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Hospitality Management 26 (2007) 645665 www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

Conict, exhaustion, and motivation: A study of frontline employees in Northern Cyprus hotels
Osman M. Karatepe, Orhan Uludag
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazimagusa, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, via Mersin 10, Turkey

Abstract This study develops and tests a model that investigates the effects of work-family conict, emotional exhaustion, and intrinsic motivation on affective job outcomes using data from frontline employees in Northern Cyprus hotels. Results show that work-family conict is positively related to emotional exhaustion. Work-family conict was found to be negatively associated with job satisfaction. However, the study results demonstrate that work-family conict did not depict any signicant relationships with affective organizational commitment and intention to leave. Results indicate that emotional exhaustion leads to job dissatisfaction, decreased affective organizational commitment, and high levels of intention to leave. Results reveal that intrinsic motivation is signicantly related to emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment. In addition, the study results provide empirical support for the positive impact of job satisfaction on affective organizational commitment and the negative effects of job satisfaction and affective commitment to the organization on intention to leave. Discussion and implications of the results are presented in the study. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Work-family conict; Emotional exhaustion; Intrinsic motivation; Frontline employees; Northern Cyprus

1. Introduction The management of frontline employees in hotel organizations delineates interesting paradoxes. On the one hand, frontline employees are of paramount importance to the
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 392 630 1116; fax: +90 392 365 1584.

E-mail addresses: osman.karatepe@emu.edu.tr (O.M. Karatepe), orhan.uludag@emu.edu.tr (O. Uludag). 0278-4319/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2006.05.006

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delivery of service quality (Hartline and Ferrell, 1996). On the other hand, frontline employees remain underpaid, undertrained, and overworked (Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006). Frontline employees are also prone to work-family conict (Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006) and emotional exhaustion (Ledgerwood et al., 1998). Work-family conict and emotional exhaustion are among the two critical constructs in explaining the attitudes and behaviors of frontline employees in high-stress work environments (Babakus et al., 1999; Boles et al., 1997). In addition, a large-scale survey by the Gallup Management Consulting Group identies intrinsic motivation as one of the key talents of the best salespeople (Brewer, 1994). Building on the existing literature, this study develops a model of the effects of workfamily conict, emotional exhaustion, and intrinsic motivation on frontline employees job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and intention to leave. The study then tests the model in the Northern Cyprus hotel industry. Due to their boundary-spanning roles, frontline hotel employees (e.g., front desk agents, food servers, and concierges) have frequent contact with customers and are expected to deal with a variety of customers needs and requests. With this realization, the need for this research is accentuated by characteristics of frontline employees due to their boundary-spanning roles in hotel organizations. Following the theoretical background and research model, the hypothesized relationships are presented. Then, the methodology and results of the empirical study are discussed. The study concludes with the management implications and directions for future research. 2. Theoretical background and research model A careful review of the literature indicates that there are a number of problems in the hotel industry such as inadequate pay, low job security, limited training and development opportunities, and excessive turnover (Cheng and Brown, 1998; Deery and Shaw, 1999; Pizam and Thornburg, 2000). There are also problems pertaining to unsocial work hours and workloads in the hotel industry (Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006; Rowley and Purcell, 2001). Consequently, frontline hotel employees are unlikely to be capable of balancing work requirements with family and/or social commitments. In this case, they experience work-family conict, which is dened as a form of interrole conict in which the general demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the job interfere with performing family-related responsibilities (Netemeyer et al., 1996, p. 410). Boles et al. (1997) have argued that the changing nature of the workforce has increased the potential for conict between work requirements and family and/or social responsibilities. Allen et al. (2000) have noted that employed parents report conict between their work requirements and their desire to spend more time with the members of their families. In addition to work-family conict, there is evidence that frontline hotel employees are susceptible to emotional exhaustion (Ledgerwood et al., 1998), which is one of the components of burnout. Maslach and Jackson (1981), who developed the Maslach Burnout Inventory, claimed that burnout is a multi-dimensional construct that consists of three distinct componentsemotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal accomplishment. They dened burnout as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently among individuals who do people-work of some kind (Maslach and Jackson, 1981, p. 99). Many researchers have agreed that emotional

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exhaustion is the rst stage of the burnout syndrome (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993; Gaines and Jermier, 1983). Such emotional exhaustion is related to depletion of emotional resources, and involves feelings of fatigue, being used up, and frustration (Gaines and Jermier, 1983). Employees who work in boundary-spanning positions are especially susceptible to high levels of emotional exhaustion. As Cordes and Dougherty (1993, p. 644) observed: Individuals y in boundary-spanning positions will experience higher levels of emotional exhaustion compared to those y in non-boundary-spanning positions. Work-family conict and emotional exhaustion are likely to exert detrimental effects on frontline hotel employees affective job outcomes such as job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and intention to leave. This notion is consistent with the conservation of resources (COR) theory. Specically, the COR theory establishes a framework for the impacts of work-family conict and intrinsic motivation on emotional exhaustion and the effects of work-family conict and emotional exhaustion on the abovementioned job outcomes (Grandey and Cropanzano, 1999; Hobfoll, 1989; Lee and Ashforth, 1996). The COR theory posits that individuals seek to obtain, retain, protect, and foster resources (Hobfoll, 1989, 2002). Resources are dened as those objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies that are valued by the individual or that serve as a means for attainment of these objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies (Hobfoll, 1989, p. 516). According to the theory, individuals lose resources in the process of juggling work and family roles. Thus, the potential or actual loss of resources leads to emotional exhaustion, job dissatisfaction, low levels of affective organizational commitment, and high levels of intention to leave. The theory also suggests that employees become dissatised with their jobs, display lower affective commitment to the organization, and have higher intentions to leave the organization, when they are emotionally exhausted (Lee and Ashforth, 1996). Consistent with the COR theory, intrinsic motivation is one of the personal characteristics that may aid stress resistance (Hobfoll, 1989). Intrinsic motivation refers to an individuals feeling of challenge or competence derived from performing a job (Keaveney, 1992, p. 151). Thomas (2000) asserted that a sense of meaningfulness, choice, competence, and progress are the psychological signs of intrinsic motivation. Thus, intrinsic motivation should result in lower emotional exhaustion. Moreover, intrinsic motivation leads to low levels of burnout (Low et al., 2001), increased job satisfaction (Miller, 2002), and high levels of affective organizational commitment (Eby et al., 1999). The current study notes several gaps in the tourism and hospitality literature and the extant literature on these subjects. First, the potential job outcomes of work-family conict for employees in boundary-spanning positions have received little empirical attention (Boles et al., 1997; Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006; Netemeyer et al., 2004). In addition, the majority of the research on work-family conict has been conducted in developed economies. There is a need for more empirical research about work-family conict in developing economies (Aycan and Eskin, 2005). Moreover, in developing economies, resources allocated to the effective solutions of problems associated with work-family conict appear to be limited (Hill et al., 2004; Netemeyer et al., 2004). It is apparent that the impact of work-family conict on job outcomes of frontline employees in developing countries is worthy of further empirical research attention. Secondly, a meta-analysis review by Allen et al. (2000) revealed anomalous results among various studies of the impact of work-family conict on employees job satisfaction,

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affective organizational commitment, and intention to leave. These ndings indicate that there is a need for clarication in this area. Thirdly, empirical studies in marketing settings have reported mixed ndings regarding the effect of emotional exhaustion on frontline employees job satisfaction (e.g., Babakus et al., 1999; Boles et al., 1997; Karatepe, 2006). Therefore, there is a need for more empirical research pertaining to the impact of emotional exhaustion on frontline employees job satisfaction. In addition, a careful analysis of Allen et al.s (2000) metaanalysis (noted above) reveals that individual empirical studies reviewed in that study used various samples (including schoolboard parents, nurses, engineers, prison guards, small business owners, and school educators) to examine the relationship between work-family conict and burnout/emotional exhaustion. It is thus apparent that specic empirical research is also needed with respect to employees who hold boundary-spanning positions on the effect of work-family conict on emotional exhaustion. Fourthly, intrinsic motivation is known to be a signicant personal characteristic in successful frontline employees (salespeople) (Brewer, 1994). A meta-analytic study showed that intrinsic motivation had a greater inuence on affective organizational commitment

Work-family conflict (W-FCON) H6 (-) H1 (+)

H3 (-) Job satisfaction (JSAT)

H10 (+) H12 (-)

H4 (-) H5 (+)

H9 (+)

Emotional exhaustion (EEXHAUST)

Intention to leave (INTLEAVE)

H11 (+) H13(-)

H2 (-)

H7 (-) H8 (+) Affective organizational commitment (AOC)

Intrinsic motivation (INTMOT)

Control variables Age Gender Education Organizational tenure Marital status The number of children
Fig. 1. Research model.

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than on general job satisfaction (Eby et al., 1999). In addition, there is a paucity of research on the specic impact of intrinsic motivation on frontline employees emotional exhaustion. The present study therefore examines the impact of intrinsic motivation on emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment. In summary, this study addresses certain identied gaps in the literature and thus provides managers with important implications for business practice in mitigating the detrimental effects of work-family conict and emotional exhaustion on affective outcomes among frontline hotel employees. Fig. 1 shows the conceptual framework for the study. It illustrates the effects of workfamily conict, emotional exhaustion, and intrinsic motivation on frontline employees affective outcomes (job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and intention to leave). The conceptualization also considers the effects of work-family conict and intrinsic motivation on emotional exhaustion. The model also explores the impact of job satisfaction on affective organizational commitment and the effects of job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment on intention to leave. 3. The hypothesized relationships As the COR theory indicates, individuals experience emotional exhaustion, when they lose resources (e.g., time, money, and knowledge) while handling difculties stemming from work and family roles. There is empirical evidence for this relationship. For example, Bacharach et al. (1991) used similar items to the emotional exhaustion items in the Maslach Burnout Inventory and reported that work-home conict was positively associated with burnout in two samples of non-marketing employees (nurses and engineers). Boles et al. (1997) showed that salespeople experiencing high levels of workfamily conict reported increased emotional exhaustion. The following hypothesis is therefore proposed: H1. Work-family conict is positively related to emotional exhaustion among frontline employees. Intrinsic motivation is one of the personal characteristics and may help individuals manage difculties associated with emotional exhaustion (Hobfoll, 1989). The present study posits that intrinsically motivated employees are able to work better in boundaryspanning positions that require employees to cope with high levels of emotional exhaustion. The following hypothesis is therefore proposed: H2. Intrinsic motivation is negatively related to emotional exhaustion among frontline employees. Job satisfaction can be dened as the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job as achieving or facilitating the achievement of ones job values (Locke, 1969, p. 316). Boles and Babin (1996) found that work-family conict decreased food servers job satisfaction. Boles et al. (1997) reported that work-family conict was negatively associated with job satisfaction among salespeople. According to the COR theory, individuals coping with work and family roles lose resources. If they lose resources, then they will be less satised with their jobs. The following hypothesis is therefore proposed:

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H3. Work-family conict is negatively related to job satisfaction among frontline employees. As previously noted, emotional exhaustion is the rst stage of the burnout syndrome (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993; Gaines and Jermier, 1983), and such emotional exhaustion can thus lead to detrimental job outcomes, such as job dissatisfaction. As the COR theory indicates, individuals have job dissatisfaction as a result of resource loss and emotional exhaustion (Lee and Ashforth, 1996). In a study of hospital employees, Iverson et al. (1998) demonstrated that emotional exhaustion was negatively associated with job satisfaction. Babakus et al. (1999) reported that high levels of emotional exhaustion experienced by salespeople inuenced their job satisfaction deleteriously. In view of these ndings, the following hypothesis is proposed: H4. Emotional exhaustion is negatively related to job satisfaction among frontline employees. Miller (2002) provided conceptual evidence that intrinsically motivated employees have higher job satisfaction, and Low et al. (2001) demonstrated empirically that high levels of intrinsic motivation lead to high levels of job satisfaction among salespeople. Karatepe (2006) also found evidence in Turkish retail banks that intrinsic motivation was positively associated with frontline employees job satisfaction. The following hypothesis is therefore proposed: H5. Intrinsic motivation is positively related to job satisfaction among frontline employees. Organizational commitment can be dened as the relative strength of an individuals identication with and involvement in a particular organization (Steers, 1977, p. 46). This denition is consistent with Allen and Meyers (1990) concept of affective organizational commitment. As mentioned earlier, the COR theory demonstrates that individuals lose resources while juggling work and family roles. The loss of these resources may lead to undesired outcomes such as diminished affective commitment to the organization. A limited number of empirical studies have investigated the relationship between workfamily conict and affective organizational commitment (Allen et al., 2000). However, these studies, which used a variety of samples (including executives, managers, school educators, graduate students, and working mothers), produced inconsistent results on the relationship between the two constructs (Allen et al., 2000). The present study investigates the effect of work-family conict on affective organizational commitment using a sample of frontline employees in a hotel setting, and the following hypothesis is proposed: H6. Work-family conict is negatively related to affective organizational commitment among frontline employees. The COR theory also provides a basis for the relationship between emotional exhaustion and affective organizational commitment. When individuals lose resources such as time, energy, and knowledge, they are emotionally exhausted. Heightened emotional exhaustion then leads to erosion of organizational commitment (Lee and Ashforth, 1996). There is empirical support for the relationship between the two constructs. For instance, Babakus et al. (1999) reported that emotional exhaustion had a signicant negative effect on affective organizational commitment among salespeople, and Cropanzano et al. (2003)

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reported a similar nding in a health-care setting. In view of these ndings, the following hypothesis is proposed: H7. Emotional exhaustion is negatively related to affective organizational commitment among frontline employees. Research demonstrates that intrinsic motivation exerts a signicant positive inuence on affective organizational commitment (Eby et al., 1999). Recent research also indicates that there is a signicant positive correlation between the two constructs (Low et al., 2001). The following hypothesis is therefore proposed: H8. Intrinsic motivation is positively related to frontline employees affective organizational commitment. A meta-analysis by Meyer et al. (2002) indicated that job satisfaction had a strong positive correlation with affective organizational commitment. Brashear et al. (2003) found that higher levels of job satisfaction led to higher levels of affective commitment to the organization for a sample of salespeople in privately owned retail stores in Poland. The following hypothesis is therefore proposed: H9. Job satisfaction is positively related to frontline employees affective organizational commitment. Intention to leave triggers actual turnover, and turnover is a signicant problem in the tourism and hospitality industry (Lam et al., 2003). As the COR theory suggests, individuals may think of changing their situations, when their resources become scarce (Grandey and Cropanzano, 1999). Thus, individuals may prefer to maintain their limited resources by intending to leave the organization. Research indicates that work-family conict has been positively correlated with intention to leave for samples of teachers, administrators, and salespeople (Netemeyer et al., 1996). Recent research also demonstrates that work-family conict has increased salespeoples turnover intentions in the US, Puerto Rico, and Romanian samples (Netemeyer et al., 2004). In the present research model, work-family conict is linked to frontline employees intentions to leave the organization, and the following hypothesis is proposed: H10. Work-family conict is positively related to frontline employees intentions to leave the organization. The research model depicted in Fig. 1 also demonstrates that emotional exhaustion increases intention to leave. This is congruent with the COR theory. Specically, when individuals lose resources or face the threat of resource loss, they are emotionally exhausted. In order to preserve their scarce resources individuals would be willing to leave the current organization. Indeed, based on the COR theory, turnover appears to be a nal solution for emotionally exhausted employees (Wright and Cropanzano, 1998). A metaanalysis review by Lee and Ashforth (1996) showed a signicant positive correlation between emotional exhaustion and turnover intentions. Boles et al. (1997) found that salespeople experiencing elevated levels of emotional exhaustion had high levels of turnover intentions. Cropanzano et al. (2003) also reported that emotional exhaustion was a signicant predictor of turnover intentions. In view of these ndings, the following hypothesis is proposed:

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H11. Emotional exhaustion is positively related to frontline employees intentions to leave the organization. A plethora of empirical studies have demonstrated that high levels of job satisfaction and/or affective organizational commitment result in decreased turnover intentions (Babakus et al., 1999; Brashear et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2005; Susskind et al., 2000). The following hypotheses are therefore proposed: H12. Job satisfaction is negatively related to frontline employees intentions to leave the organization. H13. Affective organizational commitment is negatively related to frontline employees intentions to leave the organization.

4. Methodology 4.1. Setting and sample The above hypotheses were tested using a sample of Turkish frontline employees in 3-, 4-, and 5-star hotels in Northern Cyprus. A sample of frontline employees in the hotel industry was chosen because these employees have frequent contact with customers (Rust et al., 1996), are overworked (Singh, 2000), face the challenges of balancing work requirements with family and/or social responsibilities (Boles and Babin, 1996), and experience higher levels of emotional exhaustion than do other employees in service organizations as a result of their boundary-spanning positions (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993). Boles et al. (1997) discuss that work-family conict is not limited to only married individuals or those with children. They further discuss that single parents and other individuals may also have difculty in balancing work requirements with family and/or social obligations. Therefore, this study does not focus exclusively on one subgroup (e.g., married individuals with children) (cf. Boyar et al., 2003). There are twenty-eight 3-, eight 4-, and six 5-star hotels in the research location, and the total bed capacity of these hotels is 7948 (Statistical Yearbook of Tourism, 2003). These small- and medium-sized hotels are classied as resort hotels, and the Northern Cyprus hotel industry consists largely of family-run hotel businesses (Kilic and Okumus, 2005). Frontline employees in Northern Cyprus hotels face several current problemsincluding irregular work schedules, lack of training, lack of empowerment, lack of rewards, long work hours, heavy workloads, and lack of family-friendly benets. The research team contacted the managements of three-, four-, and ve-star hotels in the region, explained the purpose of the study, and requested their permission and support for data collection. According to the information received from the managements of the hotels, the total number of frontline employees in the research location was 943, made up of 396 in 3-star hotels, 258 in 4-star hotels, and 289 in 5-star hotels. However, the managements of three 3-star hotels and three 4-star hotels refused permission for data collection. Allowing for hotels that did not participate, the number of frontline employees in the research location was 872, each of whom personally received a copy of a questionnaire. A detailed explanation on the questionnaire was provided, and all participants were assured of the condentiality and anonymity of their responses. Participants

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were requested to self-administer the questionnaires. Of the 872 questionnaires distributed, 677 were retrieved by the cut-off date for data collection (a response rate of 77.6%). 4.2. Measurement Each of the constructs shown in Fig. 1 was operationalized using scales derived from the relevant literature. Work-family conict was measured using ve items derived from Netemeyer et al. (1996) and Boles et al. (2001). The response scale was a 5-point scale, in which 5 indicated strong agreement and 1 indicated strong disagreement. Higher scores indicated greater work-family conict. Emotional exhaustion was operationalized using eight items from the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach and Jackson, 1981). Responses to the emotional exhaustion items were elicited on 5-point scales ranging from 5 strongly agree to 1 strongly disagree. Higher scores indicated greater emotional exhaustion. Intrinsic motivation was measured using four items derived from Low et al. (2001). Responses to the intrinsic motivation items were elicited on 5-point scales ranging from 5 strongly agree to 1 strongly disagree. Higher scores indicated greater intrinsic motivation. An eight-item scale derived from Hartline and Ferrell (1996) was used to evaluate job satisfaction in terms of: (i) overall job; (ii) co-workers; (iii) supervisor(s); (iv) hotels policies; (v) support given to frontline employees; (vi) pay; (vii) opportunities for advancement, and (viii) customers. Each of these items used a 5-point scale ranging from 5 extremely satised to 1 extremely dissatised. Higher scores indicated greater job satisfaction. Affective organizational commitment was operationalized using ve items derived from Mowday et al. (1979). The complete organizational commitment scale of these authors had consisted of affective and behavioral commitment items (Bettencourt and Brown, 2003). However, because the present study assessed only affective organizational commitment, only ve items from the original scale were used. Responses to the affective organizational commitment items were elicited on 5-point scales ranging from 5 strongly agree to 1 strongly disagree. Higher scores indicated greater affective organizational commitment. Three items were adapted from Boshoff and Allen (2000) to measure frontline employees intentions to leave the organization. The intention to leave items were measured on 5-point scales from 5 strongly agree to 1 strongly disagree. Higher scores indicated greater intention to leave. The questionnaire was originally prepared in English, and then translated into Turkish by using the back-translation method (McGorry, 2000). The survey instrument was tested with a pilot sample of 30 frontline employees. No changes were made to the instrument as a result of this pilot test. Demographic variables (such as age, gender, education, organizational tenure, marital status, and the number of children) were statistically controlled due to their potential relationships with the study variables. Age and education were measured using 5-point scales. Organizational tenure was measured using a 6-point scale. The number of children was measured using a 4-point scale. Gender was coded as a binary variable (0 male and 1 female). Marital status was also coded as a binary variable (0 single or divorced and 1 married).

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All measures were subjected to conrmatory factor analysis using LISREL 8.30 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996) to test for dimensionality, convergent and discriminant validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The hypothesized relationships depicted in Fig. 1 were measured with LISREL 8.30 using path analysis. 5. Results 5.1. Respondents prole Most of the respondents (50.7%) were aged between 18 years and 27 years, whereas 30.6% were aged between 28 years and 37 years. The majority of the respondents (57.3%) were male. Almost one-third (31.9%) had secondary and high school education, whereas 56.2% had university education. Almost half of the respondents (47.9%) had tenures of 15 years, whereas 29% had tenures of less than 1 year. In all, 40.2% of the respondents were married, whereas the rest were single or divorced. Almost two-thirds (65%) had no children, whereas 34.6% had 14 children. 5.2. Dimensionality, convergent and discriminant validity of the scales The results of the conrmatory factor analysis indicated a moderate t of the six-factor model to the data on the basis of a number of t statistics (w2 2759.15, df 480, GFI [Goodness of Fit Index] 0.80, NFI [Normed Fit Index] 0.80, NNFI [Non-Normed Fit Index] 0.81, CFI [Comparative Fit Index] 0.83, RMSEA [Root Mean Square Error of Approximation] 0.08). As shown in Table 1, the magnitudes of the standardized loadings ranged from 0.49 to 0.89, and all t values (ranging from 12.87 to 28.58) were signicant. The majority of the standardized loadings were above 0.70. Model t statistics and the magnitudes of the loadings provided support for convergent validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). To assess discriminant validity, a series of pairwise conrmatory factor analyses was employed. A two-dimensional model for each pair of study constructs was rst developed, and then items representing each factor were forced into a single factor solution. The results of various t statistics were better for a two-factor model. The results conrm that each set of items represents a single underlying construct, and thus provides evidence of discriminant validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). As depicted in Table 1, coefcient alphas were as follows: work-family conict 0.85; emotional exhaustion 0.90; intrinsic motivation 0.83; job satisfaction 0.87; affective organizational commitment 0.77; and intention to leave 0.87. All were greater than the benchmark of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978). Composite scores for each measure were computed by averaging scores across items representing that measure. Table 2 shows that the correlations among the study constructs ranged from 0.13 (work-family conict and intrinsic motivation) to 0.77 (emotional exhaustion and intention to leave). Means and standard deviations of the composite scores are shown in Table 2. 5.3. Correlation analysis results Table 2 shows that several control variables had signicant correlations with the study variables. Age (r 0:11) and marital status (r 0:09) had positive correlations with

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O.M. Karatepe, O. Uludag / Hospitality Management 26 (2007) 645665 Table 1 Scale items, reliabilities and conrmatory factor analysis results Scale items Standardized loadings t-Values Alpha 655

Work-family conict (W-FCON) The demands of my work interfere with home, family and social life Because of my job, I cant involve myself as much as I would like in maintaining close relations with my family, spouse, or friends Things I want to do at home do not get done because of the demands my job puts on me I often have to miss important family and social activities because of my job There is a conict between my job and the commitments and responsibilities I have to my family, spouse, or friends Emotional exhaustion (EEXHAUST) I feel emotionally drained from my work I feel used up at the end of the workday I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job Working with people all day is really a strain for me I feel burned out from my work I feel frustrated by my job I feel I am working too hard on my job I feel like I am at the end of my rope Intrinsic motivation (INTMOT) When I do work well, it gives me a feeling of accomplishment I feel a great sense of personal satisfaction when I do my job well When I perform my job well, it contributes to my personal growth and development My job increases my feeling of self esteem Job satisfaction (JSAT) My overall job My fellow workers My supervisor(s) This hotels policies The support provided by this hotel My salary The opportunities for advancement with this hotel This hotels customers Affective organizational commitment (AOC) My values and those of the hotels are similar I really care about the future of this hotel I am proud to tell others that I work for this hotel I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help the hotel to be successful For me, this is the best of all possible organizations for which to work Intention to leave (INTLEAVE) I often think about leaving this hotel It would not take much to make me leave this hotel I will probably be looking for another job soon

0.85 0.70 0.80 0.77 0.68 0.73 19.61 23.72 22.46 18.78 20.85 0.90 0.69 0.61 0.71 0.83 0.87 0.81 0.56 0.75 0.69 0.74 0.80 0.73 0.72 0.66 0.78 0.79 0.76 0.57 0.58 0.49 0.55 0.64 0.60 0.69 0.71 0.89 0.75 0.86 20.02 17.06 20.85 25.99 27.88 25.24 15.47 22.56 0.83 19.11 20.85 23.34 20.69 0.87 20.86 18.60 23.39 23.91 22.40 15.49 15.78 12.87 0.77 14.07 17.15 15.58 18.81 19.31 0.87 28.58 22.07 27.19

Notes: Each item is measured on ve-point scales. All loadings are signicant at the 0.01 level or better. All reliability coefcients are above the cut-off level of 0.70.

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Table 2 Correlations, means and standard deviations of composite scores of study variables 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Variable

1. Age 2. Gender 3. Education 4. Organizational tenure 5. Marital status 6. The number of children 7. W-FCON 8. EEXHAUST 9. INTMOT 10. JSAT 11. AOC 12. INTLEAVE 1.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.14** 0.32** 0.17** 0.12** 0.14** 0.28** 1.00 0.25** 0.38** 0.07 0.11** 0.01 0.13** 0.10* 0.14** 1.00 0.61** 0.01 0.09* 0.10* 0.05 0.05 0.00 1.00 0.01 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.00 1.00 0.47** 0.13** 0.27** 0.27** 0.41** 1.00 0.45** 0.34** 0.45** 0.77** 2.72 0.97 3.02 0.97 1.42 0.62 0.40 0.49 4.07 0.81 1.00 0.29** 0.47** 0.38** 2.02 0.90 2.74 1.05 3.41 0.83

1.00 0.09* 0.05 0.53** 0.46** 0.56** 0.02 0.11** 0.13** 0.00 0.04 0.05

1.00 0.02 0.08* 0.10* 0.09* 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.08* 0.07 0.03

1.00 0.49** 0.43**

1.00 0.48** 3.82 0.69

1.00 2.75 1.17

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Mean Standard deviation

1.75 0.94

0.43 0.50

Notes: Composite scores for each variable were obtained by averaging scores across items representing that measure. The scores range from 1 to 5. Age and education were measured using 5-point scales. Organizational tenure was measured using a 6-point scale. The number of children was measured using a 4-point scale. Higher scores indicate older, more educated, longer tenure, and more children. Gender was coded as a binary variable (0 male and 1 female). Marital status was also coded as a binary variable (0 single or divorced and 1 married). W-FCON Work-family conict; EEXHAUST Emotional exhaustion; INTMOT Intrinsic motivation; JSAT Job satisfaction; AOC Affective organizational commitment; INTLEAVE Intention to leave. *All correlations are signicant at the 0.05 level. **All correlations are signicant at the 0.01 level. Correlations without any asterisks are insignicant.

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emotional exhaustion. Gender had a positive correlation with job satisfaction (r 0:08). Education had positive correlations with work-family conict (r 0:14), emotional exhaustion (r 0:32), and intention to leave (r 0:28). Organizational tenure also had positive correlations with job satisfaction (r 0:13) and affective organizational commitment (r 0:10). These positive correlations indicate that older, better educated, and married employees reported higher levels of emotional exhaustion. The positive correlations also show that female employees reported higher job satisfaction. Employees with longer tenure had higher levels of job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment. Better educated employees also reported higher levels of work-family conict and intention to leave. Table 2 shows that age (r 0:13) and marital status (r 0:10) had negative correlations with intrinsic motivation. Education had negative correlations with intrinsic motivation (r 0:17), job satisfaction (r 0:12), and affective organizational commitment (r 0:14). Organizational tenure also had negative correlations with emotional exhaustion (r 0:11) and intention to leave (r 0:14). These negative correlations show that older and married employees had less favorable perceptions of intrinsic motivation. The negative correlations also indicate that better educated employees reported lower levels of intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment. Finally, employees with longer tenure had less favorable perceptions of emotional exhaustion and intention to leave. 5.4. Model test results The hypothesized relationships were tested with LISREL 8.30 using path analysis. The empirical results indicate that the model ts the data well (w2 7:11, df 2, p 0:03, GFI [Goodness of Fit Index] 1.00, NFI [Normed Fit Index] 1.00, NNFI [Non-Normed Fit Index] 0.93, CFI [Comparative Fit Index] 1.00, RMSEA [Root Mean Square Error of Approximation] 0.06). Of the 13 hypothesized relationships, 11 were supported, whereas two were not. It should be noted that a number of demographic variables were statistically controlled because of their potential relationships with the study variables. The main results reported in this section remain intact with or without the control variables in the model. The model test results are presented in Table 3. Table 3 shows that education and organizational tenure had signicant effects on workfamily conict. The rest of the control variables were not signicantly related to workfamily conict. The control variables jointly explained 3% of the variance in work-family conict. As shown in Table 3, better educated employees reported higher levels of workfamily conict. This nding suggests that better educated employees were not easily able to balance their work requirements with their family and/or social responsibilitiesperhaps as a result of excessive workloads imposed on them by hotel management. Employees with longer tenure experienced lower levels of work-family conict. It seems likely that, as employees worked for a longer time in the same organization, they learnt how to cope with the difculties associated with work-family conict. As shown in Table 3, the results of the path analysis demonstrated that work-family conict (W-FCON) had a signicant positive effect on frontline employees emotional exhaustion (EEXHAUST). Hypothesis 1 was thus supported. Intrinsic motivation (INTMOT) exerted a signicant negative impact on frontline employees emotional exhaustion (EEXHAUST). Hypothesis 2 was thus also supported. Without control

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658 Table 3 Model test results Control variables and hypotheses Standardized parameter estimates t-values Supported/ not supported O.M. Karatepe, O. Uludag / Hospitality Management 26 (2007) 645665

I. Impact on work-family conict (W-FCON) Control variables Age-W-FCON Gender-W-FCON Education-W-FCON Organizational tenure-W-FCON Marital status-W-FCON The number of children-W-FCON R2 0.03 II. Impact on emotional exhaustion (EEXHAUST) Control variables Age-EEXHAUST Gender-EEXHAUST Education-EEXHAUST Organizational Tenure-EEXHAUST Marital status-EEXHAUST The number of children-EEXHAUST Hypotheses H1. W-FCON-EEXHAUST H2. INTMOT-EEXHAUST R2 0.42 III. Impact on intrinsic motivation (INTMOT) Control variables Age-INTMOT Gender-INTMOT Education-INTMOT Organizational tenure-INTMOT Marital status-INTMOT The number of children-INTMOT R2 0.06 IV. Impact on job satisfaction (JSAT) Control variables Age-JSAT Gender-JSAT Education-JSAT Organizational tenure-JSAT Marital status-JSAT The number of children-JSAT Hypotheses H3. W-FCON-JSAT H4. EEXHAUST-JSAT H5. INTMOT-JSAT R2 0.17

0.06 0.02 0.14 0.11 0.00 0.02

1.18* 0.42* 3.58 2.39 0.04* 0.36*

0.10 0.07 0.20 0.15 0.03 0.01 0.38 0.35

2.47 2.29 6.87 4.32 0.89* 0.33* 13.08 11.61

Supported Supported

0.16 0.00 0.16 0.10 0.08 0.04

3.15 0.07* 4.33 2.24 1.60* 0.71*

0.05 0.09 0.01 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.16 0.16 0.20

1.06* 2.41 0.30* 2.39 1.15* 1.00* 4.12 3.37 4.97

Supported Supported Supported

V. Impact on affective organizational commitment (AOC) Control variables Age-AOC 0.05 Gender-AOC 0.03

1.16* 1.03*

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O.M. Karatepe, O. Uludag / Hospitality Management 26 (2007) 645665 Table 3 (continued ) Control variables and hypotheses Standardized parameter estimates 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.10 0.06 0.18 0.29 0.33 t-values Supported/ not supported 659

Education--AOC Organizational tenure-AOC Marital status-AOC The number of children-AOC Hypotheses H6. W-FCON-AOC H7. EEXHAUST-AOC H8. INTMOT-AOC H9. JSAT-AOC R2 0.39 VI. Impact on intention to leave Control variables Age-INTLEAVE Gender-INTLEAVE Education-INTLEAVE Organizational tenure-INTLEAVE Marital status-INTLEAVE The number of children-INTLEAVE Hypotheses H10. W-FCON-INTLEAVE H11. EEXHAUST-INTLEAVE H12. JSAT-INTLEAVE H13. OCOM-INTLEAVE R2 0.63

0.31* 1.16* 0.36* 2.39 1.73* 4.41 8.45 9.94

Not Supported Supported Supported Supported

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.65 0.14 0.11

0.44* 0.84* 1.36* 1.07* 1.89* 0.09* 1.18* 21.53 5.10 3.71

Not supported Supported Supported Supported

Notes: Age and education were measured using 5-point scales. Organizational tenure was measured using a 6-point scale. The number of children was measured using a 4-point scale. Higher scores indicate older, more educated, longer tenure, and more children. Gender was coded as a binary variable (0 male and 1 female). Marital status was also coded as a binary variable (0 single or divorced and 1 married). W-FCON Work-Family Conict; EEXHAUST Emotional Exhaustion; INTMOT Intrinsic Motivation; JSAT Job Satisfaction; AOC Affective Organizational Commitment; INTLEAVE Intention to Leave. *Not signicant. All other t-values are signicant at the 0.05 level or better.

variables, work-family conict and intrinsic motivation explained 37% of the variance in emotional exhaustion. With the addition of control variables, the proportion of explained variance increased to 42%. As shown in Table 3, age, gender, education, and organizational tenure had signicant effects on emotional exhaustion, whereas marital status and the number of children did not. Older and better educated employees reported higher levels of emotional exhaustion, whereas employees with longer tenure reported less emotional exhaustion. Thus, older and better educated employees might have been fed up with coping with customers requests and complaints. However, employees who had worked for a longer time in the same organization might have learnt how to cope with the difculties associated with emotional exhaustion. Female employees reported lower levels of emotional exhaustion. This nding might be attributed to the nature of boundary-spanning positionsin that frontline service

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jobs require empathy and caring for customers. In these circumstances, female employees who are suffering from emotional exhaustion might have coped with their jobs better than their male counterparts under similar levels of emotional exhaustion. Table 3 demonstrates that age, education, and organizational tenure had signicant effects on intrinsic motivation. The rest of the control variables did not show any signicant effects on intrinsic motivation. The control variables explained 6% of the variance in intrinsic motivation. The results indicate that older and better educated employees had lower intrinsic motivationperhaps due to the difculties inherent in boundary-spanning positions. However, the results show that employees with longer tenure reported higher intrinsic motivation. This suggests that employees who were more intrinsically motivated learnt, as they worked for a longer time in the organization, how to cope with the difculties that are inherent in boundary-spanning positions. Path analysis shows that work-family conict (W-FCON) had a signicant negative relationship with frontline employees job satisfaction (JSAT). Hypothesis 3 was thus supported. The results of the path analysis indicate that emotional exhaustion (EEXHAUST) was negatively associated with frontline employees job satisfaction (JSAT). Hypothesis 4 was thus supported. Path analysis shows that intrinsic motivation (INTMOT) was positively related to frontline employees job satisfaction (JSAT). Hypothesis 5 was thus supported. Without control variables, work-family conict, emotional exhaustion, and intrinsic motivation explained 16% of the variance in job satisfaction. Table 3 shows that the control variables improved the explained variance by 1%. With the exceptions of gender and organizational tenure, none of the control variables exerted a signicant impact on job satisfaction. As shown in Table 3, female employees reported higher levels of satisfaction with their jobs. Improved working conditions might have increased female employees satisfaction with their jobs. In addition, employees with longer tenure were more satised with their jobs. Path analysis failed to demonstrate that work-family conict (W-FCON) was negatively related to frontline employees affective organizational commitment (AOC). Hypothesis 6 was thus not supported. Path analysis showed that emotional exhaustion (EEXHAUST) had a signicant negative inuence on frontline employees affective organizational commitment (AOC). Hypothesis 7 thus supported. Path analysis showed that intrinsic motivation (INTMOT) was positively associated with frontline employees affective organizational commitment (AOC). Hypothesis 8 was thus supported. Path analysis also showed that job satisfaction (JSAT) was positively related to frontline employees affective organizational commitment (AOC). Hypothesis 9 was thus supported. Without control variables, work-family conict, emotional exhaustion, intrinsic motivation, and job satisfaction explained 39% of the variance in affective organizational commitment. With the addition of control variables, there was no improvement in the proportion of explained variance. With the exception of the number of children, none of the control variables had a signicant effect on affective organizational commitment. As shown in Table 3, employees with more children reported less affective organizational commitment. It seems reasonable to assume that employees with more children spent more time on their family and/or social responsibilities, and thus reported less affective commitment to the organization. The results of the path analysis show that work-family conict (W-FCON) was not a signicant predictor of intention to leave (INTLEAVE). Hypothesis 10 was thus not

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supported. Path analysis showed that emotional exhaustion (EEXHAUST) was positively associated with intention to leave (INTLEAVE). Hypothesis 11 was thus supported. Path analysis showed that job satisfaction (JSAT) had a signicant negative impact on intention to leave (INTLEAVE). Hypothesis 12 was thus supported. Finally, Table 3 shows that affective organizational commitment (AOC) had a signicant negative association with intention to leave (INTLEAVE). Thus, hypothesis 13 was also supported. Without control variables, work-family conict, emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment explained 63% of the variance in intention to leave. Table 3 demonstrates that the control variables did not improve the proportion of explained variance. In addition, none of the control variables showed a signicant impact on intention to leave. 6. Discussion and implications 6.1. Discussion The path analyses supported most of the hypothesized relationships. The incorporation of control variables into the research model did not change the signicance level of the effects of independent variables on dependent variables. The empirical ndings demonstrated that frontline employees who had difculty in spending time with their family and/or social commitments as a result of their job-related responsibilities were susceptible to elevated levels of emotional exhaustion. This nding is consistent with that of Boles et al. (1997). Because frontline employees in Northern Cyprus faced a number of problems, including irregular work schedules, long work hours, and heavy workloads, they were incapable of balancing job-related responsibilities with family and/or social responsibilities, and they therefore became emotionally exhausted. The empirical ndings also demonstrated that intrinsically motivated employees displayed low levels of emotional exhaustion. It appears that frontline employees who really cared about their work and had feelings of competence in fullling job-related tasks experienced less emotional exhaustion. Because little is known about the effect of intrinsic motivation on frontline employees emotional exhaustion, this nding makes a useful contribution to the existing knowledge base. The present empirical investigation also showed that both work-family conict and emotional exhaustion had deleterious effects on the job satisfaction of frontline employees. Consistent with that of Babakus et al. (1999), frontline employees who lacked emotional energy were less satised with their jobs. It should also be noted that, according to the results of the path analyses, the magnitudes of the effects of work-family conict and emotional exhaustion were equivalent. In addition, the empirical results showed that intrinsically motivated employees reported higher job satisfaction. This nding is congruent with prior empirical and conceptual evidence (Karatepe, 2006; Miller, 2002). Overall, the ndings provide empirical support for the contention that work-family conict and emotional exhaustion are two constructs that have signicant adverse effects on job satisfaction in the high-stress work environment. In this study, emotional exhaustion was found to have a signicant negative relationship with affective organizational commitment, whereas work-family conict did not. According to the results of the path analyses, the effect of intrinsic motivation on affective organizational commitment appeared to be greater than its effect on job

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satisfaction. This nding provides partial support for that of Eby et al. (1999). The signicant negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and affective organizational commitment, as reported here, is consistent with past ndings (Babakus et al., 1999). As hypothesized, job satisfaction was found to have a signicant positive association with affective organizational commitment, which supports the ndings of Bettencourt and Brown (2003) and Brashear et al. (2003). Because intention to leave is an immediate precursor to actual staff turnover, and because turnover is an important problem in the tourism and hospitality industry, it is important that hotel managers recognize the potential antecedents of employees intentions to leave. Consistent with other studies (Karatepe, 2006; Kim et al., 2005; Meyer et al., 2002), the results of this study have revealed that the antecedents of intention to leave are increased emotional exhaustion, decreased job satisfaction, and low levels of affective organizational commitment. A close scrutiny of the model test results shows that emotional exhaustion had a strong positive impact on intention to leave. This result indicates that frontline employees think about leaving the organization when they are emotionally exhausted. Other antecedents of intention to leave are low levels of job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment. These ndings suggest that frontline employees who report decreased satisfaction with their jobs and low levels of affective commitment to the organization think about leaving the organization. In contrast, workfamily conict was not found to have a signicant positive relationship with intention to leave. This nding is not consonant with that of Netemeyer et al. (2004). 6.2. Managerial implications The study ndings point to a number of implications for managerial action. First, because customer satisfaction begins with employee satisfaction (Rust et al., 1996), and because frontline employees are important in retaining protable customers, managers should aim to mitigate the adverse effects of work-family conict on job outcomes by establishing a family-supportive work environment. This might consist of exible work arrangements, child-care information services, on-site child care, and family-supportive supervisors (cf. Allen, 2001). Secondly, managers should consider the employment of mentors to assist employees with problems associated with work-family conict and emotional exhaustion. Those mentors could arrange specic meetings with frontline employees and their family members (and other relevant parties) to explore the difcultiesespecially those associated with boundary-spanning positions. Those mentors could also hold regular meetings with departmental managers (perhaps on a monthly basis) to discuss problematic cases and to devise effective solutions whereby both the organization and the employee will benet. Thirdly, managers could spend reasonable time with their frontline employees through socialization and training. These efforts could help to minimize the detrimental effects of work-family conict and emotional exhaustion on job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and intention to leave. Finally, the results suggest that intrinsic motivation decreases emotional exhaustion, but increases job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment. Managers should therefore consider creating a pool of intrinsically motivated candidates by offering attractive career opportunities to their prospective employees.

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6.3. Limitations and avenues for future research There are several limitations to the present study. First, this study did test the effects of work-family conict, emotional exhaustion, and intrinsic motivation on affective outcomes (job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and intention to leave). It would be useful if future empirical studies could simultaneously investigate the effects of workfamily conict, emotional exhaustion, and intrinsic motivation on frontline employees normative and continuance commitment and extra-role performance. Secondly, the current study used only one service setting (hotels) to test the hypothesized relationships. Future studies could test these relationships in different service settings (for example, travel agents, airlines, and restaurants). Thirdly, the study lacked an in-depth qualitative dimension. Future studies could use in-depth interviews as an alternative approach to provide richer insights into the job outcomes associated with work-family conict, emotional exhaustion, and intrinsic motivation. Finally, the moderating role of gender in this context deserves future research attention. References
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