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Using translations in school
Chapter I TRANSLATION Definitions. Classifications. Principles of translation. ""Translation, as the process of conveying messages across linguistic and cultural barriers, is an eminently communicative activity, one whose use could well be considered in a wider range of teaching situations than may currently be the case".(Dr. Ian Tudor) Tytler1 gives the following definition: "A translation is good when the translated text is perceived and understood at its real value [...] by the readers in whose language the translation was done". He formulates the following three "laws" which may derive from this definition: 1 .The translation must offer a full transcription of all the ideas presented in the original text. 2.The style and the manner of writing must be the same as in the original text. 3. The translation must have the naturalness of the original. Translation, as defined by Catford (1965), is the act of "replacing text material in the source language (SL) by an equivalent text material in the target
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language (TL)" , where not only superficial semantic equivalents are sought but also a maximum of implied meanings and emotional and aesthetic effects are transferred. The end product of translation is the result of a series of phases that the translator undergoes consciously or unconsciously and more or less intricately according to factors such as the characteristics of the original text to be translated, the translator's intellectual and material resources, the source and target language involved, the purpose of the translation, and other basically external influences such as time and physical or emotional conditions for the task. But the basic process remains the same: an author has transmitted his message via a certain code to a receptor who is the translator, i.e., the new author, who will transmit the same message via a different code to other receptors. Decoding a text is more than just identifying the story it tells. It means identifying the text's objectives (who or what was it written for?) and its social function. Decoding a text also means analyzing the style of the original text -the literary style, the register used, the author's peculiar use of the language, the dialect chosen, and the linguistic forms adopted. Identifying the cultural phenomena involved in the text is also an important part of the decoding phase. The cultural element includes traces of national, local, ethnic, or epochal features which must be picked up by the translator. Trying to give a definition of the term "translation", Leon Levitchi said that: "translation means paraphrasing, rendering from a source language into a target language with the best fidelity the contents of ideas, the logical and emotional structure of the text in the source language in such a way that the text
2
Catford, J. C, A linguistic theory of translation, Oxford University Press, 1965
3 in the target language should have the same effect on the receiver like the original one" One and the same text can be perceived differently by different persons, and, consequently, the translations given by each of them may differ, although they may know both languages very well. "The reader often feels involved in events which at the time of reading seem real to him, even though in fact they are very far from his own reality. The fact that completely different readers can be differently affected by the 'reality' of a particular text is ample evidence of degree to which literary texts transform reading into a creative process that is far
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above mere perception of what is written. The literary text activates our own faculties, enabling us to recreate the world it presents"4. The perceiver of a text will recreate it according to his internal structure and education. "The act of recreation is not a smooth or continuous process but one which in its essence, relies on interruptions of the flow to render it efficacious. We look forward, we look back, we decide, we change our decisions, we form expectations, we are shocked by their nonfulfillment, we questions, we muse, we accept, we reject; this is a dynamic process of recreation. This process is steered by two main structural components within the text: first, a repertoire of familiar literary patterns and recurrent literary themes, together with illusions to familiar social and historical contexts; second, techniques and strategies used to set the familiar against the unfamiliar" .
3
Levitchi, Leon - Indrumar pentru traducatorii din limba engleza iin limba Editura stiintificl si
romdnd,
4
enciclopedica, Bucuresti, 1975 Iser, Wolfgang - The Reading Process: A Phenomenological Approach from volume Reader and Response London, the Baltimore 1980
5
Criticism from Formalism to Post - Structuralism, The Johns Hopkins University Press
Iser, Wolfgang - The Reading Process: A Phenomenological Approach from volume Reader and Response London,
the Baltimore 1980
Criticism from Formalism to Post - Structuralism, The Johns Hopkins University Press
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Preoccupations for translations have existed for many centuries. In Chaucer's time, translating meant rendering the original word by word. English Renaissance considered that a translation should be more expressive than the original. The Neoclassicism recommended the embellishing of the original according to the "good taste". The Realism compared the stylistic systems of the two languages. Alfred the Great (849-899), a remarkable translator from Latin into Anglo-Saxon said in the preface of his translation of The Philosophical Consolation by Boethius that after having some difficulties in rendering, the best solution was to translate "word by word" or "meaning by meaning". Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540) spoke about three ways of translating: the translation which has in view only the rendering of the contents; the translation preoccupied only by rendering the means of expression; the translation which takes into consideration both the contents and the form. The English John Dryden (1631-1700) made the following classification of translations: the metaphrase or the rendering of the text word by word or line by line; the paraphrase or the free translation in which the translator has in view only the main ideas of the text. John Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) admitted that there were many ways of translating, depending on the author and the purpose of translations. V.G. Belinski (1811-1848) asked the translator not to "embellish" the original. I.Turgheniev (1818-1883) said that "any translation is for people which don't know the original, so the translator mustn't work too hard to accurately
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render the original. His activity is for the masses...But only what is beautiful can have an influence over the masses". Mathew Arnold (1822-1888) insisted on the idea that the translation should impress the reader as much as the original (On Translating Homer, 1861). Theodore Savory said that "a translation must render the words and the ideas of the original texf6. A translation should be read as an original and it should have the style of the original. Gyorgy Rado: "We have to render in a translation three elements of the text: the contents, the form and the atmosphere" Jean Coutsocheras: "To translate means to interpret". Octavio Paz: "Learning to talk means learning to translate". Leon Levitchi speaks of: the methaphrase or the literal translation; the summary translation used mainly by official interpreters; adaptation or the imitation in which the translation becomes only a pretext for creation; the selective translation which is very useful in the didactic process of teaching foreign language. Roger T. Bell speaks about: borrowing; loan translation; literal translation; transposition; modulation; equivalence; adaptation. Savory, Theodore - The Art of Translation, London, 195 7
(j Roman Jakobson distinguishes three ways of interpreting language (intralingual translation), into another language (interlingual translation), or into another, non-verbal system of symbols (intersemiotic translation), Intralinguistically we translate all the time, using a vast range variety of language. We
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automatically interpret an utterance according to the communicative function it expresses: an apparently informative message may in reality be a piece of advice, an injunction, a prohibition. To understand what is actually being communicated is to translate. Language also varies according to social function: we use different styles and registers to say the same thing, depending on the role we are assuming in a particular discourse. Whenever we encounter an expression in any way "foreign" to us, whether in a written or spoken medium, we find ourselves more or less consciously interpreting the less familiar by putting the more familiar in its place. Then, at the appropriate moment, we use the once "foreign" utterance "like a native". In each of these processes we engage in intralingual translation. Translation along these lines is undoubtedly a valuable pursuit, as it forces students to explore the resources of their language and to develop source-language analyzing techniques - a fundamental stage in the interlingual translation process. Eugene Nida's model of the translation process illustrates the stage involved. SOURCE LANGUAGE > i r_ ANALYSIS 1 r TRANSFER RECEPTOR LANGUAGE i i RESTRUCTURING i i
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J Translation involves the exploration of two languages. The ability to synchronize the source language and target language requires as a precondition a comprehensive syntactic, lexical, morphological, and stylistic knowledge of both LI and L2; translation is a means to both explore and develop such knowledge. Principles of translation 7 According to Frederick Fuller's The Translator's Handbook there some principles which are relevant to all translations: Meaning. The translation should reflect accurately the meaning of the original text. Nothing should be added or removed, though occasionally part of the meaning can be "transposed?'. Form. The ordering of words and ideas in the translation should match the original as closely as possible. (This is very important in translating legal documents, guarantees, contracts, etc.). But differences in language structure often require changes in the form and order of words. Register. Languages often differ in their levels of formality in a given context. To resolve these differences, the translator must distinguish between formal or fixed expressions and personal expressions, in which the writer or the speaker sets the tone. Source language influence Sometimes the translator's thoughts and choice of words are strongly moulded by the original text and the translation might not sound natural. To avoid this, set the text aside and translate a few sentences aloud, from memory.
g This will suggest natural patterns in the first language, which may not come to mind when the eyes are fixed on the source language text. Style and clarity The translator should not change the style of the original. But if the text is full of repetitions, the translator may correct the text. Idiom
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Idiomatic expressions are notoriously untranslatable. These include similes, metaphors, proverbs and sayings (as good as gold), jargon, slang, and colloquialisms (the Big Apple). If the expressions cannot be translated try any of the following: retain the original word in inverted commas: "yuppie"; retain the original expression, with a literal explanation in brackets: Indian summer (dry, ha2y weather in late autumn) use a close equivalent: talk of the devil - a vorbi de lup In the teaching of languages, translation has been either an accepted or a controversial component, depending on prevailing objectives and teaching preferences. For thousands of years this ancient craft had been at the heart of language learning. Indeed, of almost all learning, for many of the mediaeval universities developed out of what were originally schools of translation. It was an indispensable element of the learning and testing process in the grammar-translation approach. Direct method theorists discouraged it as a learning device in early instruction, while admitting it as an art at advanced stages. Audiolingual textbooks often included native-language translations opposite the early dialogues. Translation drills were commonly accepted as a practice technique.
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Yet today translation is largely ignored as a valid activity for language practice and improvement and even where it is still retained, it tends to be used not for language teaching, but for testing. Over the centuries the translation became less and less associated with the excitement of new discoveries, more and more with the tedium of book learning. What should have been a challenging discipline had degenerated in most schools into a pointless routine exercise, a chore, and a punishment. If translation has fallen from favour it is largely because teachers feel that: it is not a communicative activity because it involves no oral interaction; it is not suitable for classroom work because the students must do the writing on their own; it is also time-consuming and wasteful; it is associated with literary or scientific texts and is not suited to the general needs of the language learner; the use of mother tongue is required, and this is not desirable; it is boring - both to do and correct. This may be the case, but the translation does not have to be a pointless struggle between student and the text. It can be introduced, purposefully and imaginatively, into the language learning programme. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom \ Q Chapter II THE USE OF TRANSLATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM PROS AND CONS Translations are a part of our life. We read literature translated into Romanian, we see films subtitled in Romanian, the guides translate into Romanian or another language, we read medical treaties translated, we do business and translate legal documents. After being open to a great deal of criticism under the influence of behavioristic learning theories, translation is gradually reestablishing itself as a useful and legitimate didactic tool in foreign-language learning. Traditionally, the translation method was used to teach language as a subject, primarily involving the manipulation of grammatical form (Howatt 1984). In recent times, EFL teachers have slowly been reviving the use of translation to present vocabulary (Butera
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1991; Heltai 1989) and concept checks (Harmer 1991). Edge (1986) and Thomas (1984) have reported on using whole text translation at advanced levels. Atkinson's (1987) assertion that "the gap in the methodological literature is presumably partially responsible for the uneasiness which many teachers feel about using or permitting the use of the pupils' native language" would seem to continue to hold true today. Because of the very obvious dangers associated with excessive dependency on the mother tongue (Atkinson 1987), one might argue that teachers would benefit from more The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom \ \ methodological guidance which clearly delimits the functions for which the mother tongue is appropriate. The main objection to translation as a teaching device has been it interposes an intermediate process between the concept and the way it is expressed in the foreign language, thus hindering the development of the ability to think directly in the new language. However, it may be argued that pupils frequently mentally interpose this intermediate translation process themselves in the early stages irrespective of the method applied or approach adopted. Such mental translation usually disappears when pupils become familiar with the language through continual exposure to it. Genuine translation involves the pupils in serious consideration of the expressive possibilities of the new language, while also expanding their appreciation of the semantic extensions and limitations of their first language and the implications for meaning of its syntactic options. It is, then, an appropriate undertaking in an advanced course, or even at the intermediate level when particular pupils are especially interested in attaining competence in it. Translation involves careful analysis of the meaning of the source text. Various aspects of the meaning are considered, and they are re-thought in terms of the target language. Pupils learn a great deal as they discover that it is not always possible to attain exact equivalence and as they evaluate possible versions to see which most fully captures all the implications of the original. They will find that they need to look beyond single words, chunks of sentences, or even complete sentences to whole stretches of discourse as they make their decisions. The production of an acceptable translation into target language is for most pupils a means, not an end - a means for developing sensitivity to the meaning expressed in a stretch of discourse in their own languages to convey these meaning. Pupils learn to translate ideas,
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not words. Through a comparative
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examination of the syntactic and semantic system of the target and native languages and the cultural contexts in which they operate, pupils attempt to expand their own potential for expression in the target language. Some teachers tend to overuse translations in teaching a language but a combination of methods would be the best. Viascheslav P. Androsenko from Moscow State University says: "We do a lot of games, role-playing and communicative activities not as a relaxation but as a major component of the course, since we believe that what really matters is not the time spent on the language but the role the language plays during the time [...]. Some trainers have never played games in class and hopefully will never have to; it is a waste of time of valuable time which can better employed in reading and translating another text. Very soon, however, most teachers get enthusiastic about interaction techniques and ask for more"1 The ultimate goal for a learner-translator is the ability to communicate to the receiver the information conveyed by the original sender. Romanian learners however often have difficulties in achieving this goal. The fault lies not in a deficient linguistic knowledge because of the lack of a well defined translation-teaching framework. It seems that many cases a basic knowledge of the two languages (source and target) plus dictionaries are not always sufficient tools for a translation. "Translation, unfortunately is something you learn only by doing''' (William Weaver, translator of The Name of the Rose). It is entirely possible to view translation itself as a relatively communicative activity in which language can be practised at all levels within a meaningful context. Duff (1989) stresses that the crucial point about using translation is to retain the context. He recommends the use of mother-tongue exercises whose object is effectively to help pupils understand that what works in their mother tongue may not work in English. Authors on the subject of
1
Androsenko, Viacheslav, A Refresher Course In Communicative Teaching,
FORUM, no 2.April, 1992
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translation generally agree that consciousness-raising (the raising of learners' awareness of grammatical features without directly instilling the rules) is more important than saving time. Classroom translation activities should be based on the pupils' and teacher's interaction in actually translating a text and discussing alternative means for expressing the author's message. In doing this we are meeting several needs: allowing pupils to live out real translation experiences; raising their awareness that there is never one sole perfect end-product of translation; generating a conscious decision-making attitude when pupils compare different possibilities for the same text, or part of a text, and are faced with options; discussing the text's real and hidden meanings - not only in the original form but also in the translated version and how they compare, thus analyzing the semantics of both languages; refining pupils' knowledge of linguistics and cultural intricacies based on the discussion of the text material; clarifying and standardizing translation norms that apply to proper names, including geographical and institutional designations; cueing pupils into frequent and effective use of bilingual and monolingual dictionaries, glossaries, and thesauruses; generating pupils' research instinct - i.e., guiding them as to what they most more fully understand in order to produce a more adequate translation, where they can research the subject or the terminology, how deep they should go in searching for background information, and who (which kind of professional) can be^elp;
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selecting appropriate transfer mechanisms for situations where it is necessary to overtranslate or undertranslate or where the translation should include a footnote or even where a word or expression should appear in the target language or in another foreign language. The use of translation as a classroom activity The way translation is used in the process of teaching depends on the year of study, on the intellectual level of pupils and on the purpose of using the translation. The teacher can use the translation to save time in doing exercises for fixing vocabulary or grammar structures. The explanations in Romanian are used when the semantic value of the English word differs from that of the Romanian word and the false-friends appear. Library = biblioteca Camera = aparat de fotografiat Magazine = revista In the cases in which the use in the two language is different: We are having our English lesson now = Avem ora de englezd The weather was bad but we had a good time = Am avut vreme proasta dar ne-am distrat bine. Or when the teacher presents words representing notions unknown by the pupils. An alternative to presentation through translation is situational presentation. For example, it is possible to show a picture of a "dog" or a "dove". It is important to note that a picture may mean different things to different people. The meaning which is supposed to lie in the context, is an abstraction, as any applied linguist would say. In this case the learner has to The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 15 make that abstraction; to say the same thing in mentalistic terms, the learner must from a "concept" from the picture; and this concept must be drawn from his mother tongue or, what is far less likely, created and delimited anew. If the learner is not try to make meaning generalizations of this kind, he is not learning successfully. In the case of "dove", the learner may hit on the concept of "dove" supplied by the mother tongue, in which case situational presentation is, from the semantic point of view, at least, neither better nor worse than translation. (It is not denied that children enjoy picture or that for his reason it is
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desirable to use them, but this is a separate consideration, not relevant to the semantics of presentation methods.) Or, what is quite possible, the learner may think of the concept "bird'' when he sees the picture of a "dove"; in fact, is quite legitimate. In such a case, translation would have been better from the semantic point of view, assuming that the learner foes not have the time or the facilities to correct or refine his concept in the process of communication over a period of time, as in the case of first-language learning. It is a well-know fact that wrong concepts of this kind are formed all too often in direct method teaching. There is a third possible way in which a child can react to direct-method teaching with the help of pictures or situations: when the teacher point to "a dove" and says "Is it a dove?" or pats his chest and say "I am a teacher" the learner may repeat the words without making any definite meaning generalization. When this happens, the learner is not mistaking the meaning, but he is not learning anything significant either. Moreover, the use of language in communicative situations, or in relatively artificial situations of the traditional kind, are not alternatives to translation. They can and may have to be combined with the use of the mother tongue (or English) for explanations. The comparable items in this case are not situation and mother tongue but the two languages in question. In fact when the learner comes across a not easily translatable word like embarrass in a story, the
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story has already provided him with a context of social situation with all its elements complete, which no amount of situationalization in the classroom can normally match. It is when natural or stimulated communication in speaking or reading situations breaks down because of language difficulty that explanations become inevitable, and then the choice is between English and the mother tongue and not between situationalization and translation. It is possible that such a breakdown in communication (not to mention a failure to establish a situation that call for communication) occurs when the teacher pats his chest situationally to present the sentence I am a teacher - although the teacher may not realize it immediately, any more than the learner understands the teacher's meaning immediately. The translation avoided in the first stages of language learning can be used as a means for evaluating the grammar knowledge or vocabulary for the pupils in the 7 th or 8th grades. The teacher will give the model, then the stimuli, and then the pupils will make the translation, following the substitution model: Teacher: N-am tiut ca vei pleca la ora 5. Pupils: I didn 't know you would leave at 5. Teacher: vei merge cu avionul. Pupils: I didn't know you would travel by plane Teacher: te vei intoarce sambata. Pupils: I didn't know you would come back on Saturday. The translation should be carefully used; the sentences should contain a certain vocabulary or grammar problem. Any literary difficulties or unknown structure should be avoided. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom YJ Translation is a valuable skill by means of which the person who knows a language can convey information to those who do not know it. This skill can hardly be attained under secondary-school conditions. Translation as a means of teaching the foreign language is not recommended for several reasons. By the continual parallelism that must maintained with the mother tongue, it diverts the attention from the foreign language; Since the grammatical systems of any two languages differ, translation leads to false analogies which are detrimental to learning;
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Since few words are equivalent in two languages, word-for-word translation give rise to serious mistakes; Since phrases and idioms differ in any two languages, translation produces ambiguity. Translation is recommended as an incidental exercise, a means to check comprehension of structures or full sentences should always be from English into Romanian. Translation gives the solution required more quickly and sometimes more clearly than a long explanation in the foreign language. But this statement should not lead the teacher to the conclusion that it is the only procedure for interpreting foreign words, as it sometimes happens in school practice. Translation is the easiest and most convenient means of interpretation, but it does not challenge the pupils to work. Therefore it should be used as the last step in the process of word interpretation, as a means of checking the comprehension of words. We distinguish between: the independent translation of the word by the pupils after its interpretation by means of one or some of the formerly mentioned techniques; The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 18 the translation of the word by the teacher only in cases of extreme necessity, when he realizes that none of the other techniques will give good results. The more pupils advance in the learning of the language, the less is this necessary. In the case of some problems where the contrast between the native language and the foreign language pattern produces interface, translation is advisable as the last stage of drilling. It is always the teacher who gives the native language pattern, never the pupils. We think of problems like: the sequence of tenses, the use of the present perfect tense, the use of the article, the place of adverbial modifiers, rules for changing from direct to indirect speech. Teacher: Credeam ca este aici. Pupil: I thought he was here. Teacher: tiam ca copilul doarme. Pupil: I knew that the child was sleeping Teacher: M-a intrebat unde este cartea lui de engleza. Pupil: He asked me where his English book was. When having decided to use translation as a teaching method, the teacher may structure the lesson as follows: the teacher teaches pupils a grammar problem by giving theoretical explanations and examples;
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the pupils are asked to do some exercises from the manual or made up by the teacher; the pupils are asked to give their own examples (sentences, short conversations including the grammar problem taught previously); The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom \ 9 d) the teacher dictates to the pupils some sentences in Romanian that they will have to translate into English, paying special attention to the part containing that grammar problem. The translation can be done either orally or in writing, but it is advisable that it should be done in writing because: by writing, the knowledge is better fixed in mind; pupils may use it as a model when learning and doing homework. The teacher has two choices: either to let the pupils do the translation by themselves, check some pupils to go to the blackboard and write the correct translation so that everybody will correct the mistakes or to ask some pupils to write the translation on the blackboard from the beginning. The latter choice takes less time but it is less efficient from the pedagogical point of view. When checking pupils' knowledge, the teacher can use translation in the following ways: he asks the pupils to be examined to go to the blackboard and gives him one or more sentences to translate; he dictates a text (especially with the higher years of study) and ask the pupils to go in turn to the blackboard and lets each of them translate a sentences. Examining a single pupil for the whole text must be avoided because the lesson risks to get boring. If there are pupils who are willing to translate more, they may be given to do the translation of a whole text as a homework; he asks the pupils to take a test paper in which their task is to translate some sentences (seldom texts); The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 20 Sometimes, especially with high school pupils, the teacher may act in the following way: he enters the classroom and, after the usual dialogue with the class, he says: ""Let us do a translation today without mentioning the words: check up, fix knowledge, mark, anything that could make pupils feel embarrassed, without even opening the catalogue. The psychological effect will be obvious. The atmosphere will be less strained and, as a
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consequence, the pupils will cooperate better, the lesson gaining the characteristics of an act of creation. The more difficult the text is, the greater the satisfaction will be. A possible lesson plan for a translation class The aim is to show that translation can be communicative, intellectually challenging, and fun for the whole class. Stage Preparation Teacher Focus Select two equivalent versions (A & B) of a challenging short Warm-up text Introduce the topic area without preteaching Explanation of aims vocabulary Introduce translation activity, explaining that T is not to use LI at all but will assist with L2 rephrasing, and stressing that translations will not Translation into LI be graded in any way pair pupils, allowing strongest the option translate into LI, using bito practise reading for detail; to draw on ask for clarification if to remove stress and required eliminate pressure on T to use any LI discuss the topic to stimulate schema Pupil Focus Stage Aim
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 21 to work alone, and ensuring equal numbers of A & B; set a time limit (10Translation into L2 15 min) collect in originals /monolingual dictionaries if desired, and with the weaker of the pair as scribe translate into L2 the pupils' expertise in LI to generate versions and build confidence to encourage pupils to
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and have pupils exchange A & B versions; discourage consultation with original authors; stress that there is no
text translated by other Ss, with total freedom to restate, reinterpret
use what L2 they have to render a version to experiment
one correct answer It is important for the class to understand that the teacher will not be grading the translations so pupils can and indeed SHOULD be creative in getting around problems without the teacher's help. Although pupils, up to intermediate level, will probably discuss the task in their LI, they are likely to remain focused on L2 reading, writing, and structure throughout. The LI is used as a valuable resource for remaining on task in the 12. And finally, the reporting stage provides an ideal opportunity for an authentic speaking and listening task in the L2. Most pupils are very interested in sharing their results. They wish to know whether their own triumphs and mistakes are common to the class. A good communicative language lesson will: Derive input from authentic sources; Involve learners in problem-solving activities in which they are required to negotiate meaning; Incorporate tasks, which relate to learners' real-life communicative needs; Allow learners choices in what, how and when to learn; Allow learners to rehearse, in class, real-world language tasks; The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 22 Require learners and teachers to adopt a range of roles, and use language in a variety of settings in and out of the classroom; Expose learners to the language as system; Encourage learners to develop skills in learning how to learn; Integrate the four macroskills; Provide controlled practice in enabling microskills; and Involve learners in creative language use. ? Oxford (1990) explains that "challenging" language activities are those
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which have "cognitive depth"; that is to say they draw on a variety of intellectual processes. These are exemplified below: Thinking about both form and meaning (recoding meaning into L2 form); Understanding (recoding content so meaning is consistent with the original text); Reasoning and inferencing (interacting with the text; choosing the appropriate vocabulary and form); Generalising (extracting the gist); Solving problems (circumlocuting and simplifying form); Monitoring output (checking translated version); Evaluating and comparing alternatives (completing the comparison chart); Deduction (noting patterns). Communicative and cognitive features of this lesson plan: Allow for any type of input, including authentic sources;
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 23 Involve learners in problem-solving as they negotiate the meaning of the original text in order to find a suitable translation and as they attempt to encode each others' expressions encouragement to simplify, paraphrase and guess is most helpful at this stage; Relate to such real-life communicative needs as translating in class for peers, decoding signs and notices in the environment, translating notes and letters for friends and relations; NOT really allow learners choices in what, how, or when to learn, in that the text is selected and presented by the teacher, who then instructs the pupils on precisely what they have to do; Allow learners to rehearse such real-world language tasks as asking for explanation and exemplification, evaluating choice of form, presenting information in L2, organizing data; Require learners to act as experts in LI and take the responsibility for the final product and the teacher to adopt the role of learner and observer, besides being an informant; Expose learners directly to the contrasting language systems of LI and L2 as they assess and explain to each other the appropriacy of their translated versions; gain the Encourage the learners to become more tolerant of their "mistakes" confidence to experiment, rely on their own intuition and
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reduce dependence on asking the teacher for translations; Integrate reading and writing, speaking, and listening; Provide guided practice in reading for gist and for detail, listening for specific information, and oral presentation; Involve learners in creative language use as they attempt to find negations, simplifications, and circumlocutions to render a version. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 24 A multiplicity of cognitive tasks is clearly involved in this lesson. Their primary value is that they help the learner to develop cognitive strategies, which will subsequently improve his or her ability to learn or remember new information. Thus, translation might naturally be expected to promote vocabulary development and structural pattern recognition, as well as improve reading comprehension and writing skills. There are potential pitfalls to be considered such as the time spent deliberating translation into the mother tongue. A time limit is essential to help regulate this. It is a lesson that depends on cooperation. Pupils who are not on task during the translation will cause problems when those who are ready to back-translate into English fmd they have too little materia). Teacher monitoring and encouragement are crucial at this time. Very weak pupils will depend strongly on others and so there is always the temptation for them to simply give up and have partners do the work for them. Assigning such pupils the role of secretary helps. Following the use of a translation activity, pupils might be keen to use translation of what the teacher says to help each other. There is a real danger of weak listeners coming to rely on this and losing motivation to listen to the teacher at all. It should be made clear that translation has a place, but not in every class. Pupils from a lower-intermediate to an advanced level are generally capable of accomplishing the task with minimal assistance. They enjoy it immensely. This activity is a valuable break from more routine classroom ?itiT*isLies;it"is,n'igrily challenging with real meaning for the learners. After all, they frequently translate in their heads or to each other whether one wants them to omot! Since advanced pupils' knowledge of a foreign language is not always comparable to that of native speakers, attempts at translating should always proceed in the direction from foreign language to native language - until the
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 25 pupils become comfortably familiar with the grammatical, lexical, and stylistic Steps: 1. Pupils are assigned a translation of a text of approximately 300-500 words (at the initial stage from English into their native language and at a later stage - from native language into English). It is important the genuine passages be used for translation, as only then will pupils benefit from a comparative study of two language systems. Texts that distort the language in order to make the translation process "easier''' for the pupil should be avoided. It is suggested that non-literary texts be used in this activity. Because of their affective nature, literary forms are very difficult to interpret effectively. Early attempts should incorporate the register of mass media (diplomatic visits, diplomatic relations, new governments, international trade exchange, etc.) and the general humanistic register. At later stage attempts can be made to use the popular scientific register, which might include texts on, for example, the sources of energy, astronomy and space exploration, certain basic aspects of medicine, computers etc. Pupils will not be discouraged if their assignments are graded in difficulty. Carefully selected passages allow the pupils to focus on a few problems only. Group preparation of the pupils' assignment will reduce the difficulty of the task. While pupils are busy with their translation, the teacher prepares the text for class activities. At least four separate versions (preferably type written) should be produced. During a following class period pupils' translations are discussed, difficulties explained, and problems solved. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter 11: The use of translation in the classroom 26 4. Divide the class into groups of three. In each group assign the roles of an expert, a journalist and an interpreter. Place the interpreter between the other two. At the initial stage of the activity, groups should take their turn to practice aloud. This is essential because the teacher must monitor the pupils' performance very carefully and take note of, and later comment on, major departures of the "interpreter" from the original text, mainly on omissions of portions of the input text, additional of the word and phrases not be found in the
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source text, and substitution of words, phrases, etc., that deviate semantically from source-language ones. The first question is now read (in English), interpreted into the native language, and answer is read (in the native language) and interpreted into English. Follow this procedure until the entire text has been practiced. If possible, have the performance recorded on a cassette. Pupils should be told not to be discouraged by initial failures. Consecutive interpreting requires good memory and a substantial amount of everyday practice. Yet, since pupils are interpreting the text they already know, their task should not be too difficult. If you discover that your pupils' short-term memory is poor, try to improve it by a few warm-up exercises at the beginning of each class. Play the tape back. Discuss it with the pupils. Point the possible mistake; suggest improvements. And do not forget to correct phonetic mistakes on the part of the who read his/her role!. Let other groups practice the text in the same way. In the course of the exercise the pupils change their role. Upon completion of the activity, encourage pupils to comment on their classmates' performance. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 27 Variation activities Studying published translations. Instead of having pupils work on the translation, have them analyze, suggest alternatives, and criticize both good and poor translations already published. This activity can also be done after the pupil himself has translated the text without access to the published version. Translating a translated text. The translated version of the chapter of a novel written by a well-know native-language author can be excellent material for this exercise. The pupils will use the English translation, for instance, as their source text and translate it into Romanian. If, initially, teachers do not tell pupils where the text is from, there is little risk that they will merely copy the original creation without doing any work of their own. After the pupils have completed their translation, they will compare it to what the author really wrote. This activity is an excellent exercise, since it allows for an analysis of where certain features of the original text were omitted. Analyzing the difficulties found in a text without actually translating it. This helps pupils focus on their own problematic areas and learn to evaluate the difficulty of a text - an important factor when pricing a translation.
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Translating only parts of the text i.e., institutional and geographical names, noun phrases with their modifiers (a problem area for most pupils), verb phrases (including verb tenses, modals, passive voice, causative constructions), connectors (conjuncts, coordinators, and subordinators), interrogative sentences etc. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 28 Comparing different translations of the same text. This activity can be based on pupils' work or, preferably, on published versions of the same text. It is possible to compare poems or classical plays, such as Shakespeare's, as translated by various authors. This can lead into a discussion of the objectives of each translation and whether the translated version is really a cultural, social, or historical adaptation of the original text. Translating proverbs and metaphors (or finding equivalents in the target language). This can lead into a discussion of the cultural implications of these language cliches. 7. Rewriting a translation prepared previously. This activity has a deeper effect when the pupils' translation has been done some time earlier (two weeks, for example) and has already been considered satisfactory. The rewriting process concentrates on alternative forms in the target language without recurring to the original text. The aim is to change as much possible, not just to try to find better ways of expression. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 29 APPLICATION Let us suppose we choose the following text to be translated in an advanced classroom: "Walking one day in Kensington Gardens, I strolled into the enclosure of the kiosque and sat down on the side sheltered from the east, where fashionable people never go. The new-fledged leaves were swinging in a breeze that kept stealing up in puffs under the half-bare branches; sparrows and pigeons hunted on the grass for crumbs and all the biscuit-coloured chairs and little round-topped marble tripods, with thick inverted cups and solitary bowls of sugar, were sending out-their somewhat bleak invitation. A few of these tables were occupied; at one sat a pale, thin child in an enormous white hat, in the company of a cherry little red-cross nurse and a lady in grey, whose pathetic, half-thankful eyes betokened a struggling convalescence; at another, two ladies Americans, perhaps with pleasant, keen, brown faces, were munching rolls; at a third, an old square man, bald and
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grey, sat smoking. At short intervals, like the very heart's cry the Spring day, came the scream of the peacocks from across the water.'" The text will be read by pupils from the beginning to the end so that they may get the idea of what it is about although they might not know the meaning of some words. Thus the reading skill is involved in the act of translating. If the text is dictated, the listening skill is involved. It is important that the pupils fully understand the text (type, ideas, device). The note used in the text should be kept when rendering it into Romanian. We can ask the pupils to pay attention to some words whose meaning can be deceiving: pleasant, enclosure, bleak. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 30 We allow the use of dictionaries so that the pupils find out the meaning of the words they don't know. Or we may give a list with the meanings of the words that we suppose the pupils don't know or are not sure of (new-fledged, betokened). By doing this we may save time, but it would be better to let the pupils work with the dictionaries. We ask the pupils to pay attention to the word-order, to the grammar problems or to any other difficulties the pupils could face when doing the translation. We may check understanding by asking the pupils to orally retell the text, paying attention to details. The translation may look like this: "Pe cdnd ma plimbam intr-o zi prin Kensington Gardens, am intrat la intdmplare intro ceaindrie in aer liber si m-am asezat pe partea addpostita de lumina de rasdrit, acolo unde persoanele bine nu se due niciodatd. Frunzele proaspdt desfacute se legdnau intr-o adiere, care se totfurisa cu mici izbucniri pe sub crengile pe jumatate goale; vrdbii si porumbei cercetau iarba in cautare de jirimituri; si toate scaunele de culoarea biscuifilor i mesele rotunde de marmura cu trei picioare, cu cesti groase rasturnate i zaharnife singuratice emanau o invitafie oarecum mohordta. Cdteva dintre aceste mese erau ocupate; la una din ele sedea un copil palid si slabuf cu o uriasa pdldrie alba, in tovardsia unei mici surori de la crucea rosie si a unei doamne in cenusiu, ai cdrei ochi patetici, in parte recunoscatori, fdceau dovada unei convalescence in curs; la alta, doud doamne - americance poate - cu chipuri pldcute, agere, bronzate, mestecau chifle; la o a treia masd, un batrdn solid, chel, cdrunt, edea sifuma. In rastimpuri scurte, asemeni unui strigat din chiar
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inima acelei zile deprimdvara, se auzea fipatulpaunilor depeste apa' The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 31 We may let the pupils do the translation on their own and in this case we will ask some of them to read their versions. It is possible to have different translations of the whole text, of parts of it or of some words. We will accept any variant which does not distort the meaning of the English text and ask the pupils to pay attention to the possible mistakes or may correct them together with the pupils. Such texts can be used only with pupils in higher years of study. We may choose some smaller or easier texts to be translated with advanced pupils in the 7th or 8th grades who want to improve their translating skills or with pupils who prepare themselves for some tests or for the Olympiad. In these cases the steps of translating are the same as mentioned above. When the target language is English, we may choose some sentences or short texts to check pupils' ability to deal with certain problems of grammar or vocabulary. If the teacher tells the pupils what is he/she going to check, it will be easy for them to complete the tasks. A) For example, the teacher has just taught Present Perfect and he/she wants to check if the pupils have understood the differences between this tense and the Simple Past. He/she dictates some sentences to the pupils, asking them to translate the sentences into English. De cdnd inveti engleza? Ce-aifdcut ieri? Maria a vazutfilmul lunea trecutd. Te atept de o ord. In the above mentioned examples the pupils are expected to use Simple Past (sentences 2 and 3) and Present perfect (sentences 1 and 4). B) We choose some sentences without telling the pupils what we expect from them. This type of activity may be suitable in revision lessons when the teacher is going to check various problems of grammar or vocabulary previously taught. In this case the pupils may get confused. It is possible that some pupils who have translated correctly the sentence "De cdnd inveti englezal ", by using Present perfect continuous immediately after having been taught this tense, should not be able to translate it in the same way when it appears among other sentences in which another tense is used. Therefore pupils must acquire the ability to guess what is expected from them when they are given a certain sentence. This will also be important when taking examinations or test papers. For example, the pupils are given the following sentence: Ploua deja de ojumatate de ora cdnd am ajuns la cabana.
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The pupils are supposed to guess that they are expected to: Use the past perfect continuos for Ploua; Use the past tense simple for am ajuns; Place correctly the adverb deja; The English variant should look like this: 7/ had been raining for half an hour when I arrived at the chalet. Another example: Ai nevoie de multe cunostintepentru a da cuiva un sfat bun. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 33 The pupils are expected to: Translate cunostinte by knowledge because this word has no plural in English; Translate un sfat bun by a sound piece of advice because the word advice also has no plural form and can not the indefinite article an; Pay attention to the subordinate clause of purpose. The English variant is: You need a lot of knowledge to be able to give somebody a sound piece of advice. In the above mentioned examples the pupils do not have the possibility to make a choice in translating the sentences. But there are some cases in which they do. For example: 1. Se crede ca tdnarul care a gasitportofelul furat este vecinul meu. The choices are: It is believed that the young man who had found the stolen wallet, is my neighbour. The young man who had found the stolen wallet, is believed to be my neighbour. 2. As vrea safiu in stare sa rezolv aceastd problemd. The choices are: / would like to be able to solve this problem. I wish I were able to solve this problem. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 34 In both examples, both choices are correct, but in order to give a certain elegance to the translation, the second variant should be chosen.
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C) We can also choose a passage from a literary work. The translation may be written or spoken or both. "Cdnd reveni, pe la 8 jumatate, femeia era tot acolo pe boned, rasfoind plictisita revista. Emanuel sovdi cdteva clipe, apoi se reintoarse si cautd o cafenea. Ceru un ceai si-l bau pe indelete, gdnditor. Cerul incepea sa se limpezeasca si se vestea o dimineafd caldd. Dupd vreo jumatate de ceas, se ridicd siporni agale spre statia de autobus. Fata se plimba enervatape trotuar. Emanuel simp cum inima incepe sa i se zbata, dor isi continud drumul si, privindfix inaintea lui se indrepta spre autobuz. Gasi un loc chiar in spaatele soferului i se asezd rasufldnd usurat. " (Mircea Eliade, "In curte de Dionis") The stages of translation are: The text is read carefully; Help pupils to find the difficulties of the text; These can be : grammatical, lexical or both. Allow the pupils to use the dictionaries. A possible translation of the text is: "When he came back, at about half past eight, the woman was still there on the bench, bored, leafing through her magazine. Emanuel hesitated for a few moments, then he went back again and looked for a cafe. He asked for a tea and drank it at easy, thoughtfully. The sky was becoming clearer, and it seemed it would be a warm morning. Half an hour later, he stood up and walked at leisure to the bus stop. The girl was pacing nervously up and down the side walk. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 35 Emanuel felt his heart beat faster, but he went on, and, staring straight ahead of him, he walked to the bus. He found a seat right behind the driver and sat down, feeling relieved". While the pupils are working on their translation, some problems may occur. Translation is demanding, and often frustrating. Sometimes the pupils may give up, or even try to find the translated version of the text at the end of the book. If a group becomes blocked, put them together with a group that has found a solution or suggest that they move on to another part of the text. Translation is a process of thought and afterthought. The best ideas may occur later. At times, there will be disagreement. The teacher is expected to arbitrate. If agreement cannot be reached, it would be better to list the contentious sentences on a wall-chart and ask
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the pupils to add their suggestions after some time. The use of translation means a certain mental discipline. Some pupils will try to paraphrase, rather than translate. If this occurs we may need to insist on full written translations. Some pupils will be frustrated if they are kept waiting, other if they are broken off before they have finished. To avoid these frustrations, we allow the groups to join up for discussion in their own time, when they are ready, or by setting strict time limits. The material used should be original. The progressive ordering of the material can be done according to several kinds of difficulties: syntactic difficulties where the pupils will encounter sentences that are complex in form; lexical difficulties, where the pupils will have to use their dictionaries frequently to understand the meaning of word; The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 36 terminological difficulties, where pupils will have to research the terms used in the target language; content difficulties, where the overall meaning of the text is obscure, due to the lack of background information on the subject. The teacher will play a receptive role - supervising, orienting, correcting, suggesting, indicating research facilities - rather than an active one of transmitting information. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 37 Reasons for using translation in the classroom The main reasons for using translations in teaching English can be the following: l.Influence of the mother tongue We all have a mother tongue, or first language. This shapes our way of thinking, and to some extent our use of the foreign language (pronunciation, choice of words, tone, word order, etc.). Translation helps us to understand better influence of the one language on the other, and to correct errors of habit that creep in unnoticed (such as the misuse of particular words or structures). And, because translation involves contrast, it enables us to explore the potential of both languages - their strengths and weaknesses 2. Naturalness of the activity Translation is a natural and necessary activity. More so, indeed, than many of the
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fashionable activities invented for language learners. Outside the classroom - in offices, banks, factories, shops and airports - translation is going on all the time. Why not inside the classroom? 3. The skills aspect Language competence is a two-way, not a one-way system. We need to be able to communicate both ways: into and from the foreign language. Textbooks, understandably, place great emphasis on competence in the foreign language. Yet little guidance is given on how to communicate back into the mother tongue, The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 38 as many professionals need to do in their daily work. Translation is ideally suited for practising this vital skill. 4. The reality of language The proper material of translation is authentic, not 'made up' language. And all language is relevant to translation - all styles and registers of both speech and writing. Translation need not be confined to literature! 5. Usefulness As a language learning activity, translation has many merits. Chief among these are: It is activity which, by its very nature, invites speculation and discussion. In translation, there is rarely a 'right' answer (though there may be several wrong ones!) It is not necessary for all the work in class to be done alone and in writing. Pupils can work in groups for oral discussion. The texts, which can be very short, serve as material both for reading and for discussion. Translation develops three qualities essential to all language learning: accuracy, clarity, and flexibility. It trains the learner to search (flexibility) for the most appropriate words (accuracy) to convey what is meant (clarity). This combination of freedom and constraint allows the pupils to contribute their own thoughts to a discussion which has a clear focus - the next. Depending on the pupils' needs, and on the syllabus, the teacher can select material to illustrate particular aspects of language and structure with which the pupils have difficulty in English (for instance, prepositions, articles, /^clauses, the passive). By working through these difficulties in the mother tongue, the pupils come to see the link The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter II: The use of translation in the classroom 39 between language (grammar) and usage. An example of this is the use of the passive
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in signs and notices (PARKING PROHIBITED, NO CREDIT ALLOWED) in English. In another language these might be rendered differently (Do not Park Here, We Give No Credit), d) Translators will always be needed. Without them, there would be no summit talks, no Cannes Film Festival, no Nobel prizes, no advances in medicine, science, or engineering, no international law, no Olympic games, No Hamlet, no War and Peace,.... Conclusion As a conclusion 1 may say that the use of tramiatiori m teaching, requires a great degree of classroom organization than does teaching in any other, situations. Without the organizing skills as well as enthusiasm on the part of the teacher, the technique is bound to fail. However, by making your pupils aware of its potential, you can help them to want to use it for themselves. Translation as technique has long been a part of general language-learning courses, and until the '50s was, indeed, the fundamental method used for teaching a foreign language (the grammar method). With the introduction of the audiolingual method, the use of the native language was either banned from the foreign-language classroom or was highly restricted. Nowadays, it's no longer sinful to use the pupil's native language as a resource in order to facilitate foreign-language acquisition. Nonetheless, restoring to the pupil's native language must not be confused with using translation as a learning, or even testing, technique. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 40 Chapter ill MISTAKES IN TRANSLATIONS It's generally known that the main elements involved in a translation are: vocabulary; grammar; pupils' capacity of understanding and interpreting a text. When using translations as a classroom activity, some problems of vocabulary and grammar may bewilder the pupils and generate misunderstandings of texts and therefore leading to more or less serious mistakes in translations. VOCABULARY When learning a foreign language, the first contact between pupils and the language is made by means of vocabulary. The teacher uses simple words like: ball, pen, pencil, school,
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etc. These simple words usually name objects, which can be visualized by the pupils. After they have learnt the basic words, little by little, their vocabulary becomes more complex, they also learn phrases and become aware of the semantic relations between the words of the same language and those of two different languages: homonyms, synonyms, polysemy, deceptive cognates (false friends).
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 41 W.M Rivers said that ""vocabulary cannot be taught. It can be presented, explained, included in all kinds of activities, but it must be learnt by the individuaF. Translation is such an activity. A great part of language in the first stages of learning is made of holophrases, that is subroutines stored as linguistic information units. They can be learnt as unit or can be produced by the help of rules, stored as useful expressions and then translated as a habit. For example constructions such as need repairing, need referring to, feels soft, tastes sour, etc. in sentences like: Your bicycle needs repairing; My shoes need mending; they are worn out. The surface feels soft; The juice tasted sour; have be acquired by the pupil before he became aware of the rules that generate this constructions. In order to better understand and use a word, the pupils should know both the denotation and the connotation of that word. By connotation we understand everything that is implied in connection to that word and by denotation we understand the meaning of the word. The pupils work more with the denotations of the words. They learn a number of words from their manual during the class. But it is essential for the pupils to learn to work with dictionaries, both during the class and at home, while working independently. The use of dictionaries enables the pupils to find out all the meanings of the words. But unfortunately, dictionaries do not mention the connotations of the words, which may be very important in a translation. It is said that a connotation is "what is not said about the word in a dictionary". For example the word honey with its Romanian equivalent miere may suggest: sweetness, love. The word hyena fRom. Hiena), W.M.Rivers, A Practical Guide to the Teaching of English as a Second or Foreign language, Oxford University Press, New York, 1978
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 42 may suggest: danger, rapaciousness, ugliness, etc. We should know the connotations
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of the words in the two languages and be able to find appropriate equivalents in the target language, because the connotation of a word in one language does not always have the same connotation in the other language. For example, let us think of the Romanian word dor and compare it to the English longing. The first one is full of feeling, while the latter sounds cold. It is very important for the pupils to know how to look up in a dictionary. The need to check the meaning and the features of lexical items in the monolingual dictionary should be stressed so as to avoid pupils' producing translations as the following: in attempting to find an English equivalent to the Romanian expression "Pofta buna", the pupils couldn't find an exact translation since Good appetite used alone is meaningless and there is no English phrase that fulfills the same function. Thus, "some sort of modification of a native-language concept to fit a foreign-language equivalent will have to be made'1'1 (Krakowian 1984). Certain expressions that may be applicable pose a problem of style. Pupils would have to interpret the source-language text to select the most appropriate expression - the colloquial Dig in, the more formal Do start, or the ritualistically apologetic / hope you like it or / hope it's all right. Let us have another example. The pupils have to translate the verb a face. They find in the dictionary quite a lot of variants: to make (a cake, a tea, the bed, a mistake, an attempt, a sentence), to do (a job, right, harm, a favour, one's homework, business etc), to drop (a hint), to get (dark, late), to cost, to be worth, to commit, to cook, etc. When the target language is Romanian, let's suppose the pupils have to translate the verbs have or grow. They look up in the dictionary and find the following explanations:
2
Dictionar Englez-Roman, Editura Academiei Romane, Bucuresti, 1974
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 43 To have - a avea, a suferi, a fl atins de, a primi, a capata, a obtine , a lua, a face pe cineva sa intre, a aduce pe cineva in casa, a avea invitati, etc; To grow - a creste, a cultiva, a se dezvolta, a se maturiza, a progresa, etc. Working with dictionary requires attention, patience, talent. Some pupils spend long hours looking up in the dictionary and trying to learn as many words as they can , but yet they do make good translations because such pupils do not have that "sense of the language". In the first years of study some pupils may do the following mistakes: Ana face patul. Ana is doing the bed. Obiectul meupreferat este engleza. My favourite object is English.
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He is growing fat. El create gras. These mistakes are perfectly excusable at the early stages of language learning. But if such mistakes appear with pupils in higher years of study, such mistakes represent a problem. It is very possible that the pupils come across some phrases whose meaning is difficult to grasp and whose literal translation is meaningless. In such cases special dictionaries have to be used. For example the sentence: She made a long face when she heard the news. In a literal translation will be: Afacut ofafa lunga cdnd a auzit noutatea. The correct translation will be: S-a posomorat cdnd a aflat vestea. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 44 Another example could be: She is not quite a clean potato. The literal translation will be: Ea nu este tocmai un cartof curat. Which obviously has no meaning. The correct translation is: Ea nu e chiar usd de bisericd. These problems may appear while trying to translate some proverbs or sayings. For example: A hungry dog will eat a dirty pudding. Will not be: Un cdine fldmdnd va mdnca o budincd murdard. But: Foamea e eel mai bun buedtar. An old ox makes a straight furrow . Is literally: Un bou bdtrdnface o brazdd dreaptd. And the Romanian equivalent is in fact: Gaina batrandface zeama bund. t An ass between two handles of hay. Will not be: Un mdgar intre doi snopi depaie. But: Opersoand care nu stie ce hotardre sd ia.
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 45 //' s raining cats and dogs. Will be translated literally by: Ploua cu cdini sipisici. While the correct translation is: Ploua cu galeata. When translating from Romanian into English, such mistakes may also appear. Nu-mi turna gogosi. Will not be translated by: Don 'tpour me doughnuts. But by: Don't tell me lies/shaves. Or: Don't cut it too fat! Don't tell tall tales! The pupils have to choose the figurative meaning of the word gogosi. For such phrases like the ones mentioned above the use of idiomatic dictionaries can be of much help. In other cases the pupils have to do with the polysemy of some words. For example let's think about the Romanian word: mare in the sentence: E mare! We can refer to: the sea, a big box, a great book, a grown-up person. In the first example we speak about the water which separates two shores, in the second we speak about the size of an object, then the importance of a book and finally an adult person. Once again the context is very important. When the target language is Romanian and the sentences to be translated contain the verb run we may find the following situations: The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 46 Yesterday morning I ran into Mary while I was going to school. Who runs faster: a horse or a man? She has a running nose. I am running out of sugar. It isn 't advisable to run after the bus. The little cat ran away. A few moments ago a car ran into a bus. The translations are as follows: leri dimineafa m-am intdlnit intdmpldtor cu Maria in timp ce ma duceam spre coala.
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Cine alearga mai repede: un cal sou un om? Ii curge nasul. Mi se termina zaharul. Nu e recomandat sa alergi dupd autobuz. Pisicufa afugit. Acum cdteva momente o masina s-a ciocnit cu un autobuz. Homonymy can also raise problems in translating: The bats flew out of the cave.(bats - a nocturnal mouse like quadrupeds = lilieci) He struck the ball with his bat.(bat an instrument for striking the ball in baseball, cricket = bata de baseball, crosa). They worked round the clock. Au muncit 12 ore in sir. The coffee table is round.
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 47 Masufapentru cafea este rotunda. Tata aprins un somn. Father caught a sheatfish. Bebelusul a plans in somn. The baby cried in his sleep. Synonymy can raise more problems than homonymy. Mark Twain said that uthe difference between the proper word and the almost proper word is just like the difference between lightning and a glow worm ". The synonyms can be: perfect synonyms: clever, intelligent; to succeed in doing something, to manage to do something; to kill, to murder, to slay, etc. gard de piatrd. Tall, high where tall is used for people, poles, trees and high for massive buildings, mountains etc. contextual synonyms, which are relative synonyms used in certain contexts: good, kind A good/kind person
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relative synonyms whose meanings are different:
fence, hedge, wall where fence is gard de scdnduri/sdrma; hedge gard viu; wall
Would you be so kind and help me? But sometimes pupils may come across some words which do not have an equivalent in the other language. For example: mamaliga, hora, bors, sarmale, etc. The translator can use the original word in inverted commas or try to explain it by a sentence, phrase:
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 48 Sarmale - a traditional Romanian dish made of mince meat wrapped in cabbage leaves. The false friends (deceptive cognates) often play tricks to translators. Thus actual means real in Romanian; eventually in cele din urmd; magazine -revista, concrete means both concret and ciment and such examples can go on. The denotation can be the same while the connotation is different. Cat pis icd, femeie prefdcuta, serpoaica; Ass magar, prost. When translating phrases formed of as +adjective+as much attention is required. Some of them may be translated literally, the phrase being similar in Romanian: As could as ice/rece ca gheata As quick as lightning / iute cafulgerul As white as snow /alb ca zapada As clear as crystal / limpede ca cristalul As common as good day / simplu ca buna-ziua As sweet as honey / dulce ca mierea Some others necessitate an adaptation, the expression being different in Romanian: As drunk as a lord / beat crita As good as gold /bun capdinea calda As easy as A B C / simplu ca buna-ziua As learn as a rake / slab ca un tir As red as a rose / rumen ca bujorul As ugly as a sin / urdt ca noaptea As merry as a cricket / vesel nevoie mare
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 49 GRAMMAR The second element involved in a translation is grammar. The first contact of the pupil with the grammar of the foreign language is made starting with the first years of study when the teacher presents some rules which the children have to learn by heart because the pupils' level does not allow the presentation of theoretical knowledge. Little by little the pupils became aware of grammar rules and more complex sentences can be made up. Grammar is taught gradually from simple to complex. In the first year of study (when the learning of English starts with the 5 form) the pupils are taught the verbs to be and to have, the Present Continuous Tense, the Present Simple, the Future Tense, the Plural of Nouns, the Personal Pronouns. The use of grammar starts with the presentation of the action which take place in the moment of speaking: Merg la scoala acum. I am going to school now. Elevul scrie la tabid, acum. The pupil is writing on the board now. By doing this the pupil can express actions which take place in the moment of speaking. After that, Present Simple is introduced to make the difference between action which take place in the moment of specking (now) and action which are habits which repeat every day, every night, every week. I go to school every day. Ma due la scoala infiecare zi.
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 50 Every Sunday grandpa goes fishing. Infiecare duminica bunicul se duce lapescuit. The teacher wants to check understanding and the method could be: Ask the children to translate the same verb in different context. Examples: / am doing my homework now. Eu imifac temele acum. I do my homework every day. Eu imifac temele infiecare zi. Pupils will note the differences between the two sentences by the presence of two different adverbs of time: ""acum" and "fiecare zF In the second year (6th form) pupils will learn "Going to" Future, Simple Past, Past Tense Continuous, Present Perfect, the Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives, Adverbs of Manner. Starting with the third year of study the list of the verbal tenses is completed with the Past Perfect, Modal Verbs, Sequence of Tenses, Conditional Clauses, Time Clauses, The Subjunctive, Passive Voice. In order to illustrate the growing of pupils' ability of doing a translation by the use of knowledge of grammar, we could choose a simple sentences and make it more complex. First year: El merge la scoala acum. He is going to school now.
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 50 Every Sunday grandpa goes fishing. Infiecare duminica bunicul se duce lapescuit. The teacher wants to check understanding and the method could be: Ask the children to translate the same verb in different context. Examples: / am doing my homework now. Eu imifac temele acum. I do my homework every day. Eu imifac temele infiecare zi. Pupils will note the differences between the two sentences by the presence of two different adverbs of time: ""acum" and "fiecare zF In the second year (6th form) pupils will learn "Going to" Future, Simple Past, Past Tense Continuous, Present Perfect, the Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives, Adverbs of Manner. Starting with the third year of study the list of the verbal tenses is completed with the Past Perfect, Modal Verbs, Sequence of Tenses, Conditional Clauses, Time Clauses, The Subjunctive, Passive Voice. In order to illustrate the growing of pupils' ability of doing a translation by the use of knowledge of grammar, we could choose a simple sentences and make it more complex. First year: El merge la scoala acum. He is going to school now.
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 52 He said he would go to school later. Poate sd meargd la coald. He can go to school. Are vote sd meargd la scoald. He may go to school. Trebuie sd meargd la scoald. He must go to school. Fourth year: Ar merge la scoald dacd n-arfi bolnav. He would go to school if he weren't ill. coala este frecventatd zilnic de el. School is attended by him every day. Fifth year: Se vafi intors de la scoaldpdnd vei veni to. He will have come back from school until you come. Poate se va duce la scoald. He may be going to school. Probabil se duce la scoald. He must be going to school.
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 53 Sixth year: Isi doreste safi mers la scoala. He wishes he had gone to school. Parinfii insistd ca el sa mearga la scoala. His parents insist that should go to school. Se zice ca merge la scoala zilnic. He is said to go to school every day. Seventh year: Arfi trebuit sa mearga la scoala. He should have gone to school. Trebuie safi mers la scoala pdna acum. He must have gone to school by now. Eight year: Merge la scoala zilnic ca safie bine pregatit. He goes to school every day so that he will be well prepared. Eposibil sa nufi mers la scoala ieri. It is possible that he shouldn't have gone to school yesterday. We must be aware that it takes the pupils eight years of study to get from the first easy sentences to the last more complex ones. Sometimes the rules and the habits are considered ones and the same. The confusion comes from the similitude between the grammar structure of some sentences . In translation, the grammar rules are predominant combined with
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 54 habits. After the pupils get familiarized with a structure which seems easy to translate, they may have problems with the bitransitive verbs such as to envy in sentences like: / envy him his money. II invidiez pentru banii lui. where grammar rules are dominant. Or in the case of the verb to enter in sentences like: He entered the first workshop. where workshop can mean: the room in which there is a workshop (atelier); a session of a conference. So the above mentioned sentence can be translated: *l* A intrat in primul atelier. t* S-a inscris la S-a incadrat in prima secfiune A participat la A fast inregistrat It is necessary that both grammar rules and vocabulary be well known so that the pupils could better understand and translate passive sentences such as. ^^jt the first The welder was registered <^________ -*- a couple of days later The welder was sent the first samples a couple of days later. The passive construction in the first sentence is common both in English and Romanian while that in the second one is specific to English. The sentences may be translated as follows: Peste cdteva / vreo doua zile i s-au trimis sudorului primele mostre. I s-au trimis sudorului primele mostre peste cdteva zile.
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 55 Sudorului i s-au trimis primele mostre cdteva / vreo doua zile max tdrziu. Let us to describe in detail some problems of grammar which may cause mistakes or misunderstandings.
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The article a) English. Examples: Copiiipotfi galagiosi. Children can be noisy (tendency to use the children). Iiplac dulciurile. He likes sweets (tendency to use the sweets). b) Examples: A intrat in clasa. He entered the classroom. Cum sa ajung la gara? How can I get to the station. c) when in Romanian we use the definite article, in English we use the indefinite article. Example: Profesorul preda elevilor. A teacher teaches pupils. A translation like: The teacher teaches the pupils means Un anumit profesor preda elevilor. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 56 d) when in Romanian there is no article, in English we use the indefinite article Examples: El este doctor. He is a doctor. A devenit inginer. He became an engineer. The preposition The use of prepositions may be puzzling for at least four reasons: language; Examples: Rddeau de el. They were laughing at him. A fast incdntat de idee. He was pleased at the ideea. Auplecat cu trenul. They left by train. Aufost surprinsi de sosirea ei.
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the use of the definite article in Romanian might not be necessary in
The
use
of
definite
article
in
English
but
not
in
Romanian.
the preposition used in a language sometimes differ from the one in the other
They were surprised at her coming. Examples: Le cunoscpe amdndoud. I know both of them. El imprumutd carp colegilor de doud oripe lund. He lends books to his colleagues twice a month. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 57 I-am zdmbit. I smiled at him. Accidentul s-a intdmplat noaptea tdrziu. The accident happened late at night. The place of prepositions differ in the two language; Examples: Cu ce ai venit? What have you come by? Pe aceste scdri nu s-a urcat incd. These stairs were not walked on yet. Am cumpdrat dictionarul despre care ti-am vorbit. I have bought the dictionary I told you about. There are a lot of verbs in English followed by prepositions which in many cases change their meaning completely. Pupils have to translate them correctly not literally. Examples: Grandma was looking after the children. Bunica avea grijd de copii. Not: Bunica se uita dupa copii. He passed away last year. A murit anul trecut. Not: A trecut incolo anul trecut. The Noun The most frequent mistakes in translation appear with the number (Singuiaria Tantum, Pluralia Tantum) and with the Genitive and the Dative cases. The preposition from a language is not translated into the other;
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 58 During the first years of study some mistakes may occur regarding the irregular plural of some nouns. Among the mistaken plural forms we can mention: womens instead of women; Mens instead of men; Childrens instead of children. The most common mistakes are those related to the use of English words which have no plural forms: Informatiile sunt gresite. The information is wrong/incorrect. Sometimes pupils tend to translate informatii by informations which is not correct. Noutatile/vestile/stirileprimite astdzi sunt bune. The news received today is good. The translated version The news received today are good is not correct. Mi-a dat cdteva sfaturi bune. He gave me some good advice. ' i He gave me some good advices. Nouns like fish, fruit,deer, sheep sometimes appear in translation as fishes, fruits, deers, sheeps, forms which are incorrect because they have the same form both for singular and the plural. With the Genitive case, the mistake is the use of synthetical genitive where it shouldn't be used. Pupils will translate Peretii camerei sunt albi. By: The room's walls are white. Instead of: The walls of the room are white.
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 59 As for the analytical genitive the possibility of making mistakes is reduced. The Dative raises problems because the pupils don't understand when it is used. The rule says that the preposition to is not used when the indirect object comes immediately after the verb, but it will precede the indirect object if it is placed at the end of the sentence. A sentence like Imprumuta-mi niste carti. Will be translated by: Lend me some books. Lend some books to me. The variant: Lend to me some books is unacceptable. The Subjunctive It is essential for the pupil to know that this mood is associated with something unreal, imaginary, possible, probable or supposed. It is opposite of the indicative mood (which is associated with real actions). Many teachers avoid teaching the subjunctive and pupils grow more and more confused about it. Many texts in English or in Romanian contain a lot of constructions which can not be translated but by using the subjunctive mood. Giving the definition the classification and forms of the subjunctive and also giving some concrete examples the pupils will learn how to use the subjunctive. The Romanian conditional is translated by subjunctive in the following situation: la-si spune adevarul daca l-as sti. I would tell her the truth if I knew it. Daca arfifost invitat arfi venit. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation
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60
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If he had been invited he would have come. Sometimes the pupils have the tendency to use the moods inversely: conditional in the subordinate clause and subjunctive in the main clause. Examples: M-as duce acolo dacd asfi invitat. I went there if I should be invited. Correct: I should go there if I were invited. Dacd arfi aid ar cdstiga concursul If should be here, she won the competition. Correct: If she were here she would win the competition. The Romanian conjunctive is translated by subjunctive in the following situations: As vrea sa am un calculator. I wish I had a computer. E timpul saplecdm acasd. It is time we went home. I-am sfdtuit sa cumpere masina. I advised that they should buy the car. E de necrezut ca el sd nufi terminat scoala. It's unbelievable that he should not have finished school. Sometimes pupils get the idea that the subjunctive and the Past Tense or Past Perfect are one and the same. This will influence translations especially when the target language is Romanian. The subjunctive constructions have only the form of past tense, the meaning being of present or even of future. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 61 I'd rather you told him the truth. is translated by: As prefera sd-i spui adevdrul. and not by: As prefera cd tu ai spus adevdrul. It's high time you went home. will be translated by: E timpul sa pled acasd. and not by: E timpul cd aiplecat acasd. When the target language is English the pupils must have in mind the idea that a Romanian sentence can be translated in English in one, two or more ways. Infinitival constructions or other constructions can replace the subjunctive, the meaning remaining unchanged. E timpul sd-ti cumperi masina. can be translated by:
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It's time you bought the car. (subjunctive) It's time for you to buy the car. (infinitival construction) A insistat sd cumpdrdm flori. She insisted we should buy flowers, (subjunctive) She insisted on us to buy flowers, (infinitival construction) She insisted on us buying flowers, (using the gerund) Eprobabil sdploud. It's likely that it should rain, (subjunctive)
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 62 It's likely to rain, (infinitival construction) It's likely that it will rain, (indicative mood) The old forms of subjunctive are still used in the U.S.A.. In British English it is still used in a following situations: > Official style: The judge demands that the prisoner be brought in. Judecatorul cere ca acuzatul safie introdus. > > In poetry or literary prose: In some expresions: "The tree will wither long before he fair (Byron) Be it so! Asa safie. A year come Monday. Se implineste luni un an. > In some protests: Expenses be hanged! Dd-le incolo de cheltuieli. Modal verbs When using the modal verbs with their basic meanings, pupils do not have difficulties in translations: Pot sd ofac. I can do it. Nu poate veni cu noil He may not come with us! Trebuie sd itifaci temele! The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 63 You must do your homework.
Pagina 58 din 65
Nu vrea sa piece. He will not go. Difficulties appear when we have to express possibility, impossibility, probability, advice, obligation, duty, etc.. Se poate safi plecat. She may have left. Arfi trebuit sa-l inviti. You should have invited him. Some Romanian sentences are formulated in such away, that the pupil could hardly guess they should use a modal verb. De unde sa stiu ce se va intdmpla? How will I know what could happen? Door n-o sapleci! You can't leave! As the verb a trebui expresses obligation, necessity, advice, lack of obligation, interdiction, pupils often make mistakes in translating it. Nu trebui sa alergipe hoi. will be translated by: You must not run on the corridor. and not by: You don't have to run on the corridor. In the sentence: Nu trebuie sa alergi, ai timp destul. Trebuie has the meaning of a lack of obligation, so the translation will be You do not have to run, there is enough time left. The verb aputea may cause problems.
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 64 > Puteam sd-i spun, dar n-am vrut. Incorrect: / could tell him, but I wouldn H. Correct: / could have told him, but I wouldn H. > Puteam inota cdnd aveam 10 ani. This sentence should not raise problems: / could swim when I was 10. When the target language is Romanian, special attention should be paid as some modals followed by different forms of infinitive has different meanings: > > > She must go there, (obligation) She must be going there, (presentprobability) She must have gone there, (pastprobability) Trebuie sd meargd acolo. Probabil merge acolo. Trebuie sdfi mers acolo.
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Verbal tenses Usually the use of the verbal tenses does not raise problems. Voi cumpdra cartea. I will buy the book. Unde te duci? Where are you going? A fast la mare vara trecutd. He was at the seaside last summer. But there are some cases when the pupils should be careful: The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 65 > The use of Present Continuous with an adverb of frequency, when a negative feeling must be expressed. Tepldngi intotdeauna cd nu ai timp. You are always complaining you are short of time. > a) The tense Prezent can be translated by: Simple Present
De obicei bea cafea dimineata. She usually drinks coffee in the morning. b) Present Continuous Tocmai ii bea cafeaua. He is just drinking his coffee. c) Present Perfect O cunosc de mult timp. have known her for a long time. d) Present Perfect Continuous Te uiti la televizor de o ora. ou have been watching TV for an hour. > a) The tense Viitor can be translated by: Future
Iti vol da dictionarul. I will give you the dictionary. b) Future Continuous Maine pe vremea asta va calatori spre Ia$i. Tomorrow at this time she will be travelling to Iasi. c) Future Perfect Continuous Saptamdna viitoare veifi lucrdnd aid de doi ani. By next week you will have been working here for two years.
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d)
Going to Future
The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 66 Sta sa ploua. It's going to rain. e) Present - in Time Clauses > The Tense Perfect Compus will be translated by: a) A plouat. It has rained. b) A plouat ieri. It rained yesterday. c) Past Perfect A plouat inainte ca eu sa ajung acolo. It had rained before I arrived there. When translating a sentence like: Am vdzut filmul, the pupils may give the following variants: / have seen the film (Present Perfect) or I saw the film (Past Tense). If there is a context, the pupils will know what tense to use. a) Am vdzut filmul, deci stiu despre ce este vorba in el. Am vdzut filmul sdptdmana trecutd. Past Tense Continuous I have seen the film, so I know what is it about. I saw the film last week. When translating the Tense Imperfect the variants are: Asculta muzica in timp ce eu spdlam vasele. He was listening to music while I was washing the dishes. b) Past Tense Simple Scria poezii cand era tandra. She wrote poetry when she was young. The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 67 c) Past Perfect Continuous Ma uitam la televizor de o ora cand ai sunat. I had been watching TV for an hour when you called. d) Used to + Verb
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Present
Perfect
Past
Tense
Ascultam muzica zilnic cand eram tineri. We used to listen to music every day when we were young. Sequence of tenses When the verb in the main clause is in the Past tense, many mistakes appear. Three situations are encountered: 1. clause: Zicea ca nu a auzit niciodatd de el. He said he had never heard of him. 2. The action in the subordinate clause takes place at the same time with the action in the main clause: Voia sa stie dacd-mi place filmul. He wanted to know whether I liked the film. 3. clause: A promis ca va suna. He promised he would call. Sometimes the use of Present tense is allowed: Is-a spus ca apaflerbe la 100 C. He was told that water boils at 100 C. The action in the subordinate clause takes place after the action in the main The action in the subordinate clause takes place before the action in the main
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Chapter III: Mistakes in translation 68 The time clause The tenses used in English in Time Clause as the same in Romanian except for the Future Tense which will be replaced by Present, Present Perfect, Past Tense or Past Perfect. II voi intdlni cdnd va iesi in oras. Iti voi da lucrarea de indata ce o voifi terminat de corectat. A promts ca va veni cdnd il voi chema. I will meet him when he goes out. I will give you the paper as soon as I have finished correcting it. He promised he would come when I called him. If the subordinate clause is placed before the main clause, mistakes can appear: Cand voi ajunge acolo te voi suna. the translation will be: When I arrive there I will call you. and not: When I will arrive there I will call you. To avoid this situation the teacher should insist on the fact that "the place of the subordinate clause should not influence the use of tenses".
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The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Conclusions CONCLUSIONS | There are many ways in which a foreign language can be taught. Among the activities which may be of great help is the use of translations. j?y H.G. Widdowson is against the rejection of translation as a teaching / learning technique as he said that the translation can be a very good and useful tool in language acquisition.^\I^^Cm^M. fiv)tk{Jb'I A# ( <$' / Some may say that the purpose of the teacher is to malce the pupils good speakers of English, not good translators. It may be so but I strongly believe that it is y6iy difficult to make the pupils be very good speakers of English without translating in their heads. We must not forget that we are native speakers of Romanian not of English, therefore it is sometimes very difficult to think directly in the foreign language. Long years of study and hard work are necessary if we want to become very good speakers of English. I have often met very good pupils wh|6l have learnt the grammar rules and the basic vocabulary but unfortunately weren't able to apply their knowledge in practice because they didn't have that "sense of language". On the other hand I have met pupils which didn't have to make efforts in learning English as they did have that sense. To them English came naturally. J y rJt rt L Translation has the advantage that it can be used with all years of study ana be combined with other teaching methods. Translation is very complex because it includes: > Skills Listening; The Use of Translations in Teaching English - Conclusions 70 Reading; Writing; > Tasks Looking up in the dictionaries; Skimming; Collecting the information; Independent and team work; > Solid grammar and vocabulary knowledge.
Although the translation seems to be among the "disgraced methods", it is a valuable

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tool in language acquisition.
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Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Using translations in school

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Catford, J. C, A linguistic theory of translation, Oxford University Press, 1965

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the Baltimore 1980

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Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

not words. Through a comparative

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Androsenko, Viacheslav, A Refresher Course In Communicative Teaching,

FORUM, no 2.April, 1992

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Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

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text translated by other Ss, with total freedom to restate, reinterpret

use what L2 they have to render a version to experiment

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Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

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Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

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Dictionar Englez-Roman, Editura Academiei Romane, Bucuresti, 1974

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relative synonyms whose meanings are different:

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.

Vizitati www.tocilar.ro ! Arhiva online cu diplome, cursuri si referate postate de utilizatori.