Welding Institute Pontstrae 49 52062 Aachen Director: Prof. Dr.-Ing. U.

Dilthey

Solution

Welding Fabrication Methods II

Welding Metallurgy

Page 2 Student-ID:

Exercise 1
Testing of Materials (40 points)
1. Two different mechanisms may lead to pore formation in welds. Please specify and explain both mechanisms. [4 P.]

Mechanically generated pores: In this case, gases are trapped by the solidifying molten metal. E.g.: Welding over of hollow spaces/cavities, contaminations on the joint surfaces, shop primers on the surface, gas turbulences and injector effects Metallurgically generated pores: Dissolved gases and/or evaporated material are trapped in the weld metal by the welding process in the form of pores. E.g.: hydrogen or nitrogen pores, different solubilities of gases in different temperatures of the molten metal 2. Which non-destructive testing methods are best for the detection of pores in welds? Please specify and describe the method and explain by means of two general advantages and disadvantages why you have chosen this particular method. [4 P.]

Radiographic testing (X-rays). The workpiece which is to be tested is penetrated by electromagnetic radiation. Hollow spaces/cavities and cracks absorb the radiation to a substantially lesser degree than the metal thus, when a component is radiographically tested, the X-rays hit the film which is positioned behind the workpiece with varying intensity distributions. This results in different blackenings/optical densities of the film.

3. Please specify the two types of hot cracks. Please explain briefly the mechanisms of their formation and specify also the alloying element, which, in steel materials; is mainly responsible for hot crack formation. [5 P.]

Solidification crack: Tensile stresses lead to the cracking of the solidifying molten pool in phases with a low melting point. The reason are segregation actions of alloying elements.

Page 3 Student-ID: Liquation crack: In a previously solid phase the welding heat causes the phases with a low melting point to melt. The tensile stresses which developed through the heat cause cracking in these areas. The responsible alloying element is sulphur. 4. Which influence does a simple pass weld of unalloyed and low alloyed steels with too high and/or too low an energy-per-unit length exert on the structure formation in the heat affected zone? [2 P.] High energy-per-unit length: coarse grain, low strength Low energy-per-unit length: high degree of hardening, low toughness, higher strength 5. Large-volume single-pass welds are characterised by unfavourable toughness values. Please explain how these properties may be improved by a multiple pass welding and which effects cause the improvement. [3 P.] Less heat input leads to finer structure: The welding over of the first passes is an additional heat treatment. 6. Which testing methods are used to determine the toughness values of steels? Please specify the method, explain in a few words its sequence and sketch the results for a body-centred cubic (bcc) and a face-centred cubic (fcc) steel. [5 P.] Notch bending test: A notched, cuboid specimen is positioned on two counter bearings and is, on the side opposite of the notch, hit, shattered or bent with a standardised hammer impact testing machine. The impact energy is determined from the residual energy of the hammer. These tests are carried out with different temperatures, subsequently the residual energies are entered into a diagram with regard to time.

Page 4 Student-ID:

7. Please specify four metallurgical mechanisms for the strength improvement of steels. [4 P] ageing cold work hardening solid-solution strengthening grain refinement

8. Please specify the method for the determination of the strength of steels. Explain the test sequence and sketch the test results for the steels S235J2G3 and X5CrNi1810 in two separated diagrams. [5 P.] Tensile test: A tensile-test specimen is stretched, in general until it breaks. The necessary force and displacement values are recorded and elongation, tensile strength, elastic moduls and yield point are determined. S235J2G3
Spannung [N/ mm] Spannung [N/ mm]

X5 CrNi 18 10

Dehnung [%]

Dehnung [%]

Page 5 Student-ID:

9. Please explain the heat treatment method for the reduction of welding residual stresses. Specify the method and explain the temperature range with which the method is normally carried out. [2 P.] Stress relief annealing, 600 to 650C 10. Which degree may residual stresses reach in the steel S355J2G3? [2 P.]

Up to the yield point, 355 MPa 11. Specify a method for the measurement of residual stresses. Explain the method and name one advantage and disadvantage each. [4 P.]

Bore-hole logging: On the workpiece surface, strain gauges are fixed around the future bore-hole. Afterwards, the bore-hole with a diameter between 1 to 5 mm is drilled. The residual stresses cause deformations which allow conclusions about the degree of the residual stresses.

Toroidal core method: An annular groove is chamfered around a triaxial strain gauge. The core is, for the most part, detached from the forces compound and the stress is relieved. As, in this case also the resiliency of the core is measured, the determination of the residual stresses is possible via the depth. Advantage: Only insignificant damage to the surface Disadvantage: Only stresses which are close to the surface are measurable

Page 6 Student-ID:

Exercise 2
Material Science (40 points)

1. Which influential factors, besides hydrogen concentration, are responsible for the formation of hydrogen-induced cold cracks in the weld? Residual stresses/external stresses [1P], Cooling conditions/hardness structure [1P]

2. How does the hydrogen enter the weld pool? Base metal [0,5P], welding filler metal: electrode [0,5P]/ flux/electrode coating [0,5P], plate paint coat [0,5P], oils/greases [0,5P], air humidity [0,5P] 3. Which measures effect in practice the decrease of the hydrogen-induced cold cracking? Prolongation of the cooling time [1P] by pre-heating [0,5P] or welding parameter selection [0,5P] Pre-drying of the flux [1P] and cleanness of the weld preparation [0,5P] for the reduction of the hydrogen input [0,5P] 4. How high must the carbon content (%C) generally be in welding of unalloyed steels when cracks as a consequence of hardening shall be avoided? 0,22%[2P]

5. Which parameter is generally taken for the evaluation of the weldability of a lowalloy steel? Carbon equivalent [2P]

6. Steels with a higher carbon content than those you mentioned in 4 are restrictedly weldable: By which measures may these types of steel be welded without cracks? Please explain the necessary measures in detail.

Page 7 Student-ID: Pre-heating [1P]: Reduction of the cooling speed [1P], thus reduction of the risk of hardening [1P], pre-heating temperature [1P]= f( wall thickness [0,5P], weld shape [0,5P], welding method [0,5P], C-content [0,5P]) Welding with a high energy input [1P]: similar to pre-heating [1P], reduction of the cooling speed [1P] Post-heating [1P] from the welding heat [1P] for the reduction of residual stresses [1P] 7. Please sketch qualitatively the hardness traverse of a high-strength, quenched and tempered fine-grained structural steel in the weld area along the white line in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Sketch the hardness

Hrte

310
SL

300
Grundwer kstoff

WEZ

Schweigut

Hrte HV 10

290 280 270 260 250 240 230 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29

Messpunkte

Hrte
GW [1P], pearlite decomposition [1P], coarse grain [1P], weld [1P], marking of the axes[0,5P/0,5P]

Page 8 Student-ID: 8. Specify three characteristic zones in the macro-section. Base metal [1P], heat-affected zone [1P], weld metal/weld [1P] 9. Specify three standardised hardness testing methods. Vickers [1P], Brinell [1P], Rockwell [1P] 10. Explain the material of the appropriate penetrator for a test in accordance with HV 10 and specify the applied force. Diamond tip [1P], 100N [1P]

Page 9 Student-ID:

Exercise 3
Welding of Aluminium Materials (40 points) For weight reduction two different aluminium alloys, AlMgSi1 and AlMg4,5, have instead of structural steel - been used for a car body.

1. Which special characteristics of aluminium compared with steel must be considered during welding? Lower melting point; higher heat conductivity; lower heat conductivity1, high expansion coefficient, oxide layer with higher melting temperature than liquid metal

2. Please sketch schematically the stress-strain diagram for steel and aluminium.

Al-Legierung Stahl Spannung

Dehnung 3. Which one of the two listed materials belongs to the age-hardenable/heat treatable alloys? Please explain the term. AlMgSi1-. Age-hardenable alloy. For the explanation see script.

4. Please sketch/explain schematically the micro hardness traverses for both materials: in the initial state, immediately after welding

Irrtum?

Page 10 Student-ID: 10 hours after welding after a 10-hour-ageing period in a furnace (heated with 120C)

Please use the attached diagrams in Figure 2.

5. Please explain the following terms: artificial ageing, natural ageing, incubation period overageing

See Skript

6. Which one of the two materials is susceptible to hot cracking and why? Please explain two possibilities for the avoidance of those hotcracks. AlMgS1, Reason: critical ( approx. 1%) Mg- and Si-content Pre-heating Filler material

Page 11 Student-ID:

Exercise 4
TTT Diagram (40 points) 1. Please specify two types of time-temperature transformation diagrams (TTT). Isothermal TTT [1], continuous TTT [1],

2. Figure 3 (left) shows a qualitative time-temperature-diagram (TTT) with the cooling curve of an electron beam weld (EB). The right side shows the appropriate timetemperature curve. The EB weld shall be replaced by a submerged arc weld (SA) with a higher energy-per-unit length. Please sketch the curves in the given diagrams on the conditions of equal austenitizing temperatures.
(1 P)

UP (1 P)

UP (1 P) EB EB (3 P)

3. During test welds of a steel of the quality S440 the cooling times t8/5 were measured in the range between 10 and 11 seconds. Please chose, by means of the attached TTT-diagram Figure 4, the cooling curve which corresponds with these welding conditions. Please determine the time when the temperatures 800C and 500C are reached. Please designate the expected percentage structure composition and the hardness in the HAZ at room temperature. 800 oC 0-1s [2], 500 oC 10-11s [1], Ferrite = 10% [1], Zw = 63 % [1], Martensite=27 % [2] , Hardness = 326 [1] + HV30 [1] [Insgesamt 9P].

Page 12 Student-ID: 4. After laser beam welding of a steel of the quality S440 a hardness of 386 HV30 has been measurend in the HAZ. Please determine the: impact energy, tensile strength proof strength/stress elongation after fracture and area reduction at fracture/weld metal reduction of area

which are to be expected in the HAZ. Please use the attached TTT-diagram and characteristics diagram. Impact energy 10-11 J [tensile strength approx. 1100-1150 N/mm2 [3], yield strength approx. 850-870 N/mm2 [3], strain after fracture/fracture elongation 9-10% [2], weld metal reduction of area 25-27 % [2] [Insgesamt 12P].

5. What is the meaning of the lines in the TTT-diagrams marked with Ac3 , Ac1? Ac3 is the temperature of the transition during heating of the two-phase region ) + ? [1] to the one-phase region [1] of the austenite (? in hypoeutectoid [3] steels. ? [1] Ac1 is the transition from the two-phase region + M3C [1] to the two-phase region [1] + (hypoeutectoid steels [1]) or to + M3C [1] hypereutectoid steels[1]) [Insgesamt 11P]

Page 13 Student-ID:

Figure 3: TTT diagram and time-temperature curve of an EB welding

Figure 4: TTT-diagram and cooling curves of steel S440

Page 14 Student-ID:

Page 15 Student-ID: