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Carles Batlle
II EURON/GEOPLEX Summer School on Modeling and Control of Complex Dynamical Systems Bertinoro, Italy, July 18-22 2005
1 e1 f
e2 f 2 Network
en f n
ei f i =
i=n+1
n+m X
ei f i
v = u j u l
Mathematically, the circuit, with the orientation induced by the currents, is a digraph (directed graph) We can dene its n b 1 +1 Ai = 0 adjacency matrix A by if branch is incident on node i if branch is anti-incident on node i otherwise
Ai i = 0,
=1
i = 1, . . . , n
Ai ui
The sum contains only two terms, because each branch connects only two nodes
Tellegens theorem. Let {v(1) (t1 )}=1,...,b be a set of branch voltages satisfying KVL at time t1 , and let {i (t2 )}=1,...,b be a set of currents satisfying (2) KCL at time t2 . Then
b X
=1
=1
= !
=1
b X
n X i=1
=1
b X
0 u(1)i (t1 ) = 0
KCL
Notice that {v(1) (t1 )} and {i (t2 )} may correspond to dierent times (2) and they may even correspond to dierent elements for the branches of the circuit. The only invariant element is the topology of the circuit i.e. the adjacency matrix.
Corollary. Under the same conditions as for Tellegens theorem, r s d d v(1) (t1 ), s i(2) (t2 ) = 0 dtr dt2 1 for any r, s N.
In fact, even duality products between voltages and currents in dierent domains (time or frequency) can be taken and the result is still zero.
2 v2 i
i1 v1
Element in branch 1
Network: KVL+KCL vb ib
Element in branch b
e1
e2 f2 em fm
Wf (t) Wf (t0 ) =
ei ( )f i ( )d
Assume the state of the system is given by x Rn , and that x = G(x) + g(x)e Internal dynamics Assume also that outputs can be computed from the state Dynamics due to the inputs f = g T (x)(x)
Wf (t) Wf (t0 ) = = Z
t
t t0
he( ), f ( )id = Z
Z
t t0
t t0
t0
(z) dz
(x0 ,x)
To avoid violating energy conservation (First Principle of Thermodynamics) we cannot let this depend on the particular connecting x0 and x
2 1 x0
Suppose W (2 ) > W (1 ) x0 1 W (1 ) x 2 x0
W (2 )
We input W (1 ) and then obtain W (2 ) while the system returns to the same state
(x) i (x) = , xi
i = 1, . . . , n
Wf (x) =
i (x) = (x) , xi i = 1, . . . , n
(z)dz
(x)
j i (x) = (x), xj xi
i, j = 1, . . . , n
Electric capacitor
zero E constant E zero E F n = m = 2, g = I2 , G = 0 e1 = i (current), e2 = V (velocity) (x, q), 1 = F (x, q), 2 = v(x, q)
q varying x
+q
q v(x, q) = C(x, q)
nonlinear dielectric
v F = =q q x x
1 C(x, q)
q C(x, q) 2 (x, q) x C
F (x, q) =
q2 = 2 x
q 0
1 C(x)
q 2 x
q C(x)
q v(x, q) 2 x
E(x, q) = q 2
Furthermore, going from (0, 0) to (x, q) rst with q = 0 and then to q with the nal x, one gets the energy
Wf (x, q) =
q 0
1 q2 d = C(x) 2 C(x)
m1
m2
For linear magnetic systems l1 = l2 = N1 i1 N1 i1 Ll1 i1 , m1 = Lm1 i1 , Rl1 Rm N2 i2 N2 i2 Ll2 i2 , m2 = Lm2 i2 , Rl2 Rm
1 2
L11 = N1 (Ll1 + Lm1 ), L22 = N2 (Ll2 + Lm2 ) L12 = N1 Lm2 = N1 N2 = N2 Lm1 = L21 Rm
n = m = 2, g = I2 , G = 0, x = (1 , 2 ), e = (v1 , v2 ), i1 = 1 (1 , 2 ), i2 = 2 (1 , 2 ) L12 = L21 implies that i = L1 with L1 symmetric Maxwells reciprocity relations adding parasitic resistances means that G is no longer zero v1 = r1 i1 + d1 , dt v2 = r2 i2 + d2 dt
N2 = 2 N1
Furthermore, if r1 = r2 = 0, it follows from the dynamics, that v1 N2 = v2 N1 This is half the ideal transformer relationships! Let N1 N2 /Rm become very large while N1 /N2 remains nite N1 i1 N2 The minus sign is due to the all-input power convention
The nal assumption is this The only way for to remain nite is
i2 =
Elementary electromagnet
m i + v r N l F v = ri + d dt = N = l + m l = x but now Rm depends on the air gap x: 1 Rm (x) = 0 A li + 2x ri Ni , Rl m = Ni Rm
This again a 2-port system with state variables , x, inputs v (voltage) and V (velocity), and outputs i = 1 (, x), F = 2 (, x). = N N + Rl Rm (x)
2 2
i = (Ll + Lm (x))i
b N2 N 2 0 A Lm (x) = = li Rm c+x ri + 2x From this i = 1 (, x) can be computed. Exercise: Compute the force F (, x) and the electromechanical energy Wf (, x).
DC motor
N S
ia current into the page ia current out of the page a special mechanism with slip rings and brushes is necessary
if
if The main eect is direct conversion of energy without storing it in coordinate dependent elements = l1 l2 Bia vemf = l1 l2 B = l1 l2 Br
pm
f = Lf if (the eld ux) a = LA ia (the armature ux) = Jm r (the mech angular momentum) pm
f a
= rf if + Vf
= LAf if r ra ia + Va = LAf if ia Br r TL
Exercise: Show that, neglecting the eld port, in the limit when LA and Jm go to zero (dene this formally!), and dissipations disapear, the DC motor becomes a pure gyrator.
i = 1, . . . , n
Co-energy is dened as
Wc (f, xe , ) =
fi xei Wf (xe , )
. . . but
i = 1, . . . , n
Legendre transformation
Widely used in analytical mechanics and thermodynamics While variables x are known as energy or Hamiltonian variables, transformed variables f are the co-energy or Lagrangian variables. Mechanical forces can be computed also from the co-energy Wc (f, ) = f xe (f, ) Wf (xe (f, ), ) Wc (f, ) = f xe xe Wf xe Wf = Wf = F f So mechanical forces can be computed as F = Wc notice again a reversed sign with respect to standard EE literature
For linear electromagnetic systems, q = C(x)v, = L(x)i, Wc (v, i, x) = Wf (q, , x)|q=q(v,x),=(i,x) In particular, for linear magnetic systems, 1 T 1 1 T Wf (, x) = L (x), Wc (i, x) = i L(x)i 2 2 Exercise: Prove the above equation. Exercise: Consider an electromechanical system with a nonlinear magnetic material such that = (a + bx2 )i2 , where a and b are constants and x is a variable geometric parameter. Compute Wf , Wc and f , and check all the relevant relations.
y = g T (x)(H(x))T
1 i = L1 () = H, = Jm p = p H
Notice that the port yielding Te is internal (connected to the mechanical inertia) Te = 1 H = T L1 () 2 1 T L1 LL1 = 2
+ Re i = p = =
Bv Rm Te (, ) + Tm 1 Jm p
L1 = L1 LL1
Re x= 0 0
0 Rm 1
x = ( p )T
0 B 1 x H + 0 0 0
0 v 0 Tm 1
This general model includes many of the classical electrical machines, as well as linear motors and levitating systems. Exercise: Write the general port Hamiltonian model for the electromagnet and for the variable geometry capacitor The dc motor needs a special formulation x = H(x) =
T
p = Jm r
Lf 0 rf 0 0 Va
0 LA 0 ra 0
0 0 Br
Vf
TL
The input voltages Vf and Va can be obtained from the same source in several ways
Exercise: Obtain the port Hamiltonian models of the shunt-connected and of the series-connected dc machines. The later is in fact an implicit port Hamiltonian model. Check this by writing the corresponding bond graph and identifying the dierential causality assignment.
Power converters
Control of electromechanical systems Portable battery-powered equipment UPS Power conversion systems (e.g. conditioning from fuel-cell, wind-based,. . . ) dc-to-dc: to elevate or reduce dc voltages in a load-independent way Power converters
trick: use of switches, operated in a periodic manner system alternates between several dynamics
1 hxi(t) = T
x( ) d
tT
S = 0 x = (J0 (x) R0 (x))(H(x))T + g0 (x)u S = 1 x = (J1 (x) R1 (x))(H(x))T + g1 (x)u if x does not vary too much during a given topology S = 0 x (J0 (hxi) R0 (hxi))(H(hxi))T + g0 (hxi)u S = 1 x (J1 (hxi) R1 (hxi))(H(hxi))T + g1 (hxi)u
the length of time in a given cycle with the system in a given topology is determined by a function of the state variables in our approximation, a function of the averages, t0 (hxi), t1 (hxi), with t0 + t1 = T x(t) = x(t T ) + t0 (hxi) (J0 (hxi) R0 (hxi))(H(hxi)) + g0 (hxi)u T t1 (hxi) (J1 (hxi) R1 (hxi))(H(hxi)) + g1 (hxi)u
T
d hxi = dt +
T d0 (hxi) (J0 (hxi) R0 (hxi))(H(hxi)) + g0 (hxi)u T d1 (hxi) (J1 (hxi) R1 (hxi))(H(hxi)) + g1 (hxi)u d0 + d1 = 1 duty cycle
i1
Two energy-storing elements: H = HC + HL Two 1-d PHDS dqC = iC , dt dL = vL , dt H qC H L Connected by Kirchos laws iL = i1 + i2 i1 = iC + iR v2 + vL = E vC + v1 = v2 vC = vR iE + iL = 0
vC = iL =
Using the PHD equations, the rst four KL are written as H L i1 v2 + dL dt = i1 + i2 = dqC + iR dt
= E = v2 Internal ports
H + v1 qC
d dt
qC L
= 0(H)T +
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
True ports
The switches impose the following conditions S = 0 s1 = 1, s2 = 0 v1 = 0, i2 = 0 S = 1 s1 = 0, s2 = 1 i1 = 0, v2 = 0 For S = 1 we have the values of v2 and i1
H L = = = = i1 + i2 dqC + iR dt E v2
For S = 0
v2 +
i1 dL dt
i1 =
H H , v2 = L qC
H + v1 qC
i1 In compact form v2
H L H = (1 S) qC = (1 S)
Substituting i1 and v2 back in the 2-d PHS (1 S) H/L d qC 1 0 1 0 (1 S) H/qC = L iR 0 1 0 1 dt E 0 1S H/qC 1 0 iR + = H/L E (1 S) 0 0 1 J g
Is a consequence of Kirchos laws Skew symmetric Not a coincidence! being an instantiation of Dirac structures and F E T + EF T = 0 T H/qC vC vR 1 0 = = y= H/L iL iE 0 1 last two KL
Now we can terminate the resistive port and introduce some dissipation iR =
d dt qC L 0 (1 S)
vC 1 H vR = = R R R qC
1/R 0 0 0 H/qC H/L 0 + E 1
1S 0
So the boost converter, a VSS, has a PHDS representation. The three basic second order dc-to-dc converters have this representation 1/R ( S) S 0 0 1 S
x=
(H(x))T + 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 2 2L L
x=
1/R ( S)
S 0
(H(x))T +
0 1 S
Let us compute the averaged equation d 1/R 0 hxi = d0 (hxi) (H(hxi))T + E 0 1 dt 1/R 0 (H(hxi))T + E + d1 (hxi) ( ) 0 1 d0 + d1 = 1 1/R d1 (hxi) 0 (H(hxi))T + E = 0 ( d1 (hxi)) 1 d1 (hxi) hSi = 0 d0 + 1 d1 d hxi = dt VSS averaged PHDS model (H(hxi))T + 0 1 hSi E
Better averaged descriptions of VSS can be obtained by considering higher order Fourier-like coecients, instead of just hxi. k-phasors 1 hxik (t) = T Z
t
x( )ejk d
tT
Problem: install in each power segment a device to store the excess energy and return it when needed at the required voltage
Due to several reasons (technical and economical) the storage elements must be either supercapacitors or mechanical ywheels A power conversion system must be put in the middle to deliver the energy in the required form r1 L1 r2 L2 diode R IGBT rN LN
il r C Si Ti Csc
The causal bond graph of the system is (power conventions are not displayed) R: R Sf : i l 1 S1 T1 R: r1 1 I: L1 I: Li 0 C: Csc 0 1 0 Si Ti R: ri 1 I: LN C: C 1 R: r SN TN R: rN 1
1 0
1 0
ia
ia
0 ib
Ti eb
Each pair of switches can be modeled as a modulated transformer ea ia and then R: ri Si MTFi i =1 R: R 1 C: C R: r I: Li 1
eb ia = =
Si MTFi
S i ea S i ib
eb ib
i =N Sf : i l 1 0
i =N 0 i =1 C: Csc
Exercise: Write the state equations for the above bond graph. If you solve the above exercise, you will see that the resulting equations can be written in PHDS form with state variables q (charge of C), Q (charge of Csc ) and i (ux of Li , i = 1, . . . , N )
N 1 1 2 X 1 2 x = (J R)x H + gil q + H(Q, q, i ) = Q2 + i 2Csc 2C 2Li i=1 0 0 1 1 02N 022 0 0 S1 SN R = 0N 2 ij rj + rSi Sj 1 S1 0 0 J = . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . 1 0 0 1 SN rS1 g = rS2 . This can be obtained also from . . the interconnection of the individual rSN PHD subsystems, as we did for the boost.
The model can be expanded to include the power line + the electrical vehicles, or the supercapacitor can be substituted by a normal one attached to a dc-motor and a ywheel
Important modeling remarks The transformer model obtained is dependent on the external causality imposed upon each pair of switches. It has to be recomputed if something dierent is connected that changes that. The model has produced four-quadrant switches: there is no constraint on the signs of currents and voltages through them. In practice, the type of switch displayed is two-quadrant: it can sustain any current but only non-zero voltages in one way.