English Grammar Lessons Phrases & Clauses Introduction to Phrases Phrases are considered as the second level of classification

as they tend to be larger than individual words, but are smaller than sentences. We refer to the central element in a phrase as the head of the phrase. If the head is a noun then the phrase is called a noun phrase. There are nine generally accepted classifications for phrases. These classifications are generally based on the headword or construction of the phrase. The headword can usually stand alone as a one-word phrase. It is the only part that cannot be omitted from the phrase. 1. NOUN PHRASES Noun phrases may serve as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, or objects of prepositions. Most noun phrases are constructed using determiners, adjectives and a head noun. Examples: My coach is happy. (noun phrase as subject) 2. VERB PHRASES Verb phrases are composed of the verbs of the sentence and any modifiers of the verbs, including adverbs, prepositional phrases or objects. Most verb phrases function as predicates of sentences. Example: Henry made my coach very proud. (verb phrase as predicate) 3. ADJECTIVAL PHRASES Adjectival phrases are composed of the adjectives that modify a noun and any adverbs or other elements that modify those adjectives. Adjectival phrases always occur inside noun phrases or as predicate adjectives. Example: Dad bought [(a blue and green) sweater] 4. ADVERBIAL PHRASES Adverbial phrases are composed of the adverbs that modify verbs, adjectives, or clauses. Adverbial phrases may occur with more than one word. The extra adverb is called an intensifier. Example: He scored the goal very quickly. 5. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Prepositional phrases are composed of the preposition and a following noun phrase. Prepositional phrases are used either adjectivally to modify nouns or adverbially to modify verbs, adjectives, or clauses. Examples: The man in the house rented it. (prepositional phrase modifies a noun adjectivally) He went in the arena. (prepositional phrase modifies a verb adverbially) Dad was happy about the goal. (prepositional phrase modifies an adjective adverbially) On reflection, I believe that she was correct. (prepositional phrase modifies a clause adverbially) 6. GERUNDIVE PHRASES Gerundive phrases may function in any way in which nouns may function: as subjects, objects, objects of a preposition, or even nouns functioning as adjectives Gerundive phrases may contain gerunds, adjectives, objects, adverbs or other main verb elements. Example: Dad talked about winning the game. 7. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

Participles are root verbs with an "ed, en or ing" suffix. In the case of the past participial, the form may be irregular. Participial phrases may contain objects and other elements that might occur with main verbs. Participial phrases always function as adjectives. Example: Racing around the corner, he slipped and fell. 8. ABSOLUTE PHRASES Absolute phrases are composed of a subject noun phrase and a participial phrase. The absolute phrase is formally independent of the main clause. The subject of the absolute phrase does not have to appear in the main clause--because the absolute phrase has its own subject! Example: [(My chores) (completed for the week)], I went on a walk. 9. INFINITIVE PHRASES Infinitive phrases are composed of an infinitive verb (the base form of the verb preceded by to) and any modifing adverbs or prepositional phrases. The infinitive phrase has three functions: noun, adjective, adverb. Examples: My duty as a coach is to teach skills. (infinitive phrase functions as a noun) My sister wanted a cat to love. (infinitive phrase functions as an adjective) Bill is eager to work on his skating. (infinitive phrase functions adverbially, modifying an adjective) Introduction to Clauses All clauses have a subject and a verb. 1. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE This clause is a sentence and can act as a sentence. Example: I wanted a new ball. 2. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES A subordinate clause has a subordinator. Examples: Fred knew that I wanted a new ball. 3. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES Adverbial clauses modify the entire independent clause or another subordinate clause to which they might be attached. Some adverbial subordinators:" because, while, as, if, when, although, as if, after, since, unless, before, until". Adverbial clauses signal common adverbial meanings such as time of the event, place of the event, manner of the event, cause of the event or condition for the event. Examples: I haven't been skating since we all went up to Banff last winter. He stood there as if he was frozen to the very spot. Fred jogs where there is no traffic because he likes it. 4. RELATIVE CLAUSES Relative clauses modify nouns and sometimes indefinite pronouns. Relative clauses occur with the relative pronouns "that, who, which, whom, whose" Relative clauses may also begin with the following relative adverbs "when, where, why". Examples: I saw the player [who hit you]. I saw the player [that hit you].

I like the park [where I jog]. I would like to know the reason [why you didn't eat the vegtables]. 5. NOMINAL CLAUSES Nominal clauses function as nouns and are subordinated by one of the following subordinating conjunctions 'how that what when where whether which who why". Nominal clauses may be replaced with a pronoun Examples: [How you did it] is not my concern. (That is not my concern) [That I wanted a ball] was irrelevant in the discussion. ( It was irrelevant ) Sentence Constructions COMPOUND SENTENCES Compound sentences are constructed using two independant clauses. Examples: a. Fred hit the ball well, but he only walked to first base. b. Computer technologies are more sophisticated and today's technicians are better trained. COMPLEX SENTENCES Complex sentences are constructed using an independant sentence and a dependant or subordinated clause. Example: The motion, which the commons narrowly passed, was defeated by the senate. (Adjective clause introduced by relative pronoun) COMPOUND - COMPLEX SENTENCES Compound - Complex sentences are constucted using two independant sentences or clauses and a dependant clause. Example:When the jets fly by, the windows rattle noisily and the whole house shakes.

Clauses and Phrases

To understand punctuation, it is helpful to understand the difference between a phrase and a clause. I. A phrase is a collection of words that may have nouns or verbals, but it does not have a subject doing a verb. The following are examples of phrases:
y y y y y y y

leaving behind the dog smashing into a fence before the first test after the devastation between ignorance and intelligence broken into thousands of pieces because of her glittering smile

In these examples above, you will find nouns (dog, fence, test, devastation, ignorance, intelligence, thousands, pieces). You also have some verbals (leaving, smashing), but in no case is the noun functioning as a subject doing a predicate verb. They are all phrases. II. A clause is a collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb. The following are examples of clauses:
y y y y y

since she laughs at diffident men I despise individuals of low character when the saints go marching in Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon because she smiled at him.

In the examples above, we find either a noun or a pronoun that is a subject (boldprint and red) attached to a predicate verb (underlined and purple) in each case:
y y y y y

since she laughs at diffident men I despise individuals of low character when the saints go marching in Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon because she smiled at him

III. If the clause could stand by itself, and form a complete sentence with punctuation, we call the clause an independent clause. The following are independent clauses:

y y

I despise individuals of low character Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon

We could easily turn independent clauses into complete sentences by adding appropriate punctuation marks. We might say, "I despise individuals of low character." Or we might write, "Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon!" We call them independent because these types of clauses can stand independently by themselves, without any extra words attached, and be complete sentences. IV. Dependent clauses have a subject doing a verb, but they have a subordinate conjunction placed in front of the clause. That subordinate conjunction means that the clause can't stand independently by itself and become a complete sentence. Instead, the dependent clause is dependent upon another clause--it can't make a complete sentence by itself, even though it has a subject doing a verb. Here are some examples of dependent clauses:
y y y

since she laughs at diffident men when the saints go marching in because she smiled at him

These clauses simply do not form complete thoughts or sentences by themselves. Those subordinate conjunctions--since, when, and because--cause the listener to expect some extra material. The thought is incomplete. If you walked up to a friend in the dorms and said, "since she laughs at diffident men," and then walked away without adding an independent clause, the friend would be completely baffled.

Subordinate Conjunctions
A CONJUNCTION is a word that connects or joins together words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. There are two kinds of conjunctions, a primary class ofCOORDINATING conjunctions and a secondary class called SUBORDINATING or SUBORDINATE conjunctions. There are also words calledCONJUNCTIVE ADVBERBS; these conjunctive adverbs sometimes act a bit like conjunctions, but at other times act like plain old adverbs. We will explore each type, one at a time. The following chart lists the most common types of conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
(Coordinating conjunctions connect two equal parts of a sentence.) PURE CONJUNCTIONS CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

and but for nor or so yet

accordingly in fact again instead also likewise besides moreover consequently namely finally nevertheless for example otherwise further still furthermore that is hence then however therefore indeed thus

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
(Subordinate conjunctions connect two unequal parts, e.g., dependent and independent clauses) after since when although so that whenever

as supposing where because than whereas before that wherever but that though whether if though which in order that till while lest unless who no matter until why how what even though NOTE 1: Conjunctive adverbs are sometimes used as simple adverbs. If they do not connect independent clauses, they are not conjunctive adverbs. Then, they are merely adverbs modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb. For instance, in the sentences below, the words accordingly, still, and instead are adverbs. When functioning this way, the adverb needs no punctuation to separate it from the surrounding material. For example, see the following sentences: I knew the test would be hard so I planned accordingly to study for several hours I was still studying at six o'clock in the evening! Joey decided to go to a party instead. In these examples above, there is no comma needed before the words accordingly, still, and instead. That's because they are acting like adverbs, modifying verbs like planned and was studying, and decided. The tricky part is that these same adverbs can also transform into conjunctive adverbs. Conjunctive adverbs can be used with a comma to introduce a new independent clause, or they can help connect two independent clauses together after a semicolon. Typically, each conjunctive adverb is followed by a comma. For example, look at the comma usage below:

. , Joey had an upset stomach; accordingly, he took antacid tablets. The antacids must not have worked. Otherwise, he would quit
complaining. The antacids must not have worked otherwise he would quit complaining.

Joey had an upset stomach Accordingly he took antacid tablets.

The antacids didn't work for Jill either Instead they made her feel even more sick. The antacids didn't work for Jill either instead they made her feel even more sick. Here, the conjuctive adverb helps connect the ideas of the two sentences together. Note also that after a semicolon, the word beginning the next independent clauses needs no capitalization.

NOTE 2: (In Four Parts) (A) Two independent clauses can be joined by a comma and a pure conjunction. However, a comma by itself will not work. (Using a comma without a conjunction to hook together two sentences creates a comma splice!)

[Independent Clause]

pure conjunction [independent clause]

Examples: The gods thundered in the heavens and the mortals below cowered in fear

. Susan appreciated the flowers, yet a Corvette would be a finer gift.

I dodged the bullet but Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia (B) Two independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb are separated by a semicolon. However, the writer still needs to insert a comma after the conjunctive adverb. [Independent clause]

conjunctive adverb

,
;

[independent clause]

Examples: The gods thundered in the heavens furthermore the mortals below cowered in fear

. ; ,

The bank robber dodged the bullet however Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia

Susan appreciated the flowers nevertheless a Corvette would be a finer a gift

(C) Two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction are separated by a semicolon. [Independent clause]

[independent clause]

Examples: The gods thundered in the heavens the mortals below cowered in fear

. ;

The bank robber dodged the bullet Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia

. ; .

Susan appreciated the flowers a Corvette would be a finer gift

In the examples above, you can see that the semicolon does the same job as both a comma and a conjunction.

(D) A dependent clause at the beginning of a sentence is introductory, and like most bits of introductory material, it is usually followed by comma. A dependent clause following the main (independent) clause is usually not punctuated. Examples Using Introductory Clauses: While the gods thundered in the heavens, the mortals below cowered in fear. As the bank robber dodged the bullet, Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia. Though Susan appreciated the flowers, a Corvette would be a finer gift. But on the other hand, no punctuation is necessary for the dependent clause following the main clause: The gods thundered in the heavens as mortals below cowered in fear. The bank robber dodged the bullet while Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia. Susan appreciated the flowers even though a Corvette would be a finer gift.

Sentence Patterns
This handout gives an overview of English sentence patterns. It will help you identify subjects, verbs, and clause connectors so you can analyze your writing style and improve it by using a variety of sentence patterns.

Subjects, Verbs, and Clauses

In its simplest form, an English sentence has two parts: a subject and a verb that express a complete thought when they are together. y y The subject shows who or what is doing the action. It is always some form of noun or pronoun. The verb shows the action or the state of being. It can be an action verb, like "run," or a state verb, like "seem."

Examples of simple two word sentences include: y y y Marvin slept. Dogs bark. Isotopes react.

Real sentences are rarely so short. We usually want to convey much more information, so we modify the main subject and verb with other words and phrases, as in the sentences below: y y y Unfortunately, Marvin slept fitfully. Dogs bark louder after midnight. Heavy isotopes react slower than light isotopes of the same element.

Despite the extra information, each of these sentences has one subject and one verb, so it's still just one clause. What's a clause? A clause is the combination of a subject and a verb. When you have a subject and verb, you have a clause. Pretty easy, isn't it? We're going to concentrate on clauses in this handout, with emphasis on these two in particular: 1. Independent clause: a subject and verb that make a complete thought. Independent clauses are called independent because they can stand on their own and make sense.

2. Dependent clause: a subject and verb that don't make a complete thought. Dependent clauses always need to be attached to an independent clause (they're too weak to stand alone). We'll talk more about dependent clauses later on, but also see our handout on fragments for a more detailed description of these types of clauses.
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Something tricky
Before we move on to the sentence types, you should know a little trick of subjects and verbs: they can double up in the same clause. These are called "compound" subjects or verbs because there are two or more of them in the same clause. Compound subject (two subjects related to the same verb): y Javier and his colleagues collaborated on the research article.

Compound verb (two verbs related to the same subject): y Javier conducted the experiment and documented the results.

Compound subject with compound verb: y Javier, his colleagues, and their advisor drafted and revised the article several times.

Notice that they don't overlap. You can tell that it's only one clause because all of the subjects in one clause come before all of the verbs in the same clause.
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Four Basic Patterns

Every sentence pattern below describes a different way to combine clauses. When you are drafting your own papers or when you're revising them for sentence variety, try to determine how many of these patterns you use. If you favor one particular pattern, your writing might be kind of boring if every sentence has exactly the same pattern. If you find this is true, try to revise a few sentences using a different pattern. NOTE: Because nouns can fill so many positions in a sentence, it's easier to analyze sentence patterns if you find the verbs and find the connectors. The most common connectors are listed below with the sentence patterns that use them.

In the descriptions below, S=Subject and V=Verb, and options for arranging the clauses in each sentence pattern given in parentheses.Connecting words and the associated punctuation are highlighted in brown. Notice how the punctuation changes with each arrangement.

Pattern 1: Simple Sentence

One independent clause (SV.) y y Mr. Potato Head eats monkeys. I refuse.

Try this: Look for sentences in your own text that have only one clause. Mark them with a certain color so they stand out.

Pattern 2: Compound Sentence

Two or more independent clauses. They can be arranged in these ways: (SV, and SV.) or (SV; however, SV.) Connectors with a comma, the FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (See our handout on commas for more info.) Connectors with a semicolon and comma: however, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless, therefore Example compound sentences: y y Mr. Potato Head eats them for breakfast every day, but I don't see the attraction. Eating them makes him happy; however, he can't persuade me.

Try this: y y y Scan your own text to find the compound connectors listed above. Circle them. Find the verb and the subject of the clauses on both sides of the connectors. Highlight your compound sentences with a color that's different from the one you used to mark your simple sentences.

Pattern 3: Complex Sentence

One independent clause PLUS one or more dependent clauses. They can be arranged in these ways: (SV because SV.) or (Because SV, SV.) or (S, because SV, V.) Connectors are always at the beginning of the dependent clause. They show how the dependent clause is related to the independent clause. This list shows different types of relationships along with the connectors that indicate those relationships: y y y y y y Cause/Effect: because, since, so that Comparison/Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while Place/Manner: how, however, where, wherever Possibility/Conditions: if, whether, unless Relation: that, which, who, whom Time: after, as, before, since, when, whenever, while, until

Examples of complex sentences: y y y He recommends them highly because they taste like chicken when they are hot. Although chicken always appeals to me, I still feel skeptical about monkey. Mrs. Potato Head, because she loves us so much, has offered to make her special monkey souffle for us.

Try this: y y Scan your own text to find the complex connectors listed above. Circle them. Find the verb and the subject of the clauses that goes with each connector, remembering that the dependent clause might be in between the subject and verb of the independent clause, as shown in the arrangement options above. Highlight your complex sentences with a color that's different from the one you used to mark your simple sentences.

Pattern 4: Compound-Complex Sentence

Two or more independent clauses PLUS one or more dependent clauses. They can be arranged in these ways: (SV, and SV because SV.) or (Because SV, SV, but SV.) Connectors: All of the connectors listed under Patterns 2 & 3 are used. Find the connectors, then find the verbs and subjects that are part of each clause. y Mr. Potato Head said that he would share the secret recipe;however, if he shares it with me, Mrs. Potato Head will feed him to the piranhas, so he