Kevin Stolpe

Physics 464
Prof. La Rosa
Introduction to Optoelectronics
Optoelectronics is the interaction between optics and circuitry. Throughout my live I have been
exposed to applications which require these two mediums to communicate with each other, yet never really
understood how it was accomplished. I was aware that a signal was sent and a receiver in turn gathered
data, but how? What physical properties allowed the circuitry to interpret the data?

The connection between optics and electronics will be discussed along with the applications
brought about by them. Several applications for optoelectronics use a few basic principles which are well
founded in electronics. The first portion of this paper will review some of the characteristics electrical
devices have which enable them to distinguish between different lighting conditions. The second section
will discuss commonly used interactions between optics and the digital medium. In the last section the
common interfaces in optoelectronics are used in applications.

An introduction of sending and receiving

The sending and receiving ends of an electronic device make up the majority of an optoelectric
system. The sending end can be any light source depending on the application. An electronic device like a
light emitting diode (LED), a non-electronic device like a lantern, or a natural source like the sun can be
used as the light source for a receiving device. Of the mentioned devices the LED is used in several
applications, because the device can be turned off and on numerous times will consuming a small amount
of current and requiring little voltage. Further explanation of sources will be given within specific
applications later on. The receiving device is a temperature sensitive electronic device. When light reaches
an electric device, the temperature in the device may change which can effect the circuit the device is
within. In other words the change in temperature on a device can be used to trigger reactions in a circuit. In
addition different devices have different sensitivities to light which can be used to isolate and distinguish
what light is sensed by the detector. A company selling a device will state the range of the wavelength or
frequency range that the device will send or detect. The following figure, Fig. 1, shows the electromagnetic
spectrum:

Fig.1 Electromagnetic spectrum

Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook
What electrical devices are used for detection and why

Of the receiving devices resistors, diodes, and transistors are some of the most commonly used. A
light dependent resistor (LDR) is often used to sense the general change in light over a few seconds. When
light hits a resistor made of cadmium sulphide (CdS) or another highly light sensitive material, the
resistance is greatly reduced thereby changing the state of the circuit it is in. The presence of a diode and a
phototransistor within a circuit are also greatly diminished when they are hit by light. A diode has a far
greater response time then a resistor, but is in turn far more sensitive to light. Increased sensitivity to light
increases the likelihood of interference from an undesirable light source. In turn a transistor has a faster
response time to light than a diode, but again is far more susceptible to stray light interfering. In order to
increase the effectiveness of a transistor a phototransistor is used. A phototransistor is a regular transistor
with a larger base that is exposed. For an additional increase in speed a Darlington phototransistor can be
used to increase the reaction time by a factor of ten.
Traditionally resistors, diodes, and transistors built with silicon have always been susceptible to
heat. In order to solve the problem integrated circuit devices are shielded to reduce the effects of heat and
other elements. As a result photo-resistors, photodiodes, and phototransistors are basically traditional IC
(integrated circuit) devices with packaging designed to capture light instead of fend it off. The following
diagram, Fig. 2 shows photodetector symbols:

Fig.1 Photodetector symbols

Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and
Laser Cookbook

Basic interaction between optics and electronics

There are a few powerful combinations of optics and electronics which serve several applications.
Each of these principles will be introduced in this section and then explained within a few common
applications later on.
Reducing stray light & increasing the power of detection:

One of the most common sending devices is a diode, yet diodes emit light in a number of
directions. In order to direct the light emitted from the LED a black cylindrical object called a light
shield is used. The receiving end of an optical system can also reduce the impact of stray light by
using a light shield. Adding a lens within the light shield will focus the light onto the photo
detector. The following figure, Fig. 3, displays a light shield around a phototransistor:

Fig. 3 Light collimator

Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook
 Another common sending device is a laser diode. A laser diode charges its P and N layers
to create light which is then bounced between the two surfaces until it exits the device in a
waveform. The following figure, Fig. 4, displays a laser diode:

Fig. 4 Semiconductor laser diode

Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook

Light-beam system:

A light beam system has one or more sets of sensors and detectors used to set up an array
or arrays of light. The detector is constantly polling light originating from the sensor for a break in
the system. When a break occurs, the circuit the detector is in does something. Light-beam
systems are commonly used in security systems and assembly lines in factories.
There are an infinite number of ways the light can travel between the sending and
receiving end of the system. The sensor and detector can be facing each other as they often do in
factors or mirrors can be used to bounce the light around before it enters the sensor to increase the
area beams cover. Note the more a beam is bounced around the slower the detection time. If lenses
are added to the system the response time will be even slower. Remember if the system needs to
react faster, there may be a sensors which take less time to react, but in turn will be more sensitive
to light. When additional sensors and detectors are added, redundancy can be added into the circuit
to require multiple light rays to be tripped before something happens. A dual light beam system as
seen in Fig. 5 can be used to deter false alarms:

Fig.5 Dual-light beam alarm

Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual
 Optocouplers:

The optocoupler is used in numerous devices as a means of one digital device talking to
another. In short an optocoupler is a sensor and receiver in close proximity to each other within an
enclosed environment. This allows the sender and receiver to communicate with each other
without interference. Optocouplers are commonly used when two devices need to communicated,
but most not transfer any voltage, current, or other properties from one circuit to the next. A basic
optocoupler is show in Fig. 6 below.

Fig. 6 Transistor optoisolators

Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

Fig. 7

Optocouplers can include several senders and receivers, but there

Darlington optoisolators is a limitation on the voltage for parallel components.

Fig. 7 Darlington optoisolators & Dual isolated optocoupler

Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

Dual isolated optocoupler

Optical Film Strip Switch

This device is an optocoupler with an object between the sensor and detector. When the object is
removed, a connection between the sensor and the connector is made. The main application to an optical
film strip switch is an alarm system for windows, door, and other objects requiring one object to be moved
always from another. The following diagram, Fig. 8, is a diagram of a optical film strip switch:

Fig. 8 Optical Film Strip Switch

Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

Light from a natural source and detectors:

Detectors can be used to determine natural light and heat. A series of sensitive detectors designed
to receive different wavelengths can be used to sense what light is coming in based on frequencies. In turn
a series of detectors can determine how cold or hot a room is using highly temperature sensitive sensors.
Another method to gauging light and heat is to have one highly sensitive detector and have different
responses to various voltage levels near the circuit.

Applications

A smoke detector can be created using a light dependent resistor with only an enclosure, screen,
and light source. Small openings are allowed in the enclosure that do not interact with the LDR and the
screen blocks the light source from the LDR. When smoke enters the enclosure, light from the light source
reflects off the smoke into the LDR turning on an alarm. The following figure, Fig. 9, shows an application
of a reflection smoke detector:

Fig. 9 Reflection-type smoke detector

Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual
 An alarm system is a light-beam system used to detect any intruder by constantly sending and
receiving a source of light in order to determine if a break in the line is made. In the following application
mirrors are used to set up a light-beam parameter along the outside of a house in Fig. 10:

Fig. 10 Laser perimeter alarm layout

Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook

The laser and laser receiver/alarm both use a phase locked loop (PLL) to create and maintain the desired
sending and receiving frequency. In addition the PLLs contain the VCO which generates the frequency.

A remote controller uses an infer red light emitting diode to communicate with another device by
multiplexing a pulse. By varying the length and time of pulses two devices can talk to each other. Think of
it as a type of Morse code. The diode pulses signals from one device to another that has the ability to
decoded and reacted upon the message. The following figure, Fig. 11, illustrates an example of on and off
timing requirements for the light emitting diode to send a particular signal:

Fig. 11 six-bit remote-control system

Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual
 There are far too many areas of theory and application to cover within this paper. If
anyone wishes to learn more about optoelectronics I recommend that you read the following books:
Optoelectonics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook and Optoelectonics Circuits Manual. Both books cover
applications for the theories they describe throughout their texts. Note that both books assume the reader
has some understanding of circuits.

Conclusion:

Before undertaking this project I understood several principles, theories, and applications of
circuits and optics individually, but was unaware of exactly how the two mediums interfaced. I always
knew there were interfaces between the two mediums given that we all use those applications in our daily
lives. When I undertook this project, I was driven to find the reasoning behind all the technology I have
come so accustomed to. As a result I discovered what physically happens to electrical devices when they
are hit by light, the common configurations to create and derive from those physical reactions, and in turn
applications achievable upon those common interfaces. In short when I look at a device which uses
optoelectronics like a remote controller I now I have the ability to visual in my head how the device is
communicating with another.

Works Sited:

Marston, M. R. Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

Oxford: Heinemann Newnes, 1988.

Petiezzellis, Thomas. Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, And Laser Cookbook.

New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 1997.