trench, the weight of backfill between the secondary plane and trench wall can add nothing to the load on the pipe. In other words, the trench

width may be increased from this point on without adding to the weight on the pipe. The minimum distance which meets the above qualifications is called the transition width of the trench. It is the trench width at which further widening will have no effect on the load on the pipe. When the actual width is less than the transition width, friction in the plane of the trench wall tends to support part of the load and to lessen the load on the pipe. This phenomenon is graphically illustrated by the curve marked surface curve after settlement in the previously referenced drawing. Wherever this curve deflects downward from its origin directly over the center of the pipe, internal friction in the backfill transmits weight to the pipe. Where the curve deflects upward (as alongside the trench wall) backfill weight is transmitted to the side wall of the trench.

Values for frictional characteristics of the backfill material. The Marston Equation for pipe in narrow trenches is:

Unit weight of backfill.

Wc = Cd wBd 2
where Wc = The vertical external load on a closed conduit due to fill materials (lb/ft of length),

Cd = Load calculation coefficient for conduits completely buried in ditches, abstract number (see Computation Diagram on page 36),

w = The unit weight of fill materials, (lb/ft3) and

Bd = Breadth of Ditch (trench width measured at top of pipe barrel, ft.)
By substitution of available data in the Marston equation, a direct result is obtained for the load on the pipe in terms of pounds per linear foot. The computation of loads is simplified by the use of this equation and the Computation Diagram on page 36, which represents the plotted solution of the Load Calculation Coefficient equation:

Marston Equation
The Marston Equation applies the preceding reasoning to the calculation of loads on pipes. Actual tests have been performed on many types of soil to determine the weight, frictional characteristics and the relative settlement of each type. These measurable quantities have been combined into a single expression to produce for each case a computation of the total weight supported by the pipe. The factors taken into consideration in the following Marston Equation are:

Cd =

1- e

-2K' 2 K'

{ }
H B d

where e = 2.7182818 which equals base of natural logarithms, an abstract number,

Depth of backfill cover over the top

of the pipe.

K = Ratio of active horizontal pressure at any point in the fill to the vertical pressure which caused the active horizontal pressure, an abstract number,

Width

of trench measured at the level of the top of the pipe.

' = The coefficient of sliding friction

between the fill material and sides of the trench, an abstract number, and 35

36

*Reference USBR Standards 5000 and 5005 37

H = Vertical height from top of conduit to the upper surface of fill in feet.
The Computation Diagram is based on various types of soil conditions, and may be used to obtain the values of the load calculation coefficient Cd . The Trench Load Tables in Chapter 5 have been compiled using the Marston equation previously described. The soil weights are based upon an arbitrary value of 100 lbs./cu.ft. When the actual soil weight is known to vary from 100 lbs./cu.ft., the tabulated loads may be adjusted up or down by direct ratio.

Concentrated Loads
Holls integration of Boussinesqs solution leads to the following equation for determining loads due to superimposed concentrated load, such as a truck wheel load (Diagram 1):

PF Ws c = Cs -------L
in which Ws c is the load on the conduit in lb/ft of length; P is the concentrated load in lbs; F is the impact factor; Cs is the load coefficient, a function of Bc / ( 2H ) and L / ( 2H ) ; H is the height of fill from the top of conduit to ground surface in ft; Bc is the width of conduit in ft; and L is the effective length of conduit in ft. (For values of F and Cs see pages 40 and 41).

Embankment Loads
Although these Trench Load Tables show loads on pipe in trenches, they are equally applicable for pipe installed under embankment or wide trench conditions. As the width of the trench increases, other factors remaining constant, the load on the pipe increases until it reaches a limiting value equal to the embankment load on the pipe. This limiting value is called the transition width. The transition widths shown in the Trench Load Tables have been calculated using the equation for positive projecting conduits in wide trenches.

Superimposed Loads
Concentrated and distributed superimposed loads should be considered in the structural design of sewers, especially where the depth of earth cover is less than 8 ft. Where these loads are anticipated, they are added to the predetermined trench load. Superimposed loads are calculated by use of Holls and Newmarks modifications to Boussinesqs equation (page 40).

Diagram 1. - Superimposed concentrated load vertically centered over pipe.

An effective length, L , equal to 3 ft. for pipe greater than 3 ft. long, and the actual length for pipe shorter than 3 ft. is recommended.

38

H-20 wheel loadings are standard for highway and bridge design and are applicable for estimating traffic loads on sewers. However, engineers and contractors shall consider construction loads imposed upon sewers subsequent to their installation. Large earthmoving equipment traveling over sewers and construction activities from subsequent installation of nearby structures should be reviewed for additional imposed loads on installed pipes. Wheel loads from large construction equipment may exceed 50,000 lbs. H-20 refers to wheel loading resulting from the passage of trucks having a gross weight of 40,000 lbs., 80% of which is on the rear axle, with axle spacing of 14 ft., center to center, and a wheel gauge of 6 ft., each rear wheel carrying one half this load or 8 tons (16,000 lbs.) without impact. Example: Determine the load on a 15 inch, 5 ft. length of pipe with 5 ft. of cover caused by a concentrated H-20 wheel load. For pipe greater than 3 ft. long, use 3 ft. as the effective length, L (pg. 38).

Substituting in the equation:

If the concentrated load is not centered vertically over the pipe, but is displaced laterally and longitudinally, the load on the pipe can be computed by adding the effect of the concentrated load. Dividing the tabular values of Cs by 4 will give the result for this condition.
An alternative method of determining concentrated or superimposed loads on a buried conduit, is to use the Percentages of Wheel Loads shown in the Table on page 40. These percentages have been determined directly from data contained in Theory of External Loads on Closed Conduits, Bulletin 96, published by the Engineering Experiment Station at Iowa State College. Note that an allowance for impact must be added to the percentage figures shown in the table. The table does not apply to distributed superimposed loads.

P= F= L= d= pipe diameter = t = wall thickness =

16,000 lb 1.5 (Highway) 3.0 ft. 15 inch 1.5 inches

Example: Referring to the previous example problem. P= 16,000 lb F= 1.5 (Highway) Percentage of load for 15-inch pipe with 5 ft. depth of cover = 2.6% (0.026) (from the Percentage of Wheel Load Table, page 40) Substituting in the equation:

= 1.5 ft. Then Bc = 15 + 3 = 18 inches H= 5.0 ft. 1.5/10 = 0.15 Bc/(2H) = L/(2H) = 3/10 = 0.30 0.078 Cs = (by interpolation from the Cs table, page 40)

39

* Influence coefficients for solution of Holls and Newmarks Integration of the Boussinesq equation for vertical stress.

*
40

These figures make no allowance for impact. see table of impact factors on page 41.

Distributed Loads
For determining loads on pipe due to superimposed loads distributed over a surface area (Diagram 2) the following equation was developed:

work in terms of load under one corner of a rectangular loaded area rather than at the center. Dividing the tabular values of Cs by 4 will give the effect for this condition.

Impact Loads
Impact factors must be considered to account for the influence of impact loading due to traffic and construction activities after sewer installation. The following table shows suggested values.

in which Wsd is the load on the conduit in lb/ft of length; p is the intensity of distributed load in psf; F is the impact factor; Bc is the width of the conduit in ft; Cs is the load coefficient, a function of D/(2H) and M/(2H); H is the height from the top of the conduit to the ground surface in ft; and D and M are the width and length, respectively, of the area over which the distributed load acts, in ft. (For values of Cs and F, see pages 40 and 41.)

Impact Factors (F)

Traffic Impact Factor Highway 1.50 Railway 1.75 Runways/Airfield 1.00 Taxiways, aprons, hardstands 1.50 Extremely high impact loads can be imparted to the pipe especially when wheeled construction equipment travels over the trench. The engineer and contractor need to consider construction impact loads during the initial project and any subsequent construction.

Trench Width, Depth of Fill and Soil Characteristics

To properly approach the analysis of loads imposed on the pipe, it is necessary to decide, for each size of pipe, what the minimum practicable design trench width at the top of the pipe is to be and still permit good workmanship. The design trench width, the depth of fill over the pipe, and the soil characteristics of the fill, will produce the load which must be supported by the pipe and its bedding. This load is readily available from either the Trench Load Tables or the NCPI trench load computer program when the above factors are known. 41

Diagram 2 - Superimposed distributed load vertically centered over pipe.

If the area of the distributed superimposed load is not centered vertically over the pipe, but is displaced laterally and longitudinally, the load on the pipe can be computed by adding algebraically the effect of various rectangles of loaded area. It is more convenient to

Using Trench Load Tables

The correct use of the Trench Load Tables, which are given in Chapter 5, is demonstrated by the following hypothetical case where a designer wants to know the trench load imposed by the following conditions: A 12-inch sewer is to be installed in an area of gravel K= 0.165 with an average weight of 120 lb./cu. ft. The top of the pipe is 8 ft. below ground surface and the trench width is 30 inches. Pipe size 12 in. Backfill-Gravel K = 0.165 Trench width 30 in. Cover depth 8 ft. Backfill weight 120 lb./cu. ft. Backfill load = 1240 lb./lin.ft x 120/100 = 1488 lb./lin.ft.

cover in a 3 ft. wide trench of silt and clay K=0.110 weighing 95 lb./cu. ft. and that construction equipment wheel loads of 16,000 lbs. each will pass over the backfilled trench before the pavement is placed. This is the maximum loading condition. What is the total load on the pipe? To determine the trench load use the Trench Load Table on page 69. Pipe size 15 in. BackfillSilt and Clay K = 0.110 Trench width 36 in. Cover depth 5 ft. Backfill weight = 95 lb./cu.ft. Backfill load =(1170 lb./lin. ft. x 95/100) =1112 lb./lin. ft. (The live load has been calculated. See example on page 39.) Live load = Total trench load = 624 lb./lin. ft. 1736 lb./lin. ft.

Typical Load Computation for Highway Work

Suppose that plans call for the installation of a 15-inch sewer line with 5 ft. of

Note that the concentrated and distributed live load equations shown on pages 38 and 41 include an allowance for impact and that values of F are listed on page 41.

In computing the load to be supported by the pipe line illustrated above, live load must be added to the backfill load.

42

SUMMARY
Part I has dealt with the examination and evaluation of those forces which affect or influence the structural stability of vitrified clay pipe underground. Having completed the analysis of determining LOADS on the pipe, the method of designing the pipeline to SUPPORT these loads will be developed in Part II Structural Design.

Clay pipe can be installed in deep trenches with appropriate design and proper installation.

Vitrification produces a strong and inert body composition which enables a properly installed clay pipe system to permanently support the trench loads.

43

RIGID CONDUITS, UNDERGROUND

Part II - Structural Design
When these factors have been taken into consideration, the supporting strength of Vitrified Clay Pipe can then be calculated.

1. Design Load Versus Actual Load

The design load is the actual load adjusted by a factor of safety. The factor of safety is determined by dividing the field supporting strength of the pipe by the total trench load. It should be clearly recognized that all loads considered in Part I, have been the actual loads imposed upon a conduit in a given installation. In structural design, all actual loads must be translated into design loads so that the factor of safety is incorporated in the final design. An engineer determines the factor of safety based upon his knowledge of local soil conditions, construction practices, future development of the area and any unusual variations of land use. Solutions to sample problems are shown on pages 51 and 52.

Structural support is achieved by selecting and providing proper trench and bedding conditions.

This section deals with the structural design as outlined by the analysis of the trench loads previously developed in Part I, Structural Analysis. Structural support is achieved by selecting and providing proper trench and bedding conditions. The following text describes the methods by which the trench loads must be supported. It is of fundamental importance to recognize the variable supporting strengths of pipe in the trench, including a design factor of safety, under various bedding and field construction conditions. The several factors influencing the structural stability of the proposed installation must first be considered. These factors include: 1. Design Load versus Actual Load 2. Trench Width 3. Moving of Trench Box or Removal of Sheeting 4. Sloping Trench Walls 44

2. The Effect of Trench Width

The trench width at the top of the pipe is one of the most important factors involved not only in design but throughout construction. As shown in the equation Wc = CdwBd2, the load on the pipe increases in relation to the square of the trench width. Therefore, even a relatively small increase in width results in a large increase in load.

For example, an 8 inch pipe laid in a sandy soil weighing 100 pounds per cubic foot at a cover depth of 14 feet and 24 inch trench width will have a load imposed of 1170 lbs./lin.ft. If the trench width is increased only 6 inches to 30 inches, the load imposed will increase to 1700 lbs./lin.ft., or almost 50 percent. (Load Table pg. 62) The design trench width at the top of pipe equals the sum of the outside diameter of the pipe, the minimum working space on each side of the pipe, and the thickness of sheeting if removed or the trench box wall on each side of the trench. Controls during the course of construction which will preserve the design trench width are vital to the structural performance and useful life of the pipe.

bedding material shall be placed so that the bedding meets the requirements of the specified class of bedding following removal of any trench sheeting or box. Good engineering practice recommends that timber sheeting be cut off at the top of the pipe. The upper portion may be removed without harming the support conditions. Thin steel sheeting may be carefully withdrawn.

4. The Effect of Sloping Trench Walls

Since the load on the pipe increases with the square of the width of the trench at the top of the pipe, it follows that trenches should be as narrow as possible. All available evidence shows that the width or shape of the trench above the level of the top of the pipe does not increase the load on the pipe. The trench walls above that level may be sloped outward without adding to the load on the pipe.

3. The Effect of Moving the Trench Box or Removing the Sheeting

When a trench box is moved or sheeting is removed from a trench after bedding has been placed, a space may be created at the sides of the trench. Sufficient

45

Supporting Strength of Vitrified Clay Pipe

The factors influencing the supporting strength of vitrified clay pipe are: 1. Physical Properties of Vitrified Clay Pipe 2. Foundation 3. Proper Bedding to Develop Design Supporting Strength 4. Bedding Materials 5. Load Factors 6. Concrete Bedding

2. Foundation
The foundation is critical to the performance of the entire pipe installation. It supports the bedding, pipe and backfill. The foundation must be firm and unyielding.

3. Proper Bedding to Develop Design Supporting Strength

To obtain the installed supporting strength in accordance with the class of bedding used, the pipe barrel must be uniformly supported by direct contact with firm bedding. Firm bedding means the pipe barrel must rest on undisturbed native or imported material. The native material in the trench bottom must be capable of excavation to a uniform undisturbed flat bottom in the case of Class D. If the trench is over-excavated, the trench bottom should be brought back to grade with the required bedding material.

1. Physical Properties of Vitrified Clay Pipe Bearing Strength Tests

Tests to determine the bearing strength of vitrified clay pipe are consistent throughout the country. The tests are established by the American Society for Testing and Materials, as set forth in ASTM C 301, Standard Methods of

Testing Vitrified Clay Pipe.

Vitrified clay pipe are tested and certified at the place of manufacture by the manufacturer to determine the bearing strength in terms of pounds per linear foot. Testing may be observed by the engineer in charge of construction or by the engineers designated representative. Vitrified clay pipe may also be certified by qualified testing laboratories approved by the engineer.
NOTE: Shovel-slicing the bedding material in the haunch areas is of great benefit to the installed pipe. It takes little time, maintains grade, eliminates voids beneath the pipe and in the haunch areas, consolidates the bedding, and adds little or nothing to the cost of the installation. To be the most effective, shovelslicing should be done before the bedding is no higher than the quarter point of the pipe.

46

Bell or Coupling Holes

Bell or coupling holes should be c a r e fully excavated so that no part of the load is supported by the bells or couplings. The pipe barrel is designed to support the trench load. Consolidation of material around and under the bell and couplings during bedding and backfilling should be avoided because it may create a concentrated load resulting in a decreased field supporting strength.

It is known that not all bedding materials provide the same longitudinal and circumferential pipe support. An ideal bedding material can be defined as one that (a) provides uniform support over the greatest pipe area, (b) does not develop point load, (c) does not migrate under various trench conditions, (d) is easily placed with little or no compaction and (e) is widely available.

Suitable Bedding Material

Suitable material is well-graded 3/4 to 1/4 in. crushed stone, having a minimum of one fractured face; or other angular, non-consolidating bedding material not subject to migration (NOTE 1, pg. 50).

Provide uniform and continuous support of pipe barrel between bell or coupling holes for all classes of bedding.

The field supporting strength of the pipe is substantially reduced when the pipe is improperly bedded. The engineer should insure that the class of bedding specified is actually provided during construction. The need for implementation of proper installation procedures is clearly demonstrated by significant losses in the field supporting strength of the pipe as a result of improper bedding.

In practice, the precise gradation is not critical but the bedding material should be well-graded. Standard aggregate sizes for bedding materials are in accordance with Table 1 - ASTM D 448 Standard Sizes of

Processed Aggregate (Pg. 48).

Nominal Pipe Size
Less than 15 15 to 30 Greater than 30

Aggregate Size
67,7 or 8 6 or 67 57,6 or 67

4. Bedding Materials
The National Clay Pipe Institute has conducted extensive laboratory and field research on bedding materials, load factors and trench load development. Subsequent field experience has confirmed that pipe movement is the leading cause of structural problems. Consequently, the objective of a quality installation must be to develop a stable pipe bedding system which will minimize pipe movement in the long term.

Native Bedding
Many native materials taken from the trench will provide suitable support for clay pipe and may be the most cost efficient method of installation. Care must be exercised to remove large stones which could cause point loading. Local materials may be used when the required load factor design can be achieved. 47

From Table 1, ASTM D 448 Standard Sizes of Processed Aggregate

General Guidelines
These guidelines are not applicable to every field condition encountered. They are offered as a basis for judgment and practical application. Well-graded, angular bedding materials are more stable, allow less pipe movement and are more resistant to migration when flooded than rounded bedding materials of equal gradation. Rounded materials and gravel are less stable than angular material and are not recommended to achieve bedding factors higher than 1.5.

Controlled Low Strength Material (50-300 psi) has been shown to be an economic alternative to other bedding materials and classes. It assists in utilizing the inherent strength of the pipe, completely fills the haunch area and reduces the trench load on the pipe.

5. Load Factors
The load which a pipe can support varies according to the class of bedding. Trench details shown on page 49 depict the recommended classes of bedding. Load factors have been determined for each bedding class. The load factor is the ratio of the supporting strength of the pipe in the trench to its three-edge bearing test strength. It does not include a design factor of safety. The three-edge bearing strength has been established as a base and is considered equivalent to a load factor of 1.0.

The stability of a bedding material increases as its particle size increases. However, gradations containing particles greater than 1 inch become increasingly more difficult to shovelslice into the pipe haunch area and may result in uneven support.

Fine materials, are subject to more movement than those of a larger sieve size. Compaction is required.

Sand is suitable as a bedding material in a total sand environment. However, where high or rapidly changing water tables are present in the pipe zone, consideration should be given to the use of angular bedding with a geo-fabric material. Sand is not appropriate for bedding or haunching in a trench cut by blasting or in trenches through hard clay soil. The maximum load factor for sand bedding is 1.5. 48

FIELD SUPPORTING STRENGTH OF ASTM C 70 0 EXTRA STRENGTH CLAY PIPE

49

Field Supporting Strength

The load factor is used to compute the field supporting strength of vitrified clay pipe with any designated bedding class. The specified minimum threeedge bearing strength of vitrified clay pipe is multiplied by the appropriate load factor to obtain the field supporting strength of the pipe. Therefore, it is possible to provide the necessary field supporting strength to exceed the calculated trench loads. Field supporting strengths of extra strength clay pipe (ASTM C 700) are shown in the table on page 49. Also see the reference to field supporting strength on pg. 47.

the haunch area and encase the pipe to the limits shown in the trench diagrams (pgs. 53-56). NOTE 2: Selected Material shall consist of finely divided material free of debris, organic material and large rock and stones.

Class B Load Factor = 1.9 (Fig. 3, pg. 54) The pipe shall be bedded in crushed stone or other suitable material which is non-consolidating and not subject to migration. The bedding shall be placed on a firm and unyielding trench bottom with a minimum thickness beneath the pipe of one-eighth the outside pipe diameter, but not less than 4 inches. The bedding shall be sliced into the haunches of the pipe with a shovel or other suitable tool to a height of onehalf the outside pipe diameter, or to the horizontal centerline. Shovel-slicing the bedding material into the haunches of the pipe is essential if the total load factor is to be realized. The initial backfill shall be of selected material (NOTE 2). Crushed Stone Encasement Load Factor = 2.2 (Fig. 4, pg. 54) The pipe shall be bedded and encased in crushed stone or other suitable material (NOTE 1) which is non-consolidating and not subject to migration. The bedding shall be placed on a firm and unyielding trench bottom with a minimum thickness beneath the pipe of one-eighth the outside pipe diameter, but not less than 4 inches. The bedding shall be sliced into the haunches of the pipe with a shovel or other suitable tool. Shovel-slicing the bedding material into the haunches of the pipe is essential if the total load factor is to be realized. The encasement material shall extend laterally to the specified trench width and upward to a horizontal plane at the top of the pipe barrel following removal of any trench sheeting or boxes. The initial backfill shall be of selected material (NOTE 2).

Supporting Strength in Trench Conditions

Class D Load Factor = 1.1 (Fig. 1, pg. 53) The pipe shall be placed on a firm and unyielding trench bottom with bell holes provided. The bottom of the entire pipe barrel shall have a continuous and uniform bearing support. The initial backfill shall be of selected material (NOTE 2). Class C Load Factor = 1.5 (Fig. 2, pg. 53) The pipe shall be bedded in suitable material (NOTE 1), gravel or other locally available non-cohesive materials on a firm and unyielding trench bottom. There shall be a minimum thickness beneath the pipe of one-eighth of the outside pipe diameter but not less than 4 inches and sliced into the haunches of the pipe with a shovel or other suitable tool to a height of onesixth of the outside diameter of the pipe. The initial backfill shall be of selected material (NOTE 2).
NOTE 1: Suitable material is well-graded crushed stone, having a minimum of one fractured face, or other angular, non-consolidating bedding material not subject to migration. Material shall be shovel-sliced to fill and support

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Controlled Low Strength Material (CLSM) Load Factor = 2.8 (Fig. 5, pg. 55) The pipe shall be bedded on crushed stone or other suitable material (NOTE 1, pg. 50). The bedding shall be placed on a firm and unyielding trench bottom with a minimum thickness beneath the pipe of one eighth of the outside pipe diameter but not less than 4 inches. CLSM shall be carefully discharged to the top of the pipe and allowed to flow approximately equal to both sides to prevent misalignment. The fill can be made in a single pour to the top of the pipe or it can be made in two or more lifts if desired. Clay Pipe has been widely used in CLSM installations where buoyancy was not a problem. However, given the variability of CLSM mix designs, application methods and discharge rates, contractors should recognize that the potential exists for flotation to occur. It is recommended that the CLSM material be continuously agitated prior to discharge due to rapid segregation of materials. The CLSM material shall have a 28 day compressive strength of 50-300 psi. Local and State mix designs are available which have early setting times allowing backfilling to proceed quickly. The initial backfill shall be of selected material (NOTE 2, pg. 50). Further evaluation may be necessary where native soils are expansive. Class A: Concrete Cradle, Arch or Full Encasement (Figs. 6-8, pgs. 55-56) Three types of Class A bedding are available giving the designer a wide selection of load factors. The angular material shall be crushed stone or other suitable material (NOTE 1, pg. 50). The bedding shall be placed on a firm an unyielding trench bottom with a minimum thickness beneath the pipe of one-

eighth of the outside pipe diameter but not less than 4 inches. The concrete shall be 3000 psi or greater strength.

Design Safety Factor

The design safety factor is a discretionary decision for the Professional Engineer during design based on the number and magnitude of unknown variables. The greater effect these unknown variables may have, the greater the need for a large safety factor. Hence, the safety factor is intended to insure a successful project, without adding unnecessary costs. During trench design for Vitrified Clay Pipe, a safety factor having a value between 1.0 and 1.5 is typically specified. This may be accomplished by using the different bedding classes.

Sample Problems
Assume a 24-inch clay pipe line is to be installed in an area of CH (silts and clays) which has a weight of 107 pounds per cubic foot and a K= 0.110 (see Soil Classification Chart on page 37). The depth of cover over the top of the pipe is 18 feet and the trench width at the top of the pipe is 48 inches. Determine a structurally sound and economic bedding design. The trench load is determined by using the Trench Load Tables or the NCPI trench load design computer program. Pipe size 24 in. Depth of cover 18 ft. Backfill -CH (K= 0.110) @ 107 lbs/cu. ft. Trench width 48 in. (From Trench Load Table pg. 75) 4570 x 107/100 Total Trench Load = 4890 lbs/lin. ft. With the trench load on the pipe determined, the next step is to calculate the field supporting strength and the safety factor. 51

Solution 1

Solution 2

Solution 3

Solutions

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50-300 psi (0.34-20.4 MPa)

55

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6. Use of Concrete to Develop Added Support

The following methods of using concrete to increase the field supporting strength of clay pipe are: (Fig. 6, pg. 55)

1. Delay Backfilling the Trench

The trench must not be backfilled before the concrete has gained sufficient strength to support the backfill load. A minimum of two days is recommended. Although it may be impractical to delay backfilling longer than this, it is obvious that the strength of the pipe-concrete system is still in a structurally critical stage.

Class A-I Concrete Cradle I

The pipe is placed to line and grade on supports under the barrel. Concrete is poured from the bottom of the trench up to a height of one-half of the outside diameter of the pipe (Fig. 7, pg. 56)

2. Delay Consolidation of the Trench Backfill

When the trench backfill is allowed to consolidate through natural means, the maximum load on the pipe will be delayed. However, paving requirements and other considerations such as traffic flow may preclude the possibility of extended delay. In those instances the engineer and or contractor must evaluate the possible risks involved.

Class A-II Concrete Arch I

This method of increasing the supporting strength of pipe requires the pipe to be bedded in angular material to the springline. Concrete is placed on the bedding and extends over the top of the pipe. The load factor varies with the cross-sectional area of steel reinforcing in the transverse direction. Solid support for the legs of the arch are critical to satisfactory performance

3. Accelerate the Early Strength of the Concrete

Early strength increase is normally accomplished by increasing the cement content, adding accelerators or by the use of Type III high early strength Portland cement. The addition of fly ash or other pozzolanic material may retard early strength development and should not be used.

Class A-IV Full Concrete I Encasement (Fig. 8, pg. 56)

This method of encasement can be used when other systems do not provide the required strength. It is also used to span areas of unstable soils where the pipe-concrete composite system must be designed as a beam. The plan details should be reviewed by an engineer experienced in structural concrete design.

4. Construction Joints
When using concrete as a component of a pipe bedding system, consideration should be given to the use of construction joints to maintain pipeline flexibility. Considerable success has also been achieved through the use of a shaped 57

Principles of Concrete Design

The use of concrete bedding permits the pipe to support substantially higher backfill loads. Consideration must be given to the following items associated with the use of concrete bedding systems.

expanded styrene foam block to support the pipe during the concrete pour. Flexibility of the concrete in the longitudinal direction is achieved while the concrete reinforces the pipe in the cross section. The National Clay Pipe Institute may be contacted for further information.

7. Transition Joints
Where construction of the line changes from concrete bedding to another bedding class, steel casing or other rigid structure, it is necessary to provide flexibility at the transition to allow for potential differential settlement.

5. Use of Steel Reinforcing

A common method of increasing the strength of the concrete is through the use of steel reinforcement. The strength increase is generally in proportion to the cross-sectional area of steel to the concrete above or below the pipe. The steel should be placed in the transverse direction to the pipe. In concrete cradle construction, p is the percentage of the area of transverse steel to the area of concrete at the bottom of the pipe barrel as shown on Pg. 55, Fig. 6. In arch construction, p is the percentage of the area of transverse steel to the area of concrete above the top of the pipe barrel as shown on Pg. 56, Fig. 7. Welded steel wire fabric is recommended for use in bedding design because of its uniformity and relative ease of installation.

Field Transition Joints

Special conditions may require the use of concrete encasement.

6. Pipe Flotation
Consideration should be given to the possibility of pipe flotation associated with the use of concrete.

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Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 5
TRENCH LOAD TABLES
Loads on Vitrified Clay Pipe in Pounds Per Linear Foot Caused by Backfilling with Various Materials . . . Based on Marstons Equations. These tables show the loads imposed upon pipe by four primary soil groups. Loads are calculated using 100 lb./cu. ft. soil weight. When the actual soil weight is known, the tabulated loads may be adjusted up or down by direct ratio. The tables list loads on pipe diameters 6-inch through 48-inch. (For a discussion on embankment loads, see page 38). TRENCH LOAD, A Computer Design Trench Load Program The National Clay Pipe Institute has developed a computerized trench load design program (TRENCH LOAD) based upon the Marston Equations and the pipe bedding classes described in ASTM C12 Standard Practice for

Installing Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines.

TRENCH LOAD accepts project specific input data and yields safety factors for combinations of trench depth and width, soil types and densities. Live loads and impact factors may also be included at trench depths less than 8 feet. TRENCH LOAD is available from the National Clay Pipe Institute or its member companies.

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Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 6
CONSTRUCTION
Excavation
The general practice is to allow the contractor to select the method of excavation provided that it results in an installation in compliance with the project plans, specifications and applicable safety requirements. Any method which is not in accordance with normally acceped practice must receive prior approval of the engineer. The trench width at the top of the pipe is an important factor affecting the structural loading on installed pipe. Any increase in width over the design trench width shown in the specifications or on the plans will increase the backfill load. Should the trench width exceed the specified dimensions, and provision for this condition is not covered in the specifications and plans, the method of construction must be approved by the engineer. The trench is generally excavated in the upstream direction. Any variation in this procedure should be at the direction of the engineer. It is important that the line and grade shown on the plans be followed. In all cases, the critical dimension is the trench width measured at the top of the pipe.

Use of Shoring, Sheeting and Trench Box

Trench Walls
Where ground conditions are such that trench walls may not remain vertical, the contractor may elect to use sloping side walls or to use shoring, sheeting or trench boxes to support the trench wall. 90

It may not always be necessary to use shoring, sheeting or trench boxes. The primary concern is for safety and all applicable regulations should be strictly observed. Shoring and sheeting also retains trench width integrity and reduces the risk of cave-in. Timber sheeting placed in the pipe zone shall be left in place or cut off not lower than the top of the pipe. Pulling timber sheeting creates voids at the sides of the pipe that reduce the side support provided by the soil. Thin steel sheet-

ing may be pulled provided no voids are created and the pipe bedding is not disturbed. Steel trench boxes are used for trench construction and safety. If possible, the trench box should ride above the top of the pipe on the bottom of a wider steptrench. Narrow backhoe buckets are available to maintain design trench width up to the top of the pipe. In this case, dragging the trench box forward does not interfere with pipe bedding and cannot pull the pipe joints apart.

SHEETING OR TRENCH BOX

91

SPECIAL BUCKETS TO MAINTAIN TRENCH WIDTH

TYPICAL STEEL TRENCH SAFETY SHIELDS 92

If the trench box rides below the top of the pipe, care must be taken to protect the integrity of the pipe bedding, particularly when movement of the trench box leaves a void in the pipe bedding. Care must also be taken to ensure that movement of the trench box does not pull the pipe joints apart. A suggested method would be to secure the pipe with a wood crossblock, cable and winch at a downstream manhole. Examples of sheeting, shoring and trench boxes are illustrated on pages 90 to 92.

encountered, it will be necessary to over excavate and restore the trench bottom to a stable uniform foundation with selected materials capable of properly supporting the pipe. Select native materials, crushed stone, gravel, slag, coral or other granular materials are commonly used for this purpose. The amount of granular material necessary to stabilize the trench bottom will vary according to the field conditions encountered.

Pipe Laying
Care should be taken in storage, handling and installation to avoid damage to the pipe and joint surface. A visual inspection of the pipe just prior to installation should be performed by the installer.

Foundation and Trench Bottom Preparation

Trench load design for all pipe is based upon stable bedding and a firm foundation. It is essential, therefore, that the trench bottom remain stable during backfilling and under all subsequent trench operations. Any departure from a stable foundation can nullify the efforts of both the designer and contractor because it can result in localized pipe stress concentrations which may cause structural failure. When unstable or rocky trench bottoms are

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Pipe are generally laid with the bell or coupling pointing upgrade. Bell or coupling holes should be carefully excavated so that no part of the load is supported by the bell or coupling. The pipe barrel must rest firmly and evenly on the trench bottom or bedding material. The pipe shall be laid to the design line and grade. Line and grade are transferred from the survey points by means of devices used for this purpose. The pipe is then laid using a laser or gradeliner. It is advisable to use short lengths of pipe in and out of manholes and structures for additional flexibility. For additional installation information and techniques, refer to ASTM C 12

The diagrams below show methods of laying pipe to line and grade.

Pipe Joining
Compression joints should be assembled in strict accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.

Standard Practice for Installing Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines and the NCPI
Installation Handbook.

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Particular care should be taken to keep foreign materials from interfering with proper joint assembly. The mating surfaces of the joint should be wiped clean and lubricated prior to assembly following the manufacturers recommendations. All compression joints are manufactured in accordance with ASTM C 425

pipe, to a level 12 inches over the top of the pipe. The initial backfill should be carefully placed as soon as possible to protect the sewer line.

Compression Joints for Vitrified Clay Pipe and Fittings.

Industrial Application
Specialized industrial applications should be referred to the pipe manufacturer to determine the suitability of the pipe and joint.

Pipe Bedding
The bedding or backfill materials shall be sliced into the haunch areas of the pipe with a shovel or other hand tool to fill the voids in this area. (See discussion on page 46.)

Bc = the outside diameter of the pipe barrel. Bd = the design trench width measured at
the horizontal plane at the top of the pipe barrel. TERMINOLOGY

Final Backfill
The final backfill extends from the initial backfill to the top of the trench. Final backfill shall be placed in lifts or stages not to exceed 10 feet when using water compaction or as required by designated methods of mechanical compaction. Final backfill shall have no rock or stones having a dimension larger than 6 inches within 2 feet of the top of the initial backfill. Selected backfill material may be required for the top foot or more as specified by the engineer.

TRENCH CROSS SECTION

Initial Backfill
Initial backfilling takes place after the pipe has been installed according to the engineering specifications. The initial backfill extends from the bedding material, up the sides of the

Compaction
Compaction of the backfill material is usually required to prevent settlement of the ground surface or to support paving or structures. In areas where support of the pavement over a trench is required, compaction of part or all of the backfill material may be specified. 95

When it is necessary to achieve a high degree of compaction, it may be advisable for the design engineer or contractor to consult a geotechnical engineer. Many authorities consider it impractical and unnecessary to compact backfill materials to a density exceeding the density of the insitu soils. Trench backfill specifications generally require mechanical compaction in layers, referred to as lifts, but may allow compaction by the use of water.

examples of acceptable compaction equipment.

Mechanical Compaction
Most soil materials may be compacted by mechanical means in lifts. However, it is necessary to determine if the field moisture content is in the optimum moisture range in order to obtain the desired compaction with normal compactive effort. To achieve the specified compaction with the lowest risk and cost, the correct selection of compaction equipment and methods are necessary. When new compaction methods are proposed, the contractor should conduct a preliminary test to assure that pipe are not damaged or displaced. Depending upon the soil type and compaction requirements, wide choices of compaction equipment are available. A pavement breaking type of falling weight stomper or drop hammer, should never be used for compacting, even with substantial cover over the pipe. Hand held and walk behind vibrators and small trench rollers are good

Water Compaction
The water method of compaction, known as flooding or jetting, when conducted in lifts, produces super saturation of the backfill material, which, for any given soil, will produce a degree of consolidation that can be predicted with reasonable accuracy. The desired range of compaction can be obtained with water in native granular or sandy materials which would include most sandy and silty soils and even those with some clay content. However, materials which are predominantly clay cannot be satisfactorily compacted by super saturation because of cohesion and low permeability of the soil. Water jetting should not be allowed to disturb the initial backfill or the bedding which can result in pipe displacement or damage.

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Specialized Encasement
Under conditions where an extremely unstable area is to be crossed and that area represents a very short length of line, it is possible to reinforce the pipe by full concrete encasement and adequate reinforcing steel to produce a rigid beam. Such a beam, if stabilized at its ends, can safely perform in localized unstable conditions or in generally unstable conditions by spanning between pile bents which have been located at proper intervals. Also, it may be necessary to utilize concrete encasement in shallow trenches, utility crossings and where a higher field supporting strength is required.

Piling and Special Foundations

All special foundations must be designed to support the weight of the full sewer, backfill, and other anticipated loadings . Piling and other special foundations have been used successfully to provide adequate support for sewers constructed in areas having extremely unstable subgrade conditions. Wood piling can be placed and then securely capped with timber planking, which then serves as a stabilized trench floor. In all cases, an adequate thickness of approved bedding material is placed on the flooring. Pipe is then laid on the bedding where bell or coupling holes have been dug to assure even distribution of pipe support along the entire pipe barrel. Care should be taken to locate and protect all underground structures before setting piling or sheeting.

Concrete encasement of a multiple clay pipe installation

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The ground water table also can be lowered with well points wherever soil conditions permit. They should be located at intervals dictated by soil properties and placed reasonably close to the trench walls. They should be sunk to a depth below the elevation of the trench bottom. (See diagram below.) Several well points can be joined together which can be handled by one pump.

Dewatering
Water should be removed from the trench before final grading of the bedding. The trench should be kept dry during all phases of pipe installation. This can be done in several ways: Over-excavate the trench bottom and fill with crushed stone or other angular material to provide a french drain under the pipe. This drain will carry the water to interceptor sumps where it can be pumped to the ground surface. (See following diagram.) In some cases the trench dewatering system may consist of a geotextile in addition to open graded crushed rock. Fine sands in a fluctuating water table environment are vulnerable to foundation problems and may require a geotextile encapsulation of the drain.

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Geotextiles
Crushed rock or other coarse aggregate is recommended and used as a bedding material to improve the load bearing capacity of pipe. Deeper layers of these materials have been employed to stabilize the base of the trench. Loss of pipe support can occur when open-graded materials are used on sites having fine to medium sands at the base of the trench and a water table which can fluctuate rapidly in the pipe zone. This is believed to be caused by water moving rapidly through the fine to the coarse material and carrying the fine sands with it. To prevent movement of the fine sands into the voids of the open-graded bedding material, the material should be encapsulated in a geotextile material. Overlaps should be provided and care must be taken to prevent entry of sands into the crushed rock or aggregate base.

Controlling migration of bedding material with geotextile

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Service Connections
In main line and lateral sewer construction, it is important to assure proper embedment, backfill and compaction of the construction materials which support and surround all Wyes or Tees used for service connections. Some cities use Tees instead of Wyes since there is an insignificant difference in turbulence of flow between Wye and Tee connections to small and intermediate diameter main line sewers.

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Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 7
TRENCHLESS TECHNOLOGY A Technology for Clay Pipe

Microtunneling
Microtunneling is the method of installing sewer pipe without the need of excavating trenches. The system works this way: A launch shaft is excavated at the location of a future manhole. A thrust wall is installed to resist the jacking force. An articulated cutting head and shield is jacked into the ground at the proper horizontal and vertical alignment. Once the cutting head and shield are in place, clay jacking pipe is used to advance the tunneling equipment through the ground. The excavated soil is conveyed through the pipe by slurry or auger and removed at the launch shaft. An equipment operator maintains close control of the line and grade through the articulated action of the cutting head and laser guided steering system. The operation continues until the cutting head, shield and pipe emerge into a receiving shaft which is normally the location of a future manhole. Clay pipe has the high compressive strength to resist the considerable jacking force and possesses the needed abrasion resistance to prevent external damage as the pipe is pushed through the

surrounding ground. Additionally, clay pipe has the chemical resistance for longevity and tight joints to prevent leakage. Special low-profile joints have been designed to facilitate jacking. ASTM C 1208/C 1208M Vitrified Clay

Pipe and Joints for Use in Microtunneling, Sliplining, Pipe Bursting and Tunnels is
the first ASTM standard specification explicitly developed for microtunneling pipe.

Municipalities, engineers and contractors have the option to use microtunneling for the installation of sewers in congested and confined areas, deep trenches, unstable soils and in those places where conventional excavation would be economically prohibitive, socially disruptive or unsafe.

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Pipe Bursting
This method uses a mechanical or power head pulled or pushed through an existing pipeline. The old pipe is fractured and displaced and the broken pieces are expanded into the surrounding soil while a pipe of the same diameter or larger is pulled or pushed into place. This technology offers the benefit of increasing hydraulic capacity.

Pilot Tube Method

This method is a multi-pass system. A small diameter pilot tube is thrust forward through the ground with directional alignment controlled by the use of an angled pilot head. Line and grade are indicated and maintained by the use of a series of light emitting diodes in the head of the pilot tube and a surveyors theodolite which monitors the position of the head. After the pilot tube installation is complete, a reaming head and auger casings are installed in the launch shaft to increase the hole size to the desired diameter. As the auger casings are installed in the launch shaft, the pilot tubes are retrieved from the reception shaft. With the auger casings now in place, the clay pipe is jacked into the bore as the auger casings are removed from the reception shaft. Six inch internal diameter and larger clay pipe are typical for this application. 102

Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 8
CONSTRUCTION OF SPECIAL STRUCTURES
Special structures and appurtenances are essential to the proper functioning of any complete system of sanitary sewers. These may include manholes, terminal cleanouts, service connections, inverted siphons, and other structures or devices of special design. Many states have established criteria through their regulatory agencies governing safety, design and construction of appurtenances to sanitary sewer systems. In addition, each private and public engineering office usually has its own design standards which have developed during years of experience. Therefore, many variations will be found in the design of these structures. The following discussion is limited to a general description of each of the various appurtenances, with special emphasis upon the features considered essential to good design. manholes has been widely adopted for sanitary sewers. The manhole is usually constructed directly over the center line of the sewer. The manhole may be constructed tangent to the side of the sewer for better accessibility. Consideration must be given to the need for introduction of cleaning and test equipment into the sewer. The opening into the manhole must provide accessibility to the interior without difficulty. A minimum clear opening of 24 inches is recommended. The opening may be centered over the manhole, or constructed off-center in such a way as to provide a vertical side for the entire depth. Typical manholes of the type used by many engineers and municipalities are shown in the following illustrations.

Manholes
Manholes are among the most common appurtenances found in a sewer system. Their principal purpose is to permit the inspection and cleaning of the sewers. Most manholes are circular in shape, with the inside dimension sufficient to perform inspecting and cleaning operations without difficulty. A minimum inside diameter of 4 feet for circular

NOTE: Short stubs or flexible manhole connections should be used to provide flexibility.

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The flow should be carried in smoothly constructed U-shaped channels which may be formed integrally with the concrete base. The height of the channel should be adequate to contain the flow. Adjacent areas should be sloped to drain to the channel. Where more than one sewer enters the manhole, the channels should be curved smoothly and have sufficient capacity to carry the maximum flow. Where the sewer changes direction or size in a manhole, or a branch sewer enters a manhole, the invert should be sloped to allow for the sewer height increase. Extreme caution should be exercised in the placement of manholes to assure an unyielding foundation. Settlement of the manhole may cause damage to the pipe adjacent to the manhole. Short lengths (24 inch maximum) with flexible compression joints and or flexible manhole connections should be used at the manhole walls to accommodate minor differential movement.

To the greatest possible extent, steps should be made of corrosion resistant materials. Firm anchorage in the wall and provision in the design to prevent slipping are desirable objectives. Since there have been many serious failures of manhole steps, some engineers omit all steps, preferring the use of other confined space entry equipment.

Drop Manholes
Differences in elevation of incoming and outgoing sewers, which would result in deposition of solids or nuisance to maintenance personnel, should be avoided. When it is necessary to drop the elevation of the sewer at a manhole, the drop should be made by means of an outside connection similar to that shown. Fitting dimensions govern the minimum vertical outside drop that can be made. The designers judgment will determine, where the difference in elevation warrants using an outside drop instead of lowering the upstream or branch sewer. Support of the entire outside drop is desirable to protect it against damage during backfilling of the trench. Vertical curves may also be used to accomplish the change in elevation.

Manhole Frames, Covers and Steps

Manhole frames and covers are normally made of cast or ductile iron. All metal-bearing surfaces between the frame and cover where subject to traffic should be fabricated to insure good seating. Solid covers are preferable to the perforated type on sanitary sewers to restrict objectionable odors and to limit the entrance of surface waters. Adequate ventilation can usually be obtained through the house connections. Locked or special bolted down covers may be used to prevent theft, vandalism or unauthorized entrance.

Typical Drop Manhole (For 5 or Less)

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Wye Tee Combination may be used. It is not necessary to extend cleanout to grade. Wye branch may be stoppered and marked with stake below grade. Areas of Well Compacted Bedding Material

Typical Drop Manhole (For 5 or Greater)

Typical Cleanout Structure

Terminal Cleanout Structures

Terminal cleanouts are sometimes used at the ends of branch or lateral sewers. Their purpose is to provide means for inserting cleaning tools, for flushing or for inserting inspection equipment into the sewer. A terminal cleanout amounts to an upturned pipe coming to the surface of the ground. The turn should be made with bends to allow flexible cleaning rods to pass through it. The diameter should be the same as that for the sewer. Terminal cleanouts are limited in usefulness and should never be used as a substitute for a manhole. They are permitted under some state regulations only at the ends of branch sewers which may never be extended and must be within approximately 150 ft. of a manhole. to build sewers above the surface of the ground, across gullies or valleys. The sewer and its supporting structures should not interfere with storm drainage. Sewers may be constructed above the natural ground in carefully compacted fills or berms of adequate height and width to support and protect the sewer. Usual trenching methods are employed. Surface drainage may require culverts through the fill. Structural design of overhead sewers is similar to that of comparable structures with supporting members of timber, steel or reinforced concrete. Foundation piers or abutments should be conservatively designed to prevent settlement and rupture of the sewer. The impact of flood waters and debris must also be considered in some locations. Very high stream or valley crossings may require trestles, trusses or suspension structures.

Aboveground Sewers
Occasionally in rolling or hilly terrain it has been desirable and economical

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Protection against vandalism, freezing and prevention of leakage are important design and construction considerations. Insulation around the sewer may be required. Use of the ASTM C 425

Compression Joints for Vitrified Clay Pipe and Fittings is recommended.

Measuring and Sampling Flow in Sewers

Flows in sewers may be estimated by a number of available methods. Approximate flows may be computed using the Manning open-channel flow equation if the slope of the sewer is known. Flows may be roughly determined from measurement of the wetted cross-sectional area of the sewer, supplemented with velocity measurements. No one method of measuring flows applies to all situations. Accurate open channel flow measurement depends on existing line conditions and the composition of the sewage.

Construction of a multiple entry trunk line sewer junction.

Modern Clay Pipe with factory applied flexible compression joints assist in maintaining uniform hydraulic flow.

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CHAPTER 9
INSPECTION AND TESTING
Inspectors are an important link between the engineers design and the completed project. They assist all of the parties involved during the actual construction. of safety regulations for construction sites and see that all regulations and proper procedures are followed.

Qualifications
Inspectors should be able to transfer levels from reference stakes to trench bottoms. It is important that they have a knowledge of how to set up and check laser alignment equipment. Inspectors must also be thoroughly familiar with good practice in sewer construction, have the ability to read construction drawings and make such computations necessary to interpret the drawings. They should have knowledge

On the Job
The resident engineer has the overall responsibility for inspection, but the immediate responsibility rests with the onsite inspectors. It is therefore necessary that they be fully acquainted with the construction contract. They must be sufficiently experienced to note serious differences between actual construction procedures and those methods contained in the drawings and specifications.

107

Duties
The inspectors have many duties included in their work. They should make a complete record of all occurrences incident to the construction of the pipe line. These records are most important especially if changes must be made in the original construction plans. Such changes may involve extra work and payment for this can be computed only after the work is done. Any important deviation between design work and actual construction should be noted. The day-to-day records of all satisfactorily completed work is the basis for interim payments to the contractor. Among the important items noted by inspectors are the precise locations of all sewer connections by station and depth. These locations are transferred to the permanent records of the project. The long-term efficiency of sewer systems depends upon the combined efforts of the engineers, the inspectors, the contractors and the material suppliers. The inspector must be familiar with the job specifications in order to assure that the requirements include proper trench bottom preparation, proper control of design trench widths, bedding material selection and placement, line and grade transfer, pipe installation, initial backfilling, compaction, trench restoration and witnessing of acceptance testing.

The first section of any sewer project should be tested immediately upon completion to insure that the installation procedure will produce the results required by the specifications. Experience dictates that continual testing as a job progresses will improve procedures and keep the job under proper control. When many lines are involved, the project should never be completed before testing begins.

Test Methods
The generally accepted methods of testing are the infiltration test or the low pressure air test.

Infiltration Testing
Where the measured water table is 2 ft. or greater above the pipe barrel at the midpoint of the test section, infiltration testing is the preferred and least expensive method of testing. The infiltration test measures the ground water entering the pipeline and manholes. The allowable amount of infiltration is specified by the design engineer and is commonly expressed in gallons per inch of pipe diameter per mile per day. ASTM C 1091 Standard Test Method

for Hydrostatic Infiltration Testing of Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines describes the
procedure for Infiltration Testing. To get an accurate infiltration reading, it is necessary to isolate the section of pipeline being tested from the upstream side. All pumping of ground water should be discontinued a minimum of 24 hours prior to testing. The critical measurement for determining the infiltration in a sewer system is the rate of flow at the furthest downstream point of the section being tested.

ACCEPTANCE TESTING
Testing is done to determine the integrity of the completed sewer line. Good practice is to test each section from manhole to manhole after it is backfilled. 108

It has been customary to use a direct reading V-notch weir to determine the flow in the pipeline. Experience has shown, however, that the direct reading V-notch weir is not sufficiently accurate to measure small infiltration amounts. A more accurate method is to actually collect and measure the flow over a specified time period. This can be done with flow-through plugs, troughs or dams. These quantities, usually measured in ounces per minute or another suitable measure of volume per time unit, can be converted to gallons per day or to gallons per inch of diameter per mile per day. The set up in the diagram is recommended to achieve this result. After the leakage for the pipe is determined, the lower plug in the upstream manhole can be removed and the combined infiltration from the pipeline and the manhole can be measured. The manhole infiltration is calculated by simply subtracting the pipeline infiltration from the combined pipeline and manhole infiltration. Other procedures for

infiltration testing may be equally satisfactory.

Calculation of Infiltration Rate

Pipe Size Quantity Collected Length of Test Section Elapsed Time 8 inch 0.7 gals. 485 ft. 1 hour

Solution
Infiltration Rate in Gallons/Inch Dia/Mile/Day

/ / /

/ /

109

AIR TESTING
The low pressure air test is an accurate method of testing a sewer line. This test is used either for line acceptance or leak location. The line acceptance test is generally performed to establish the tightness of a section of newly laid sewer pipe. A specific drop in air pressure within a pipe section over a specified length of time determines acceptance or failure of the line in question. All acceptance tests should be performed with authorized personnel present to observe the results.

Clean the sewer line by flushing before testing to wet the pipe surface and clean out any debris. A wetted interior pipe surface will produce more consistent results. Plug all pipe outlets to resist the test pressure. All stoppers in laterals should be braced.

Summary of Method
The section of sewer to be tested is plugged. Low pressure air is introduced into this section of line. The rate of air loss is used to determine the acceptability of the section being tested. ASTM C 828 Standard Test Method for

Low-Pressure Air Test of Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines describes the procedure for
air testing sewer lines. Air test tables derived from ASTM C 828 are available from NCPI.

110

Procedures
The pressure-holding time is based on an average holding pressure of 3 psi gauge or a drop from 3.5 psi to 2.5 psi. Add air until the internal air pressure of the sewer line is approximately 4.0 psi gauge. After an internal pressure of approximately 4.0 psi is obtained, allow time for the air pressure to stabilize. The pressure will normally show some drop until the temperature of the air in the test section stabilizes. When the pressure has stabilized above the 3.5 psi gauge reading, reduce the pressure to 3.5 psi gauge and start test. Record the drop in pressure for the test time. If the pressure does not drop more than 1.0 psi gauge during the test time, the line is presumed to have passed. It is not necessary to continue the test for the total time when it is clearly evident that the rate of air loss is less than the allowable. The test procedure can be used as a presumptive test which enables the installer to determine the acceptability of the line before backfill and subsequent construction activities.

Safety
The air test can be dangerous if a line is improperly prepared due to a lack of understanding or carelessness. Calculate the amount of back pressure the plug must withstand and be certain the plug being used is designed to withstand this pressure. Always use a pressure gauge and regulator when inflating a sewer plug. Under-inflated plugs will not be able to withstand the required back pressure. Over-inflated plugs can rupture causing possible damage and injury. It is extremely important to install and brace the various plugs to prevent blow-outs. A force of 250 lbf is exerted on an 8-inch plug by an internal pipe pressure of 5 psi. The sudden expulsion of a poorly installed plug, or of a plug that is partially deflated before the pipe pressure is released, can be dangerous. As a safety precaution, pressurizing equipment should include a regulator or relief valve set at 10 psi to avoid over pressurizing and damaging an otherwise acceptable line. No one shall be allowed in the manholes during testing. 111

Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 10
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING SEWERS
Lateral Sewers
A lateral sewer is a continuation of the municipal sanitary sewerage system. This installation demands the same special care and experience as municipal sewerage construction for the line to be permanent and trouble free. Installation should be performed by experienced and competent workmen. Lateral sewers must be resistant to the action of corrosive chemicals. Ordinary sewage contains quantities of acetic, citric, sulfuric and lactic acid as well as organic acids. These sewers pass thousands of gallons of hot, soapy water, vegetable and fruit juices, a variety of cleansers and drain cleaners which are highly corrosive. In addition, the widespread use of garbage grinders introduces into sewers a large amount of organic matter. Dishwashers and washing machines contribute large quantities of hot water which greatly increase the sewage temperature.

Trench Excavation
Pipe trenches should be dug with the same care required for main lines. Trenches should be straight and to the required slope, with width held to a minimum. Where the soil is sufficiently firm to provide a solid foundation for the pipe, the trench bottom should provide uniform support for the barrel of the pipe. Bell or coupling holes should be dug at the proper intervals so that the weight is supported by the barrel of the pipe. Care should be taken to excavate no deeper than necessary, unless there is a supply of angular crushed stone or other suitable coarse material available to bring the trench bottom to grade and provide uniform support for the barrel of the pipe. Rock or other unyielding material which is encountered should be removed. The pipe foundation should be free of all lumps and irregularities. Where the bottom of the trench is either of rock, unyielding, or unstable material, it is advisable to excavate below grade and backfill to grade with angular crushed stone or similar material.

Lateral sewer pipe should not deflect, deform, soften, rust, decompose or disintegrate from the effect of domestic wastes, high sewerage temperatures, moisture saturation, sustained trench loading or cleaning equipment.

112

Installation
Each section of pipe should be laid to a specified line and grade. All pipe should be laid with bells or couplings upgrade.

Backfilling
Normally the excavated earth is satisfactory for backfilling purposes. The trench should be backfilled as soon as inspection is completed. To protect the line from lateral movement, the backfill should be carefully placed around and to at least one foot above the top of the pipe.

As the installation progresses, the

interior of the pipe should be cleared of all dirt and foreign material. The trench should be kept as dry as possible while the pipe is being laid. The specific manufacturers recommendations should be carefully followed.

Controlled trench width, proper bedding and backfill insure permanent trouble-free lateral sewer lines.

113

Clay Pipe Engineering Manual

CHAPTER 11
APPENDIX

Applicable Standards Velocity Heads Hydraulic Properties of Clay Pipe at Design Depth Hydraulic Properties of Circular Sewers Metric Units and Symbols Conversion Table (inches to feet in hundredths) Conversion Factors (General) Radius of Curvature and Angle of Deflection for Curvilinear Sewers Perforated Clay Pipe Index

Applicable Standards
ASTM C 12 ASTM C 301 ASTM C 425 ASTM C 700 ASTM C 828 ASTM C 896 ASTM C 1091

Standard Practice for Installing Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines Standard Test Methods for Vitrified Clay Pipe Standard Specification for Compression Joints for Vitrified Clay Pipe and Fittings Standard Specification for Vitrified Clay Pipe, Extra Strength, Standard Strength and Perforated Standard Test Method for Low-Pressure Air Test of Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Clay Products Standard Test Method for Hydrostatic Infiltration Testing of Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines

ASTM C 1208/ Standard Specification for Vitrified Clay Pipe and Joints for Use in 1208M Jacking, Sliplining, Pipe Bursting and Tunnels
114

115

116

117

CONVERSION FACTORS
TO CONVERT FROM TO MULTIPLY BY

Acre......................................................................Square Feet .....................................43560 Acre......................................................................Square Yards ...................................4840 Acre......................................................................Square Metres .................................4047 Acre Feet .............................................................Cubic Feet........................................43560 Acre Feet .............................................................Gallons .............................................325851 Atmospheres .......................................................Inches of Mercury............................29.92 Atmospheres .......................................................Lbs./Sq. In........................................14.70 Barrels - Oil ........................................................Gallons - U.S. ..................................42 Bags/Sacks Cement ............................................Lbs. Cement.....................................94 Btu/Min. ..............................................................Ft. - Lbs./Sec. ...................................12.96 Btu/Min. ..............................................................Horse Power ....................................0.02356 Btu/Min. ..............................................................Watts................................................17.57 Cubic Feet ...........................................................Cubic Inches ....................................1728 Cubic Feet ...........................................................Cubic Yards .....................................0.03704 Cubic Feet ...........................................................Gallons .............................................7.48052 Cubic Feet/Min. ..................................................Gallons/Sec. .....................................0.1247 Cubic Feet/Min. ..................................................Lbs. Water/Min................................62.43 Cubic Feet/Sec.....................................................Million Gals. /Day ...........................0.646317 Cubic Feet/Sec.....................................................Gallons/Min. ....................................448.831 Degrees F ............................................................Degrees C.........................................(oF-32) 5/9 Degrees C ............................................................Degrees F .........................................(oCx9/5) + 32 Feet of Water ......................................................Lbs./Sq. Ft........................................62.43 Feet of Water ......................................................Lbs./Sq. In........................................0.4335 Feet/Min. .............................................................Ft./Sec. .............................................0.01667 Feet/Min. .............................................................Miles/Hr. ..........................................0.01136 Feet/Sec. ..............................................................Miles/Hr. .........................................0.6818 Feet/Sec. ..............................................................Miles/Min. ........................................0.01136 Foot......................................................................Metre................................................0.305 Foot3/Second .......................................................Metre3/Second .................................0.0283 Foot3 ...................................................................Metre3 ..............................................0.0283 Foot2 ...................................................................Metre2 ..............................................0.0929 Foot/Second ........................................................Metre/Second ...................................0.305 Foot of Water (39.2F) .........................................Pascal ...............................................2989 Foot/Second2 .......................................................Metre/Second2 .................................0.305 Gallons.................................................................Cubic Feet........................................0.1337 Gallons.................................................................Cubic Inches ....................................231 Gallons.................................................................Liter .................................................3.785 Gallons.................................................................Pints (Liquid)...................................8 Gallons.................................................................Quarts (Liquid)................................4 Gallons Imperial ...............................................U.S. Gallons.....................................1.20095 Gallons Water .....................................................Lbs. Water .......................................8.3453 Gallons/Min.........................................................Cubic Feet/Hr. .................................8.0208 Gallons/Min.........................................................Metre3/Second .................................0.0000631 Gallons/Day.........................................................Metres3/Second ...............................0.0000000438 Horse Power ........................................................Btu/Min. ...........................................42.44

118

TO CONVERT FROM

TO

MULTIPLY BY

Horse Power ........................................................Ft.-Lbs./Min. ....................................33,000 Horse Power ........................................................Ft.-Lbs./Sec. .....................................550 Inch......................................................................Metre................................................0.0254 Inch......................................................................Millimeter ........................................25.4 Inch2 ....................................................................Metre2 ..............................................0.000645 Inch3 ....................................................................Metre3 ..............................................0.0000164 Kilo Newtons-Force ............................................Tons-Force .......................................0.1125 Kilo Newtons/Lin. Metre....................................Lbs./Lin. Ft. .....................................68.5 Kilogram-Force (kgf) ..........................................Newton .............................................9.807 Miles ....................................................................Feet ..................................................5280 Miles ....................................................................Yards ................................................1760 Miles ....................................................................Metres ..............................................1609 Miles/Hr...............................................................Ft./Min. ............................................88 Miles/Hr...............................................................Ft./Sec. .............................................1.467 Ounces (Dry) .......................................................Lbs....................................................0.0625 Ounces (Fluid).....................................................Cubic Inches ....................................1.805 Pascal ..................................................................Newton/Metre2 ................................1 Pounds .................................................................Ounces..............................................16 Pounds .................................................................Tons (Short) .....................................0.0005 Pounds Water .....................................................Cubic Feet........................................0.01602 Pounds Water .....................................................Cubic Inches ....................................27.68 Pounds Water .....................................................Gallons .............................................0.1198 Pounds/Lin. Ft. ...................................................Kilo Newtons/Lin. Metre ................0.0146 Pounds/Sq. Ft......................................................Feet of Water ...................................0.01602 Pounds/Sq. In. .....................................................Feet of Water ...................................2.307 Pound-Force/Foot................................................Newton/Metre ..................................14.594 Pound-Force/Inch2 (psi) .....................................Pascal (N/M2) ..................................6895 Pound-Mass/Foot3 ..............................................Kilogram/Metre3 .............................16.02 Quarts (Dry)........................................................Cubic Inches ....................................67.20 Quarts (Liquid) ...................................................Cubic Inches ....................................57.75 Radians................................................................Degrees ............................................57.30 Radians................................................................Minutes ............................................3438 Radians................................................................Quadrants ........................................0.637 Square Feet .........................................................Acres.................................................0.00002296 Square Feet .........................................................Square Inches ..................................144 Square Miles .......................................................Acres.................................................640 Square Yards ......................................................Square Feet .....................................9 Tons-Force...........................................................Kilo Newtons-Force.........................8.89 Tons Long............................................................Pounds .............................................2240 Tons Short...........................................................Pounds .............................................2000 Tons Short...........................................................Kilograms.........................................907 Tons Short...........................................................Ounces..............................................32000 Yards ...................................................................Feet ..................................................3 Yards ...................................................................Inches ...............................................36 Yards...................................................................Metres................................................0.9144

119

120

Abrasion resistance Acceptance testing Acid formation Acid resistance Air testing Appendix ASTM standards

6 108 30 6, 31 110 114 12, 31, 46, 59, 94, 95, 101, 106, 108, 110, 114, 120 Backfill 95 compaction 95 final 95 fricitional forces 34 initial 95 materials 95 weights of, example 37 Bedding 46 bell or coupling holes 47 classes 53 design strength developed 46 general guidelines 48 load factors 48 materials 47 shovel-slicing 46 Building sewer, house connections 112 Clay 5 characteristics 6 Clay pipe (See Vitrified clay pipe) Cleanout structure 105 Compaction, trench backfill 95 mechanical 96 water 96 Compression joint 12,94 Computerized trench load design 59 Computation diagram for load coefficients 36 Concentrated loads 38 Concrete 57 arch and cradle 55, 56 encasement 56 Construction 90 Controlled low strength material 51, 55 Converion factors 118, 119 Conveyance factors 28 Corrosion 29 aggressive soils 31 resistance 29 Corrosive soils 31 Curvilinear sewers 120 Design flow Design period Design, rigid conduit Dewatering Distributed loads Drainage area Drop manhole Dynamic loads (Impact Factors) Embankment versus trench load Encasement (Concrete) Energy gradient Excavation, trench 11 10 32 98 41 10 104 41 38 51, 56, 97 19 90

Extraneous flows Factor of safety, design Field supporting strength Final backfill Flow estimating Flow monitoring, summations Foundation Geotextiles Gradeliner Gravity sewer design Haunch area House connection Hydraulic design calculating flow computer design design requirements flow characteristics diagram hydraulic profile hydraulic properties Manning equations Manning n graphs sewer sizing typical profile velocity and discharge charts velocity and quantity Hydrogen sulfide Impact factor Imported bedding (suitable bedding) Index Industrial application Industrial waste flow allowance Infiltration - Inflow Infiltration Initial backfill Inspection, Inspector Jointing Land use coefficients Laser beam Lateral sewers Load coefficient, Cd coefficient, Cs concentrated design load versus actual load distributed effect of trench width embankment sample problems superimposed trench load tables Load factor Class D, C, B, CS, CLSM and A diagrams Manhole drop typical details

12 44, 51, 52 47, 50, 52 95 15, 16 13 93, 97 99 94 10 95 112 18 18 27 19 18 18, 19 115, 116 22 24 20 21 24 22 29 41 47 121 95 6, 95 13 12 108 95 107 12 13 94, 101 112 36 40 38 44 41 41, 44 38 51 38 59 48 49 53 103 104, 105 103

121

Manning coefficient Manning equations Marston equation, rigid pipe Mechanical compaction Metric units and symbols Microtunneling Native bedding NCPI (National Clay Pipe Institute) n-factor coefficient discussion on n values for Manning equation, chart variable with depth, chart Peak factors Perforated Pipe Piling Pilot tube method Pipe bursting Pipe joining Pipe laying Planning, sewer Population, estimates Quantity, estimating sewage Quantity equation Rigid conduit design structural analysis Root penetration Roughness coefficient Sample flow estimating Sample land use map Sample load calculations Service connection Sewer above ground acid formation alignment bedding construction curved design flows commercial domestic (residential) industrial minimum - maximum peak design period energy gradient flow measurement hydraulic gradient joining layout line and grade longevity one-hundred years old service connections sizing sulfide generation supporting strength testing three-edge bearing strength trench excavation

23 22 35 96 117 101 47 9 23 23 23 24 116 11, 17 120 97 102 102 94 93 10 11 11 22 32 44 32 12 23 15 14 51, 52 100 105 30 47 47 90 120 11, 18 13 13 13 19 11 10 19 13 19 94 21 94 8 8 100 20 29, 30 46 46 46 90

trench sheeting velocities, limiting Sheeting Shovel-slicing Sieve analysis Structural design Superimposed loads Supporting strength, sewer Table of contents Testing Three-edge bearing strength Transition width Trench backfilling bottom preparation box compaction cross section foundation load equation load tables safety shield sheeting, effect of removal walls, effect of slope width, effect on load Trench excavation Trench load tables Trench load equations Trench versus embankment load Trenchless technology Uniform flow Unstable foundation Velocity head, chart limits in sewers self-cleansing Velocity equation Velocity variations chart Vitrification Vitrified clay pipe advantages an engineering material characteristics hydraulic properties chart joining manufacture physical properties specifications and standards Water compaction Wellpoints Wheel loads

90 19 90 46 48 44 38 49 3 107 49, 50 35, 60 95 93 45, 90 95 95 93, 97 33 59 92 91 45, 90 44 90 42, 59 35 38 101 18 93 22 115 19 19 22 22 5 5 6 5 6 115 94 6, 7 46 114 96 98 39, 40

122

NOTES

NOTES