Fundamentals of Multimedia Communication

CMOE I FUNDAMENTALS OF MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION
Project Directors:
Prof. Dr. Mansor Fadzil Prof. Dr. Rahmah Hashim Open University Malaysia
Module for Open Entry to Master of Multimedia Communication Compiled by: Edited by: Prof. Dr. Rahmah Hashim Shafiza Ahmad Suffian Open University Malaysia Centre for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd. Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9, Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
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First Printing, May 2009 Copyright @ Open University Malaysia (OUM), May 2009, CMOE I All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Version May 2009
Topic Introduction to
Information Era
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Discuss the technological developments that gave birth to the information era. Distinguish the differences between the information era and the previous eras; Identify three components of information technology; and Understand the concept of Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC).
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will be introduced to the concept of principles, functions, and benefits of information and communication technology (ICT). At the end of this topic, the Multimedia Super-Corridor (MSC) and cyber laws will also be discussed.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA
1.1
WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?
Before going deeper into this subject, let us differentiate between data, information and knowledge, as shown in Table 1.1 below:
Table 1.1: Data, Information and Knowledge
Data Information
Raw facts, figures, diagrams, and other details, such as quiz marks and the growth rate of computers. An organised and meaningful interpretation about the data, such as students performance in the quiz and the computers specification. Information refers to audio visual materials and messages that are distributed via radio, television, telephones, facsimile, telex, satellites and computer systems, which means anything that can be detected, recorded, stored, and broadcasted electronically by microelectronic, computer, and telecommunicationbased technologies. Understanding and giving attention to a set of information and on how the information can be used well, such as to upgrade computer quality.
Knowledge
Table 1.1 explains that "data" which have been refined, formatted and summarised can become"information". Information that has been interpreted, decided and acted upon is changed into "knowledge". With knowledge, users can make the best decisions, and take appropriate actions. In general, IT is the catalyst of change in the information era. This technology is used to access, store and distribute information, especially information in digital form. IT refers to the use and deployment of various items in the creation, storage and distribution of information. Table 1.2 lists some definitions of information technology:
Table 1.2: Definitions of Information Technology Forester (1985) Behan & Holmes (1986) Information technology (IT) is the science of collecting, storing, and disseminating/transmitting information. Information technology refers to the technology that enables us to record, store, process, retrieve, send and receive information. Information technology consists of all forms of technology involved in the collection, manipulation, communication, presentation and utilisation of data (which are transformed into information). Information technology contains three components, which are computers, communication, and know-how. A combination of the three components creates opportunities for people and organisations to become more productive, effective, and generally successful without being separated. Computers and computer networks are useless without the knowledge of how to use them. Knowing when to use computers is as important as knowing how to use them. Besides the ability to use computers for communication, connecting people through information technology is also important.
E.W. Martin et al. (1994) Senn (1998)
1.1.1
Components of IT
Information technology (IT) is a broad-based technology needed to support information systems. IT supports activities involving the creation, storage, manipulation, and communication of information, together with their related methods, management and applications. The core of IT is the microelectronic component, that is, the microprocessor chip which processes data, information, images, sound, graphics, etc that has given birth to modern computers. Today, computers are connected via telecommunication networks that transcend national borders. Table 1.3 below shows the main components of IT consisting of computers, communication networks, and know-how.
Table 1.3: Components of Information Technology Component Computer Communication Network IT Know-How Definition Used to receive, store, process and present data and information. Used for sending and receiving data and information. What, when and how IT is used to solve problems effectively, with reference to familiarity with IT tools, the needed skills, understanding when to use IT for solving problems, and the exploitation of opportunities.
1.1.2
Computer Classification
You are very familiar with the types of motor vehicles on the road. There are motorcycles, motorcars, buses, lorries, trailers, trains, and so on. They are very specialised and useful for various types of jobs. For example, motorcycles are very handy for a single person, while buses are good for about 40 persons. In the field of IT, likewise, there are various types of computers that you can use, depending on the job you want to do. There are small computers as well as very large ones. They cater for various types of jobs on the basis of processing power, speed, cost, security, and various other criteria. There has never been a rigid definition of the various classes of computers. Indeed, their functions and capabilities keep on expanding and as such the number of classes is even debatable. However, there is a broad spectrum of computing hardware ranging from supercomputers to microcomputers, with no sharp line dividing the classes. In general, computers decrease in size and cost as you go down from the large supercomputers and mainframes to the small microcomputers. The classification is briefly discussed below. (i)
Microcomputer: It is a desktop computer as well as a personal computer (PC). The label PC is associated with microcomputers because they are designed for use by one person at a time. It is not to be confused with the microprocessor, which is literally a computer on a chip. In a microcomputer, the microprocessor, electronic circuitry, and memory chips are mounted on a single circuit board called the motherboard. It is the motherboard that distinguishes one microcomputer from another.
(ii)
Mainframe: This computer is defined as the big-sized commercial computer

designed specifically for a multi-user environment and is used by a whole organisation. It normally has more than 100 remote terminals. The mainframe is very strong in terms of security, connectivity, and data management capabilities. It must reside in a specially controlled environment with special heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning equipment to control the temperature, humidity and dust level around the computer.
(iii) Minicomputer: Until the late 1960's, all computers were mainframes only. They were just called computers. Later, computer vendors began to introduce smaller machines to make them affordable to the smaller companies. This gave birth to the minicomputers. Today, a minicomputer can be defined as the smallest computer designed specifically for a multiuser environment. The system must be able to service between 2 and 100 remote terminals at one time. (iv) Supercomputer: This is the largest, fastest, and most expensive computer available. It is extremely powerful and especially designed for high-speed numerical computations needed in complex engineering applications. Supercomputers are processor-intensive, whereas the mainframes are input-output intensive. Supercomputers can perform arithmetic calculations at a speed of billions of floating-point operations per second (gigaflops). Cray Research, NEC, and Fujitsu are the leading manufacturers of supercomputers. (v)
Workstation, etc: There are other classifications of computers like superminis, super-micros, midi-computers, etc. they are the intermediate stages of an earlier classification. Some computers are called servers and clients these are simply service providers and consumers. The workstation is of significant importance. Indeed, various people have used the term "workstation" to mean different things. It is used to mean a network terminal (intelligent, but without disc). It often refers to a terminal with RISC processors, instead of Intel. In general, a workstation is simply a highend PC.
SELF CHECK 1.1

Differentiate the terms data, information, and knowledge. Then give one example for each term.
ACTIVITY 1.1
What do you understand by the term "IT know-how"? Explain.
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

We have seen how IT helps special people. We have heard and read how IT has increased profitability of companies and businesses. We also know the effects of computer viruses such as Love Bug and Chernobyl, on computer systems in the world. Certainly, the main objective of IT is to help people solve problems and to initiate creativity, thereby, helping people work more effectively. IT frees people from routine work and enables them to focus more attention on solving problems, and improving relationships. The main principle of IT is the Principle of High-Tech-High-Touch, that is, the more advanced the technology we rely on, the more important will be the "hightouch" (human) aspect. This principle emphasises adaptation of IT to people, rather than asking people to adapt to IT.
1.3
FUNCTIONS AND BENEFITS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Senn (1998) identified six functions of information work, namely, collecting, processing, generating, storing, retrieving and delivering. In most cases, two or more functions are done simultaneously. Table 1.4 lists the function, definitions and examples of information technology.
Table 1.4: Functions of Information Technology Functions Collecting Processing Definition Collecting records of activities to be used later The process of changing, analysing, calculating and synthesising all forms of data or information Assembling information into useful forms, whether as text, audio or image The computing process of storing data and information to be used later Locating (data) and obtaining them again Taking/sending/presenting to Example Calculating votes, reading electricity meters Processing of electricity bills, word processing, processing of taxes
Generating
Electricity bills, tables, graphs, charts on discs, tapes, CD-ROM files Income tax records, society membership records, traffic offence records Faxes, e-mails, voice mails E-mails, voice mails
Storing
Retrieving Delivering
The benefits gained from the use of IT are speed, consistency, accuracy and reliability (See Table 1.5).
Table 1.5: Benefits of Information Technology Benefits Speed Consistency Accuracy Reliability Definition A relative value computers can perform within seconds, at speeds that are much faster than humans. Computers are efficient in doing repetitive jobs consistently, i.e. producing the same results for the same jobs. Computers work very accurately tracking even small differences. With their speed, consistency and accuracy, we can trust and rely on computers in producing the same results again and again.
With the benefits that can be gained from the use of IT, we cannot ignore the opportunities offered by it. In general, there are two categories of opportunities: (i) (ii)
Helping People. Example: Assisting special people (the disabled); helping

to increase human productivity; helping people enhance quality of life.
Helping to Solve Problems: Example: Assisting in the process of problem

identification; exploring alternative solutions; implementing the solution with success.
IT has been used in various fields with the objective of solving problems and helping people. Hence, we should know basic responsibilities of IT users. The three basic responsibilities of users are: (i) (ii) Knowing the capabilities and limitations of IT; Using IT ethically and correctly; and
(iii) Ensuring data and information security against various threats.
1.4
OPPORTUNITIES IN IT
The development of IT has opened up opportunities for the consumer society. Among the opportunities in IT are: (i) Getting involved in the development of software and hardware. Examples of software that have successfully changed the way people use IT are spreadsheet, the web browser and http protocol. Getting involved in the provision of IT services such as expertise providers, hardware service-provider, hardware and software sales, information portal service-provider and consultants.
(ii)
(iii) Getting involved in the design work of IT applications inside organisations e.g. development of a policy in the use of IT tools for an organisation, system design and network design. (iv) Getting involved in system analysis and design work involving data, databases, staff information systems and so on. (v) Getting involved in IT education by delivering speeches, lectures, tutorials, teaching, research, etc.
(vii) Getting involved in disseminating IT to society in general through writings, lectures, social services, etc.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Think of how computers have changed the business world.
1.5
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE FUTURE
What kind of development is expected in the future? Because technology has developed so rapidly, we cannot predict what will be the new discoveries of computer scientists in the future. However, we can see that IT has been defined as having three components i.e. computers, communication and know-how. With the latest development, one more component of IT can now be added on i.e. electronic consumers. The definition of IT has been expanded to include econsumers while a much wider definition also includes "communication provider" and "software" in the widest sense of the word. These are described as follows: (i) (ii) Electronic Consumers: These require electronic devices to be used in fulfilling human needs like television and camera video. Communication Providers: These require telecommunication lines not only for the telephones, but also for all forms of data like digital and analogue data, video, voice, graphics and others.
(iii) Software: This has been widened to include new content like music, entertainment, reading materials, etc. The widening of IT definition will further change IT industries and the people involved will work together to form much bigger companies with higher addedvalues. There is no company that can solve all problems.
ACTIVITY 1.3
What are the regular publications that you read to get information on changes in computer technology?
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1.5.1
Development Trends
A number of trends in the future development of technology are given below: (i) Communication The World Wide Web (WWW) has advanced exponentially and has become a way of life for many people. Users come to WWW for information, communication, entertainment and others. There are about 130 million of Internet users in the whole world now. E-commerce will continue to develop rapidly. Many companies have introduced and will introduce their websites for selling products directly to their customers. The use of the wireless LAN (local area network) and the use of mobile phones will also develop rapidly. The use of mobile phones for e-mail and the Internet will certainly increase. Development in the field of communication is given below: (a) (b) (c) ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network), ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) and WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing).
These will produce the communication networks that are faster and more stable. The Gigabit Ethernet networking technology is bound to replace the 10MB Ethernet and 100MB Fast Ethernet and so the communication will become faster. (ii) Electronic Consumers TV sets will be used to surf the Internet containing music, pictures, films and data. Film cassettes will not only deal with pictures but also data (compare this with digital cameras). Mobile phones can be used as cameras and the concept of the intelligent house, i.e. a house controlled by computers.
(iii) Computers and Software Computers will become cheaper and more powerful. They will become affordable and computers will become a basic necessity similar to the telephones and the washing machines. More computers with certain applications will be produced, similar to the PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and other information tools. The software will handle not only data and information but also music, pictures and many others.
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1.5.2
Critical Technologies
There are several critical technologies that may be introduced in the near future, such as: (i) DVD-RW Disk System which has a storage capacity of 5.2 GB, i.e. can store 700,000 pages of documents. With this technology, users can store hundreds of reference books inside a disc that is very portable. RAMBUS RAM is a type of (secondary memory) RAM for computers of very high performance. With this new RAM, applications that are intensely graphic, multimedia-based and simulation type can be executed very well.
(ii)
(iii) Wireless Technology will be used in IT. An example is the use of mobile phones to surf the Internet. Motorola has invented the DSP56690 chip, i.e. one chip that can be used for any device. Among the possibilities is that users can use a watch to get information on stocks and shares or to send information through a pen. (iv) The Use of Voice in Computers and the Internet will enable users to use voice instructions for computers to execute them. Users may receive web pages verbally read out by computers to them. (v) The Use of the Intelligent Machine in human lives may be possible. For example, Sony has produced an intelligent dog known as Aibo. This dog has features of a real dog and can learn from humans. The technology used inside Aibo is called "Artificial Intelligence" (AI). It is believed that the use of AI technology will increase further.
(vi) Biometrics will be used for identification. For example, users can use finger prints or retina images for identification. Consumers may not need the ATM cards for cash withdrawals but instead they need to use the eyescanning technique.
1.6
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY
There are people who say that information technology (IT) has been expanded and is now known as ICT, that is, information and communication technology. There is another definition that says IT components are computer, communication and know-how. This clearly shows that communication is an important component in the development of IT. Among the developments related to communication technology are the Internet, the web, teleconference, video conference, hand phone, wireless communication, satellite, interactive TV,
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3G, e-commerce and many more that we shall hear about and see later. The development of communication technology has also enabled computers to be networked for us to share resources and information. When computers have been connected to form a network, there needs to be a mechanism and communication protocol for sending data from one computer to another computer; from one input device to a different computer; from one computer to a different computers output device; or from an input device to an output device via computers.
ACTIVITY 1.4
IT components are said to include computers, communication and also know-how. What is your own understanding of IT components?
1.7
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
The convergence of telecommunication technology, microelectronics and computers has influenced the way information is obtained, the speed of procuring data and information, as well as the channels that allocate, store, create and distribute information. Today, anyone can supply and distribute information. Anyone can produce a book or a movie in a compact disc. Rapid growth in infomedia technology era has transformed the very characteristics of media, and has changed the roles of communication media information channels. These developments have become prevalent in a span of merely 20 years (between 1975 and early 1990s), with the merging of telecommunication technology, microelectronics and computers giving birth to the fourth generation media. The relatively new media are sophisticated and technologically advanced, transcending literacy and geographical barriers. By the third millennium, scientific and technological developments have changed the appearance and capabilities of conventional media through a shorter fermentation process as opposed to previous millennia. In todays age, known as the infomedia age (Koelsch 1995), information is sent, accessed and disseminated through hybrid media that uses both print and electronic media. The major developments of ICT have not only changed the nature of electronic media, but also that of print media. Print media is now globally-driven, does not need to use paper, and can be obtained instantly through electronic mail.
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Satellite media technology is a field regularly explored by powerful countries, as they have pinpointed its formidable potential in helping them control the world. In the space of a few decades, starting from the 1950s, powerful countries have monopolised 90% of the worlds electromagnetic spectrum, whereas 90% of the worlds population from underdeveloped countries has been severely left behind in satellite communication technology. Today, hundreds of satellites are used by a handful of powerful countries for various purposes, including surveillance, remote sensing, experimentation, reconnaissance and other activities, including military strategies. However, the majority of satellites that surround our globe are communication satellites that simplify the process of communication through telephones, electronic mail and computer networks, among others. A wireless information highway that uses telediscs is currently being planned by Bill Gates (Microsoft) and Craig McCaw (McCaw Cellular). It uses 840 satellites to allow the simultaneous distribution of voice, data and video to the entire world. The existence of this information highway is expected to generate yearly returns of over 3 trillion American dollars by the middle of the 21st century (Dominick 1996: 338). The term Information Highway was coined in 1995 by Al Gore, while he was serving his tenure as Vice President of the United States of America. The term Information Highway is a metaphor that alludes to worldwide electronic networks that can offer private communication channels, entertainment, information and large amounts of data to users. The consumer of today has the ability to choose the type of information he or she desires. Information can be obtained from various electronic communication media, desktop and laptop computers, interactive TV, satellite TV, and so on. Users of the information highway can request the news that they wish to view, chat with other mutually-inclined users, watch films at any time through compact and digital video discs, conduct business and shop electronically, work, learn, read books and access resources from online libraries, send mail, play, order pizza, and even communicate with their personal doctors without having to leave their homes. Before the information highway is built, the print and electronic media sectors require the involvement of multiple parties to prepare, produce and disseminate information to the public. Computer technology and the information highway have transformed the scenario of mass communication in todays world. Today, anyone who owns a computer and modem, is competent at using the relevant technologies, and those who can afford to pay the tolls of the information
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highway can easily play the role of a mass communicator. The only obstacles are language, culture, monetary restraints and accessibility. An information society is an informed society. In such a scenario, communication becomes the backbone of all societys socio-cultural, economic and political activities. Before going any further, complete the exercise below.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. What do you understand by each of the following concepts? (a) information (b) information highway (c) information age (d) informed society Can Malaysia be categorised as a country undergoing an information age? Why?
2.
Many terminologies, definitions, terms and labels are used to discuss and express the same technologies. Some parties use terminologies, labels and information technology terms like IT, whereas others use terms like ICT, PC, Internet, i, e, K, @, and so on. The usage of different and constantly changing terminologies, labels definitions and terms is not a strange phenomenon though, as it is in line with the trends and developments of such technologies that are constantly and rapidly changing. Information and communication technology (ICT) is a popular technology nowadays. The meaning of information and communication technology will be further explained shortly ICT is the energy that drives change towards an information age, and the tools that allow us to generate an informed and educated society. The ICT phenomenon was evident in the 1980s with the advent of videotext and teletext, interactive cable, video discs, compact discs, communication satellites, pagers and cellular radios, electronic mail, teleconferencing services, and various other multimedia technologies. ICT was not only utilised by the government and business sectors, but was also used by households and communities.
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Generally, ICT can be viewed from two perspectives: (a) (b) (a) Technological Perspective Cognitive Perspective From a technological perspective, ICT is seen as the rise of information systems that have been integrated and brought forward by computer systems, software, data hubs, communications, telecommunications, networks and multimedia. Microelectronics is the base technology that allows other technologies to be developed and merged to create a complex and integrated system. Microprocessors and microelectronic-based memory are the keys to the power and functionality upgrades of current systems. From a cognitive perspective, data, text, images, animation or a mixture of formats (commonly known as multimedia), and information can be presented in a digital format. Based on a users needs, information can be obtained, stored, processed, allocated, sent, and presented. This simplifies interaction between human to human, human to machine, and machine to machine.
(b)
It is clear that ICT encompasses two different dimensions, namely technological and cognitive. In Malaysia, the understanding of these two dimensions is lacking. Society generally evaluates this technology from a technological perspective instead of a cognitive one. The Malaysian society understands it more as a piece of equipment or a new communication tool that is introduced to society. Failure to understand and appreciate cognitive dimensions results in a narrow perception of ICTs benefits, and the failure to see it as more than a tool that to help us with our daily activities. We only focus on ICT from a physical and superficial perspective, as opposed to seeing ICT from a content perspective; its connections to information and knowledge, as well as its potential in the context of total human improvement, which includes physical, mental and spiritual developments. Before you continue, try the following exercise.
EXERCISE 1.2
1. 2. Define information and communication technology (ICT) in one sentence. Give two examples of ICT in Malaysia.
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1.8
THE INFORMATION HIGHWAY IN MALAYSIA
The implementation of the national privatisation policy in the early 1980s catapulted the development of telecommunications in Malaysia. Besides improving telecommunication infrastructure, swift changes also occurred in the areas of broadcasting, publishing and administration. It also made possible Malaysias mega project, the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), which was launched on 29 August 1997. MSC is lauded as Malaysias gift to the world, and is described as tomorrows technology for todays living.
1.9
MULTIMEDIA SUPER CORRIDOR (MSC)
MSC spans across a location that covers the KLCC twin towers, the Kuala Lumpur Tower, the Putrajaya Administration Centre, the Cyberjaya smart city, and the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) in Sepang. The Multimedia Development Corporation Sdn. Bhd. (MDEC) was established to oversee the development of MSC, offer relevant information, simplify procedures and create smart partnerships between big and small companies, both local and international. An international advisory panel (IAP) for MSC has also been formed. Its members consist of recognised people in the field of information and communication technology, such as Bill Gates (Microsoft CEO), Scott McNealy (Sun Microsystems CEO), Stan Sheah (Acer CEO), and James Barkdale (Netscape CEO). To ensure the success of MSC, Malaysia requires more than 33,000 information workers. An information worker, as defined by MDEC, is a worker who possesses a university degree in any discipline, or a diploma in the multimedia/ Information Technology from a technical college, or in a field that regularly uses multimedia, or a Bachelors Degree or a postgraduate degree in any field.
During the Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991-1995), a total of 27,174 staff in IT-related field were required, especially in the field of system developments and engineering, operation management, research and development, software development, and data hub management (Refer to Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996-
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2000) p.458 for a more detailed explanation of these fields). However, the number of students taking courses at the degree and diploma/certificate level, is still not sufficient to fulfil the demand of IT-related staff. Please visit www.mdec.com.my to know more about the development of Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC). The "Bill of Guarantees" is provided by the government to attract companies to the MSC. The Bill promises the following provisions to MSC status companies: (i) (ii) World-class physical and information infrastructure. Unrestricted permission for local and foreign knowledge workers.
(iii) Freedom of ownership, by giving MSC-status companies exceptions from the need to have local ownership. (iv) Freedom to obtain capital from local and international loans for setting up MSC infrastructures. (v) Attractive financial incentives. (vi) Intellectual Property Rights and cyber laws. (vii) No censorship of the Internet. (viii) Telecommunication tariff that is globally competitive. (ix) A tendered contract of MSC infrastructure to companies that intend to make MSC their regional hub. (x) Access to a one-stop super-shop to ensure MSC can fulfil the needs of companies.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. State six types of careers in the field of information technology. 2. A number of government and private sector departments have developed their own websites and info-kiosks. You are required to give seven other examples of various government department websites or info-kiosks that are available over the Internet. (To answer this question, you need to browse through websites). Being the global scale testing area for innovations solutions and environments, appropriate incentives have been prepared to attract the main and leading organisations in the world to use MSC as the hub. Adding to this, it will help activate the local and foreign Small and Medium Industries (SMI). The
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interactions between the local and foreign companies will perpetuate new values through the exposure of competition on a global scale, the production of products and available quality services and also the increase in the productivity of economy. For the development of MSC, seven applications have been introduced. The primary applications are categorised under two groups as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: MSC applications
The primary application for the development of multimedia consists of electronic governance, smart schools, multi-purpose cards and tele-health, research and development (R&D) groups, world wide network, and borderless marketing. Figure 1.2 shows the primary application of MSC multimedia development.
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Figure 1.2: Seven flagships of MSC multimedia development
These applications have attracted various international markets. Countries like Algeria, Botswana, Lebanon, Mozambique, Syria have shown interest in the variety of applications such as tele-health and electronic governance. There are also a few activities on the use of the smart school model which include countries like Sri Lanka and South Africa. Detail explanations about the primary applications of MSC multimedia development are as follows: (a) Electronic Governance The primary electronic governance application has been launched with the intent to improve the operations of government agencies from angles of internal process and service availabilities for the public and entrepreneurs. Under this application, six pilot projects have been implemented as stated in the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Electronic Services (E-Service) Electronic Acquisition (E-Acquisition) Generic Office Environment (GOE) Human Resource Management Information System (HRMIS) Project Management System (PMS) Electronic Labor Exchange (ELX)
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The E-Services Project comprise various services such as production and renewal of driving license, payment of fine, scheduling of driving tests and payments of utilities bills. (b) Smart School The concept of Smart School was introduced to bring forth a new generation of Malaysians that are ICT conscious, creative and innovative and are capable of bringing the economy to the information era. This project was implemented as a pilot project during the Seventh Malaysia Plan which involved 90 schools that comprised of nine new schools. These schools were to be equipped with the latest multimedia and computer equipment and provided with teaching tools for four different subjects namely, Bahasa Malaysia, English, Science and Mathematics. (c) Multi-Purpose Cards The primary application of the multi-purpose card was introduced to give the public a simpler way to deal with government agencies and private sectors. Two main initiatives were reinforced, namely: 1. 2. (d) Multi-Purpose Payment Card (MPPS) Multi-Purpose Government Card (MPGC)
Tele-health Tele-health is intended to hasten the achievement process of Malaysias health care vision which is to produce healthy individuals, families and community. During the Seventh Malaysia Plan period, tele-health was implemented in 42 health centers and 41 tele-consultations centres whereby most of these centres were situated in the rural area. Research and Development (R&D) Groups R&D groups were designed to foster co-operations between multimedia R&D centers and firms to generate the latest products and technologies. At the same time, these groups also encouraged the establishment of new local companies that are technologically advanced to help heighten the country's level of competitiveness. In order to further activate the works of R&D, the government has implemented various projects which include MSC Research and Development Grant Scheme (MGS) in October 1994 and MSC Student Placement Programme in the year 2000.
(e)
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1.10 ICT LAWS IN MALAYSIA

SELF-CHECK 1.2
Why are existing laws not relevant to control the ICT environment?
The end of the 20th century and the early 21st century is considered as a transition period in terms of legislation and control of media and ICT. Because the legislative framework in the 20th century was not enough to handle the new problems that came with ICT, therefore new legislations had to be formulated. The Communication and Multimedia Commission of Malaysia was established as a regulatory agency. Refer to the explanation by Mr Abas bin Abdul Rahman, about the Communications and Multimedia Policy and Development in Malaysia by visiting http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/economy/asem/seminar /asem1/ session/p18.html. You can also refer to http://www.malaysia.net/dap/sg1162.htm to get a more critical view about the Communication and Multimedia Act 1998. Some of the laws related to information and multimedia are shown in Table 1.7.
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Table 1.7: ICT- Related Laws No. 1. Laws Digital Signature Act 1997 & Regulation & Order http://www.cca.gov.my/legislat.htm http://www.digicert.com.my/act.html The Computers Crime Act 1997 http://www.mycert.mimos.my/crime.html Telemedicine Act 1997 http://www.mycert.mimos.my/telemed-eng.html Communication and Multimedia Act 1998 http://www.cmc.gov.my/akta588/eng/legis_cma1998_p3.htm http://www.mylib.com.my/public/it/myit5.htm Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission Act 1998 Communications and Multimedia (Licensing) Regulations 1999 Optical Discs Act 2000 and Regulations Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia Act 2001
2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8.
1.11 CAREERS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

IT is closely linked with most careers today. In general, two categories that are related to IT and careers are as follows: (i) Information Technology as a Career: Technical knowledge and skills in IT provide job opportunities in the field of IT. Among careers in IT are system analyst, IT officer, network manager, software engineer, knowledge engineer, programmer, data processing manager, computer system consultant, system integrator, system administrator, chief information officer, system engineer, website manager, etc. IT professionals are also regarded as the important players who develop and maintain software and IT tools. Information Technology Users IT users are generally known as "end-users". End-users get involved in the use of IT software and hardware but they are not required to have technical knowledge of IT. Indeed, they know better about the use of software or specific hardware. For example, doctors use computers to access patient information, but they do not need to have the technical knowledge of computers. In general,
(ii)
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users can be divided into three types novice users, semi-skilled users, and skilled users. IT applications are created for their use. Both IT professionals and users need to communicate with each other for the effective use of IT, creation of new ideas, and getting the desired benefits.
ACTIVITY 1.5
Give your critical analysis of MSC applications world wide networks and borderless marketing.
We have touched on the meaning of information and communication technology (ICT), functions and benefits of ICT, and the Information Highway. The implementation of the National Privatisation Policy was the catalyst that saw the rapid growth of ICT in Malaysia. This also led to the formation of MSC and a re-visit of the laws and regulations in the changing media and ICT landscape in the country.
Cyber laws Flagships Information era
Information technology know-how Multimedia Super Corridor
Bahan, K. & Holmes, D. (1986. Understanding information technology: text, readings and cases. Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Martin. E. W., De Hayes, D.W., Hoffer, J. A., & Perkins, W. C. (1994). Managing information technology. (4th ed.). (place): Prentice-Hall (International Edition). Senn, J. (1998). Special issues on the role of information technology research. In Information Resources Management Journal 11(1), pp. 23-28.
Topic The Internet
in Malaysia
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Explain briefly about the development of the Internet in Malaysia; Discuss the laws and security over the Internet; and Assess on the future of the Internet.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will discuss the historical development of the Internet in Malaysia. You will also be presented with various interesting stories from the Internet. Among them is NAPSTER, a popular site at one time which enabled users, especially teenagers, to share musical files with other users via the Internet. In this topic too, you will learn about the laws and security issues of the Internet.
2.1 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

ACTIVITY 2.1
Do you know when Internet started in Malaysia?
TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA
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In Malaysia, development of the Internet began in 1983 when a Malaysian network pioneer, Dr Mohamed Awang-Lah (now a member of OUM Board of Directors), mooted the idea of linking up Malaysia to the world via the Internet at the University of Malaya's laboratory. At that time, he was an academic staff in the Faculty of Electrical/Electronic Engineering of the University of Malaya. Dr Mohamed Awang-Lah made the same Internet connection by the end of 1984 when he was assigned to the Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic System (MIMOS). The establishment of MIMOS by the government provided opportunities for the IT literate citizens of Malaysia to start using the Internet. In 1989, the Malaysia Computer Network (RANGKOM) with linking facilities to the world was set-up by Dr Mohamed Awang-Lah. Local universities were the early users of the RANGKOM network. It continued to expand with support and attention from the private sector. Initial emphasis of this network was on e-mail and e-forum even though it had the capacity to do more, such as communication and resource sharing. This early network not only provided experiences on technological development, but also exposed a few weaknesses as well as opportunities on the use of communication network technology and management-related issues. Based on this experience, JARING (Joint Advanced Integrated Network) was launched in 1991 with the objective of developing a national communication network that was integrated with more coverage. In practice, all the activities and experiences in the RANGKOM project was absorbed into the JARING project. MIMOS handled the JARING Network as its main development project in the Sixth Malaysia Plan. JARING is now linked to many research and academic institutions as well as government agencies and private companies in Malaysia. Its main objective is to support educational, research and commercial activities. JARING is also linked to the international networks. International leased circuit line (speed of 64 Kbps) was operational from 14th November 1992. The leased line replaced the X.25 public line and the dial-up line when the number of users and the usage level of JARING reached a more critical level. By 29th November 1994, JARING capacity was upgraded to 1.5 Mbps which was 24 times faster than the 64 Kbps line. JARING then fully utilised the optical fibre technology in line with its increase in membership. In June 1994, JARING moved on further to set up more access nodes all over the country. At that time, access nodes were placed in 16 major towns and cities in Malaysia including Damansara, Petaling Jaya, Shah Alam, Bangi, Malacca, Sri Gading, Johor Bahru, Ipoh, Penang, Alor Setar, Kuantan, Kuala Terengganu, Kota Bharu, Kuching, Kota Kinabalu and Kuala Lumpur. This enabled more
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users to access JARING via local telephone calls. The JARING network can also be accessed by users from Singapore, Brunei and Thailand. In terms of membership, JARING had about 29 organisations and government departments as its members in early 1992. Over 200 customers in the country were using the facilities in late 1992. JARING membership was then categorised into students, individuals and organisations. Individuals and students could access the Internet only via the dial-up lines while organisations could access via dial-up lines and leased circuits. JARING membership in 1994 increased to 1,693 individual members and 254 companies. In 1995, JARING was further upgraded to cater for the increase in membership and usage and to overcome congestion of traffic flow. The main emphasis was to strengthen its backbone infrastructure by adding more nodes, lines between the nodes and upgrading the speed of several leased lines as well as dial-up lines. In 1995 too, the speed of the lines that linked up nodes in Penang and Johor Bahru were upgraded from 64 Kbps to 2.048 Mbps. By the end of 1995, more than 1,000 lines for users of dial-up lines were provided. Some 40 new nodes were installed in 1996 in addition to the 21 nodes from the previous year. The year 1995 also saw the installation of the second link to the (international) Internet. The high speed fixed line at the rate of 2.048 Mbps (E1) was operating concurrently with the previous line of 1.536 Mbps (T1). The presence of E1 besides T1 had enabled JARING to cater for the continuous increase in its usage. Throughout 1995, the growth rate of JARING membership reached an average of 22% per month. In the Seventh Malaysia Plan, the government implemented the National Information Superstructure and used JARING as the backbone infrastructure. To open up wider opportunities to the public, JARING signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with several JARING Access Services Provider (JASP) companies on 1st August 1996. This made it easier for the public in obtaining support services for accessing the Internet. Later, on 9th November 1996, JARING further signed an MOU with Asia Internet Holding (AIH) from Japan for upgrading Internet services for users locally and in the Asia Pacific. The network called JARING-A-Bone made it easier for Internet users to link up to websites in the Asian region. Such linkages provide faster and direct access for users in Asian countries that are linked to A-Bone. In May 1999, JARING began to offer international roaming services which covered more than 150 countries.
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On 11th June 1999, JARING made history by installing international lines with the speed of 45 Mbps, the first in this region (outside Japan). The lines were installed in conjunction with the biggest Internet conference in Asia, the INET 99. By late 1999, the total JARING membership stood at more than 100,000 people with a total number of users exceeding 300,000 people. To cater for users who kept on growing in numbers and needing better services, on 1st November 1996, Telekom Malaysia Berhad began its TMNet services as the second Internet Service Provider (ISP) in Malaysia after obtaining the licence from the government. By the end of 2000, other companies began to provide ISP services in Malaysia such as Maxis Communications Berhad, DiGi Telecommunications Sdn Bhd and Time Dot Com Berhad. Internet usage is expected to continue expanding quickly. The main challenge for us is for Malaysian society to use Internet technology to the fullest while knowing its limitations. We are very lucky to have identified the potentials of the Internet more than 10 years ago and have taken appropriate steps to build the Internet infrastructure up to a level that is much more advanced than that of other countries in this region. This can be seen as shown in Figure 2.1 below.
Figure 2.1: Internet usage in Malaysia
Source: Jorg Becker & Rahmah Hashim (2001) p. 94
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SELF-CHECK 2.1
How would you compare the development of the Internet in Malaysia with other countries in the world?
2.2 INTERESTING STORIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNET

There are many interesting stories as a result of the advancement of the Internet. Examples them are given below: 1. Napster In January 1999, Shawn Fanning, a student in Boston, USA, produced a software that enabled users to share files easily over the Internet. In May 1999, the website http://www.napster.com was set up. This website enabled users, especially university students, to share music files with other users via the Internet as shown in Figure 2.2. The sharing of music files, which were copyright materials, resulted in protests by the society of music producers in the USA. In December 1999, the society of music producers sued Napster. In October 2000, Napster was found guilty by the court of contravening laws for distributing copyrighted music files without permission and facilitating pirated copies among users. This incident shows how the Internet can be used to build a new economic model. In this model, producers deal directly with users without any middleman via the Internet. This saves cost. Previously, a music lover needed to buy a music CD or cassette at a high price from a music seller. Now, with Napster and the Internet, music lovers can acquire or download the music of their interest at a low price or even for free. Many people are of the opinion that music lovers use Napster as a protest against the very expensive price of music and the high profit gained by music companies.
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Figure 2.2: Website http://www.napster.com
2.
DeCSS In 1996, film production companies began to produce films in the form of DVD (Digital Video Disc). To avoid pirated copies, they used a protection scheme called CSS (Content Scrambling System). A DVD disc can store data up to 10 times more than a VCD disc. To see a film on a DVD disc, users need a DVD player, similar to the VCD player, but more expensive. At that time, the DVD was not yet popular. In 1999, two groups of programmers, one in Germany and one in Russia, were successful in cracking the CSS scheme and called their programme DeCSS. This programme enabled the film on DVD discs to be viewed on the computer. A 15-year old programmer was often highlighted in the media as the first person to have cracked the CDD scheme. This was not true. DVD film producers then sued all those involved in the production and distribution of DeCSS codes on the basis of copyright infringement.
3.
Netscape/Microsoft From 1996 to 1999, there was a war on Internet browser software between software giants Microsoft and Netscape. Why? Many people thought that whoever managed to control the market in the Internet browser software would ultimately control the Internet because the Internet browser is the "vehicle" for accessing the Internet. In 1996, Netscape produced the Netscape Navigator software and gave it out for free to users. The result was that Netscape controlled 80% of the Internet browser software. At that time, the Internet was becoming popular. Many companies began to realise the Internet as an attractive business opportunity. Many websites were developed, goods began to be sold and
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various services were offered. The question was how to access the Internet? Users began to use the Internet browser software. So, whoever was in control of the Internet browser market would also control the Internet. Microsoft Corporation entered the Internet quite late. After realising the importance of the Internet, Microsoft began to set out a strategy for controlling the Internet. Remember that Microsoft was controlling 90% of the PC operating systems market (9 out of 10 personal computers sold were using Windows 95/98/ME/XP system). As a first step, Microsoft produced the Internet Explorer which was also given out for free to customers. As a result, in 1998, almost 90% of the browser market was controlled by Internet Explorer. In 1998, the Department of Justice USA sued Microsoft on the grounds of monopolisation. Microsoft was said to be misusing the power of monopoly in computer operating systems to create a monopoly inside the Internet browser market. 4. Computer Virus ILOVEYOU In May 2000, an e-mail virus called ILOVEYOU was widely distributed over the Internet. This virus was sent via e-mails as an attachment with the title ILOVEYOU. Users then received these e-mails and opened the ILOVEYOU attachment which would cause the user's computer to get infected by the virus. This virus would then send its own copy to all e-mail addresses found inside the e-mail address book. This virus only works if the user uses Windows 95/98/ME and Microsoft Outlook e-mail software. It spread quickly and widely. Many e-mail servers became paralysed because of the virus. It destroyed data in the computer and was also difficult to remove. This incident points to a number of things. Firstly, the virus was very easy to write. For example, the ILOVEYOU virus was written by a student from the Philippines in Visual Basic. Secondly, the virus spread widely and quickly via e-mails. Within just a few hours, the virus spread to the USA and Europe. Thirdly, users are often not careful when they read attachments. The click action to open an attachment comes with a high risk. It is advisable that users use e-mail software that is safe, such as Eudora. After the incident, a number of new e-mail viruses began to spread with worse effects. For example, the NEWLOVE virus could wipe out data in the computer. It is advisable that users must often be aware of e-mails received and use anti-virus software to protect their computers.
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2.3 INTERNET LAWS

The Internet is not owned by anyone. Since every country with Internet has its own laws, the Internet is difficult to control legally. For example, the distribution of immoral acts, political controversies and illegal materials are allowed on websites in the USA because such distribution is based on the concept of freedom of speech. However, such websites can be accessed anywhere on the Internet, including in Malaysia, most of which may be wrong from the legal perspective. Consequently, even though such materials may be legally wrong, users in Malaysia can still access them. In summary, Cyber Laws in Malaysia may not be used to stop broadcasting of illegal materials outside of Malaysia. The Act has power on websites operating in Malaysia only. In line with the progress of the Internet, the Malaysian government has gazetted the Computer Crime Act 1999 to deal with unhealthy activities over the Internet.
2.4
INTERNET SECURITY, HACKERS AND CRACKERS

ACTIVITY 2.2
What are the differences between a Hacker and a Cracker?
There are many cases of illegal intrusion of websites. The term often used for website intruders is hacker. However, this is not accurate. According to Internet tradition, a hacker is a person who is interested in a certain field or who is an expert in computer programmes or who is interested in overcoming an intellectual challenge he is facing or who is fond of various computer programming techniques. This term is said to have begun around the 1960s at MIT, referring to a group of computer users who had the skills and expertise in the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Many veterans on the Internet considered the title of hacker as a sign of high respect for the skills and the ability that the person has. For example, Linus Torvalds who invented Linux or Richard Stallman who produced Emacs editor, were often regarded as hackers. Therefore, using the term hacker for website intruders is not accurate.
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Hackers have important work ethics, that is, information sharing which is a good practice. So, a hacker must share expertise, source codes and computer resources with other users. Many people have the opinion that hackers are responsible for the development of the Internet. They share various things like software, expertise and source codes. Website intruders are supposed to be called crackers. Many hackers think that crackers are irresponsible and immoral people. Usually, crackers or vandals are Internet users between 18 to 30 years of age, male and less skilled in computers. They only use various vandalism techniques that are easily obtainable from the Internet and target blindly to intrude any website. The media is usually inaccurate in using these two terms. A student needs to be encouraged to become a hacker because he may produce something important and interesting for everyone to use. A student should avoid becoming a cracker (or vandal). Appropriate punishment needs to be imposed upon crackers.
2.5
FUTURE OF THE INTERNET

ACTIVITY 2.3
In your opinion, is the present day Internet capable of satisfying the Internet users of the future? Do we need another Internet or "Internet 2" in the future? It is difficult to accurately predict the future of the Internet. Various new networks and Internet technologies have been introduced in the past two years. Information and data have increased exponentially on the Internet. The number of Internet users continues to grow in densely populated countries like China and India. Here are a few predictions of the future: (i) (ii) The Internet will be widely used for e-commerce. The Internet will be used to buy books, pizza, cars and flowers, to book flights, etc. The Internet will become another basic household item like refrigerators and telephones. There will be devices for browsing the Internet, just like the telephone and TV.
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(iii) Ipv6 protocol and 3G technology will be used widely. (iv) The number of Internet users will grow and will cause traffic congestion. Upgrading works will be needed to create high capacity lines for the Internet, such as research for developing Internet-2. (v) Data will increase exponentially. New search techniques will be introduced to search for information more easily and effectively.
(vi) Wireless Internet users via mobile phones will increase steadily. (vii) P2P (peer-to-peer) services and B2B (business-to-business) services via the Internet will grow. (viii) On-line education or e-learning will become a reality where many learning institutions will offer various on-line courses like the OUM.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. What do you understand by the terms hacker and cracker? Clarify their differences. Give your opinion on the Napster issue where Napster was found guilty of infringing the laws and helping to distribute copyrighted music files without permission. Do you agree (or disagree) with the court's decision? Explain.
2.
Development of the Internet in Malaysia began in 1983 when the first Malaysian network pioneer, Dr Mohamed Awang-Lah, mooted the idea of linking up Malaysia to the world via the Internet at the University of Malaya's laboratory. The Internet is not owned by anyone. Since every country with Internet has its own laws, the Internet is difficult to regulate. Cyber Laws in Malaysia may not be used to stop broadcasting of illegal materials outside of Malaysia.
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A hacker is a person who is interested in a certain field or who is an expert in computer programmes or who is interested in overcoming an intellectual challenge or who is fond of various computer programming techniques.
Cyber law Hacker
Computer virus
Topic ICT
Development in Malaysia
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Discuss the development of ICT in Malaysia; Explain in detail the functions of the National Information Technology Council (NITC) and its role in the ICT development of Malaysia; and Identify the initiatives taken by National Information Technology Council (NITC) between 1994 to 2001.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss the ICT developments and policies that have been implemented in Malaysia. Generally, the main objectives of ICT development in Malysia are as follows: 1. 2. 3. To increase competition and to help solve local economic problems. To improve and restore quality of life as well as provide more job opportunities for the people; To ensure that the country achieves information society status and be at par with other developed countries.
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TOPIC 3
ICT DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
3.1
THE DIRECTION OF GLOBAL ICT DEVELOPMENT
There are few similarities and differences in the strategies, approaches, goals and objectives in the development and implementation of the information technology infrastructures in various countries. In general, according to Raslan Ahmad (1999), the strategies, goals of development and implementation are dependent upon the socio-economic and technological level of a country. There are also other countries where the focus of implementation and approaches are orientated towards the technological aspects especially in the development of infrastructure, network and communication, information highway and application. In some other countries, focus is given to the socio-cultural aspects. ICT is a required component in all strategies, development plans and implementation programmes of the highly developed nations. The importance of ICT has been acknowledged and is receiving special attention especially policy makers. The importance, potentials and effects of ICT in a country's development and growth have led governments to make sure that ICT is embedded in every economic and social plans of their countries. In Singapore, ICT has been given priority in realising the government's vision in creating a "Smart Island" starting from 1992. In the USA, former vice president Al-Gore, launched the USA's vision of "National Information Infrastructure". The Ministry of International Trade and Industries (MITI) in Japan has come up with a report entitled "National Information Infrastructure Programme" in 1994. This programme was created by those who saw Japan as being behind others in ICT. Similar ICT initiatives have also been taken by other countries, namely Canada (Canada Super Corridor), Finland (Finland Towards an Informative Society Country Strategy), and Sweden (Projection of Human Abilities). In India, ICT initiatives were derived from the economic reformation in the early 1990s under the Rao Administration. In 1994, a new telecommunication policy was given highest priority in the country (Petrazzini & Harindranath, 1997). In the Philippines, a National Information Technology Plan (NITP 2000) was hosted with the vision of creating an Intelligent Philippines Nation as a strategy to empower ICT among its people, to develop socio-economy and also to increase global competitiveness in the Philippines.
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Table 3.1: ICT Development Programmes in Selected Countries No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Country Singapore United States of America Japan Canada Finland Sweden South Africa India Philippines ICT Development Project Smart Island National Information Infrastructure National Programme Information Infrastructure Year 1992 n.a 1994 n.a n.a n.a 1996 1994 2000
Canada Super Corridor Finland Towards an Informative on Society Projection of Human Abilities Information Society New Telecommunication Policy National Information Technology Plan
There are many reasons why more developed countries are launching their ICT initiatives. According to Talero (1997), ICT plays a significant role in the following: To eradicate poverty To minimise the exclusion of rural area To educate the people and to support lifelong learning To increase effectiveness of economic reformation To preserve and protect the environment To improve medium to small scale businesses To participate in international trading
Studies carried out by Arnold and Guy (1992) and Bessant et.al (1985) on the diffusion and innovation of ICT have shown that there are at least 3 reasons why governments around the world formulated ICT policies.
- ICT contributes towards national economic growth In accordance to Arnold and Guy (1992) ICT is made into a national development - ICT increases the growth of other economic sectors policy because: - ICT improves efficiency and national security.
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EXERCISE 3.1
Choose a country other than Malaysia. Briefly explain the ICT policies of the selected country and state when these policies were implemented.
3.2 WAY FORWARD FOR ICT DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA

SELF-CHECK 3.1
When did Malaysia first introduce the national IT policy? To wht extent is the success of our IT policy? Malaysia is actively participating in the efforts of ICT diffusion of innovation. Several ICT-related policies have been implemented since the 1980s. In 1985, the Industrial Master Plan (IMP) was propelled, taking into consideration the potential of the electronic and information technology industries. IMP is focused on the security industry which is another strategic industry to be developed. In 1990, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment published a report entitled "The Development of the Technology Industry Malaysia's Action Plan" (MOSTE, 1990) which once again reinforced the significant role of microelectronic and ICT in the process of development in Malaysia. In 1992, Malaysia clearly defined the countrys objective to achieve a developed status while pursuing the conceptualisation of a richly informed society in Vision 2020.
. . . by the year 2020, Malaysia can be a united nation, with a confident Malaysian society, infused by strong moral and ethical values, living in a society that is democratic, liberal and tolerant, caring, economically just and equitable, progressive and prosperous, and in full possession of an economy that is competitive, dynamic, robust and resilient, In the information age that we are living in, the Malaysian society must be information rich. It can be no accident that there is today no wealthy, developed country that is information-poor and no information-rich country that is poor and undeveloped (Mahathir Mohamed - The Way Forward, 1991).
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In realising Vision 2020, the Malaysian government has implemented various policies, initiatives, programmes and projects in activating the usage and development of Malaysias ICT. The next section will explain in detail the policies, initiatives, programmes and projects in the ICT growth and development in Malaysia.
3.2.1
The Third Long-Term Planning Framework
In the 3rd Long-Term Planning framework (2000 to 2010), the government has decided to focus and concentrate on strengthening the critical elements that will support the K-Economy using ICT as a technological strategy. In developing KEconomy, the government aims to achieve the following objectives as stated in Table 3.2
Table 3.2: Why K-Economy for Malaysia No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Objectives To develop Malaysias economy based on knowledge. To foster sustainable development. To increase the dynamic capabilities in the agricultural, industrial and service sectors. To eradicate poverty/increase quality of life. To increase effective participation and ownership equity of Bumiputera to at least 30 percent by 2010. To encourage the involvement of Bumiputera in the major economic sectors. Establish the development of human resources to support society based on knowledge.
To attain the development of K-Economy, the government will focus on the following aspects: (a) Development of Knowledge Workforce To succeed in an economy that is knowledge-driven, Malaysia aims to attract expatriates and talented Malaysians abroad who are experts in their respective fields. The recruitment of scientists and engineers in the field of research and development (R&D) among fellow Malaysians that are abroad will be extended to include new expertise and business technologies of different fields based upon different types of knowledge.
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(b)
Development of K-Economy Environment The government has taken steps to ensure a stable macro economic environment, by preparing the basic infrastructure and also have a suitable, comprehensive and regulated framework for the development of a sustainable K-economy environment. More efforts will be concentrated to develop science and technology (S&T) and research and development (R&D) in the strategic fields of economic development through the acquirement of knowledge. The government has also outlined the policies to develop more local technologically-inclined entrepreneurs who will eventually market their products in the international market. In developing the divisions of market capital and local expertise, the government also encourages the presence of foreign investments. In addition, the governments investment arm will be managed by a professional investment organisation with the participation of foreigners.
3.2.2
The Seventh Malaysia Plan
The Seventh Malaysia Plan was the turning point in the history of Malaysias ICT policy. For the first time, in the series of Malaysias five year development plans, a chapter was dedicated to ICT development in the Seventh Malaysia Plan. The topic discusses strategic thrusts, advancements and prospects of ICT development including Malaysias policies with regards to ICT. During the Seventh Malaysia Plan period, the government idnetified the seven main strategic thrusts of ICT development from 1995 to 2000 (See Table 3.3.).
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Table 3.3: Seven Strategic Thrusts of ICT Development, 1995 to 2000 Seven Strategic Thrusts of ICT Development 1. The government will ensure that the diffusion and usage of ICT in the country are well spread within and between sectors to stimulate productivity and competition while improving the peoples quality of life. The government intends to form a national action plan to ensure that management approach of ICT development is systematic in this country. This is specifically catered towards the enculturation of ICT, the implementation of national ICT application projects such as Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) and Smart City. The government will extend the ICT education and training in line with the planned increase in the demand for expertise, knowledge and ICT skills. The government will revise the rules and regulations that are restraining the progress of ICT. The government will encourage development in the local ICT industries from the aspects of design and production of innovative products, systems and services which will create new opportunities for growth, expertise and job opportunities in an advanced technological field. The government aims to move Malaysia towards becoming a regional ICT hub in Malaysia. The government plans to increase the awareness of ICT among the people.
2.
3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
3.2.3
The Eighth Malaysia Plan
The government has identified eight strategic thrusts under the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2000 2005): (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) To create an information technology, communication and multimedia hub for Malaysia. To improve the standards and enhance the communication infrastructure. To enhance the development of human resources in the field of ICT. To encourage e-commerce and to increase its usage. To foster local potential in designing the content of development. To widen the implementation of flagship applications of multimedia super corridor application. To facilitate the formation of critical ICT-based small and medium industry groups (SMI). To encourage research and development (R&D) activities.
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3.2.4
The Ninth Malaysia Plan
To increase the level of competition in K-Economy, the governments national mission is to increase skilled and knowledgeable work force in the Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006 2010).
(a) (b) To generate new wealth resources through ICT To increase the country's education potential and innovation while fostering a "First Class Mentality".
3.3 THE NATIONAL IT COUNCIL (NITC)

To help advice the government on the right course of action, plans, implementations and developments of ICT, Malaysia established a National IT Council in 1994 with the vision of creating a society that is information rich, in line with the aspiration of Vision 2020. NITC comprises representatives from the public and private sectors amd is chaired by the Prime Minister. The goal of NITC is to increase the development and usage of ICT as a strategic technology towards the development of the country. NITC acts as the executive thinking body and to advise the government about issues regarding the development of ICT in Malaysia.
Figure 3.1 shows the operational structure of NITC.
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Figure 3.1: Operational structure of NITC
All recommendations and policies formulated by NITC are forwarded to the Cabinet to be approved and eventually implemented by government agencies at the federal, state and local governments, and all public agencies. Any progress or challenges faced during implementation of approved policies are regarded as input for NITCs improvement and consideration. To Tengku Mohd Azzman (1996), the planning and management of ICT under the guidance of NITC were equivalent to that of developed nations. He believed that NITC had succeeded in making sure that ICT would be the strategic technology and the basis for the countrys development process. There are a few important developments that have been achieved (see Figure 3.2).
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Figure 3.2: Some of NITCs accomplishments Figure 3.2 illustrates the various initiatives of NITC since 1994. They include the
following:

Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), National IT Agenda (NITA), Demonstrator Application Grant Scheme (DAGS), Five Strategic Thrusts in activating the migration of Malaysians into the electronic world, Knowledge Economy (K-Economy), Subang Jaya 2005, and other initiatives.
Visit the following website http://www.nitc.org.my/nita/index.shtml to understand further about NITC.
3.3.1
The National IT Agenda (NITA)

SELF-CHECK 3.1
You have been following the discussions of the history and objective of NITC incorporation. Does National IT Agenda also have the same objective as NITC?
TOPIC 3
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National Information Technology Agenda (NITA) was established in the year 1996 with the intent of preparing a comprehensive framework for the development of the information era. The basis for the establishment of NITA are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. To shift the country towards being an informative society based upon the value that goes in line with Vision 2020; To focus upon human development as a whole; To foster co-operation and synergy among three sectors which are the public sector, private sector and the community; and To use the top-down and bottom-up approaches in the planning and implementation
By implementing the NITAs theme, Changing the Ripples into Waves, NITA has identified three strategic components that should be given accentuation; the human development, the development of info-structure and the development of content and application. Figure 3.3 illustrates in details the connection between these three NITA components that are required to be developed with stability.
Figure 3.3: Interconnectivity of the NITAs three Components
(a)
Human Development NITA has identifies the three main strategic fields that require attention in human development;
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Figure 3.4: Three strategic fields in human development
Individuals or groups should be given the opportunities to pursue their education, to develop their skills and be given opportunities to be exposed to new cultures. Due to these reasons, a few programmes have been suggested to take place. For example, to create an environment that fosters Smart Learning for every citizen; to provide internet services in every school; to build multimedia universities; to provide basic computer learning programmes; and electronic distant learning programmes for those who are interested. (b) The Development of Info-Structure The development of info-structure requires three strategies namely:
Figure 3.5: Three strategies of info-structure development
The development of info-structure comprise of: (i) (ii) An info-structure that has wide network and coverage Equipments that can be used by everyone, and
(iii) Substantial rules and regulations
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The programmes that have been suggested are electronic community, mobile computing, and the manufacturing of local brand products that are economically viable and easily accessible by Malaysians. The new laws and legislation such as cyber law and international cyber court justice have also recommended. (c) The Development of Content and Application The developments of application comprise of development of the creation of ICT application and local development. The ICT application development strategies are: Indigenous content Interactivity Infotainment, edutainment and info communication The examples of the development of ICT application programmes for the above categories are listed in Table 3.4
Table 3.4: Examples of Programmes for the Strategic Development of ICT Applications Development Strategy The Development of Indigenous Content Example of Programmes The establishment of smart schools, multi-purpose cards, R&D groups, electronic governance, world wide network, borderless marketing and tele-health. The existence of appropriate content with the indigenous cultures and cultures of Asia is another programme that is workable. Programmes under the interactivity strategy include creating an electronically-inclined society, electronic library, electronic newspapers publication and teleshopping. The infotainment, edutainment and info communication strategy requires programmes such as tele-conferencing, multimedia electronic e-mail and focus be given to the contents of infotainment and edutainment in the media and on-demand online education services.
Interactivity
Infotainment, edutainment and info communication
All the three components are interrelated. To encourage the public to transform into a knowledgeable class and one that is capable of using the ICT applications, they will require access and interest of the info-structure facilities.
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The developed ICT applications must send out positive vibes that will bring about qualitative transformation to the life of society. Besides the development of info-structure, application and content, the economic, social and cultural values should also be developed. NITAs goal is to create a civil society that bears all the characteristics as stated in Vision 2020. To ensure that NITA achieves its goal, the Cabinet Meeting at its 16 April 1997 meeting has made several decisions. These decisions are illustrated in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: The Decisions of the Council Ministry and NITAs Objectives No. 1. Decisions of the Council Ministry Malaysias Information Technology Agenda will be accepted as a national strategy in the efforts of developing the country and building a society that is complete and empowered with information and knowledge; All ministries, departments and government agencies on all governmental levels, namely federal, state and local must enforce National Information Technology Agenda as their IT development and usage agenda respectively. Each government agency is required to create a strategic Information Technology Development Framework in implementing all the programmes and activities. This is important in realising the governments goal of having all governmental agencies performing high quality, competent and effective services while ensuring Total Factor Productivity respectively; Each agency is required to plan their budget for the development and usage of ICT. In the year 1997, at least 5% from the management budget was allocated for Demonstrator Applications, application development programme, human resources and system in the IT field. This allocated amount is increased each year until it reaches 10% in the year 2000; NITC is working closely with the Economy Planning Unit whom at present is developing the Quality of Life Index to create a conservation mechanism and indicators to evaluate the degree of success in the implementations of National Information Technology Agenda from time to time. In line with the Malaysias incorporated policy and the smart partnership concept, all government agencies must take the initiatives to start the Demonstrator Applications project by involving non-profitable organisations (NPO) and non-governmental organisations (NGO) in their programmes and activities.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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3.3.2
The Five Strategic Thrusts
In realising NITA and Malaysias transformation into the electronic world, NITC has outlined three phases of the migration plan in 1998 (See Figure 3.6)
Figure 3.6: Three levels of transformation of Malaysians
(a)
First Phase Information Society In the First Phase, focus was on the development of an Information Society by 2005. Within the social framework, the objective of this phase was to prepare for information access by every individual. In terms of economy, ICT had to be in the main economic sector. Second Phase Knowledge Society In the second phase, efforts are made to develop a knowledge society (K- Society) by the year 2010. In this second phase, the culture of lifelong learning must exist in order for each member of society to solve current and future problems. In the economic dimension, the focus is to the creation of value-added products and services based on knowledge. Among the pre requisites of K-society is a society that possesses a corpus of knowledge, has access to it, and know how to use knowledge as a basis for decision making and action. To become a K-society, every member of the society must be literate.
(b)
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(c)
Third Phase Knowledge Society based on Values In the third phase, the focus and goal is for society to be a fully Knowledge Society based on values by the year 2020. For this society, the economy will be one that is competitive and based on knowledge or what is termed as K-economy. Meanwhile, society still preserves traditional values unified, with high moral values, ethical, tolerant in line with sustainable development. Figure 3.7 illustrates the transformation of our nation to a Knowledge - based society.
Figure 3.7: Transformation of the nation towards a knowledge-based society
NITC has identified five strategic thrusts to ensure a smooth transition of Malaysians towards a value-based K-society (see Table 3.6).
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Table 3.6: NITC Strategic Agenda Thrust Area E-Economy Thrusts All economic sectors in Malaysia create value and wealth through the successful participation in the global economy which is knowledge-based Public sector, private sector and community provide services that are people oriented and focused on electronic customer service Community networks dynamic participation in process enhancement of quality of life of Malaysians Formal and informal networks provide opportunities to build a lifelong learning culture for the growth and development of individuals, institutions and society. Citizens and institutions focus on improving the countrys identity and national security in the borderless world. Main Focus Knowledge based economy
E-Public Services
Delivery of goods and public services
E-Community
Participation of community to enhance quality of life Lifelong learning culture
E-Learning
E-Sovereignty
A strong identity for the nation
3.3.5
The K-Economy
The idea of K-Economy was mooted by NITC during the MSC International Multimedia Asia Exhibition in 1999. The main focus of K-Economy is to create a knowledge-based economy which is a paradigm shift from the production-based economy (P-Economy). K-Economy uses the information and knowledge approach to enhance economic activities. As stated by the former Prime Minister, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamed in officiating the Second Global Knowledge Conference (GK2) in March 2000, K-Economy is not an elite process but involves every class of society from teachers to students, to fishermen and housewives. K-Economy involves changing societal values in the work culture and way of thinking. It involves change from capital to knowledge as a production factor.
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One important element in K-Economy is human capital or intellectual capital and structural capital. In the Malaysian context, K-Economy is defined as the economy whereby knowledge, creativity and innovation play important roles in building and sustaining economic growth. In K-Economy, knowledge is the most critical factor for production. It will generate more wealth as compared to other traditional production factors such as land, labour and capital. Knowledge by itself is a commodity. It is different from economy based on production or P-Economy, where knowledge is not as important and growth is driven by an accumulation of traditional factors of productions. In K-Economy, human capital are specifically those knowledgeable and skillful who are the most important and essential assets. K-Economy comprises high investments in research and development, high literacy rate, involvement of highly educated individuals, capability of technology and skills, strength in innovation, and the high utilisation rate of ICT and Internet.
Table 3.7: Summarises the Main Types of Information About Knowledge and K-Economy What does knowledge mean? Knowledge can be categorised into two types: tacit knowledge and codified knowledge. Knowledge can be divided into know-what, know-how and know-why. What is tacit knowledge? Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is kept in the mind or absorbed by individuals. It is accepted, learned, accumulated through education, training and continuous work experience, communication, and socialisation. What is codified knowledge? When codified knowledge is written down and documented, it becomes written knowledge. The mathematical formula and IT security programme are examples of codified knowledge. Codified knowledge is easier to spread as compared to tacit knowledge. What is P-Economy? Economy based on production or P-Economy is the easiest term used to explain an economy where the role of knowledge is less important than growth. The growth in P-Economy is generated through the accumulation of production factors such as land, labour and capital. What is K-Economy? In the Malaysian context, K-Economy is defined as an economy where knowledge, creativity and innovation are important factors in economic growth
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There are several reasons why Malaysia needs to migrate into the E-Economy era. The Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ISIS) has identified various reasons, namely: 1. Malaysian products are facing stiff competition from other foreign countries like China, India, Vietnam and Indonesia that have cheap labour and excessive resources. Malaysia will have to take appropriate and progressive measures in areas that will provide competitiveness. Globalisation and liberalisation affect protectionist policies. Malaysia, being a developing nation will have to identify new prospects for products and services with more potential in the newly formed global economic market. Rising costs, especially labour costs. Malaysia must ensure that a high value is added on to its industrial products, hence guaranteeing it a competitive edge. Generally, this refers to knowledge-based industries.
2.
3.
There exists at least six reasons why Malaysia should consider the development of K-Economy namely: (a) To develop a source of power that is high in quality This requires three methods: (i) (ii) Increase the quality of education from primary school to the level of higher learning institutions. Encourage training and re-training of managers and staff in order to fulfill the needs of the current information technology market.
(iii) Employ trained foreign workers temporarily. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) To encourage K-Economy To stress the need to increase Internet usage To encourage K-Economy in the private sector To involve the public sector To decrease the knowledge and digital gap
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EXERCISE 3.2
1. 2. 3. What are the roles and responsibilities of NITC? What are the differences between MSC and NITA? What is the difference between the electronic society and knowledge society?
Topic 6 discusses in detail the direction of ICT development in the country. Many policies, initiatives, programmes and projects were identified and discussed to indicate Malaysias seriousness to enculturate ICT. In addition, the government has also established NITC to plan and execute all the strategies to develop ICT. A few NITC initiatives were identified and discussed including MSC, NITA, DAGS projects, K-society and K-economy.
Topic Information
Technology, Issues and Opportunities
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. Assess and discuss ethical issues in IT; and Discuss the implications of privacy, security and ergonomics in IT.
INTRODUCTION
Now, we are in the information era where technology has widened our capability of extracting, manipulating, storing and communicating information. The information system (IS) is made up of hardware, software, and people who are users of IS. The information system can be used for good as well as for bad purposes. We shall see and study how various issues arise because of the human element. However, it also creates a number of opportunities in this human-IT environment.
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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ISSUES AND OPPORTUNITIES
4.1 PROFESSIONALISM, ETHICS AND SOCIETY

Ethics is about human values, behaviour and moral conduct; whether it brings about good or bad influences on human beings. You may ask, what is the relationship between ethics and information technology? Firstly, the advancement of IT has created a world without borders. We can now interact with anyone regardless of location while data too can be moved from one location to another. Apart from the advantages of using IT, we also need to be aware of irresponsible parties who exploit IT for the wrong reasons. In almost all organisations, IT is used as a tool to help organisations manage efficiently. Professional managers use IT to help them in making strategic decisions. For example: (i) (ii) Does management need to monitor staff activity electronically? Is there a need to see all e-mails of junior staff ?
(iii) Are the staff allowed to access other peoples files? (iv) Is it possible to sell customer and/or organisations information to other people? IT has positive and negative effects on society, namely: (i) (ii) Societal solutions Employment: Workers risk being unemployed when management reduces staff size because some work processes are done by robots.
(iii) Working conditions: Use of IT can improve quality of work and the environment. (iv) Health: Use of IT hardware can endanger its users, such as deteriorating eye-sight, exposure to radiation, etc. (v) Privacy: Personal information, data mining and e-mail are exposed to personal trespassing.
(vi) Individuality: In system development, one must think of the human factor, ergonomic factor and information system failure. (vii) Crime: Can happen as a result of the negative use of IT
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ACTIVITY 4.1
There are companies that monitor Internet activities and Websites. Most of these firms sell a list of personal profiles without permission. How do you safeguard yourself? Many ethical issues may arise when IT is implemented as a result of information error, trespassing, privacy and environmental pollution. The following are listed by the Computer Ethics Institute as a guide for users and computer professionals: (i) (ii) Do not use computers to destroy human beings. Do not disturb another person's computer work.
(iii) Do not trespass into another person's computer files. (iv) Do not use computers to steal. (v) Do not use computers as a false witness. (vi) Do not use or copy software that are not purchased legally. (vii) Do not use another person's computer resource without permission or payment. (viii) Do not use another person's intellectual output without permission. (ix) Think of the social impact of IT programmes or systems being developed. (x) Use computers with consideration and respect for other people.
If all computer users follow all the proposed guidelines by the Computer Ethics Institute, we may not have to worry about security. While ethics is a standard moral conduct computer ethics is a guideline for using computers so as to be morally acceptable in our society. We can categorise the ethics of using computers into four main issues, as shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Ethics on the use of computers
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(i) (ii)
Individuality is about the collection and use of data for an individual. Accuracy is about the responsibility of data collectors to ensure that data are true and accurate.
(iii) Ownership is related to someone who owns data and has a right over the software. (iv) Accessibility is related to the responsibility of someone who has the data to control others who can use the data. The Centre for Democracy and Technology controls the issue of individuality and legality. To know the details of this organisation, visit Website www.cdt.org
4.2
COMPUTER SYSTEM CONTROL AND SECURITY ISSUES
Will there be negative consequences of technological advancements? IT experts agree that our society needs to be aware of negative impacts of technology particularly security and privacy issues. We also need to pay attention to the negative impact on the environment as a result of the products generated by computers. Let us elaborate on these issues.
4.2.1
Threat on Computer Security
Cyber crimes can threaten computer security. They include virus attacks and electronic vandalism. The most important resource inside computers is data. The confidentiality of data and information depends on how well computers are kept away from criminals, natural disasters and other threats. The threats to computer security are shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Threats to computer security
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(i)
Computer Criminals Computer crimes are often committed by unauthorised people with specific knowledge in computer technology. Computer criminals may comprise the following: (a) Staff: The largest category of computer criminals are those who can easily access computers. They are normally staff who know the company secrets. Outside Users: Suppliers or customers can also access the company's computer system for example, bank customers who use the ATM. These authorised users can obtain the secret password or look for alternative ways of committing computer crimes. Hackers and Vandals: Hackers are people who gain unauthorised access to a computer system for fun. Vandals perform the same thing but for the purpose of vengeance. They may intend to steal technical information or to introduce what is called a logical bomb a computer programme that destroys the computer. Cloning Crimes: These are carried out by members of criminal groups who use computer technology to copy, clone and imitate passports, identity cards, driving licenses and copyrights for illegal purposes.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(ii)
Computer Crimes Computer crimes include the following: (a) Destruction: Workers who are not happy with their employers may try to destroy the computer programmes or files. Hackers and vandals can produce and spread dangerous programmes such as viruses. A virus is a programme that spreads via the network and operating system. It always moves from one computer to another through floppy disc copies, programmes downloaded from the Internet or e-mail circulations. Theft: Hardware, software, data and services can be stolen. Hardware theft can happen in the computer laboratory where thieves can enter and steal computer equipment inside the laboratory. Professional thieves may steal important company data and information and sell
(b)
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them to outsiders. They may also steal services provided by the company and use them for personal gain. Without realising it, we may also steal some software. This happens when ever we borrow Microsoft C or other software from friends and copy them into our own computer at home. According to the Copyright Act (Amended) 1997, the doer can be sued, punished, or imprisoned for the offence. (c) Manipulation: A hacker may succeed in entering the network and leave a message. This can cause anger to computer users. According to Computer Crime Act 1997, unauthorised access to computer material is punishable for up to RM50,000 or imprisonment for up to five years or both.
(iii) Calamities There are other factors that can threaten a computer system and data security, namely: (a) Natural Disaster: Natural disasters cannot be avoided, for example fire, flood, hurricanes, typhoon, tsunami and earthquakes. A backup copy of the programmes, data and information needs to be stored at a safe location to avoid disasters that cannot be predicted. Sabotage: A country that is rocked by political problems, riots, war or sabotage, may also face destruction of computer systems. Technological Failure: Total dependence on computer systems causes us to be overdependent on the technology. Technological failure may be due to excessive voltage because of lightning, electrical disruptions, short circuit and other factors. If we do not make backup copies, data may be lost. Human Error As human beings, we may make a lot of mistakes. Data entered may contain errors. Programmes developed may also have mistakes. There are several mistakes in systems designs and this may cause system procedures to be disorganised.
(b)
(c)
(d)
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SELF-CHECK 4.1
What are the three types of computer crimes? In each case, give one example of how it can collide with the normal computer use.
4.2.2
Controls for Computer Security
Security of information, hardware and software need to be safeguarded against unauthorised use and destruction because of trespasses, sabotage and natural disasters. We can see why the security issue is the most crucial component of ICT. The four types of controls to ensure quality and security of computer-based systems are shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Four types of computer security controls
(i)
Information System Controls This puts control on the information system itself. This type of control ensures accuracy, originality and ownership of the information system. The following controls need to be done: (a) (b) (c) (d) Input control: e.g. security codes, data entry screen, error signals and total control. Processing control: e.g. software control, hardware control and checkpoint control. Output control: e.g. security codes, control total, list control and user feedbacks. Storage control: e.g. security codes, storage files, library method and database administration.
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(ii)
Programme Control This is a control on the programme that runs in the computer. Control of this type is a method of determining how organisations operate information services with guaranteed security. Among the controls performed are: (a) (b) Division of work into system development, computer operations, and others as different groups. Standard method and documentation which are regularly updated for example the ISO 9002 system. Authorisation requirement is used for all requests of system development, programme and computer alterations which need to be approved first and such alterations need to be signed by the doers so as to be easily recognised. Disaster recovery needs to be planned in facing natural disasters, human errors and technical failure of computer systems.
(c)
(d)
(iii) End-user Computing Control This is a method for systems that are developed in accordance with organisational policies, that is a method of informing users when changes occur and there is a need for training. This control is much needed for critical applications. (iv) Control on Physical Facilities This control is a method for safeguarding the physical facilities and their content from loss or destruction. It is normally based on: (a) (b) (c) (d) Things we own like keys, identity cards, etc. Things we know like passwords, IC numbers, etc. Things we do like signatures, etc. Things related to our bodies like voice, thumb prints, etc.
Examples of physical facilities controls are: (a) Encryption and firewalls: Encryption is a method used to alter a message into a certain form so that nobody can read the message except the receiver. Encryption issue is important for e-commerce implementation. An example of free software for encrypting documents is Pretty Good Privacy (PGP). Firewall is a computer programme or a host computer with the function of controlling a computer network from attacks by outsiders. This technique is widely used by organisations to prevent attacks by vandals from the Internet.
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(b) (c) (d)
Physical protection control is given for physical protection and natural disasters. Biometric control uses security characteristics of finger prints, voice, and others based on the individuals biometric profile. Control on computer failure uses a fault-tolerant technique to overcome failures that may be due to electricity, damages in electric circuits, programming, device and human errors.
4.2.3
Privacy Issues
Today, there are more than 300 million computers being used. Every computer user should be aware of the main clauses of ethical conduct and privacy laws. Here, a discussion is made on privacy rights that should be observed while we communicate and use IT applications. Among the definitions used for individuality are: (i) (ii) Rights of privacy. Rights of individual persons, groups or organisations to determine for themselves, when, how and what kind of information can be distributed to other people.
IT has facilitated the process of data collection and storage. For example, bank stores data on every customer which includes age, marital status, total savings, total loans, saving conducts and others. Universities keep student records which include academic achievements, co-curricular activities, types of studies, types of financial support, age, parent is occupations, nationality and others. If customers have credit cards, the bank will have data on spending habits, methods of debt repayments, types of purchase, income and others. All these are personal data and can be used for evaluating an individuals way of life. Therefore: (i) (ii) Who has the right over these data? Can the bank sell personal data of individuals to other companies for marketing purposes?
(iii) Can a bank provide information on individual savings to other banks for the purpose of loan approvals? (iv) How can individuals determine the accuracy of their personal data? The Internet has opened up this issue of privacy even more widely. With the Internet, people can use e-mails for communication. Privacy issues that may arise from the use of e-mails include the following:
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(i) (ii)
Are the contents of e-mails secured against intrusion? Are the contents of e-mails regarded as personal items that cannot be publicised to other parties?
(iii) Does the employer have the right to read employee e-mails? (iv) Whether the government have the right to filter e-mail contents? (v) Can the contents of e-mail be used as evidence in court?
Actually, e-mails that are sent through the Internet are not safe as anyone from anywhere can simply read them. The e-mail is like a post-card. All e-mail messages are open for all to read. A number of techniques have been introduced to ensure safety of messages inside e-mails. A technique is to encrypt the message, whereby it is converted into a form of codes. Research on encryption is still on-going and various techniques have been devised to better safeguard against intrusion by irresponsible persons. Another example is the use of multi-purpose smart cards. MyKad is a prime project that has been developed for MSC. This card contains information on identity card numbers, driving licence numbers, passport information, ATM, touch-and-go and health information. The smart card that has been introduced is a kind of smart card with multiple purposes. Before this, most smart cards introduced all over the world are multi-purpose such as for boarding transit train systems, toll payments and calling pre-paid phones. The smart card being used in Malaysia is a smart card that contains personal information. Such cards have been introduced in other countries but have been not successful. Privacy issues that arise as a result of using the smart card are: (i) (ii) The validity of information contained in the smart card. Data security against intrusion by other parties if the card is lost or stolen.
(iii) How to update data inside the smart card? Privacy is an ethical issue. Individuals have shown that they are very concerned with the right over personal information and how it is used.
4.2.4
Guide for Safe Computing
As computer users, we are advised to use computers in a proper way. Some good guidelines are as follows: (i) When sharing information or data, ensure that they are done carefully to avoid the spread of virus.
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(ii)
Be careful with civil software like Bulletin Board System (BBS) that normally contains Trojan horse that is, a software that may be good/bad.
(iii) Do not make unauthorised copies of software. (iv) Examine and delete virus regularly by using antivirus software. (v) Take care of the diskette well. (vii) If there is sensitive information, secure the computer and its files. (viii) Make copies frequently. (ix) When sending sensitive information via the Internet, encrypt the information. (x) Be prepared for the worst situations, for example: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Computers cannot boot because of virus. Hard disk cannot be accessed. Thesis file that is almost complete but cannot be read. All test data are attacked by virus and cannot be saved. Processor fails, keyboard fails, and others.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
State some of the actions to be taken to safeguard computer security.
4.3
HEALTH AND ERGONOMICS
The use of computers enables one to be more productive in ones work but it may also result in lesser productivity. As a result, scientists and experts have conducted research in ergonomics. Ergonomics is the study of ways of ensuring a healthy life in relation to the use of computer equipment.
It is concerned with adapting work to suit workers and not to force workers to adapt themselves to the work. It is also known as human factor engineering, that is, a study or science of design to ensure a working environment that is healthy, safe and entertaining. Such an environment will upgrade staff morale and productivity and avoid putting health at risk.
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4.3.1 Health Problems

Staring at the screen for too long with uncomfortable seating can give rise to physical problems. The use of IT equipment at work and elsewhere, will give rise to health issues such as the following: (i) (ii) Job stress because of the situation in the work environment. Exposure to radiation because of extensive use of the computer.
(iii) Computer vision syndrome like eye pain, eye dryness, itchiness, unclear sight and headache as a result of staring at the computer screen for too long. (iv) Effects on tissues like hands and neck because of the following: (a) (b)
Repetitive stress injuries because of typing for too long. Muscular skeletal disorder (MSD), that is, design of computer
equipment that creates discomfort that results in organs becoming fatigued.
(c) (v)
Pain in fingers, wrist, arm, neck and backbone.
Video operator's distress syndrome caused by excessive use of terminals.
(vi) Cumulative trauma disorder caused by excessive use of terminals. (vii) Death because of work pressure or accident. Several techniques that can be used to overcome the above health problems are: (i) (ii) To use adjustable chair, table, keyboard, mouse and other equipment that is more ergonomic. To adopt green computerisation. The use of monitors and printers that fulfils the guidelines from Environment Protection Agency (EPA), in USA, known as Energy Star.
(iii) To use anti-glare on the monitor. This technique is said to prevent users from getting headaches and unclear vision if they face the computer monitor for too long. (iv) To use an ELF screen that provides air in 6 feet areas around the monitor. (v) To create healthy environment and culture, such as: (a) (b) Resting your eyes for 15 minutes for every 2 hours of work, by staring at green objects or far distances. Work according to your own energy capacity, not according to pressure or workload.
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(c)
Exercise appropriately, such as exercising while sitting, eye exercise, etc.
(vi) Get ready with a paper holder for placing documents that need typing. (vii) Monitor screen needs to be 3 or 4 times clearer than the room light. (viii) Screen needs to be 15-30 degrees below the eye. (ix) Fingers need to be over 10 degrees from the elbow while typing. (x) The use of a resting place for hands and feet.
In Figure 4.4, a sketch is shown to illustrate the ideal situation while using computers.
Figure 4.4: Ideal situation while using computers
EXERCISE 4.1
1. What are activities you can do to avoid eye stress, headache, pain in the back-bone and neck that are related to computers? State several physical health problems that are related to frequent use of computers. What are the differences between hackers and vandals?
2.
3.
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Efficient end-users need to be aware of the potential impact of technology on human beings. They should be responsive and knowledgeable about individuality, privacy, organisational safety, ergonomics and the impact of technology towards the environment. Ethics is about behaviour and moral conduct; whether it brings about good or bad influences on human beings. Many ethical risks may arise when IT is implemented as a result of information error, trespassing privacy and environmental pollution. Ten points that have been proposed by the Computer Ethics Institute as a guide for users and computer professionals are: (i) (ii) Do not use computers to destroy human beings. Do not disturb another person's computer work.
(iii) Do not trespass into another persons computer files. (iv) Do not use computers to steal. (v) Do not use computers as a false witness. (vi) Do not use or copy software that are not purchased legally. (vii) Do not use another person's computer resource without permission or payment. (viii) Not to use another person's intellectual output without permission. (ix) (x)
Think of the social impact of IT programmes or systems being developed. Use computers with consideration and respect for other people.
Things that can threaten computer security are computer crimes (including virus, electronic vandalism), natural disasters and other calamities. Security of information, hardware and software need to be safeguarded against unauthorised use and destruction because of trespasses, sabotage and natural disasters. Encryption is a method used to alter a message into a certain form so that nobody can read the message except the receiver Ergonomics is the study of ways of ensuring a healthy life in relation to the use of computer equipment.
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Security Privacy Ergonomics Encryption
Electronic vandalism Cloning crimes Green computerisation
Topic Global
Media System
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Identify the global media in Malaysia; Discuss the function and role of several stakeholders in the media industry. Discuss the opportunities and challenges of the ICT era on media practitioners. Discuss the effects of global media on society.
INTRODUCTION
In the first topic, we were introduced to the main concepts of ICT. We have discussed the rapid development of telecommunications in Malaysia as a result of privatisation and advancements in ICT. In this topic we will take a look at global media systems. Discussions will be focused on the issues of globalisation and its implication on various dimensions of the media industry and the social-cultural aspects of society in Malaysia.
TOPIC 5
GLOBAL MEDIA SYSTEMS
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5.1 GLOBAL MEDIA SYSTEMS

SELF CHECK 5.1
Name one global media organisation that is present in Malaysia. Who is its owner?
A specter now haunts the world: a global commercial media system dominated by a small number of super-powerful, mostly US-based transnational media corporations. It is a system that works to advance the cause of the global market and promote commercial values, while denigrating journalism and culture not conducive to the immediate bottom line or long-run corporate interests. It is a disaster for anything but the most superficial notion of democracya democracy where, to paraphrase John Jay's maxim, those who own the world ought to govern it. Robert W. McChesney, The nine firms http://www.fair.org/extra/9711/gmg.html that dominate the world,
5.1.1 Active Participants of Global Media

The goals of contemporary global media giants are to achieve the following: 1. Grow larger to dominate the market and not to be taken over by existing competitors. 2. To increase their interest in a variety of media industries, such as film production, book publication, music industry, television channels and networks, theme parks, magazines, newspapers and other media forms. Today's global media are dominated by a hierarchy of nine media giants. The five media giants are as follows: 1. Time Warner (Valued at USD25 billion in 1997) 2. Disney (USD22 billion) 3. Bertelsmann( USD15 billion) 4. Viacom (USD13 billion) 5. News Corporation (USD11 billion)
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Refer to http://www.fair.org/extra/9711/gmg.html to find out more about the corporate profiles of these five media giants These media empires are recognised as the most successful businesses in the world. Among the most famous personalities of these media giants are the following: 1. Rupert Murdoch (orginated from Australia but owns media companies in Europe, USA, Asia and Australia) 2. Ted Turner (USA) 3. Li Ka Shing (Hong Kong/China), and 4. Bill Gates (USA) Among our local citizens who are widely involved in the media industry are the following (Refer to Gomez & Jomo, 2001): 1. Vincent Tan 2. Robert Kuok 3. Ananda Krishnan 4. Daim Zainuddin 5. Shamsuddin Abdul Kadir 6. Wan Azmi Wan Hamzah
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The following are brief histories of several well known media giants: 1. Rupert Murdoch Rupert Murdochs media empire encompasses over 300 newspaper organisations worldwide, including owning the most shares in daily newspapers in the United Kingdom and America; the TV Fox broadcast station in USA; Reuters TV which provides TV news to over 400 broadcast organisations in 85 countries (Murdoch 1994: 4; Hamelink 1994: 83).
STAR TV (Satellite Television Asia Region),

based in Hong Kong, is fully owned by the global media giant, Rupert Murdoch (as pictured on the left). Star TV was launched in April 1990.
Star TV began operations in 1991 throughout Asia. Other than channels in English, Star TV also took over the Zee TV channel which broadcasts content in Hindi/Tamil. From 1992, Star TV began broadcasting services in Mandarin by CCTV (China), English broadcasting services over AUS-TV by ABC (Australia), and business services in English by Asia Business News (ABN), based in Singapore. Star TV can be received throughout most of Asia
and can reach people in over 40 countries. Contenders to Star TV are The Gang which encompasses TVB Hong Kong, Time Warner, CNN, Discovery Channel, Viacom, HBO and ESPN.
Star TV uses the Asiasat 1 satellite co-owned by

British Cable & Wireless, China International Trust and Investment Corporation (CITIC), and Hutchison Whampoa, owned by Li Ka Shing. Among the users of the Asiasat 1 transponder are Hutchvision (Hong Kong), EZTV (Hong Kong), cable television stations in South Korea, a national television station in Mongolia, Bangladesh, Myanmar and CITIC (See Scott 1990; Dikkenberg 1991; and Smyth 1993).
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2.
Ted Turner The Cable News Network (CNN) was established by Ted Turner (picture as at left) in 1980 to supply news to cable television companies in America. By 1991, it succeeded in penetrating markets in 140 countries worldwide, including third world countries that often protested at the one-way flow of international news from the North to the South. The CNN World Report succeeded in balancing the flow of information from multiple sources (Refer to CNN World Report by Don M. Fournoy, 1992). CNN is now owned by Time-Warner. Li Ka Shing Li Ka Shing, who is Hong Kongs richest citizen, owns Media Assets Ltd. which produces and distributes media content to cinemas, video centres, cable television, satellite television and terrestrial television stations worldwide. Li Ka Shing (pictured as at left) also owns the film library in Chinese and a string of media networks in several countries worldwide including Hong Kong and Canada. Robert Kuok TVB Ltd. is owned by several noted individuals and organisations in the media world including Sir Run Run Shaw, a businessman who is well known in the film making arena in Asia; Robert Kuok (pictured as at left), that is also known as the Sugar King in Malaysia. TVB is also jointly owned by several other companies, namely: Turner Broadcasting Systems Inc. (USA); ESPN Asia (ESPN is the largest provider of sports news in the world); HBO Pacific Partners (HBO has a branch known as HBO Asia branch in Singapore); and
3.
4.
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Discovery Communications Inc. (USA).
HBO Asia operates from its head office in Singapore.
Asia Business News (ABN) also operates its

head office in Singapore. In the 1990s (Refer to Karp 1993) ABN was owned by the following:
TCI/Dow Jones (who also owns the Wall Street Journal, the Far Eastern Economic Review and the Asian Wall Street Journal);
Television New Zealand (TVNZ) Tele Communications (USA) (The largest cable television company in the world that also owns the Asian Sports channel) Temasik Holdings (owned by the Singapore
government); and
Business News Network (owned by a consortium of entrepreneurs in Hong Kong and Taiwan).
However, ABN has merged with CNBC in 1998.
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5.
Ananda Krishnan Ananda Krishnan (picture as at left), is a multi millionaire and media magnate in Malaysia. His name has soared because of his boldness in investing capital in MEASAT (Malaysia East Asia Satellite). He also owns Measat Broadcast Network Systems Sdn Bhd. (MBNS) which operates ASTRO (All Asia Satellite Television and Radio Company), the first satellite broadcast television and radio network in Malaysia.
His efforts have enabled Malaysia to compete in the field of telecommunications at the global level. In addition to telecommunications and satellite television and radio broadcasts, Krishnans company also owns animation studios in Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam. A Sri Lankan Tamil from Kuala Lumpur and son of a civil service clerk, T. Ananda Krishnan was born on 1 April 1938. A graduate of political science and economics from University of Melbourne, he also obtained a Masters degree in Business Administration from Harvard University. Operating through a myriad of companies, such as his US-based companies, Pacific States Investment Ltd., Pexco Holdings, and Worldwide Sports & Entertainment, his Manila-based company, Exoil Trading Ltd., and his Malaysian-based companies, MAI Holdings Sdn.Bhd., Usaha Tegas Sdn.Bhd., Seri Kuda Sdn.Bhd., Pan Malaysian Pools Sdn.Bhd., Pan Malaysian Sweeps Sdn. Bhd., and the publicly listed Tanjong plc, Ananda Krishnan is mainly involved in property development, oil trading and consultancy, satellites and telecommunications, and gaming (Gomez & Jomo 2001: 159-160).
All news agencies throughout Asia, such as Reuters, Associated Press (AP), Agence France Press (AFP), and others use telematic technology to communicate with their head offices and branches throughout the world. The AFP bureau in Kuala Lumpur uses ICT to relay news pictures and text to AFP offices in Asia as well as regional centres in Hong Kong, Africa, Washington and its main headquarters in Paris.
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5.1.2 Mega Mergers

The decade of the 1990s was considered an era of consolidation because of the merging of several production and service sectors on a large scale. This included the merging of media sectors such as: Sony, Columbia Pictures, TriStar Pictures and CBS Records; Matsushita, MCA and Universal Press; IBM, NBC; Toshiba, AT&T and Time-Warner.
The following are brief histories concerning the consolidation of various forms of media: 1. Television The transfer of ownership rights of television channels in the United States of America (ABC, NBC, CBS, and Fox) and other media occurred with great frequency since 1985. In 1985, the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), known in the music industry and the owner of the NBC broadcasting station as well as seven television stations in large cities in America, made efforts to purchase MCA (Universal Studios) which has an archive of approximately 3000 motion pictures and 12,000 television shows (Refer to Behrens 1986: 10). In 1993, General Electric took over RCA. After that, CBS merged with Fox Home Video, while NBC was taken over by General Electric (Media Alliances 1987: 24-25). NBC then merged with IBM before it became famous in the field of computing. MCA then merged with Universal Press and Matsushita; while AT&T collaborated with TimeWarner and Toshiba (Refer to Hamelink 1994: 81-83).
CBS, which succeeded in holding 18% of television audiences on prime time in USA, was taken over by Westinghouse at the end of 1995. Before that, CBS Records had merged with Columbia Pictures, then bought over by Sony (Japan) in 1988.
In September 1999, CBS and Viacom announced a merger which was considered the largest at the time (USD37.3 billion). Viacom at the time owned Paramount Pictures (the company that created Titanic, Saving Private Ryan, etc), the book printing company Simon & Simon, Blockbuster and Paramount Home Video, the Paramount Television Group, the UPN
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Network, MTV, Nickelodeon, Showtime and the Comedy Central cable network, and the Paramount theme park. The CBS television channel also owned 15 main television stations, the largest radio station group in America, and other properties (Severin & Tankard 2001, 347-348). With the merger, it became the second largest media company in the world after Time-Warner. The purchase of Capital Cities/ABC in 1995 by Michael Eisner made him the most successful and most powerful broadcast network owner in America (Jussawala 1994: 81-83; Severin & Tankard 2001: 348). The merger combined film entertainment, cable television, broadcasting, and the phone network of the three telephone companies in America. Capital Cities was the owner of the Walt Disney company which had succeeded in enthralling viewers around the world with cartoon series, animation and childrens stories. The Disney channel is also the second largest paid cable channel (after HBO) in America.
ABC (one of the four largest television broadcasters in America) owns

television stations in New York, Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, and San Francisco and 12 radio stations in the main markets in America; publishing companies, and film companies; the owner of ESPN, the sports channel with the widest coverage in the world. Because ESPN has succeeded in penetrating the television market in China and India (the two continents with the highest population), the merger of said companies has created an extremely bright business opportunity for its owners. The activities of American television channels such as CBS and NBC have been adapted to follow the current globalisation trends and are no longer limited to Americas borders only. CBS has established connections with China in the early 1980s by broadcasting old CBS shows for free on condition that Chinese television stations air company advertisements from USA that have been dubbed into Mandarin (Frank 1986: 48). Other than China, CBS has obtained long term profitability through the sale of news via CBS to over 90 countries. This has also been done by NBC (91 countries) and ABC (75 countries). This does not include the supra-national and multi-national businesses of Cable News Network (CNN), the Sky Channel (Britain) and STAR TV (Hong Kong/China).
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Time Warner is a merger of Time Inc. and Warner Communications in 1989. Time Inc. publishes Time, Life, Fortune, Sports Illustrated, Money and People magazine; the Time-Life books and others, and weekly papers. Time Inc. is also involved in film, broadcasting, cable television, investment companies, and forestry companies (construction materials, interior decoration materials, bedroom furniture and others). The Time-Warner merger has made it the largest magazine publisher in USA, the largest video company in the world, the second largest cable company and one of the largest book publishers in the world (Severin & Tankard 2001: 348). Now, Time-Warner is making efforts to build its own television network to create a market for global television shows. Time-Warner has taken over Turner Broadcasting (the company that handled CNN) from Ted Turner in 1995, thus expanding its gigantic reach in media which is already worth billions in US dollars. These efforts have also been spurred on by News Corporation, owned by Rupert Murdoch, which has become a media conglomerate in Hong Kong, Australia, Britain, USA and several other countries worldwide. 2. Newspapers Gannett, which publishes USA Today and 86 daily newspapers and weeklies, owns the largest chain of newspapers in USA. It also owns television stations, radio stations, cable systems, several syndicated television shows, and the largest advertising company in North America. In 1995, Knight-Ridder, which owns the second largest daily newspaper chain after Gannett, had bought four daily newspapers owned by the Lesher family in San Francisco; and the Philadelphia Inquirer, as well as the
Philadelphia Daily News.

Since 1986, at least 21 daily newspapers have closed shop or merged. Busterna (Cited in Severin & Tankard 2001: 353) stated that a total of 169 newspaper company chains have gone down since 1978 as a consequence of the merging of newspaper chains in USA. 3. New Media In early 2000, America Online (AOL) which supplied Internet services to 54% of users in USA had purchased Time Warner, the company that owns one-fifth of America cable systems, 33 magazines, the eighth largest book publisher in America, a film producer, the owner of the Warner Brothers
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television network and 10 cable channels, as well as one sixth of album sales in America. In 2000, the Tribune Company from Chicago, USA, had taken over the Times Mirror Company from Los Angeles which made it the owner of 11 daily newspapers, 22 television stations and four radio stations. This did not include investments in the Chicago Cubs baseball team, a 25% share in the Warner Brothers television network, and investments in AOL. The transfer of ownership and the merger of several ICT organisations happened so frequently that it is now difficult to identify who is the actual owner of a given ICT and media organisation. Names of owners and names of media have also changed ever so frequently.
Today, anyone with an Internet connection and appliance (in the form of a PC or dedicated Internet radio) has access to thousands of programmes. Some are the same old players Disney, Infinity, the old government run stations in much of the world. . . . Realguide.com provides links to 2500 real time audio streams from around the world. Many are over-the-air stations. . . . The NetRadio group outdraws stations owned by Disney and other traditional broadcasters. This suggests that the Internet-only broadcasters are doing a better job of understanding their audiences and/or promoting themselves.
Benjamin M. Compaine, The myths of encroaching global media ownership, http://www1.primushost.com/~bcompain/WOTM/media_myths.htm
ACTIVITY 5.1
Which company is considered a media giant in Malaysia? Why?
Do the following exercise to test your understanding.
EXERCISE 5.1
Select a company or chain of companies in Malaysia that owns various media and non-media assets. Create a chart that shows the various holdings of the said company.
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5.2
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF THE ICT ERA ON MEDIA PRACTITIONERS

ACTIVITY 5.2
In your point of view, what opportunities are there for Malaysians to break the monopoly of media giants in Malaysia through the use of ICT?
. . .The corporate media that one already in place are primed to take over new media by virtue of their strengths in technology, content tradition, marketing skills, and deep pockets. Robert W. McChesney, a media critic and author of Rich Media, Poor Democracy, predicts that online news soon will belong to the usual suspects, the media powerhouses. The big boys have tremendous advantages. Only a fool would try to compete on the Internet at this point. . . . Distribution, production and labor costs were higher than projected. And aggressive marketing is imperative. Just cutting through the noise on the Internet and in the media in general takes marketing clout. Showing up and looking irreverent isnt enough. And you need a talented editorial staff making headlines, not two or three amateurs.
5.2.1 Opportunities
The implementation of privatisation policies, the diffusion of ICT innovations and the growth of a stable economy have offered a golden opportunity to adopters of media and those associated with ICT in Malaysia to create indigenous media content that can be accepted by the various cultures in Malaysia and overseas. In the ICT era, there are many opportunities to nurture the talent of creative writers, film directors and television producers that can retain and establish a way of life and culture for the community. Bahasa Malaysia should not be used as an excuse not to be able to create shows that can be exported overseas, because there is software to translate content. Look at the Japanese, Spanish, and Iranian programmes that are not understood yet able to sustain the interest of viewers who do not speak the language. This is the chance to introduce cultural and community values at the global level. If materials from foreign countries are said to erode the moral values of society,
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this creates a reverse challenge to adopters of media to create something of quality. Mega-mergers on a large scale have also taken place in Malaysia. Look at the rapid growth of Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad (STMB/TV3) which has both vertical and horizontal integration in various fields. The assets of STMB have changed hands several times. From a small company owned by Fleet Holdings in 1983, it has changed hands to the News Straits Times Press in 1987, Renong Berhad in 1990, later to MRCB in 1992 and now by Prima Media Berhad. Every owner of TV3 was involved not only in television broadcasting but also in property, construction, print media, telecommunications, banking, trading and many more. TV3 itself owns several subsidiaries that are involved in creating corporate videos, corporate advertisements, publishing, animation, music recording, and various other activities. In addition, TV3 has also given staff training in the broadcasting industry and assisted in establishing a government radio and television station in Ghana. The development of STMB/TV3 is one of the best examples that reflect the growth of a visionary organisation. Nevertheless, there are those who perceive this as an effort to monopolise the entertainment field in the country. In any case, these efforts are very important for the survival and future success of media organisations.
3.2.2
Challenges
Todays media have a better reach than before because of the features and functions of more advanced digital technology. However, ICT, including media communications technology, is a double-edged sword. Media communications can create a global village but media also have the ability to fragmentise society. Media can be utilised to bring good, but it can also be used to defame and slander, to topple leaders or to divide the people.
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When Newhouse won the 1995 best media book prize from the National Honor Society in Journalism and Mass Communication, my wife Joyce and I travelled to Washington, D.C. to attend the awards dinner. After the ceremony, a journalism teacher living in New Jerseywhere the Newhouse newspaper chain is dominantcame up to my table and mentioned that she had never heard of the book. No wonder. This book, as much a parable about American media power as it is a biography of Newhouses family organization, underlines the deep problem for a democratic society when so few companies, like the Newhouses Advance Publications, control what we learn about our world. My experiences with this book only served to illustrate the extent of this power. In effect, the Newhouse company banned any mention of this book in their publications. None of the Newhouse papers ever reviewed it. Undoubtedly, many people living in places like Cleveland, Portland (Oregon), New Orleans, and several other regions where Newhouse newspapers are dominant would be interested in knowing about who runs the only paper in town. Yet the Newhouse newspapers, the fourth largest chain in America, decided that it was best for their readers not to learn anything about the boss. . . . Several writers confided they had thoughts of writing about Newhouses power but were too afraid to do so. Most surprisingly, some top editors told me they couldnt express their opinions because they had signed a gag agreement not to discuss anything about the Newhouse organization even after they had left.
(Thomas Maier, From Newhouse: All the Glitter, Power, and Glory of Americas
Richest
Media
Empire
and
the
Secretive
Man
Behind
It.
http://www.cjr.org/year/97/3/books-newhouse.asp) Media can also be a window to the world and can unify people. Local media can foster good relations and continue cooperating with fellow ASEAN, Asia-Pacific countries and other nations. This is where the challenge begins. Thailand and the Philippines are very liberal in terms of media law enforcement. Indonesia and Brunei have an open sky policy even if they are not as liberal as Thailand and the Philippines. Singapore and Malaysia are cautious where media freedom is concerned. In the meantime, Vietnam is taking tiny steps after being engulfed in military conflict for many years.
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Kuala Lumpur is a centre for broadcast training for the Asia-Pacific region. This benefits Malaysia because facilities exist within the country, but the challenge is in the allocation of funds and expertise to foster better inter-regional cooperation. However, legislators and policy makers are cautious of foreign influence and counter cultures that may have adverse effects on the the values and norms of society. Another challenge which is just as complex and harder to prove, is the role of media firms in lobbying political groups to receive the most economic returns (refer http://www.cjr.org/owners/ mediamoney.asp). (Refer Table 5.1 and Table 5.2)
Table 5.1: Media Contributions Presidential Election Candidate Al Gore, D. George W. Bush, R. Bill Bradkey, D Bill Clinton, D Bob Dole, R
Largest Recipients in America, 1993-2000 Amount Contributed (USD) 1,163,490 1.070,728 1,034,004 634,456 294,095
Candidate Type Democrat candidate Republican candidate Main contender 42nd President 96 Republican candidate
Table 5.2: Ten Largest Contributors in America, 1993-2000 Company Time Warner, Inc. Walt Disney Co. Inc. National Cable Television Association National Association of Broadcasters Tele-Communications, Inc. Viacom International Dreamworks SKG Jospeh E. Seagram & Sons News Corporation Universal Studios, Inc. Amount (USD) 4,605,209 4,086,195 1,992,090 1,932,057 1,861,935 1,851,310 1,754,150 1,484,333 1,447,905 1,396,274
The data in Table 5.1 and 5.2 show close connection between media owners and certain political figures in the USA. Both have mutual need of each other. Political figures need the media to get good publicity while media owners need political figures to ensure their economic positions are guaranteed. This
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interdependency between media practitioners, politicians and the economic players also occurs in countries throughout the world.
Corporate executives are often directly involved in the lobbying process, and media moguls are no different. In his recent memoir, You Say You Want A Revolution (Yale University Press), former FCC Chairman Hundt . . . candidly describes the atmosphere of influence-peddling at his agency: I learned quickly that the volume of lobbying defined the major issues before the agency . . . . A single company might send soldiers from its regiments to the commission as many as 100 times, visit or phone the chairman on a dozen occasions, call some member of the chairmans staff perhaps daily. Congressional staffers made tens of thousands of telephone calls to the commission staff. Congressmen wrote letters on behalf of different parties, up to 5,000 or more a year. Sometimes, when members wanted a particular result they phoned the commissioners to solicit votes as they might call each other on the (Capitol) Hill. Smart and well-financed lobbyists also ran media strategies to persuade the commission to write rules in their favor. Industries might spend millions of dollars on television advertising to influence a handful of commissioners. The nature of medias political power remains fascinating to Hundt. The media industry does not mobilize great numbers of voters and it actually is not comprised of Americas largest, economically most important companies . . . The medias significance and political clout, he argues, come from its near ubiquitous, pervasive power to completely alter the beliefs of every American. Members of Congress and presidential candidates, he believes, are afraid to take on the news media directly for fear that they will simply disappear from the TV or radio airwaves and print news columns.
(http://www.cjr.org/owners/mediamoney.asp)
The issue of English is challenging especially to those not skilled in its use. As it stands, English is widely used worldwide and dominates the economy, diplomatic business, mass media, academic fields, education and popular culture (Sumit K. Mandal 2000: 157). Language proficiency is necessary as a strategy to achieve autonomy for media adopters. A wise strategy is to alter ones behaviour and strengthen ones resolve to learn and improve not only the English language skills but also other languages to enable us to access bodies of knowledge from every corner of the world. ICT and media could be beneficial when used for good but they can also be misused. The right move is to master the ICT technology and applications for the empowerment of society.
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ACTIVITY 5.3
What are your perceptions of the relationship between media and politics in Malaysia?
5.3
5.3.1
IMPLICATIONS OF GLOBALISATION ON MEDIA AND INFORMATION

The Meaning of Globalisation
Globalisation generally refers to the concept of a "borderless world" or a global village, which was a concept first coined by Marshall McLuhan in the mid-1960s. Globalisation represents a phenomenon that encompasses economics, politics, culture and ideology. It can also be seen as 1. 2. 3. a process a situation where economy, politics and culture are created from the process, and ideology (See Abdul Rahman Embong 2000: 29-31): The following are descriptions of globalisation from four dimensions: Economic Dimension The economic dimension includes the arrangement for output, change, distribution, use of products and services in the a marketing system. In this dimension, there are issues of wealth ownership and wealth distribution in the national and international levels; efforts exist to encourage free markets. Political Dimension The political dimension involves the question of power. In the execution of power, there is use of force and division of power etc. Among the important issues are deterritorialism, democracy and basic human rights.
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Cultural Dimension The cultural dimension refers to the social arrangements for the output, change and symbolic statements that reflect human culture (such as lifestyle, beliefs, tastes etc); there is dissemination of American consumer culture throughout the world via TNCs/MNCs. Ideological Dimension The ideological dimension is part of the cultural component that centres around values and stresses on market fundamentalism.
5.3.2
Malaysia and Globalisation
Malaysias involvement in the globalisation of the economy is very apparent. There is an inflow of professional, technical and skilled manpower from other nations. There is a flood of skilled and semi-skilled labour from foreign countries to overcome the shortage of local manpower. The globalisation process has also created cities out of small settlements. Nevertheless, people living in the cities are more exposed to the waves of globalisation through a more complete, more organised and more advanced telecommunications infrastructure. Aspects of globalisation such as international corporations, foundations and international development agencies, marketing firms, multinational advertising agencies, non-government organisations, public transport systems, are able to penetrate metropolitan areas. Icons of globalisation are clearly seen in city areas. Just see world-class shopping complexes offering haute couture fashion and internationally branded cosmetics; supermarkets and hypermarkets like Jusco, Carrefour, Makro and Tesco; American fast food restaurants such as McDonalds, Burger King and Pizza Hut; world class hotels like the Regent, Renaissance, Marriot, Holiday Inn and so on. (Refer Fuziah & Rahmah, 2000). Cities also offer their residents information networks and various forms of communication through ICT systems. Active discourse on globalisation can be heard since early 1990s, because of the rapid growth of telecommunications technology, microelectronics and computers that affect information gathering methods and the speed of obtaining information and data.
5.3.3
Globalisation
In the Malaysian print media market, you can find newspapers and magazines of local and international origin in a variety of languages, many of which are in English: USA Today, Asian Wall Street Journal, International Herald Tribune,
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The Far Eastern Economic Review, Asiaweek, Times, Teen Beat, Smash Hits, Sports Illustrated, and others.
Radio and television media, either privately owned or by the government, supply a variety of offerings from Hollywood, Bollywood, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, Brazil, Australia, the Middle East and other countries. The Malaysian television and radio satellite station ASTRO manifests a national open sky policy by offering over a hundred television channels covering both local and international media players. The entertainment industry popularises international artistes and challenges the identity of local culture. The local film industry is also being challenged by participants in the international film industry that have succeeded in obtaining box-office takings and awards. It is common knowledge that approximately 90% of trade involving ICT is only focused on a few MNCs, TNCs and other large nations. TNCs which operate worldwide dominate the market, capital and manpower. According to Barjoyai Bardai (2002: 11), the 500 largest companies in the world today control more than 70% of world trade and 80% of foreign investment. Among these corporate leaders are the three richest men in the world Bill Gates, Warren Buffet and Paul Allen who own wealth that are equal in value to the wealth held by 600 million people living in 48 less developed countries. In a study concerning the issue of urban Malay female independence, use of ICT and cultural globalisation, Fuziah Kartini Hassan Basri and Rahmah Hashim (2000) found that urban Malay females were aware of the process of globalisation, especially from a social-cultural and economic perspective. They were aware of the global nature of ICT tools and content that are exposing them to the global consumer culture. Nevertheless, they see it as a challenge and part of the constantly changing nature of modern life. They believe that the benefits of ICT are dependent on its use. Malay female respondents in the study did not refuse the use of ICT but they were selective and constantly wary. They were aware of the negative impacts of ICT and globalisation but considered ICT as "simplifying" and "assisting" them in their tasks at home and in the workplace. In general, ICT was considered a means of entertainment, a source of information and knowledge, a means of relaxation and a companion of sorts when alone at
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home or when doing work in the office. The respondents also voiced out their worries about "foreign" content that could corrupt their culture, religion and way of life if not controlled. Among the shows perceived as worrying were music videos that contained elements of sex, violence, hedonism and other negative aspects. Respondents in the study, nevertheless, perceived religion as the primary foundation and defence against negative influences. They believed that priorities in life must still be based on the needs of local culture, and on noble values.
ACTIVITY 5.4
1. 2. What do you understand by the term "Local but Global" in the context of Malaysia? What are the implications of global television on the socio-culture in Malaysia?
This topic discussed globalisation and issues relating to the globalisation of media and ICT and mergers between large media firms in the last few decades. In the field of communication, globalisation of media and information has brought about economic and socio-cultural changes in society. The media can influence national agendas, and when the media are owned by TNCs/MNCs, a countrys media policies can be challenged. Media and ICT are now being controlled by a small group of media giants, thus encouraging domination by this small yet powerful group of media owners.
Topic The Effects of
Media and ICT on Society
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Discuss research findings on society; Discuss the findings of media and ICT studies; and Make your own conclusion about the effects of media and ICT on society.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss the effects and implications of ICT and media on society, especially among children and youth. This topic will also highlight past studies that focused on the relationship between media, ICT and society. Why are these studies important to us? As a member of society, we must be more prepared to face an increasingly challenging environment as a consequence of media and ICT enculturation.
TOPIC 6
THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA AND ICT ON SOCIETY
91
6.1
MEDIA RESEARCH
The birth of the Internet with IRC rooms, emails, websites and other communication channels have changed todays media landscape. Just like radio in the 1930s, television in the 1950s and 1960s, video at the end of 1970s and satellite TV at the end of 1990s, the Internet has also raised some controversies. Even though television polemics are never ending, ICT has further aggravated the problems of viewers. In early 2002, a 13 year old Malaysian boy killed an 11 year old girl for allegedly teasing him. In Arkansas, USA, two boys, aged 12 and 14, were found guilty of shooting and killing a teacher and 4 students, and injuring 10 others on the grounds of Westside Middle School in March 1998 (New Straits Times, 13 August 1998). In August 1998, two boys aged 7 and 8 pleaded guilty for the rape and murder of an 11 year old girl in Chicago, USA. By the end of the 20th century, television viewers in Malaysia also witnessed the shooting of innocent victims in Columbine High School, USA (Wilson & Wilson 2001: 437). In Table 6.1, Asia Magazine (August 1997) highlighted a number of incidents involving teenagers.
Table 6.1: Teenagers and Criminal Cases 1. 2. 3. Singapore, June 1997: Eight students, aged between 14 and 17 beat up a policeman. The reason? Because he had been staring at them. Japan, 1986: About 30% of adolescents convicted of felony charges were from middle class background. Ten years later, this percentage shot up to 50%. Taiwan, 1996: 1,068 teenage offenders were convicted for assault and robbery, which was 24.8% more than the previous years figure.
A number of parties have been blamed, but the media are still the primary target as the source of moral decadence and violence in society. In Figure 6.1, you can see a number of factors allegedly causing moral decay and violence in society.
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Figure 6.1: Factors contributing to moral decadence and violence in society
Steps have been taken by various parties to reduce, if not eliminate violence in society. In USA, former President Bill Clinton himself held a summit on teenage violence, in an effort to find a solution. Participants at the summit included representatives from film, television broadcasting and cable companies, music recording industries, as well as Internet and computer software companies. At the end of the summit, a campaign to curb violence among adolescents was launched, and the formation of a non-profit organisation to handle the problem was announced. However, suggestions to control media content did not get the support of the American Congress. In Malaysia, various efforts are also undertaken to encourage the media to be more proactive and responsible to society. A media surveillance committee was formed in the 1980s in the Ministry of Information as a response to criticisms aimed at TV3s programmes, then the only private television station in Malaysia. The media are also regulated by many rules and laws. Does all this essentially say that the situation in Malaysia is better than in the USA. What about the number of murder, rape and robbery cases splashed across the newspaper headlines and television screens of Malaysia throughout 2002? Is violence in society the result of ICT and media contest? Lets think about that.
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6.1.1
Early Studies on Media Effects in America (Before World War II)
Early studies on the effects of the media were based on the assumption that whatever is viewed in theaters and television, or heard on the radio, will immediately influence the audience and stimulate them, as construed in the Magic Bullet theory. Early studies conducted in the USA are as follows: (Refer to Wilson & Wilson 2001: 438 455). (a) Dana Paynes Study In 1929, Dana Payne financed 12 studies to observe the effects of motion pictures on society. Among other things, these studies looked at how the content of motion pictures reflected the values of American society; whether there was a connection between films that portrayed crime with reported delinquency and crime in communities; and how motion pictures influenced the behaviour of children. These studies found that teenagers were often affected by motion pictures, despite a lack of solid evidence on how films could damage American culture. As a result of this, the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America drafted production codes to avoid government censorship. (b) Cantrils Study With the advent of radio in American society by the early 20th century, media effects researchers shifted their focus on radio. In 1938, a radio drama War of the Worlds by Orson Welles was aired on radio. The drama resulted in widespread panic among listeners who assumed its contents were real, and that their country was really under alien attack. The study by Hadley Cantril from Princeton University found that individuals who were less educated were more prone to accept the dramas content as the truth. The production quality of the radio drama, amplified by the strained political environment in Europe at the time played up the imaginations of listeners, to the point where they could not differentiate between fantasy and reality. (c) Lazarsfelds Study In 1940, before the arrival of television, Paul Lazarsfeld studied the influence of the media, specifically radio, on peoples decisions in political elections. His study found that it was opinion leaders, and not the media, that influenced voter decisions.
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Lazarsfeld came to this conclusion based on his findings that opinion leaders frequently read newspapers, listened to radio news and were generally better informed as compared to other members of the public.
Figure 6.2: Early Media Effects Studies
6.1.2
Studies on the Effects of Television Violence in America (1950s 1990s)
In 1952, the American Congress began an initiative to study media effects at the time when Senator Estes Kefauver started hearing juvenile delinquency cases. In 1954 1955, Congress came to the conclusion that extremely violent media content could bring dangerous results to children. In 1960, two American Senators who were also involved in the discussion on media and violence issued a warning that young people could become antisocial if they viewed too much television violence. L. Rowel Huesmann and Leonard Eron (1960, cited in Wilson & Wilson, 2001: 439) studied the effects of television on every 8 year old child in an American city. This longitudinal study was carried out on the same subjects in 1971, 1981, and 1994. The findings of their study showed a high correlation between those who watched television violence at the age of eight and the aggressiveness of these individuals at the age of 19, as compared to their desire to watch violent television programmes at the age of eight and violent behaviour at the same age. By the end of the study, Eron concluded that television is only responsible for 10 percent of violent behaviour in America. The American Psychological Associations report, entitled Big World, Small Screen found that all studies, reports and commentaries on the effects of
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television violence that were published in America since 1955 showed that there was a connection between the viewing of violent programmes and aggressive behaviour. Some of the American research groups that conducted studies on television violence include the following (Wilson & Wilson 2001: 439-444): (a) A commission formed by President Lyndon Johnson in 1968, namely, The National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, came to the conclusion that frequent viewing of television violence can produce negative results on people. An advisory committee was formed by Americas Surgeon General. The Surgeon Generals report entitled Television and Growing Up: The Impact of Televised Violence (1972) provided results on the effects of violence towards public wellbeing. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) USA (1982) found a positive relationship between television violence and aggressive behaviour. As a result of this finding, a number of television programmes were taken off the air but continued airing on cable television. The UCLA Center for Communication Policy (September 1995) produced the UCLA Television Violence Monitoring Report to the broadcasting industry as a response to efforts by Congress to curb television violence (refer http://www.ucla.edu/curree..ne/violence/iid.htm). Mediascope Inc. carried out the National Television Violence Study (February 1996) for the cable industry (refer http://www.mediascope. org/mediascope). The study was jointly conducted by researchers, media executives and mental health experts from a number of universities, including the University of Texas, University of North Carolina, and University of California in Santa Barbara. Among other things, the study showed that 47% of the violent actions shown on television did not present any danger to viewers; only 16% of the violent actions contained negative long-term violent messages. The study did not assume that injuries as a result of humour were violent, but 44% of programmes on television channels contained violence, as opposed to 59% on cable television stations, and 85% on HBO and Showtime.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
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Wilbur Schramm, Jack Lyle and Edwin Parker (1961) found in their study that violence can leave an impact on children, although the process is not as simple. Media influence on children is a complex phenomenon that causes various reactions in various types of children in similar and differing situations. They said: (1961: 13):
For some children, under some conditions, some television is harmful. For other children, under the same conditions, or for the same children under other conditions, it may be beneficial. For most children, under most conditions, most television is probably neither harmful nor particularly beneficial.
Robert Cole, a childrens mental illness expert, says that what is done by children with television depends on their own life. According to Cole, children from unstable families may be more vulnerable to the emotional and moral power of television when compared to children from more stable backgrounds. He says, What is important is not just the quality of television programmes for our young ones (or their parents), but also the quality of life of American families (cited in Wilson & Wilson 2001: 447). Popular cartoons often watched by children are also seen to contain elements of violence. The National Coalition on Television Violences report criticises the growing number of violent cartoons on television. At the same time, many admited that they themselves grew up with cartoons like Tom & Jerry and RoadRunner, yet were still able to function as normal adults. Josephsons study (April 21, 1996) entitled Television Violence: A Review of the Effects on Children of Different Ages looked at regular viewing habits of children, from infancy to youth. At the end of the study, Josephson suggested only one hour of television viewing per day for pre-school children, and two hours a day for children aged 6-11. Young teenagers, on the other hand, would by themselves watch less television, and generally lose interest in it. The results of Josephsons study are summarised in Table 6.2. The American Academy of Pediatrics (cited in Szaflik 1997) suggested not more than two hours of daily television viewing for children. Even in that short period, researchers believe that children may have witnessed 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 occurrences of violent behaviour.
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Table 6.1: Research on the Relationship between Violent Media Programmes and Childrenss Behaviour Year 1952-55 1960 Researcher Estes Kefauver, American Senator Huesman & Eron Research Findings Overly violent media programmes can bring dangerous results to children. There is a high correlation between viewers of violent television programmes at the age of 8 and the aggressiveness of individuals at the age of 18. Television is responsible for 10% of violent behaviour in America. Violence can leave an effect on children; some television is harmful for some children, under some conditions. There is as relationship between the viewing of violence and aggressive behaviour. The frequency of viewing violence on television can lead to negative effects on the disposition of humans. Television violence has an effect on the public well-being. There is a positive relationship between television violence and aggressive behaviour. Monitoring report presented to the broadcasting industry as a response to pressure by Congress to curb television violence. 44% television programmes contain violence; 59% cable television programmes contain violence; 85% satellite television programmes contain violence. Children from unstable families are more susceptible to the emotional and moral power of television. Children may have witnessed 8,000 murders and 100,000 occurences of violent behaviour.
1961
Shcramm, Lyle & Parker APA Big World Small Screen
1968
National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence TV & Growing Up NIMH
1972 1982
1995
UCLA TV Violence Monitoring Report National TV Violence Study
1996
Cole (cited in Wilson & Wilson, 2001) 1997 American Academy of Pediatrics
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Table 6.2: The Effects of TV Violence On Children Category of Children Infancy (0 18 months) What is Watched Only pays occasional, brief attention; TV is experienced as light and sound; are more interested in eating, drinking, climbing and so on. Studies show they can imitate behaviour. Parents Parents need not worry with this group. Perhaps more mature babies will imitate what they see on TV, so parents may control their exposure to TV violence. They can be exposed to educational shows with parental guidance. Viewing habits at this stage will remain until pre-school and elementary school stages. Children at this stage are highly influenced by the viewing habits of their parents.
Children (18 months 3 years)
At the age of 2 years, children can pay 3-4 times more attention to TV shows; they can understand meaning; by the age of 3 most of them will have their own favourite shows; they will imitate what they see and hear. Children at this stage actively seek meaning in TV content, but are still too young to understand why violence exists. Most of them cannot differentiate between fantasy and reality. They are attracted to sudden movements, fast scene changes and intense sounds and visuals. This means, they often pay attention to violent scenes.
Pre-School Children (3 5 years)
It is difficult to ease the fears of pre-school children with logical explanations. It is important to regulate their TV viewing habits, regulate their viewing durations, accompany them during viewing sessions and provide them with comments during potentially offensive scenes.
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Table 6.2 (continued) Elementary School Children (6 11 years) These children start to watch less TV. When they progress to 2nd or 3rd grade, they start watching again. Viewing times persist to teenage stage. Capable of understanding the world of TV. At the age of 8, children can become more aggressive after watching violent TV content, if they believe that violence constitutes the realities of life. Some will start to enjoy horror movies. Usually watch less TV, start spending time outside with friends, listening to music; watching TV is one of the few activities carried out together with parents; prefer adult programmes; teen dramas, dating and so on. More capable of understanding and discussing TV content, but usually watch TV as a passive activity. Parents must reduce the viewing durations and types of programmes watched to curb their fear and potentially aggressive behaviour. Provide an alternative like sports or board games. Parents should watch TV together with them and critically discuss what is seen on TV, to help prevent TV addiction.
Teenagers (12 17 years)
Parents can still influence them by discussing and providing comments on TV content. Even though teenagers do not take the words of their parents seriously, they understand their parents concern for them. Having TV viewing rules is a good idea.
Source: Josephson (April 21, 1996)
Based on the extensive feedback from media violence researchers, at the end of 1993, television networks in America NBC, ABC, CBS, Fox took action by placing announcements at the beginning of programmes to inform parents of potentially violent material in their programmes. The anti TV violence groups who were still not satisfied with such approaches by media practitioners continued their efforts to reduce violent content. As a result, the Telecommunications Act 1996 (America) introduced the use of the V-chip for use by parents and guardians.
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SELF-CHECK 6.2
Did you know that the Sapura Group introduced the V-chip in Malaysia in 1998? How Does the V-chip Function? Tri-Vision Electronics explains the function of the V-chip in Figure 6.3. The Vchip allows television to receive programme information from programme suppliers/broadcasters, cable or satellite and control access to unsuitable programmes. It also equips viewers with the power to choose specific channels and times, determine programme titles and choose programmes according to ratings.
Figure 6.3: Functions of the V-chip
The V-chip control system was invented in 1989 by Tim Collings, who served in the School of Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, Canada. His prototype was ready to use by 1991. From 1994 up to early 1997, a number of successes were achieved in a series of V-chip tests in several households. A formal agreement to transfer Tim Collings invention to Tri-Vision Electronics, Toronto, Canada was signed in January 1997.
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Since 1 July 1999, television sets with 13-inch screens and above were required to be installed with V-chips. The Telecommunications Act 1996, which was approved by Congress (America) and signed as law by President Clinton, mandated the use of V-chips to help parents determine which programmes contained too much sex and violence for their children. The V-chip allowed programmes to be blocked from the TV screen by parents, based on ratings that were given to them by television schedulers. However, research by the Kaiser Family Foundation a few months before the Vchip was released from factories showed that while parents were concerned about their childrens exposure to too much sex and violence in the TV programmes that they watched, only 4 out of 10 had seen or heard anything that explained how the V-chip or the ratings system worked. Based on observational records, only 5 out of 11 rating categories (TV-G, TV-PG, TV-14 and L) were understood by most parents; less than half of the parents realised that sitcoms, childrens shows, talk shows and soap operas were rated; and among parents who had children under the age of 10, only 17 percent could name a rating category that was used to identify programmes that were designed for children. As a result of this research, the Media Education Center and the Kaiser Family Foundation announced a national campaign to educate parents on the V-chip and the TV ratings system. This campaign included the distribution of free leaflets to parents to help them understand how these tools worked, and to act as a guide to parents and guardians on how to watch television with their children. In the advertising industry, sex is known as an element that simply sells. The film industry has long known the fact that violence sells, and people will pay to watch violent films like The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, Friday the 13th, Nightmare on Elm Street, and all three Scream movies. But since the televisions inception at the end of the 1940s and early 1950s, viewers have constantly complained that there is too much sex and violence entering their households as a result of this new technology. However, only in the 1990s did the television industry agree to participate in TV violence research. But in 1996, this research found that from 3,000 hours of TV programme series, only five series could be seen as containing too much violence, out of these five series, two had already been cancelled. This research, conducted by the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), reported that only four childrens programmes contained what could be described as scary combat violence, and even that had been reduced as compared to seven years prior. As for theater shows on television during the previous season, 33 were categorised as very violent, which was a significant reduction from the previous number of 50.
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UCLAs study did not look at the quantity of violent actions or the programme ratings, but instead looked at the context of the violence. For example, programmes like NYPD Blue and Law and Order were praised for their realistic portrayals of city life and the effects of crime and violence. New York Undercover on Fox were criticised for playing popular music as the background sound effects during violent scenes, which was tantamount to idolising criminals by painting them as stars in an MTV music video. However, UCLAs research also noted a new disturbing trend: Vivid descriptions of reality like When Animals Attack, When Disaster Strikes, The Worlds Most Dangerous Animals, The Worlds Wildest Police Chases, Forces of Nature and Close Call: Cheating Death, all of which portrayed violence in real life. Aired on the Fox network, these programmes were described by NBC scheduling officer Don Ohlmeyer as not any different than snuff films. Even before the V-chip was installed, the ratings system that had been suggested by representatives of television networks, studios and producers started to arouse controversy and cast doubt. The process (ratings) was created by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) which also had its own system to provide ratings to theatre performances; this association made a number of recommendations in an effort to integrate the new system with the V-chip. But a few months before this was carried out, a number of groups including the Clinton administration proclaimed that the existing ratings system (TV-G, TVPG, TV-14 and TV-MA) was insufficient. While new recommendations on ratings were seen as an improvement on the past system, many still saw it as a disappointment. Research by the National Parents and Teachers Association found that parents desired a system that could provide them with more specific information on the sexual, violent and linguistic content of a programme. Pressure was put on television networks to add a few more content codes to be displayed alongside the viewer age guide, so that parents would be provided with the necessary information to guide their childrens viewing habits. However, most television networks were worried if programmes were to be labelled as containing sex and violence, that advertisers would withdraw sponsorship of such programmes. Two issues were raised: First, with their computer and video game expertise, children would eventually figure out how to bypass the V-chip when their parents were not at home; and second, the television producers, who knew that they would be rating their programmes containing violence, would use this as an excuse to include even more violence (Didnt we already warn viewers at the beginning of the programme?). In the end, most television networks agreed to list down S, V, L and D with their ratings (NBC refused to do this). But, as found in Kaisers research, viewers still
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could not understand the meanings of these letters. How about you? For the record, S means sexual content, V is for violence, L is for offensive language, and D is for sexually suggestive dialogue. Source: The V-chip is Here, But Is It Being Used? In Box 16.1, J.R. Wilson & S.R. Wilson, Mass Media Mass Culture, McGraw Hill, London, 2001 pp. 445-446.
Visit www.kff.org/content/archive/1389/content.html to view the Kaiser Family Foundations report entitled Measuring effects of sexual content in the media. In 1998, delegates at the American Psychological Associations (APA) annual meeting (cited in Wilson & Wilson 2001: 441) were told that children often feel frightened when watching television news on murder, kidnap and natural disasters. When these children grow up, they become even more frightened. It was reported that 33% of parents with children up to 6th grade found that their children had trouble sleeping at night after watching violent news. Even though there are views that say there is no connection between media content and the often-reported shooting incidents in schools, there is still a strong general opinion that children below the age of 8 should not watch news programmes. Parents should control viewing of children between the ages of 8 12. However, a researcher was reported that, I dont think children should be entirely shielded from the world, but television news just isnt the best way for children to learn about the world (Wilson & Wilson 2001: 441).
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Table 6.3 shows the ratings system applied in United States of America.
Table 6.3: An Example of a Ratings System Rating and Content Codes Suggestive Dialogue (D) X X Course Language (L) X X Sexual situation (S) X X Violence (V/FV) X Fantasy violence
TV-Y TV-Y7
TV-G TV-PG
TV14
TV-MA
Suitable for all children For children age 7 and above For general viewing Parental discretion advised. Content may not be suitable for children below 14 years old Parental reminder. Content is not suitable for children below 14 years old For mature viewers only. May not be suitable for children below 17 years old
X Suggestive dialogue
X Infrequent harsh dialogue
X Some sexual situation
X Moderate violence
Intensely suggestive dialogue
Strong rough language
Intense sexual situation
Intense violence
Crude indecent language
Explicit sexual situation
Graphic violence
Source: TriVision Electronics Inc.s Demonstration at the Parental Viewing Control Devices for Malaysia Broadcasters Seminar in Petaling Jaya on 17 August 1998
6.1.3
Children and Advertisements
Another problematic issue for parents and adults is the influence of advertisements, specifically television advertisements, on children. In USA, this issue became more complicated after the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) liberalised the television industry in the 1980s.
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This move, among other things, encouraged toy manufacturers to create their own programmes for children. As a result, there was no difference between the content of children's entertainment programmes and the advertisements. The programmes of action figures such as G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero, Transformers, Thunder Cats, Rambo, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Pokemon, which were broadcast between the 1980s and 1990s, greatly influenced the purchasing trend of children during that era.
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Why were research findings of the 20th century seemingly unable to leave a significant impact on media content, specifically media produced in USA? What is your opinion? If you were a producer of children's television content in Malaysia, what type of programmes would you produce? To what entent would you take into consideration all research findings discussed under this topic?
2.
6.1.4
Indecency and Pornography
Apart from the effects of TV violence on children, research had also been carried out on the effects of indecency and pornography in society. In 1986, the Attorney General of USA, General Edwin Meese presented the Meese Committee report, which spanned 1,960 pages including the report by 11 panel members (Wilson & Wilson 2001: 86). The committee's report found a connection between books, films and magazines with explicit sexual content and aggressive behaviour towards women. As a result of this, anti obscenity laws were passed in North Carolina, one of the states in USA. These laws received the backing of religious, conservative and feminist groups, but were criticised by the American Civil Liberties Union.
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ACTIVITY 6.2
How do you decide which movies to watch, books or magazines to read, radio programmes to listen to, and television programmes to watch? What elements would you consider indecent and/or demeaning in the media?
6.1.5
Violence in Music
Besides violent elements in television programmes, efforts have also been undertaken to study violence in lyrics in songs and music, specifically music videos. The Parents Music Resource Center (refer http://www.babybag.com/articles/ amaviol.htm) reported that American teenagers listened to rock music for approximately 10,500 hours from 7th to 12th grade, that is 500 hours less than the time they spend in school for 12 years. Entertainment Monitor found that out of the 40 most popular CDs in the summer of 1995, only 10 lyrics were found to be free of indecent language, or did not touch on drugs, violence and sex. The Recording Industry Association of America found that many parents were not aware of the lyrical content listened to by their children. In September 1995, the Warner Music Group finally bowed to public pressure and announced a 50% share withdrawal from Interscope Records, the publishers of groups like Nine Inch Nails and rappers Snoop Doggy Dog and Dr Dre. However, to this day, rap artists continue to produce lyrics that glorify guns, rape and murder (Wilson & Wilson 2001: 449).
ACTIVITY 6.3
What do you think of lyrics in local songs?
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6.1.6
Obesity Problems and the Effects of Television Viewing
A number of studies have also been conducted on the effects of television on the physical growth of children. In 1998, the Agricultural Department of USA held a seminar on children and obesity. The conclusion of the seminar supported earlier findings by the University of Tennessee, which found that excessive television viewing among children lowers their metabolism rate and causes obesity (Wilson & Wilson 2001: 444). This study found that there were a total of 10 million obese children in USA, and television was identified as the number one reason for children becoming less active as they preferred to have TV snacks. Greenberg & Dominick (1969) suggest that the act of watching television is in itself satisfying, as it gives viewers a method of escaping from stress, loneliness or boredom. The problem is, the enjoyment of watching television easily becomes an addiction. The testimonials below were made by a number of respondents who frequently watched television (cited in Winn, 1985: 25-26): 1. I find that television is extremely attractive, and it cannot be pushed aside. When television is turned on, I cannot turn away from it. I cant even turn it off. I am devoid of energy, dont have self determination. I feel essentially weak. When I try to turn off the television, the energy is sapped from my hands. As such, I spend countless hours watching it. 2. I can still remember the time when I first owned a television. Whenever I got the chance, I would sit in front of it for hours, and I vividly remember the tired and uneasy feelings that would come after such viewing sessions, the feeling that a lot of time had been wasted. Television promises entertainment, and I couldnt wait to experience it(but afterwards) I would be so tired after watching it for long periods of time. Marie Winn (1985) found that during viewing, most children seem to be immersed in another world. Winn quoted one respondent as saying: My 5 year old child is hypnotised when watching television. He is totally immersed, and doesnt seem to see what is going on around him. When I talk to him, he ignores me. To get his attention, I have to turn off the television, and only then will he respond (cited in Winn, 1985: 13).
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Television contents are prepared for all viewer groups, whereas print media separate reading materials based on what they perceive are suitable for the cognitive and affective levels of target readers. As a result, todays children are more exposed to television (and video) stimulation and enters the teenage phase faster. They also tend to enter the adults world faster because of their frequent exposure to uncensored media content. Once upon a time, parents and adults could shape the behaviour of their children by reading and talking to them about topics that could be exposed to them, but parents of today are forced to struggle with various types of competing images and ideas, that cannot be directly controlled. The family is no longer a strong formative influence. Television today guides children around the world before they are even given the permission to cross the street (cited in Meyrowitz, 1985: 238). Winn concluded that television viewing in itself can be damaging because it reduces the involvement of children, teenagers and even adults in family life and outside activities.
ACTIVITY 6.4
If you know a child between the age of 18 months and 11 years, try and observe his/her behaviour before, during and after watching television or video. Does the television programme or video content affect their behaviour? Compare your observations with the research findings stated in this topic (or other research findings). Are there any similarities? If not, what factors could possibly result in the differences?
6.2 MEDIA VIOLENCE THEORY

Gerbner et.al (1980) created a "violence index" to measure the frequency of violence in a television programme. Content analyses by Gerbner et. al showed a high level of violence in television programmes (Wilson & Wilson 2001: 440, 443, 445). Ten years later, another study by the Annenberg School of Communication, University of Pennsylvania, found that the level of violence in prime time television programmes was still high and had not changed since the previous study. The results of a number of studies carried out to find a relationship between the effects of media violence and society sparked the media violence theories (see Figure 6.4).
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Figure 6.4: Media violence theories
A brief explanations of these violence theories are as follows (Refer Wilson & Wilson 2001: 440 443): 1. Catharsis Theory This theory suggests that we indirectly release our disappointments and anger by our aggressive behaviours. Aggressive Cue Theory This theory suggests that television violence enhances the excitement level of viewers and sparks previously learned behaviour, resulting in the repetition of violent behaviour in real-world situations. This is supported by Leonard Berkowitzs study found that children and university students exposed to television violence could withstand longer periods of electric shocks when compared to those who were not exposed to such content. 3. Reinforcement Theory This theory suggests that television violence reinforces the existing behaviour within the sub conscience of an individual. Violent individuals see television violence as a representation of reality, whereas non-violent individuals see it as entertainment.
2.
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4.
Observational Theory This theory suggests that we can learn violent behaviour by watching violent programmes. This was reinforced by Albert Bandura et. al whose studies found children imitating these images when given dolls after viewing violent video images. Information-Imitation Theory This theory states that television violence plays a major role in causing violent and unusual behaviour in society. It is believed that certain people (generally individuals with imbalanced thoughts or those who are insane) observe the activities and information presented by the media, and later imitate what they saw. A number of cases have been identified that reinforce this theory. The film
5.
The Deer Hunter, which featured intense scenes of a game of Russian

roulette, resulted in 20 deaths after being viewed on television. However, there were no similar cases during its run in cinemas. After the release of the film Born Innocent, which showed a prison scene where a female prisoner was molested with plumbing equipment, a girl in San Francisco was molested with a Coca Cola bottle by a group of women who got the idea from the film. There are also positive effects from this imitation of information. Patricia Greenfield reported in her book, Mind and Media (cited in Wilson & Wilson 2001: 446), that a day after the character Fonzie from the Happy Days series got a library card, the number of children who applied for library cards throughout America multiplied five fold.
ACTIVITY 6.5
Would you agree that the media reinforces existing violent characteristics contained within certain individuals?
EXERCISE 6.1
Select one of the media violence theories. Refer to either local or international research findings that manifest what the theory stated.
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6.3 DISCUSSIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA AND ICT IN SOCIETY

Various conclusion have been made by a number of media researchers throughout the 20th century. Some blame the media for the violence in society and some blame gullible members of society who are easily influenced by the media. Jazmyn Chelliah, a psychology expert in Singapore believes that television has taken over the role of teachers, mentors, and parents to our children, and should be blamed for displaying too much violence, sex, drug abuse and alcohol. She says (cited in the worksheet of the "Parental Viewing Control Devices for Malaysian Broadcasters" Seminar 1998): Edward R. Murrow (cited in Wartella 1997: 11), stated:
This instrument (television) can teach. It can illuminate. Yes, and it can even inspire. But it can do so only to the extent that humans are determined to use it to those ends. Otherwise, it is merely wires and lights in a box.
However, the opposite can also happen. Wartella said, Television also holds the power to harm, to instill fear, and to render us callous to suffering. It can bring ugliness into the world.. . .We are at a moment in which
the television industry and the future members of that industry we educate can influence the moral climate of television production. This is the context of todays debate and context matters.
David Gauntlett (as pictured on the left), has analysed hundreds of media studies. He listed 10 mistakes in the effects model, and refuses to conveniently blame the media when things go wrong in society. In his report entitled Ten things wrong with the effects model, Gauntlett explains that critics of television and film violence have made a mistake, as they are looking at the problem from a skewered point of view, and a flawed research approach. He spoke out against critics of video games who analysed video games and tried to connect them with real-life crimes. Instead, they should study the personalities of actual criminals and determine whether this group is easily stimulated or affected by video games, he said.
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The 10 mistakes identified by Gauntlett are shown in Table 6.4 (refer http://www.newmediastudies.com/effects1.htm).
Table 6.4: Ten Mistakes of the Effects Model Ten Mistakes of the Effects Model 1. The effects model tackles social problems backwards 2. The effects model treats children as inadequate 3. Assumptions within the effects model are characterised by barely-concealed conservative ideology 4. The effects model inadequately defines its own objects of study 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The effects model is often based on artificial studies The effects model is often based on studies with misapplied methodology The effects model is selective in its criticisms of media depictions of violence The effects model assumes superiority to the masses The effects model makes no attempt to understand meanings of the media
10. The effects model is not grounded in theory
A few of the research examples cited by Gauntlett include the following:
Hagell & Newburns Study Hagell & Newburns study (1994) obtained data from 78 teenage offenders who were involved in theft cases & violence, and traced their actions to media usage. This study found that delinquents watched less television and videos compared to other teenagers. In fact, the delinquent teenagers had less access to such technologies, were not particularly enamored with any violent programmes, and did not have any favourite programmes. Buckinghams Study Buckinghams study (1993, 1996) tried to identify which children understood about media and what they understood about mass media content. Results showed that the children being studied were well aware of the media, and were even sarcastic about it (Refer also to the book Video Critical: Children, the environment and media power by David Gauntlett, 1997 http://www.leeds.ac.uk/ics/book-dg2.htm). Milavsyk, Kessler, Stipp & Rubens Study Milavsky, Kessler, Stipp & Rubens (1982a, 1982b) used longitudinal methods to study how the media influenced 3,000 youngsters over the
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course of 3 years. In this study, biological change, physical growth and the environment were taken into consideration when observing the effects of the media on respondents. At the end of the study, the researchers did not see any significant media effects on their respondents.
Buckingham et. als Qualitative Study The in-depth qualitative studies conducted by Buckingham (1993, 1996), Hill (1997), Schlesinger, Dobash, Dobash & Weaver (1992), Gray (1992) and Palmer (1986) found that media audiences had their own interpretations of media content.
This is not surprising, said Gauntlett: a woman hitting a man equals an unpleasant act of aggression, or appropriate
self-defence, or a triumphant act of revenge, or a refreshing change, or is simply uninteresting (Refer: http://www.newmediastudies.com/effects1.htm).
Although Gauntlett criticised the approach taken by certain groups of media effects researchers, this does not mean that studies cannot be conducted to evaluate the influence of media on society and societys perception of the media. This differs from studying the effects of media and societys behaviour. The type of research method can also influence the findings of the study. Compared to quantitative studies that favour statistics, qualitative methods are seen to be more viable and rational when trying to understand the connection between media and society because they take the views of media audiences into account. Gauntletts book, entitled Moving Experiences: Understanding Televisions Influences and Effects (1995) discusses the question of television violence from different perspectives, and also looks at media campaigns and their effectiveness in persuading different kinds of audiences. (Refer http://www. leeds.ac. uk/ lcs/book-dg1.htm)
EXERCISE 6.2
Select one research that deals with the media. Who are the respondents studied? What are the research findings? What is your own conclusion of the effects of media and society after going through this research?
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6.4 MEDIA CREDIBILITY

With the advent of television, the TV generation was criticised by the radio generation as having a:

short attention span, weak linguistic capabilities, poor imagination, constantly requiring immediate gratification, and unable to differentiate between information and wisdom.
The radio generation, on the other hand, was praised for their good imagination, creativity, and ability to present dramatic situations. Fifty years after the birth of television, there were claims that television has an impact on cognitive development, effectiveness and persist behaviour society. A study conducted in the USA by the Pew Research Center for The People reported that the total number of people who had negative views of the media had significantly increased. The study found that most respondents viewed the media as inaccurate, unfair, and intrusive (cited in Wilson & Wilson 2001: 452). Walter Cronkite, a well-known and respected CBS broadcast journalist, saw the race for ratings and profit in the newspaper and broadcasting industry as the cause for the drop in media credibility. News reports on television were produced as if they were entertainment pieces because media owners were fixated on profit.
EXERCISE 6.3
Find at least one critique on the media or ICT in newspapers. List down the topic of criticism. Do you agree with these views? If yes, why? If no, what are your own views? Diffusion of ICT has spurred the desire to study the new media and evaluate their influence on society. ICT studies in America have been conducted since the 1970s (refer Steinfeld 1987), but research on the effects and influences of ICT in Malaysia are still largely focused on computer and Internet usage.
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6.5 THE IMPLICATIONS OF ICT ON SOCIETY

6.5.1 The Digital Divide
An issue commonly discussed by the Malaysian public is the digital divide. The National IT Council (NITC) has tried its best to ensure a smart partnership between the public sector, the private sector, non-governmental organisation and non-profit organisation, and community members so as to close this divide, or at least reduce it. The efforts bridging the digital divide (BDD) have become a national priority, especially among rural societies, the disadvantaged, the poor, senior citizens, and women. Those who have access to ICT represent only approximately 3.5% of the entire Malaysian population (Refer to Zait Isa 2001).
6.5.2
Media and ICT Literacy
Media literacy (including ICT) refers to the ability to communicate effectively with all types of media print, electronic or online, as well as access, understand, analyse and evaluate images, visuals, words and sounds that make up today's media and ICT culture.
Media and ICT literacy do not only include writing and reading skills, but also understand the messages transmitted through visual images (television and movies), music, advertisements and others. Ellen A. Wartella, a prolific researcher who has produced books and reports on the effects of media on children, also believes that media education is a crucial skill.
Wartella (1997) says that media education is desperately needed in order to develop more literate audiences. And a literate viewership is necessary for any technological fixes to be effective.
Media education is important for children because their lives are saturated with media messages. Every day they watch television, listen to music, watch movies, buy products advertised in the media, videos, CDs, computer games and more. Media education is also important for adults to help them understand information, and to understand how media influence their lives as individuals, families, consumers, community members, and as citizens and voters. Smart
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media users do not only have the ability to criticise irresponsible media, but also possess the ability to effectively use information for useful purposes. The Center for Media Literacy propagates empowerment through education (refer http://www.medialit.org/CML/aboutcml.htm). This philosophy encompasses three interrelated concepts. 1. 2. Media literacy is a life-long learning process in the global media world. The essence of media literacy is the information-sourcing process awareness, analysis, contemplation, action that can help empower ones self with the skills to navigate, that is, to access, analyse, explore, evaluate, express ones own opinions and create ones own messages. Media literacy is an alternative to censorship, spurning, or media bashing. It is the ability to make intelligent decisions.
3.
Educational institutions including schools in Malaysia should introduce Media Education courses in the school curricula. Teachers must also be allowed to undertake communication courses to give them the ability to teach the subject in schools. By educating students on how to use the media effectively, society will be empowered through the media and ICT, and reap long term benefits. Wilson & Wilson (2001: 5) also consider media literacy as necessary to realise the effect and impact of media on culture. To become a media literate individual, one must know who created the media content, what is the objective of media content, what is the media effect on society, what is the role of the consumer in the communication process, and most importantly, how the media grow and take their places in todays global society. To understand the meaning and concept of media literacy, read the following excerpt from Wilson & Wilson (2001: 5):
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MEDIA LITERACY Our Popular Culture and the Media as Part of Our Education As we begin the 21st century, the study of popular culture in college and university campuses has continued to grow. Such topics as the messages found in MTV videos, television programs, movies, comic books, detective novels, and rock and roll music have been rigorously examined in many academic settings. Many additional courses explore the relationship of the mass media to popular culture. It has been estimated that more than 2,000 students a year have been enrolling in popular culture classes. At Bowling Green State University in Ohio, students can earn degrees in popular culture. The study of MTV videos has been the subject of a course at California State University, Los Angeles. There are even professional organizations, such as the Popular Culture Association (PCA) and the American Culture Association (ACA) that attract some 3,000 members to annual conventions . . . In the early years, many academics looked down on pop culture, believing the study of everyday culture as not appropriate in a university setting where students examine Western civilization, philosophy, and the sciences. Supporters of the study of popular culture point out that it is part of our history and holds as much relevance as war, slavery and revolutions. They note that by examining the themes and styles of a culture, we can better understand the values of the people.
EXERCISE 6.4
(a) (b) What is the most effective way to decrease digital divide in society, What is the best way to enhance media literacy in Malaysia?
6.6
MEDIA WATCH GROUPS
Apart from educating our children in schools, we must also educate consumers in society, as they are the frequent targets of advertisers and promoters of products and services. Every individual in society must become a smart consumer, so that they will not be gullible in the face of irresponsible advertisers and media practitioners.
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Parents specifically must be more aware of the media content. Parents can voice out their criticisms to the media if they find media content damaging to the mental health and values of their families.
Consumer Awareness Needed It is our obligation to become aware, concerned, skeptical and demanding. We should be aware of just how well our mass media are or are not performing in terms of social responsibility and high ethical standards. We should be concerned about inadequate performances.We should be skeptical of any movements to strengthen external regulations of the mass media.And most importantly, we should constantly demand that our mass media perform with the utmost responsibility and concern for the quality of our culture. If we were more discriminating in our consumption of the mass media, we might be able to influence media content. The number of people listening to radio and watching television are closely monitored. When a shows rating slips, the program is cancelled. TV ratings, like newspaper and magazine circulations, determine the advertising revenues the media generate. The mass media pay close attention to what the majority of people in the culture think. We are the ones who determine whether a place in our culture exists for them. If they fail to give us what we want and demand, we have the power to phase them out of existence. Thus, if the content of the mass media remains less than of the highest quality, the fault is partially ours. Television, for example, will continue to give us questionable programming with high doses of sex and violence if that is what the people are willing to watch. Sex and violence will continue to dominate movies, videos, and magazines if that continue to sell. Whether or not the quality of mass media content keeps pace with the new technological advances depends on each of us.
Source: J. R. Wilson & S. R. Wilson. (2001). Mass Media Mass Culture: An Introduction. Boston: McGraw Hill. p. 453
EXERCISE 6.5
In your opinion, what is the most effective way to monitor the media in Malaysia? Do you know of any media watch groups in your area? If so, what are the names of these organisations? What are the activities carried out by them, and how do they achieve their objectives?
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This topic discussed a number of research findings and scholarly viewpoints on the effects of media and ICT on society, especially those conducted in USA. Some of the media effects highlighted by media researchers are the effects of violence, indecency and pornography on social values, effects of advertisements on consumer behaviour, obesity, and viewing addictions. To reduce the negative effects of media on society, some members of society have taken steps to observe media content (and now ICT) and pressure media practitioners to be more socially responsible.

Fundamentals of Multimedia Communication

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Fundamentals of Multimedia Communication

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CMOE I FUNDAMENTALS OF MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION

Version May 2009

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

E.W. Martin et al. (1994) Senn (1998)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

Mainframe: This computer is defined as the big-sized commercial computer

SELF CHECK 1.1

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

FUNCTIONS AND BENEFITS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

Helping People. Example: Assisting special people (the disabled); helping

Helping to Solve Problems: Example: Assisting in the process of problem

(iii) Ensuring data and information security against various threats.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE FUTURE

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

THE INFORMATION HIGHWAY IN MALAYSIA

MULTIMEDIA SUPER CORRIDOR (MSC)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

Figure 1.1: MSC applications

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

Figure 1.2: Seven flagships of MSC multimedia development

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

1.10 ICT LAWS IN MALAYSIA

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

1.11 CAREERS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION ERA

Cyber laws Flagships Information era

Information technology know-how Multimedia Super Corridor

Topic The Internet

2.1 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

Figure 2.1: Internet usage in Malaysia

Source: Jorg Becker & Rahmah Hashim (2001) p. 94

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

2.2 INTERESTING STORIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNET

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

Figure 2.2: Website http://www.napster.com

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

2.3 INTERNET LAWS

INTERNET SECURITY, HACKERS AND CRACKERS

What are the differences between a Hacker and a Cracker?

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA

FUTURE OF THE INTERNET

TOPIC 2 THE INTERNET IN MALAYSIA