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DESIGN OF 160 SEATER PASSENGER AIRPLANE (Part II Structural Design) By

M.Abhishek S.BharathiKannan annan T.Chidamabaraganap T.Chidamabaraganapathy S.Infant Raj L.Saravana Kumar 42008101002 42008101005 42008101006 42008101014 42008101037 Under the guidance of J.V.SaiPrasanna Kumar AssociateProfessor, Kumar, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College.

A report submitted to Department of Aeronautical Engineering In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering Tagore Engineering College

ANNA UNIVERSITY, Chennai October 2011

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the design project titled Design Of 160 Seater Passenger Aircraft being submitted by M.Abhishek (42008101002), S.BharathiKannan (42008101005), T.Chidamabaraganapathy (42008101006),S.Infant Raj (42008101014), L.Saravana Kumar (42008101037), to the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Chennai, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Aeronautical Engineering) is a bonafide record of the work carried out bythis group under my guidance and supervision in the odd semester of the academic year 2011- 2012.

J.V.SAI PRASANNA KUMAR, AssociateProfessor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Chennai-600 048.

Dr.K.VIJAYA RAJA, Professor and Head, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Chennai-600 048.

INTRODUCTION
TYPE:
Two shaft turbofan, 160 seater commercial passengers aircraft.

DESIGN FEATURES:
Low mounted swept wing, circular section pressurized fuselage, conventional tail with fixed incidence tail plane. Wing section contains NACA 632412, incidence at 2.95 with a dihedral of 4.

FLYING CONTROLS:
Conventional split flaps at the trailing edge of the wing.

STRUCTURE:
Wing is an all metal two spar torsion box structure. Skin machined from alloy Al 7075T6. The wing is attached to the fuselage using a four pin design concept. Fuselage is semimonocoque( 20 Z section stringers).

LANDING GEAR:
Retractable, tricycle arrangement with nose wheel.Oleo-pneumatic type shock absorber. All units retract into the fuselage. Tyre pressure & size: Main wheel = 60p.s.i Main wheel = 1075.21 in2 Nose wheel = 30p.s.i. Nose wheel = 452.39 in2

POWERPLANT:
Two PRATT & WHITNEY PS-90 A1 turbofan engines each having a thrust of 156.9 KN

ACCOMODATION:
Two pilots + One Flight engineer in deck, Main cabin accommodates six attendant and 160 passengers in air-conditioned environment.

BASIC SPECIFICATIONS OF 160 SEATER PASSENGERS AIRPLANE

Cruising speed Range Payload Cruising Altitude Flight Crew

: 846 km/hr : 3,350 km : 320,000 N : 9 km :3

DETAILED SPECIFICATION Capacity : 160 passengers + 3 Flight Crew & 6 Cabin Crew

Powerplant:
Name & country of origin No. of engines Power Plant Rating :Pratt& Whitney PS-90 A1 / USA : 2 : 156.9 KN / Engine

Basic Dimensions:
Length Span Height : 43.87 m : 42.12 m : 11.39 m

PERFORMANCE:
Cruising Speed Range Cruising Altitude Wing Loading Take off field length Landing field length Runway loading : : : : : : : 846 km/hr (235 m/s) 3,350 km in full load condition 9 km 4905 N/m2 1600 m 1600 m 6.64 ton/ft

Weights:
W (max) W (Pay load) W (fuel) : 1,023,798.9 N : 320,000 N : 274,709.3 N : 208.74 m2 : 42.12 m : 8.5 : 0.5 : 34 degrees 29.22 m2 11.46 m 4.5 0.33 36 degrees

Wing:
Area Span Aspect Ratio Taper Ratio Sweep Angle

Horizontal Tail:
Area Span Aspect Ratio Taper Ratio Sweep Angle : : : : :

Vertical Tail:
Area Height Aspect Ratio Taper Ratio Sweep Angle : : : : :

29.22 m2 5.92 m 1.2 0.4 40 degrees

Others:
T/W Ratio Flap Span and Area : 0.3 : 11.625 m & 34.665 m2

CONTENTS
List of symbols used. List of tables List of graphs Loads on the aircraft V-n diagram Introduction Intentional Maneuver Unintentional Maneuver Structural Design of wing Introduction Air Inertia Load Estimation Shear force & Bending moment Distribution Material Selection Wing Spar and Stringer Design Rib location and Direction Structural Design of Fuselage Introduction Shear force and Bending moment Distribution Stringer Design

Shear flow Distribution Landing Gear Design Landing Gear Arrangement Tyre Selection Landing Gear Layout Shock Absorber Design Landing Gear Kinematics Design of Miscellaneous Members Wing-Fuselage intersection Engine Mount Empennage Design Wing Fuel Tanks Auxiliary Surfaces Flutter Aileron Buzz Buffeting

Bibliography

LIST OF SYMBOLS USED


A ASpar Astringer Afuselage Afront spar Arear spar AR at a b b bw bf B C Total cross sectional area Cross sectional area of spar Cross sectional area of stringers Cross sectional area of fuselage Cross sectional area of front spar Cross sectional area of rear spar Aspect Ratio Slope of the CL vs. curve for a horizontal tail. Distance of the front spar from the nose of the aircraft Distance of the rear spar from the nose of the aircraft Wing span Width of the web Width of the flange Distance between nose wheel and tail wheel Distance of the aircraft c.g from the nose of the aircraft Avg.of actual and elliptic wing chord of same area Cwing Celliptic CD CDt CL Cr Chord of the actual wing Chord of the elliptic wing Drag coefficient Total Drag Coefficient Lift Coefficient Root Chord m /deg m m m m m m m m m m m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2

Ct C.G g D E FOS u y H iw IXX IYY IXY K Lt lv Lw M Ma Mf

Tip Chord Centre of gravity Acceeleration due to gravity Drag Youngs modulus Factor of safety Tensile ultimate strength Compressive yield strength Height of the c.g. from the ground level Orientation of wing on fuselage Second moment of area about X axis Second moment of area about Z axis Product second moment of area Gust alleviation factor. Distance between C.G position of aircraft and horizontal stabilizer Distance between C.G position of aircraft and vertical stabilizer. Local lift Design bending moment Distance between the main wheel and aft c.g. Distance between the main wheel and forward c.g. Load factor Maximum load factor

m m m/s2 N N/ m2

N/ m2 N/ m2 m deg m4 m4 m4

m m N Nm m m

n nmax

Ngear Na q q RFS RRS SZ SX S S ST St Sv tw tf tskin T U Vcruise Vs V Vvertical Wf

Gear load factor Distance between the nose wheel and forward c.g Dynamic pressure Shear flow Reaction of front spar Reaction of rear spar Shear force in Z direction Shear force in X direction Wing area Stroke length of shock absorber Stroke length of the tyre Horizontal tail area Vertical tail area Thickness of the web Thickness of the flange Thickness of the skin Torque Gust velocity. Cruise velocity Stalling velocity Shear load in fuselage Vertical velocity during landing Weight of fixed equipment like seats, galleys etc m N/m2 N/m N N N N m2 m m m2 m2 m m m Nm m/s m/s m/s N m/s N

Wfuel Wpayload Wpilot Wpowerplant Wmax Wstructure WWR WWT WT.O W/S y T o

Weight of the fuel Weight of payload (passengers) Weight of the pilot Weight of the power plant Maximum weight of the aircraft Weight of the structure of the aircraft Structural load intensity of wing at root Structural load intensity of wing at tip Takeoff weight Wing loading span location Angle of attack Turnover angle Efficiency of shock absorber Efficiency of tyre Density Density of air at sea level Bending stress Angle of Yaw `

N N N N N N N/m N/m N N/ m2 m deg deg

kg/ m3 kg/ m3 N/ m2 deg

List of Tables
Flight performance limits of various categories of aircraft Velocity Vs load factor Schrenks load at various span locations Shear force and bending moment of wing Aluminium alloys and its properties Fuselage weight distribution Shear force and bending moment distributions Stringer and its location in fuselage Shear flow distribution of the fuselage Different runways and allowable loadings Shock absorber types and efficiency Aircraft types and their gear load factor

List of Graphs
V-n Diagram Schrenks Curve Shear force diagram of wing Bending moment Diagram of wing Shear force Diagram of the fuselage Bending moment Diagram of fuselage

LOADS ON THE AIRCRAFT:


The structure of an aircraft is required to support two classes of loads, first termed ground loads, includes all loads encountered by the aircraft during movement or transportation on the ground such as taxing, landing loads, towing etc, while the second is the air loads, comprises loads imposed on the structure. The two classes of loads of loads may be still classified as surface forces acting on the surface of the structure and bodyforces acting over the volume of the structure. Basically all air loads are the resultant of the pressure distribution over the surfaces of the skin produced by steady flight, manoeuvre or gust conditions. Generally these causes bending, shear, torsion in all parts of the structure in addition to local normal pressure loads imposed on the skin. Ground loads encountered in landing and taxing subject the aircraft to concentrated shock loads through the undercarriage system. The majority of the aircraft have their main undercarriage located in the wings with nose wheel or tail wheel in the vertical plane of symmetry. Clearly the position of the undercarriage should be in such a position so as to produce minimum loads on the wing structure.

V-n Diagram Introduction Intentional Maneuver Unintentional Maneuver

Introduction:
The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increase in weight requires stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increase in weight & so on. Excess of structural weight means lesser amounts of payload, affecting the economic viability of the aircraft. Therefore there is need to reduce aircrafts weight to the minimum compatible with safety. Thus to ensure general minimum standards of strength & safety, airworthiness regulations lay down several factors which the primary structures of the aircraft must satisfy. These are, 1. LIMIT LOAD: The maximum load that the aircraft is expected to experience in normal operation. 2. PROOF LOAD: product of the limit load and proof factor (1.0-1.25) 3. ULTIMATE LOAD: product of limit load and ultimate factor (1.0-1.5) The aircrafts structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion & should not fail until the ultimate load has been achieved. Both the aerodynamic and structural limitations for a given airplane are Illustrate in the V-n diagram, a plot of load factor versus flight velocity. A V-n diagram is type of flight envelope for the aircraft establishing the maneuver boundaries. The BCAR (British civil airworthiness requirements) has given the basic strength and flight performance limits of various categories of the aircraft. They are listed below Category Normal Semi aerobatic Fully aerobatic Positive load factor (n+) 2.5 4 6 Negative load factor(n-) -1 -2 -3

The 160 seater aircraft comes under the normal category. Therefore the load factor limits for the aircraft is 2.5 & -1. The V-n diagram for the aircraft is drawn for the two cases namely 1. Intentional maneuver (pilot induced maneuver) 2. Unintentional maneuver (gusts)

INTENTIONAL MANEUVER:
Intentional maneuvers are induced by the pilot during climb, pull up or pull down, banking the plane etc. The load factor is function of velocity. The expression relating the load factor and the velocity is given by

nmax = (V/Vs)2
Where nmaxis the maximum load factor, V is the speed of the aircraft, Vs is the stalling speed of the aircraft. The stalling speed of the aircraft Vs +2 = (2W/S)/ CLmax = ((2 4905)/ (0.465 1.75)) 0.5 Vs + = 109.79 m/s

For various values of V, nmaxis calculated and tabulated below, V (m/s) 109.79 131.74 153.70 175.66 197.62 219.58 nmax=(V/Vs+)2 1 1.44 1.96 2.56 3.24 4.00

The stalling speed of the aircraft Vs -2 = (2W/S)/( 0.75 CLmax) = ((2 4905)/ (0.465 0.75 1.75)) 0.5 Vs V (m/s) 126.79 = 126.79 m/s nmax=(V/Vs-)2 -1

The cruising speed of the aircraft is 235 m/s.The dive speed of the aircraft is the maximum speed of the aircraft. The dive speed is equal to the sum of the cruising speed and 60 knots. VD = 235 + 60 knots = 235 +30.55 m/s = 265.55 m/s

UNINTENTIONAL MANEUVER:
The movement of air in turbulence is known as gusts. It produces changes in wing incidence, thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increases or decreases in lift from which normal accelerations result. These may be critical for large, high speed aircraft and may possibly cause higher loads than control initiated maneuvers. Thus in the gust analysis, the change in load factor due to the gust is calculated. The BCAR has given standard gust velocities for stall, cruise, dive speeds as 66, 50, 25 ft/s respectively. The small change in load factor n due to the gust is calculated by assuming a sharp gust. The change in load factor n = (a U V)/2(W/S) Where is the density at cruising altitude, a is the lift curve slope, in radians U is the gust velocity in m/s V is the velocity of the aircraft in m/s W/S is the wing loading in N/m2 In the above formula, gusts are assumed to be sharp but it is usually graded, hence a relief factor called gust alleviation factor K is introduced in the term. The value of the K is obtained from the book AIRPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND PERFORMANCE by Dr. JAN ROSKAM Where K = 0.88/(5.3+), =2(W/S)/CgCL Where is the density C is the mean aerodynamic chord, in m g is the acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 a is the slope lift coefficient, in radians. a (corrected for aspect ratio) is 3.82 /rad.

= 24905/(0.465 X 4.97 X9.81X3.82) = 113.50 K = (0.88113.50) / (5.3 +113.50) = 0.84 Therefore n =K aUV/2(W/S) For stalling speed V= 109.79 m/s, U= 20m/s n = 0.34 For cruise speed V= 235 m/s, U= 15m/s n = 0.53 For dive speed V=265.55 m/s, U= 7.5 m/s n = 0.30 V 109.79 235 265.55 1+n 1.34 1.53 1.30 1-n 0.66 0.47 0.7

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF WING Introduction Air Load Estimation InertiaLoad Estimation Shear force & bending moment distribution Material selection Wing Spar & Stringer design Rib location & direction

Introduction

Wings develop the major portion of the lift of a heavier-than-air aircraft. Wing structures carry some of the heavier loads found in the aircraft structure. The particular design of a wing depends on many factors, such as the size, weight, speed, rate of climb, and use of the aircraft. The wing must be constructed so that it holds its aerodynamics shape under the extreme stresses of combat maneuvers or wing loading. Wing construction is similar in most modern aircraft. In its simplest form, the wing is a frame work made up of spars and ribs and covered with metal.

Spars are the main structural members of the wing. They extend from the fuselage to the tip of the wing. The entire load carried by the wing is taken up by the spars. The spars are designed to have great bending strength. Ribs give the wing section its shape, and they transmit the air load from the wing covering to the spars. Ribs extend from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing.

The primary function of the wing skin is to form an impermeable surface for supporting the aerodynamic pressure distribution from which the lifting capability of the wing is derived. These aerodynamic forces are transmitted in turn to ribs and stringers by skin through palte and membrane action. Resistance to shear and torsional loads is supplied by shear stresses developed in the skin and spar webs, while axial and bending loads are reacted by the combined actions of the skin and stringers.

COMPONENTS OF WINGS

Air Load Estimation:


This subject concerns with both the aerodynamicist and the stress analyst. The aerodynamicist is usually concerned with properties, which affect the performance stability and control of the airplane. The stress analyst is concerned with the load distribution which will represent most severe condition for various parts of the internal structure of the airplane. Exact equations for span wise load distribution which can found in many aerodynamics books, can be solved for many wing planform. Numerical methods to solve such system of equation are available but the calculation are not simple. Approximation solution for span wise distribution are available such as, Fourier series method Diederich method Schrenk method

SCHRENK METHOD:
Schrenk method is used here to find span lift load distribution because of its simplicity in nature. It has been proposed by Dr.ingosterschrenk and has been accepted by Civil Aeronautics administration (CAA) as a satisfactory method for civil aircraft. For elliptical wing Celliptic = For tapered wing Ctaper= cr The average of both chord or schrenk chord distance =
2

After plotting the schrenk load distances on the wing. The area under the schrenh curve is calculated and given below ASchrenk curve = 99.65 m2 Then lift load intensity at root At root (Y=0) = = 33.18 X 103 N/m

Lift load intensity at different sections n =

Semi span Chord Elliptical Schrenk load Lift load wise (m) Distance (m) Distance (m) intensity Distance X 103N/m (m) 1. 0 6.61 6.309 6.459 33.18 2. 3 6.14 3.245 6.192 31.80 3. 6 5.66 6.048 5.854 30.07 4. 9 5.20 5.704 5.452 28.00 5. 12 4.72 5.185 4.952 25.44 6. 15 4.25 4.429 4.339 22.29 7. 18 3.78 3.275 3.527 18.12 8. 21.06 3.31 0 1.655 8.50 From the lift load intensity, average lift load can be calculated and tabulated below S.No Semi span Lift load Average Lift load Mean Distance Lift load wise intensity intensity between X 103N Distance (m) X 103N/m X 103N/m The span wise Section (m) 0 33.18 3 31.80 32.49 1.5 48.74 6 30.07 30.94 1.5 46.41 9 28.00 29.04 1.5 43.56 12 25.44 26.72 1.5 10.08 15 22.29 23.87 1.5 35.81 18 18.12 20.21 1.5 30.32 21.06 8.50 13.31 1.53 20.37

S.No

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Schrenk Curve:

Schrenk Curve
7 6 5 Chord (m) 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25

Schrenk Curve

Semi Span (m)

Inertia Load Calculation:


For calculating the structural load of the wing, the structural load is assumed to vary with the square of the chord. The wing structural load intensity at any location is given by KCx2. A wing is tapered linearly from root to tip the chord variation is assumed to be linear along the wing and is given by Cx =A+Bx Where, K Cx = constant = chord at a location of X.

CX = (A+BX) When x=0; CX = CR = A=6.61 m

When x=b/2; CX = CT = 3.31 m Substituting the above boundary conditions and solving, A=6.61 m B= -0.157 Then the equation becomes Cx = Weight of the wing = 102379.89 N = 51189.95 N = = = 95.19 dx

For semi span, wt of wing

Load intensity of the wing(semi span) Ww 51189.95 On integration K

Calculation of wing structural weight at each segment Ww1 = Ww2 = dx dx = 11.62 X 103 N = 9.96 X 103 N

Ww3 = Ww4 = Ww5 = Ww6 = Ww7 = Ww 51.18X 103N

dx dx dx dx dx

= 8.43 X 103 N = 7.04X 103 N = 5.76X 103 N = 4.62X 103 N = 3.66X 103 N

= Ww1 + Ww2 + Ww3 + Ww4 + Ww5 + Ww6 + Ww7 = 51.13X 103N (both the values are nearly same)

Fuel Weight Distribution: The fuel also distributed in the same fashion like the inertial load and is given by Cx =A+Bx Where, K Cx = constant = chord at a location of X.

CX = (A+BX) When x=0; CX = 0.5 CR = A=3.305 m CX = 2.065 m

When x=0.75b/2;

Substituting the above boundary conditions and solving, A=3.305 m B= -0.0785 Then the equation becomes Cx =

Weight of the fuel

= 137354.7 N = = K = 1185.14 dx

Load intensity of the fuel(semi span) Ww 137354.7 On integration

Calculation of wing structural weight at each segment Ww1 = Ww2 = Ww3 = Ww4 = Ww5 = Ww 137.35X 103N dx dx dx dx dx = Ww1 + Ww2 + Ww3 + Ww4 + Ww5 = 137.35X 103N (same) = 36.13 X 103 N = 30.99 X 103 N = 26.24 X 103 N = 21.89X 103 N = 22.08X 103 N

The resultant load can be obtained by adding the entire lift load, structural and fuel load algebraically and tabulated below. S.No Span Wise Distance (m) Lift Load (N) X103 48.74 46.91 43.56 40.08 35.81 30.32 20.37 Structural Weight (N) X103 11.62 25.32 37.37 7.04 5.77 4.63 3.67 Fuel Weight (N) X103 36.13 30.91 26.25 21.89 22.08 Resultant (N) X103 0.99 -9.32 -2.06 11.15 7.91 25.69 16.7 -

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

0 1.5 4.5 7.5 10.5 13.5 16.5 19.53 21.06

Shear Force and Bending Moment Distribution:


The Shear force and bending moment diagrams form the basis of analyzing beams. The wing in the aircraft is one of the fixed cantilever types. The bending moment and shear force diagram help in the design and selection of every parameter of the wing namely spar size, rib spacing, number of stringers required. Hence it is a vital step towards the design of the aircraft wing.

Calculations of Shear Force& Bending Moment:


The algebraic sum of the vertical forces at any section of a structure to be right of left of the section is known as shear force. A shear force diagram is one which shows the variation of the shear force along the length of the beam. Here the wing is a cantilever beam subjected to various concentrated loads as calculated in the above sections. The algebraic sum of moments of all the forces acting to the right or left of the section is known as bending moment. A bending moment diagram is one which the variation of the bending moment along the length of the beam. The bending moment at any point is calculated bt determining the moment of the individual loads about that point. The shear force and bending moment is calculated from the free end of the wing and the forces are calculated as shown below. S.No Span Wise Distance (m) Lift Load (N) X103 48.74 46.91 43.56 40.08 35.81 30.32 20.37 Structural Fuel Weight Weight (N) (N) X103 X103 11.62 36.13 25.32 30.91 37.37 26.25 7.04 21.89 5.77 22.08 4.63 3.67 Resultant (N) X103 0.99 -9.32 -2.06 11.15 7.91 25.69 16.7 Shear Force (N) X103 51.06 51.06 50.07 59.39 61.45 50.3 42.39 16.7 0 Bending Moment (Nm) X103 921.771 844.641 693.351 513.021 328.671 177.71 50.601 0 0

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

0 1.5 4.5 7.5 10.5 13.5 16.5 19.53 21.06

Shear Force Diagram:

Shear Force Diagram


70000 60000 Shear Force (N) 50000 40000 30000 Shear Force 20000 10000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25

Semi Wing Span (m)

Bending Moment Diagram:

Bendind Moment Diagram


1000000 800000 Bemding Moment (Nm) 600000 400000 200000 0 0 -200000 5 10 15 20 25

Bendind Moment

Semi Wing Span (m)

MATERIAL SELECTION
A number of properties are important to the selection of materials for an aircraft structure. The selection of the best material depends upon the application. Factors to be considered include yield and ultimate strength, stiffness, density, fracture toughness, fatigue, crack resistance, temperature limits, producibility, reparability, cost and availability. The gust loads, landing impact and vibrations of the engine and propeller cause fatigue failure which is the single most common cause of aircraft material failure. For most aerospace materials, creep is a problem only at the elevated temperature. However some titanium plastics and composites will exhibit creep at room temperatures. Taking all the above factors into considerations, the aluminium alloy which has excellent strength to weight ratio and abundant in nature. The following list of aluminium alloys is considered.

Yield strength S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Aluminum alloy Mpa Al Al 2024 - T35 Al 2024 - T3 Al 7074 T6 Al 7075 T6 Al 6061 O Al 6061 T4 Al 6061 T6 15 - 20 280 269 276 365-367 434 476 55 110 241

Ultimate strength Mpa 40 - 50 470 400 - 427 377-380 510 538 122 207 290

From the above tabular column Al 7075 T6 alloy has optimum yield strength property. Hence this alloy is employed for the wing spars, stringers, fuselage longerons and other structural members.

WING SPAR DESIGN


For strength/weight efficiency the beam (or spar) cap should be designed to make the radius of gyration if the beam section as large as possible and at the same time maintain a cap section which will have a high local crippling stress. The cap sections for large cantilever beams which are frequently used in wing design should be of such shape as to permit efficient tapering or reducing of the section as the beam extends outboard. The air loads act directly on the wing cover which transmits the loads to the ribs. The ribs transmit the loads in shear to spar webs and distribute the load between them in proportion to web stiffness. Spars can be classified into two basic types 1. Shear web type 2. Truss type The shear web type is widely adapted to design the modern wing spar for its structural efficiency The design of metal beam composed of cap members riveted or spot-welded to web members is a common airplane design. The two basic type of shear beam construction is 1. Shear resistant (non buckling type) 2. Diagonal-tension (buckling type) Shear resistant beam is one that carries its design load without buckling of the web. The design is not greater than the buckling shear stress for the individual web panels and the web stiffeners have sufficient stiffness to keep the web from buckling as a whole. Two primary conditions which determine the overall efficiency of a spar are its construction cost and its efficiency as a load carrying member. The incomplete tension field beam is particularly adaptable to mass production because of its component parts. Webs require a simple cutting operation and the spar caps and vertical stiffeners extrusions or bend up sections are used. Because of the high degree of redundancy present in an incomplete tension field beam, it will carry load even when severely damage. For this aircraft wing, diagonal tension type of spar is used.

Cross sectional area of spar & stringers:


The bending stress is given by the equation,

Where is yield strength. A is the total cross sectional area ( spar area and stringer area) y is the half of the thickness at c.g point of the mean aerodynamic chord aerofoil section M is the design bending moment. The maximum bending moment from the bending moment diagram is 921.771 X 103 Nm. The design bending moment M = maximum bending moment *FOS*n = 921.771 X 103 *1.5*2.5 = 3456641.25 Nm Where FOS is factor of safety and is taken as 1.5. n is the maximum load factor ,n = 2.5 y is the half thickness of the wing at mean aerodynamic chord.

The flexural stress formula is


cr = M y/I I =Ay2 Therefore Where, cri is 476Mpa (Yield Strength of the Material used) A is the total area required for the stringers and spars to take the bending stress . Therefore area is given by, cri = M/(A X Y)

AT

= M/(Y Xcri) = (3456641.25) / (0.2976 X 476 X106)

AT Since, AT = Aspar + Astr

0.0244 m2

Area of the spar is generally taken as 60% of the Total Area. Area of the Spar, A1 = 60 % (AT) = (0.6X 0.0244) = 14.64 X 10-3 m2 Area of the Spar, A1 = 14.64 X 10-3 m2

Area of the spar is generally taken as40% of the Total Area. Area of the Stringer, A2 = 40 % (AT) = (0.4 X 0.0244) =9.76 X 10-3m2 Area of the Stringer, A2 = 9.76 X 10-3m2 From the total spar area, the area of the front and rear spars are determined from which the areas of the top and bottom flanges of the two spars is calculated. The layout of the airfoil NACA 662412 is drawn using cad tools and various required dimensions are determined from it. These values are made used in the structural design of the spars and the stringers. The Centre of gravity of the aircraft is plotted in the chord of the airfoil and the respective distances are taken as plotted in the airfoil below.

Structural design of the spars: Front Spar Design:


Area of the Front Spar, A3 = 60% of A1 = (0.60 X 14.64 X 10-3) = 8.784 X 10-3 m2 Area of the Front Spar, A3 = 8.784 X 10-3 m2 After finding the area of the front spar, suitable I dimension is designed with the help of below equations cri= 0.388 E (t/b2) Afront spar = (H- 2t) + 2bt .. (1) .. (2)

Where H is the height at 0.15C of mean aerodynamic chord T is the thickness of the both flange and web B is the width of the flanges H = 0.65 m ; cri= 476 X106pa On solving the above equations, we can obtain the values of t and b.

b = 0.084 m t = 0.0109 m

Rear Spar Design:

Area of the Front Spar, A3

= 40% of A1 = (0.4 X 14.64 X 10-3) = 5.856 X 10-3 m2

Area of the Front Spar, A3 = 5.856 X 10-3 m2 After finding the area of the front spar, suitable I dimension is designed with the help of below equations

cri Afront spar

= 0.388 E (t/b2).. (1) = (H- 2t) + 2bt .. (2)

Where H is the height at 0.65C of mean aerodynamic chord T is the thickness of the both flange and web B is the width of the flanges H = 0.485 m ; cri= 476 X106pa On solving the above equations, we can obtain the values of t and b. b = 0.073 m t = 0.0095 m

STRINGER DESIGN
Although the thin skin is efficient for resisting shear and tensile loads, it buckles under comparatively low compressive loads. Rather than increase the skin thickness and suffer a consequent weight penalty, stringers are attached to the skins and ribs, thereby dividing the skin into small panels and increasing the buckling and failing stresses. This stabilizing action on the skin is, in fact, reciprocated to some extent although the effect normal to the surface of the skin is minimal. Stringers rely chiefly on the rib attachements for preventing column action in this direction.

The stringers are attached to the skins by lines of rivets or spot welds.....etc. These joints will be called upon to transmit forces mainly along their length. Forces parallel to the skin and directed at right angles to the stringers or rings or ribs will be limited by the torsional flexibility of these member. Forces normal to the skin will be limited in magnitude by the small bending strength of the skin and stringers. The primary function of these joints is thus the transmission, by shear forces of direct loads in the reinforcing members to the skin and vice versa.

(2).Various Types Of Stringers

Z section stringers are chosen due to its high structural efficiency and easy assembly.The dimensions of the stringers are calculated as shown below.

The total cross sectional area of the stringer is 9.76 X 10-3 m2.The number of stringers and area of one stringer is calculated by trial and error method. The configuration which had less weight and the dimensions within the limit is selected. The number of stringers is found to be 10 and the area of one stringer is found by dividing the total cross sectional area by number of stringers. AS = 9.76 X 10-4m2

The stringer stabilizes the skin against buckling with the result that some width of skin acts as part of the stringers and carries loads beyond the general panel buckling stress up to the stringers failure stress. The width of skin acts as part of the stringer and is incorporated into the computations of the section properties of the stringer as shown below, The stringers are equally spaced in the wing box within the spars. The distance between the front and rear spar is equal to 50% of the chord i.e. 2.48 m. five stringers are placed on the top and five stringers on the bottom of the wing box. The stringer spacing is found to be 0.413m. This is taken as the effective width area of the skin stringer panel. From the effective width of the panel, the thickness of the skin is found by the formula, W = 1.9t

0.413 = 1.9t tskin =0.01702 m The web thickness of the stringer is assumed to be equal to the skin thickness found using effective width. From the following equation, cri = 0.388E The width of the stringer web is found to be bw = 0.1353 m. The web to flange thickness ratio is taken as 0.8. Then flange thickness tf = 0.1691 Equating the value of width and thickness of the web in the stringer area of the equation, the width of the flange can be found. A = (bw -2tf) X tw + 2bftf bf = 0.01309 m

RIB LOCATION AND DIRECTION The span-wise location of ribs is of some consequence. Ideally, the rib spacing should be determined to ensure adequate overall buckling support to the distributed flanges. This requirement may be considered to give a maximum pitch of the ribs. In practice other considerations are likely to determine the actual rib locations such as: a) Hinge positions for control surfaces and attachment/operating points for flaps, slats, and spoilers. b) Attachment locations of power plants, stores and landing gear structure. c) A need to prevent or postpone skin local shear or compression buckling, as opposed to overall buckling. This is especially true in a mass boom form of construction. d) Ends of integral fuel tanks where a closing rib is required. When the wing is unswept, it is usual for the ribs to be arranged in the flight direction and thereby define the aerofoil section. While the unswept wing does give torsional stiffness, the ribs are heavier, connections are more complex and in general the disadvantages overweigh the gains. Ribs placed at right angles to the rear spar are usually he most satisfactory in facilitating hinge pick-ups, but they do cause layout problems in the root regions. Some designs overcome this by fanning the ribs so that the inclination changes from perpendicular to the spars outboard to stream-wise over the inboard portion of the wing. There is always the possibility of special exceptions, such as power plant or store mounting ribs, where it may be preferable to locate them in the flight direction.

FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL DESIGN Introduction Shear force &bending moment distribution Stringer design Shear flow distribution

Introduction
Fuselage of the modern aircraft is a stiffened shell commonly referred to a semimonocoque construction. A pure monocoque shell is a simple unstiffened tube of thin skins & as such is inefficient since unsupported thin sheets are unstable in compression and shear. In order to support the skin, it is necessary to provide stiffener members, frames, bulkheads, stringers and longerons.

The fuselage as a beam contains longitudinal elements (longerons& stringers), transverse elements (frames and bulkheads) and its external skin. The longerons carry the major portion of the fuselage bending moment, loaded by axial forces resulting from the bending moment. The fuselage skin carries the shear from the applied external transverse and torsional forces and cabin pressure.

In addition to stabilizing the external skin, stringers also carry axial loads induced by the bending moment. Frames primarily serve to maintain the shape of the fuselage and to reduce to column length of the stringers to prevent generally small and often tend to balance each other and as a result, frames are generally of light construction.

Bulkheads are provided at the points of introduction of the concentrated forces such as those from the wings, tail surface and landing gear. Unlike frames, the bulkhead structure is quite substantial and serves to distribute the applied load into the fuselage skins. Thus fuselage structure chosen for this aircraft is of semi-monocoque type.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Distribution


Various loads acting on the fuselage and position of the loads is given below from the PART 1 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN.

S.NO Components

Distance (m)

Weight (N)

1 Pilot (2) 2 Crew(1)


3 NLG

3.0 3.7 4.8

(4,000.0) (2,000.0) (20,476.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (160,450.8)

4 PAX 1 5 PAX 2 6 PAX 3 7 PAX 4 8 PAX 5 9 PAX 6 10 PAX 7 11 PAX 8 12 PAX 9 13 PAX 10 14 PAX 11 15 PAX 12 16 PAX 13 17 PAX 14 18 PAX 15 19 FE

6.8 7.8 8.8 9.9 10.9 11.9 12.9 13.9 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.6 21.5 22.0

20 PAX 16 21 PAX 17 22 PAX 18 23 PAX 19 24 PAX 20 25 PAX 21 26 PAX 22 27 PAX 23 28 PAX 24 29 PAX 25 30 PAX 26 31 PAX 27 32 PAX 28 33 PAX 29 34 PAX 30 35 PAX 31 36 Vertical Tail 37 Horizontal Tail

22.6 23.5 24.4 25.3 26.2 27.1 28.0 29.9 30.8 31.8 32.7 33.6 34.5 35.4 36.3 37.2 41.3 43.1

(12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (20,476.0) (30,714.0)

Spar reactions:
The reaction of the front spar and rear spar is calculated from the force equilibrium and moment equilibrium equation as shown below, Force equilibrium:

Moment equilibrium:

Where

is the reaction of the front spar. is the reaction of the rear spar. is the weight of the fuselage = 558116.7 N a is the distance of the front spar from the nose of the aircraft = 23.27 m b is the distance of the rear spar from the nose of the aircraft = 25.72 m C is the distance of the aircraft c.g from the nose of the aircraft = 24.27 m

Substituting all the values in the force and moment equation, the reactions are found to be

Shear Force and Bending Moment Tabular Column:


Bending Moment (Nm) -2,800.0 -9,400.00 -62,352.0 -96,828.0 -139,304.0 -194,827.6 -253,303.6 -319,779.6 -394,255.6 -476,731.6 -576,255.2 -674,731.2 -781,207.2 -895,683.2 -1,018,159.2 -1,304,520.8 -1,355,149.2 -1,432,387.2 -1,621,342.8

S.NO Components

Distance (m)

Weight (N)

Shear force

1 2
3

Pilot (2) Crew(1)


NLG

3.0 3.7 4.8

(4,000.0) (2,000.0) (20,476.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (160,450.8) (12,000.0)

-4000.0 -6000.0 -26476.0 -34476.0 -42476.0 -50476.0 -58476.0 -66476.0 -74476.0 -82476.0 -90476.0 -98476.0 -106476.0 -114476.0 -122476.0 -130476.0 -142476.0 -154476.0 -314926.8 -326926.8

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

PAX 1 PAX 2 PAX 3 PAX 4 PAX 5 PAX 6 PAX 7 PAX 8 PAX 9 PAX 10 PAX 11 PAX 12 PAX 13 PAX 14 PAX 15 FE PAX 16

6.8 7.8 8.8 9.9 10.9 11.9 12.9 13.9 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.6 21.5 22.0 22.6

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Lfs PAX 17 PAX 18 PAX 19 Lrs PAX 20 PAX 21 PAX 22 PAX 23 PAX 24 PAX 25 PAX 26 PAX 27 PAX 28 PAX 29 PAX 30 PAX 31 Vertical Tail Horizontal Tail

23.3 23.5 24.4 25.3 25.7 26.2 27.1 28.0 29.9 30.8 31.8 32.7 33.6 34.5 35.4 36.3 37.2 41.3 43.1

330,314.0 (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) 227,802.7 (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (20,476.0) (30,714.0)

3387.2 -8612.8 -20612.9 -32612.9 195189.9 183189.9 171189.9 159189.9 147189.9 135189.9 123189.9 111189.9 99189.9 87189.9 75189.9 63189.9 51189.9 30713.9 0.0

-1,850,191.0 -1,848,313.4 -1,857,264.2 -1,875,815.0 -1,888,859.8 -1,791,464.3 -1,626,392.4 -1,472,320.5 -1,169,857.6 -981,785.7 -902,994.7 -724,122.8 -564,897.6 -354,625.9 -145,682.5 -72,456.2 -8,500.0 -3,000.0 0

Shear Force Diagram:

Shear Force Diagram


300000.0 200000.0 100000.0 Shear Force (N) 0.0 0.0 -100000.0 -200000.0 -300000.0 -400000.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 Shear Force

Locations on Fuselage (m)

Bending Moment Diagram:

Bending Moment Diagram


(200,000.0) (400,000.0) Bending Moment (Nm) (600,000.0) (800,000.0) (1,000,000.0) (1,200,000.0) (1,400,000.0) (1,600,000.0) (1,800,000.0) (2,000,000.0) Locations on Fuselage (m) Bending Moment 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Stringer Design:
The circumference of the fuselage is 4.87 m. To find the area of one stringer, number of stringers per quadrant is assumed to be 5. i.e. the total number of stringers in the fuselage is 20. The stringers are equally spaced around the circumference of the fuselage.

Stringer Spacing:
The stringers are symmetrically spaced on the fuselage with the spacing calculate as shown below, Circumference of the fuselage = D = X 4.87 = 15.299 m Total number of stringers = 20 Therefore the stringers are spaced at the interval of = = 0.765 m.

Stringer area calculation:


The stress induced in the each stringer is calculated with the area keeping constant in the stress term. Then the maximum stress (i.e. one which has larger numerator) is equated with the yield strength of the material. From this area of one stringer is calculated. The direct stress in each stringer produced by bending moments MX and MZ is given by the equation:

Where MX =1,888,859.8 Nm MZ= is density = 0.465 , V is cruise velocity = 235 m/s, St is tail area = 29.22 m2

at is lift curve slope of tail = 0.0727 / deg, is the angle of yaw for asymmetric flight = = 3.488 deg X is the distance between the aircraft c.g position and horizontal tail c.g position in = 28.79 m Then MZ= = 2.739 X 106 N/m2

IXX = IZZ = 4Astringers

= 79.3145 Astringers

X and Z distance of stringers:


Since the fuselage is circle ie symmetry about both the axis. Stringers of one quadrant are considered.

Stringers X (m) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Z (m) 0 0.65 1.9 2.05 2.38 2.435 2.435 2.4 2.1 1.5 0.75 0

Substituting the above distances and the moments in the direct stress equation. We will get 6 direct stress equation.

Z1= Z5 =

; Z2 = Z6 =

; Z3 =

; Z4 =

Equating the Z3 to selected material yield stress value the area of the stringer will obtained and is given by Z3 = 476 Mpa , 476 X106 =
Astringer = 2.43 X 10-4 m2

Thus one stringer area is 2.43 X 10-4m2. The stringer chosen is I section. The dimensions of the stringers are obtained from the ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF THE FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES by BRUHN.

The dimensions are,

Height of the stringer Flange Width Thickness of the flange and web Radius of the filleted edge

= 0.0106 m = 0.0078 m = 0.003175 m = 0.003175 m

Shear Flow Distribution


The shear flow in the fuselage section is calculated by considering the fuselage as closed section. The shear flow is calculated and hence the maximum shear stress is found. The shear stress thus formed must be less than the allowable shear stress. A cut is made in the fuselage section and the shear flow for open cell is calculated. The shear flow for the open section is found out. Then by considering moment equilibrium, unbalanced shear flow is found. This shear flow is then added to the shear flow obtained earlier. The maximum shear flow value divided by its thickness yields shear stress this should be less than the allowable stress.
The maximum shear load V = 326,926.8 N

IXX = IZZ = 79.3145 Astringers = 0.01927 m4


The shear flow equation for the fuselage section is given by The stringers and their location are given belo dA N/m

Stringers Z (m) 1 2.435 2 2.4 3 2.1 4 1.5 5 0.75 6 0 7 -0.75 8 -1.5 9 -2.1 10 -2.4 11 -2.435 12 -2.4 13 -2.1 14 -1.5 15 -0.75 16 0 17 0.75 18 1.5 19 2.1 20 2.4

The shear flow is calculation is shown in the following tabular column:

Skin Panel

Booms

Astringers(m2)

Z (m) dA (N/m)

1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 15 - 16 16 - 17 17 - 18 18 - 19 19 - 20 20 - 1

-----2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927

2.435 2.4 2.1 1.5 0.75 0 -0.75 -1.5 -2.1 -2.4 -2.435 -2.4 -2.1 -1.5 -0.75 0 0.75 1.5 2.1 2.4

0 -9.89 -18.54 -24.73 -27.82 -27.82 -24.73 -18.54 -9.89 0 10.03 19.93 28.59 34.77 37.87 37.87 34.77 28.59 19.93 10.03

To calculate the actual shear force, from the BREDTBATHO THEORY, N/m Where T is torque produced by the tail plane and fin. Due to the asymmetry of the slipstream induced by yaw asymmetric loads are induced on the tail plane. These loads, upwards on one side and downwards on the other result in a torque given by the equation,

Fin load = Torque due to fin load = The total Torque (T) = 495.94 + = The area of the fuselage is given by the equation, = 105.44 X 103N/m This shear flow is added to the shear flow found earlier
X 10 (N/m)
3

Nm

= 18.63 m2

= X 10 (N/m)
3

0 -9.89 -18.54 -24.73 -27.82 -27.82 -24.73 -18.54 -9.89 0 10.03 19.93 28.59 34.77 37.87 37.87 34.77 28.59 19.93 10.03

105.44 95.55 89.90 80.71 77.62 77.62 80.71 86.90 95.55 105.44 115.47 125.37 134.03 140.21 143.31 143.31 140.21 134.03 125.47 115.47

The maximum shear flow is 143.21 X 10 N/m.

LANDING GEAR DESIGN Landing gear arrangement Tyre selection Landing gear layout Shock absorber design Landing gear kinematics

Landing Gear Arrangement


Various landing gear arrangements were observed, like tail dragger, bicycle, tricycle arrangements. Tricycle arrangement with nose wheel was chosen because of the following advantages of the arrangement. 1. Cabin floor for the passengers is horizontal when the aircraft is on the ground 2. Forward visibility is improved for the pilot on the ground 3. The tricycle landing gear requires the center of gravity of the airplane be ahead of the main landing gear and this enhances the stability of the plane during ground roll, allowing the airplane to crab into a cross wing, i.e. the fuselage does not have to be aligned parallel to the runway Usually in tricycle arrangement 90% of the total load of aircraft is taken by the main landing gear and remaining 10% is taken by the nose wheel on the ground. The landing gear should be selected such that the runway loading should be acceptable for the type of runway chosen. For different runways the allowable loadings are GRASS GRASS STRIP ASPHALT(TAR) CONCRETE 2 ton/ft2 3.5 ton/ft2 7 ton/ft2 11 ton/ft2

Since the 160 seater aircraft is a commercial passenger aircraft, it should be able to land on the small airports which usually have runway loading 7 ton/ft2& below. Thus the selected tyre should satisfy three main criteria: 1. It should have low runway loading. 2. It should be able to carry the aircrafts total load. 3. It should be compact for retraction into fuselage/wing.

TYRE SELECTION
Weight of the aircraft = 1,027,066.47N = 230,854.39 lb

Load taken by Main Landing Gear = 0.9 WT.O = 207,760.85 lb Load taken by Nose landing Gear = 0.1 WT.O = 23,084.52lb

MAIN LANDING GEAR:


Main landing gear loading Here 8 Tyres are chosen, hence Loading per Leg = 25,970.10lb = 207,760.85 lb

NOSE LANDING GEAR:


Nose Wheel loading = 23,084.52lb Now a tyre is selected for the aircraft depending on the load taken by the landing gears. From the DUNLOP tyre manual the following data have been obtained.

Data for Main Landing Gear:


Load at Maximum Deflection Inflation Pressure Diameter of Tyre (D) Width of Tyre (b) Radius at Maximum Deflection (r) = 10.70 inch No. Of tyres in Main Landing Gear = 8 =29,200 lb = 60 psi = 37 inch = 12 inch

a2 a2 a 2b b Contact Area Contact Area Runway Loading

= R2 - r2 = 18.52 10.702 = 15.09 in = w= 12 in = 6inch = = 284 in


2

= ( x 15.09 x 6) = 284/144

= 1.97 ft2 / Wheel = Total weight of the airplane (in tons)/ total contact of area of main wheels = 104.69/ (1.97 8) Runway Loading = 6.64 t/ft2 From the calculated runway loading it is determined that the aircraft is capable of landing in asphalt with a permissible loading of 7 t/f t2.

Nose Landing Gear:


Load at Maximum Deflection Inflation Pressure Diameter of Tyre (D) Width of Tyre No. Of tyres in Nose Landing Gear = 11,655 lb = 30 Psi = 24 in = 6 in =2

LANDING GEAR LAYOUT


The nose wheel is located at a distance of 4.75 m from the nose of the aircraft. The track length i.e. the distance between the legs of the main landing gear is taken as one fourth of the wing span i.e. 42.12 X (1/4) = 10.53 m

Tip back angle:


It is the maximum aircraft nose up attitude with tail touching the ground and strut fully extended to prevent the aircraft from tipping back on its tail. It is assumed that the tip back angle is 140. The distance between the main wheel and the aft c.g. is 1.25m. Therefore the height of the c.g. from the ground level H is found as follows,

H = 4.665

Turn over angles:


The turn over angle is the measure of aircrafts tendency to overturn when taxied around a sharp corner. This is measured at the angle from the c.g to main wheel, seen from the rear at a location where the main wheel is aligned with the nose wheel. The turn over angle for the 160 seater commercial aircraft is found as follows:

= 48.45 X is half the track length = 5.265 m The turnover angle is within the limit of 63.

Shock Absorber Design


The loads developed when an aircraft lands are dependent upon the shock absorbing characteristics of the landing gear and the eventual dissipation of the vertical energy of touch down. The landing gear must absorb the shock of a bad landing and smooth out the ride when taxi. In a typical telescopic arrangement the shock absorber is attached to the wheel axle, or bogie unit, at its lower end and to the airframe at it upper end. Alternatively a lever system can be used. The characteristics of such a unit depend upon: (a) The type of shock absorber. (b) The impact velocity and equivalent force due to the mass supported by it. (c) The rate of closure which is related to (b). The more common forms of the shock absorber and its efficiencies are given below. TYPE Steel Leaf Spring Steel Coil Spring Air Spring Rubber Block Rubber bungee Oleo Pneumatic Fixed Orifice Metered Orifice Tire EFFICIENCY 0.50 0.62 0.45 0.60 0.58 0.65-0.80 0.75-0.90 0.47

After various considerations of the shock absorbers, an oleo-pneumatic shock absorber is chosen for this aircraft. This consists of an air spring in combination with an oil dashpot. The spring absorbs the energy and the dashpot dissipates it, the two processes occurring simultaneous. The performance of a shock absorber is conveniently defined by a load deflection diagram. When an air spring is loaded slowly the load-deflection curve follows an isothermal gas law, but when the loading is rapid it follows a polytrophic gas law with a typical power of about 1.3. The nature of either of these two laws is such that the area under the load-deflection curve is well below the 50 percent of a linear spring, but when the effect of the resistance of the oil is included the characteristics shape changes significantly.

Under rapid loading conditions, typical of a landing, it is possible to arrange for the initial rise of the load-deflection curve to be steep, subsequently levelling out to give an area under the curve approaching the product of the load and deflection at higher values of deflection. A typical value of the area under the curve, or efficiency is 85 %, but it is generally a function of the deflection in a given case.

Stroke determination:
The required deflection of the shock-absorbing system depends upon the vertical velocity at touchdown, the shock absorbing material and the amount of the wing lift still available after touchdown. As a rough rule of thumb, the stroke in inches approximately equal to vertical velocity at the touchdown in (ft/s). Most of the aircraft require 10ft/s vertical velocity (or sink speed) capability. This is substantially above the 4-5 ft/s that most passengers would consider bad landing. The stroke length is given by the equation, -

Where S is the stroke length of the shock absorber, ST is the stroke length of the tyre which is equal to the difference in the radius of the tyre and the maximum deflection of the tyre. g is the acceleration due to gravity. is the efficiency of the shock absorbing system. T is the efficiency of the tyre. Ngearis the gear load factor. It is the vertical deceleration rate. It determines how much load the gear passes to the airframe structural weight as well as crew and passenger comfort during the landing. The table below provides the typical gear load factors for various types of the aircraft.

Aircraft Type Large Bomber Commercial General Aviation Air Force Fighter Navy Fighter

Ngear 2.0 - 3.0 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Stroke length of the main landing gear:


Vvertical= 4.4 ST = 18.5-10.70 = 7.8 in (0.198 m) T Ngear g S S = 0.47 = 0.75 = 2.7 = 32.2 ft/s = = 13.12 in ft/s = 13.99 ft/s

The Stroke calculated should be increased by 1 in as a safety of margin. Then the stroke length S = 14.12 in. This is higher than the minimum value prescribed by the Raymer. Same stroke length is adopted for the nose landing gear also.

Oleo sizing :
The total length of the oleo including the stroke distance and fixed position is approximately 2.5 times the stroke. i.e. 2.5 X 14.12 = 35.3 in. The static position is approximately 2/3 of the stroke length i.e.9.413 in. The oleo diameter is determined by the load carried by the oleo.

Main Wheel Oleo Diameter:


Main wheel oleo load ( Loleo) = = 2.7 207,760.85 lb (main wheel load) Number of main wheel oleo is taken as 2 Then Loleo= 280447.14lb The expression for diameter of oleo Doleo is given by Doleo Doleo = 0.04 = 21.18 in

Nose Wheel oleo Diameter: Nose wheel oleo load ( Loleo) = = 2.7 23084.52 lb (nose wheel load) Number of main wheel oleo is taken as 1 Then Loleo= 622207.3lb The expression for diameter of oleo Doleo is given by Doleo Doleo = 0.04 = 9.98 in

Landing Gear Kinematics


Almost all successful gears are simply hinged to retract. It is preferable that the hinges be parallel to the basic airplane axis in the interest of keeping the kinematics simple.

The above figure illustrates common kinematic concepts of the gear retraction and extension.

Case (a) is used in many aircraft due to its similarity and there are many variants of this type .the most usual variation involves the use of an extra bracing link extending from the top of the shock strut to the drag or side brace elbow. This provides extra support for the brace and thereby minimizing the structure weight. Case (b) & (c) are similar and can be used whenever it is required to retract the wheel into a cavity almost vertically above the down position. Case(d) shows how the retraction actuator can be incorporated into the kinematics such that the loads are balanced out within the gear structure , as opposed to case(a) where the actuator is mounted on the airframe. Case(e) shows two methods of rotating the top of the case(b) and there are many variants of this. Thus case(a) is chosen for its simplicity and reasons mentioned above.

Design of Miscellaneous Members


Wing Fuselage Intersection Engine Mount Empennage Design Wing Fuel Tank Auxiliary Surfaces Flutter Aileron Buzz Buffeting

Wing fuselage intersection


The 160 seater commercial passenger aircraft has low wing configuration, thus the entire wing structure continues in the way of airplane body.

Four pin design concept:


This concept is adopted as it is the most simple and straight forward method used in B707 transport, during 1950s. The lift and moment loads can be carried between the wing and fuselage by simple shear on the four pins. The drag and thrust is taken by breather web. This design allows the wing spar and fuselage bulkheads to deflect independently of each other such that no spar moment is directly transferred to the bulkheads.

The wing-body juncture produces aerodynamic interference which in turn promotes flow separation with its attendant higher drag and unsteady buffeting. This adverse pressure gradient and consequent flow separation can be minimized using contoured surface called fillet.

Engine mount
An engine mount is a frame that supports the engine and holds it to the fuselage or nacelle. Usually it is made of built up sheet metal, welded steel tubing. The turbofan engine, PS-90 A1 PRATT WHITNEY ENGINE is wing mounted. A typical turbofan engine installation for a low wing aircraft configuration similar to that of this aircraft is shown below,

The pylon has three spars (longerons) Upper, middle and lower- and three major bulk heads, and is attached to the wing at four primary point. These are two mid-spar fittings, an upper link and a diagonal brace (drag strut). The attachment pins are secured with fuse bolts which are hollow carbon steel devices that have been heat treated to shear fail at a definite load.

In the landing break way condition (wheels-up landing), the sequence is designed to fail the upper and lower links so that the pylon rotates around the mid-spar and upward.

The wing pylon design provides considerable load path redundancy such that an upper link can fail, partially or completely, and there is an alternate path- lower diagonal brace. The below figure shows the engine mounts.

Empennage Design
Horizontal Stabilizer:
The horizontal tail of the aircraft is conventional and consists of a fixed tail box. The horizontal stabilizer is usually a two spar structure consisting of a Centre structural box section and two outer sections. The stabilizer assembly is interchangeable (symmetrical airfoil section) as a unit at the fuselage attach points and the outer sections are interchangeable at the attachment to the center box. The two basic horizontal stabilizer box constructions for modern transports are 1. Box constructions with spars, closer light rib spacing (usually less than 10 inches) and surface (may be tapered skins) without stringer reinforcement. The feature of this design is the low manufacturing cost and high torsional stiffness require by the flutter analysis.

2. Box construction with spar stronger ribs and surface skins with stringer reinforcements (skin-stringer or integrally stiffened panels) is a lighter weight structure.

Vertical Stabilizer:
The structural design of the vertical stabilizer is essentially the same as for the horizontal stabilizer is essentially the same as for horizontal stabilizers. The vertical stabilizer box is a two or multi spar structure (general aviation airplanes usually use single spar design) with cover panels (with or without ribs). The root of the box is terminated at the aft fuselage conjuncture with fittings or splices.

WING FUEL TANKS


In addition to providing the required strength and stiffness, the structural box almost always has to provide fuel space. Integral tanks, as opposed to separate internally supported types, are preferred since their use enables the maximum advantage to be taken of the available volume. Integrally machined or moulded constructions, which use a small amount of large components, are obviously an advantage since sealing is reduced to a minimum. The major problem occurs at tank end ribs, particularly in the corners of the spar web and skins, and at lower surface access panels. The corner difficulty is overcome by using special suitcase corner fittings.

Access panels should be large enough for a person to get through so that the inside can be inspected and resealed if necessary. On shallow section wings, the access has to be in the lower surface so that the operator can work in an acceptable way even if the depth is insufficient to climb in completely. Apart from the sealing problems, lower surface access panels are in what is primarily a tension skin and so introduce stress concentrations in an area where crack propagation is a major consideration. The access panels are arranged in a span-wise line so the edge reinforcing can be continuous and minimum stress concentration due to the cut-outs. Access panels are often designed to carry only shear and pressure loads, the wing bending being reacted by the edge reinforcing members. A deep wing can avoid these problems by using upper surface access panels but this is not a preferred aerodynamic solution.

AUXILIARY SURFACES
The structural layout of the auxiliary lifting surfaces is generally similar to that of the wing but there are differences, in part due to the smaller size and in part due to the need to provide hinges or supports. The latter implies that each auxiliary surface is a well-defined.

HINGED CONTROL SURFACES:


Conventional training edge control surfaces are almost invariably supported by a number of discrete hinges, although continuous, piano type, hinges may be used for secondary tabs. To some degree the number and location of the discrete hinges depends upon the length of the control. The major points to be considered are: The bending distortion of the control relative to the fixed surface must be limited so that the nose of the control does mot fouls the fixed shroud.

The control hinge loads and the resulting shear forces and bending moments should be equalized as far as is possible. Structural failure of a single hinge should be tolerated unless each hinge is of fail-safe design and can tolerate cracking one load path.

These points suggest the use of a relatively large number of discrete hinges but there are difficulties associated with this solution there are the obvious loads likely to be induced in the control by the distortion under load of the main surface to which it is attached may be significant. These problems do not arise if only two hinge points are used as any span-wise distortion or misalignment can be accommodated by designing one of the hinges so that it can rotate about a vertical axis. When more than two hinges are used the floating hinge concept cannot fully overcome the problems. However, it is possible to design the control surface so that it is flexible in bending and indeed the more hinges there are the easier this is to accomplish. One hinge must always be capable of reacting side loads in the plane of the control surface. The hinges are supported near to the aft extremities of the main surface ribs.

PIVOTED CONTROL SURFACES


In certain high-performance aircraft, the whole of a stabilizing or control surface on one side of the aircraft may be pivot about a point on its root chord. Clearly in this case, the structural considerations are dominated by the need to react all the forces and moments at the pivot and operating points. Thus the structural layout may consist of an integral root rib or pivot or stub spar arrangement to which is attached a number of shear webs fanning out towards the extremities of the surface, possibly in conjunction with full depth honeycomb. High skin shear loading is inevitable due to the need to bring the loads to the two concentrated points. Shear loads due to torsion may be limited by locating the operating point on the root rib some distance away from the pivot.

Some designs incorporate the pivot into the moving surface with the support bearings on the fuselage, while on others the pivot is attached to the fuselage and the bearings are in the surface. The bearings should be as far apart as local geometry allows minimizing loads resulting from the reaction of the surface bending moment.

HIGH LIFT SYSTEMS


There is a wide variety of leading and trailing edge high-lift systems. Some types are simply hinged to the wing, but many require some degree of chord-wise extension. This can be achieved by utilizing a linkage, a mechanism, a pivot located outside the aerofoil contour or, perhaps most commonly, by some from of track. Trailing edge flaps may consist of two or more separate chord-wise segments, or slats, to give a slotted surface and these often move on tracts attached to the main wing structure. The majority of flaps and slats are split into span wise segments of no greater lengths than can be supported at two or three locations. As with control surfaces, the locations of the support points are established so as to minimize local deformations since the various slots are critical in determining the aerodynamic performance. Sometimes the actuation may be located at a different pan wise position from the support points. This is often a matter of convenience, layout clearances, and the like. The structural design of flaps is similar to that of control surfaces but it s simpler as there is no requirement for mass balance, the operating mechanisms normally being irreversible. On large trailing edge flap components, there is often more than one spar member. Especially when this assists in reacting the support or operating loading. There may be a bending stiffness problem in the case of relatively small chord slat segments and full depth honey combs can be used to deal with this. Figure shows a cross section of a typical slotted flap of metal construction but the same layout applies if composite materials are used. In many cases the slipstream or afflux from power plants impinges upon a flap and this is likely to require special consideration in the design. Additional stiffness is not necessarily the answer because acoustic fatigue characteristics are often worse at higher panel frequencies. However the extensive local support offered by sandwich construction, either in panel or full depth configuration, is usually beneficial. This leads naturally to the application of reinforced plastic materials. Trailing edge flaps tends to be prone to damage by debris thrown up by the landing gear and it may be desirable to use Kevlar or glass rather than carbon fibers for the lower surface, but material compatibility needs to be considered.

ATTACHMENT OF LIFTING SURFACES


The joint of the fuselage with the wing is subjected to heavy load inputs and there is a potential for considerable relative distortion. This distortion is usually accepted and the wing centre box is built completely into the fuselage, the resulting constraint stresses being allowed for. It is usual for the wing structure of large aircraft to include a production joint at the side of the fuselage and this is virtual essential for swept wings. It is sometimes possible to arrange the wing pick-ups as pivots on the neutral axis or set them on swinging links. In this case, the relative motion is allowed to take place and there are no induced stresses. Structural assembly of the wing to the fuselage is relatively simple. Similar remarks also apply to the attachment of the horizontal stabilizer when the incidence setting is fixed. If the surface is also used for trimming or control, some special consideration is necessary in the location of the pivot and actuation fittings. These usually require a relatively heavily loaded rib or a pair of ribs, and where possible at least one of the attachment points should be close to the rib or spar intersection. It is desirable to arrange for the lateral distance between the pivots to be as great as possible to minimize pivot loads resulting from asymmetric span-wise loading. When the controls are manually operated, it is simplest if the elevator-hinge line and pivot coincide. Fins are usually built integrally with the rear fuselage. This is mainly due to the different form of loading associated with the geometric asymmetry.

Flutter
Flutter as the dynamic instability of an elastic body in an airstream. It is found most frequently in aircraft structures subjected to large aerodynamic loads such as wings, tail units and control surfaces. Flutter occurs at a critical or flutters speed Vfwhich in turn is defined as the lowest airspeed at which a given structure will oscillate with sustained simple harmonic motion. Flight at speeds below and above the flutter speed represents conditions of stable and unstable (that is divergent) structural oscillation, respectively. Generally, an elastic system having just one degree of freedom cannot be unstable unless some peculiar mechanical characteristic exists such as a negative spring force or a negative damping force. However, it is possible for systems with two or more degrees of freedom to be unstable without possessing unusual characteristics. The forces associated with each individual degree of freedom can interact, causing divergent oscillations for certain phase differences. The flutter of a wing in which the flexural and torsional modes are coupled is an important example of this type of instability. Some indication of the physical nature of wing-

bendingtorsion-flutter may be had from an examination of aerodynamic and inertia forces during a combined bending and torsional oscillation in which the individual motions are 90 out of phase. In a pure bending or pure torsional oscillation the aerodynamic forces produced by the effective wing incidence oppose the motion; the geometric incidence in pure bending remains constant and therefore does not affect the aerodynamic damping force, while in pure torsion the geometric incidence produces aerodynamic forces which oppose the motion during one-half of the cycle but assist it during the other half so that the overall effect is nil.Thus, pure bending or pure torsional oscillations are quickly damped out. This is not the case in the combined oscillation when the maximum twist occurs at zero bending and vice versa; i.e. a 90 phase difference. The type of flutter described above, in which two distinctly different types of oscillating motion interact such that the resultant motion is divergent, is known as classical flutter. Other types of flutter, non-classical flutter, may involve only one type of motion. For example, stalling flutter of a wing occurs at a high incidence where, for particular positions of the span wise axis of twist, self-excited twisting oscillations occur which, above a critical speed, diverge.

Aileron Buzz
Another non-classical form of flutter, aileron buzz, occurs at high subsonic speeds and is associated with the shock wave on the wing forward of the aileron. If the aileron oscillates downwards the flow over the upper surface of the wing accelerates, intensifying the shock and resulting in a reduction in pressure in the boundary layer behind the shock. The aileron, therefore, tends to be sucked back to its neutral position. When the aileron raises the shock intensity reduces and the pressure in the boundary layer increases, tending to push the aileron back to its neutral position. At low frequencies these pressure changes are approximately 180 out of phase with the aileron deflection and therefore become aerodynamic damping forces. At higher frequencies a component of pressure appears in phase with the aileron velocity which excites the oscillation. If this is greater than all other damping actions on the aileron a high frequency oscillation results in which only one type of motion, rotation of the aileron about its hinge, is present, i.e. aileron buzz. Aileron buzz may be prevented by employing control jacks of sufficient stiffness to ensure that the natural frequency of aileron rotation is high.

Buffeting
Buffeting is produced most commonly in a tail plane by eddies caused by poor airflow In the wing wake striking the tail plane at a frequency equal to its natural frequency; a resonant oscillation having one degree of freedom could then occur. The problem may be alleviated by proper positioning of the tail plane and clean aerodynamic design.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Raymer, D.P. Aircraft Design - a Conceptual Approach AIAA` educational series second edition 1992. 2. Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures by E.F.Bruhn. 3. Aircraft structures by T.H.G.Megson. 4. Airframe structural design by Micheal Chun-Yung Niu. 5. Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance by Roskam

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