NAME: NICOLE HARRIPERSAD DATE: 18th November, 2008 LAB # 1 TITLE: Tensile Testing AIM: To determine and compare

the Strength (i.e. Ultimate Tensile Strength and the Yield Strength), Ductility (i.e. % Elongation and % Reduction in area), and Stiffness (Modulus of Elasticity, (E) of brass, aluminium and mild steel. APPARATUS: 1) Samples of brass, aluminium and mild steel, with indentation by gauge mark punch. 2) Tensile testing machine, computer controlled with printout capability. 3) Digital vernier calliper.

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The samples were marked with a gauge punch as 2 centers and the distance measured. The Length, thickness, width of each sample was then measured. The tensile machine was set to its range, the ram adjusted to floor level and the dial indicator and pen recorder adjusted to zero. The samples were securely tightened to the grips of the testing machine, ensuring that the axis of the specimen was in alignment with the direction of pull. A load was then added to the samples at a constant rate. When the yield point was observed, the recorder was turned to standby and the extensometer removed. The samples were loaded further until failure. The broken samples were then removed and placed together and all necessary measurements such as the weight, thickness, length were taken at the breakage point.

COLLECTED DATA:
Table 1: SHOWING THE MEASUREMENTS OF THE SPECIMEN INVESTIGATED PRIOR TO TENSILE TESTING

SPECIMEN 1 ALUMINIUM TENSILE TEST INTIAL GAUGE LENGTH (mm) INITIAL THICKNESS (mm) 94.8 3.20 3.22 3.23 INTIAL WIDTH (mm) 8.11 8.13 8.22 FINAL GAUGE LENGTH (mm) FINAL THICKNESS(mm) FINAL WIDTH(mm)

SPECIMEN 2 BRASS

SPECIMEN 3 MILD STEEL

94.54 2.92 2.99 3.02 8.26 8.31 8.46

84.8 3.07 3.08 3.10 7.73 7.75 7.79

102.57 1.68 7.33

112.81 2.02 6.49

111.17 1.71 5.99

TREATMENT OF DATA: * SEE ATTACHED GRAPHS IN APPENDIX. The data collected, for the test undertaken for each specimen, will be used to determine the objective of the lab. These calculations are shown below.

Aluminium
Strength 1. The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) The UTS was determined by observing the graph and identifying the highest point on the stress-strain curve. The corresponding stress value associated with this point is the Ultimate Tensile Strength of the material. The Ultimate Tensile Strength is 1,634.29 N 2. The Yield Strength The yield strength was determined by observing the graph and identifying the point where a line drawn parallel to the elastic portion of the Force-Extension curve initiating from 0.2% offset of the initial length (Lo) - i.e. from the 0 co-ordinate on the extension axis. The corresponding stress value associated with this point is Yield Strength of the material. Ao = thickness x Width = (3.2 x 8.11) / 106 = 2.5952 x 10 -5 mm2 Yield Strength = Yield Load / Area (A o) Yield Load = 0.2% offset line determined from curve = 0.2% offset = Lo x 0.2 % = 94.8 x 0.002 = 0.1896 Yield Load = 1,125.7 N Yield strength = 1,125.7 / (2.952 x 10 -5 ) = 38.133 M(N/mm2)

Ductility 1. The Percentage Elongation % Elongation of Aluminium = [increase in length / gauge (initial) length] x 100 = [(102.57 94.8) / 94.8] x 100 = 8.2 % % Elongation of Aluminium = 8.2 %

2. The Percentage Reduction in Area % Reduction in Area = (Decrease in Area / Initial Area) x 100 = [(Ai Af) / Ai] Initial Area = Ai = (3.2 x 8.11) / 106 = 2.5952 x 10 -5 mm2 Final Area = Af = (1.68 x 7.33) / 106 = 1.2314 x 10 -5 mm2 % Reduction in Area = [ (Ai Af) / Ai] x 100 = [ (2.5952 x 10 -5 - 1.2314 x 10 -5 ) / 2.5952 x 10 -5 ] x 100 = 0.53 % % Reduction in Area = 0.53 % Stiffness 1. The Modulus of Elasticity (E) Recall: Modulus of Elasticity (E) = [(F / L) x (Lo / A o)] F = F1 F2 L = L1 L2 F = F1 F1 Where: F1 = 800 ; F2 = 200 F = 800 200 = 400 N L = L1 L2 Where: L1 = 0.65 ; F2 = 0.3 L = 0.65 0.3 = 0.35 mm Modulus of Elasticity (E) = [(F / L) x (Lo / A o)] = [ (F1 F2) / (L1 L2) ] x [ 94.8 / 2.5952 x 10 -5 ] = [ (400 / 0.35 ] x [ 3, 652, 897.66 ] = 1, 897, 609, 173 (N/mm2) = 1.898 x 10 9 (N/mm2) = 1.898 G(N/mm2)

Brass
Strength 1. The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) The Ultimate Tensile Strength is 3,474.29 N 2. The Yield Strength Ao = Thickness x Width = (2.92 x 8.26) / 106 = 2.4119 x 10 -5 mm2 Yield Strength = Yield Load / Area (A o)

Yield Load = 0.2% offset line determined from curve = 0.2% offset = Lo x 0.2 % = 94.54 x 0.002 = 0.1891 Yield Load = 1,405.71 N Yield strength = 1,405.71 / (2.4119 x 10 -5 ) = 58.282 M(N/mm2)

Ductility 1. The Percentage Elongation % Elongation of brass = [increase in length / gauge (initial) length] x 100 = [(112.81 94.54) / 94.54] x 100 = 19.33 % % Elongation of Brass = 19.33 % 2. The Percentage Reduction in Area % Reduction in Area = (Decrease in Area / Initial Area) x 100 = [(Ai Af) / Ai] Initial Area = Ai = (2.92 x 8.26) / 106 = 2.412 x 10 -5 mm2 Final Area = Af = (1.71 x 5.99) / 106 = 1.0242 x 10 -5 mm2 % Reduction in Area = [ (Ai Af) / Ai] x 100 = [ (2.412 x 10 -5 - 1.0242 x 10 -5 ) / 2.412 x 10 -5 ] x 100 = 57.54 % % Reduction in Area = 57.54 % Stiffness 1. The Modulus of Elasticity (E) Modulus of Elasticity (E) = [(F / L) x (Lo / A o)] F = F1 F2 L = L1 L2 F = F1 F1 Where: F1 = 1200 ; F2 = 400 F = 1200 400 = 800 N L = L1 L2 Where: L1 = 3 ; F2 = 1.45 L = 3 1.45 = 1.55 mm

Modulus of Elasticity (E) = [(F / L) x (Lo / A o)] = [ (F1 F2) / (L1 L2) ] x [ 94.54 / 2.412 x 10 -5 ] = [ (800 / 1.55 ] x [ 3, 919, 568.82 ] = 2, 023, 003, 262 (N/mm2) = 2.023 x 10 9 (N/mm2) = 2.023 G(Nmm2)

Mild Steel
Strength 1. The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) The Ultimate Tensile Strength is 8, 857.14 N 2. The Yield Strength Ao = Thickness x Width = (3.07 x 7.73) / 106 = 2.3731 x 10 -5 mm2 Yield Load = 1,405.71 N Yield strength = 1,405.71 / (2.3731 x 10 -5 ) = 59.235 M(N/mm2) Ductility 1. The Percentage Elongation % Elongation of mild steel = [increase in length / gauge (initial) length] x 100 = [(111.17 94.8) / 94.8] x 100 = 17.27 % % Elongation of mild steel = 17.27 %

2. The Percentage Reduction in Area % Reduction in Area = (Decrease in Area / Initial Area) x 100 = [(Ai Af) / Ai] Initial Area = Ai = (3.07 x 7.73) / 106 = 2.3731 x 10 -5 mm2 Final Area = Af = (1.71 x 5.99) / 106 = 1.0242 x 10 -5 mm2 % Reduction in Area = [ (Ai Af) / Ai] x 100 = [ (2.3731 x 10 -5 - 1.0242 x 10 -5 ) / 2.3731 x 10 -5 ] x 100 = 56.84 %

% Reduction in Area = 56.84 % Stiffness 1. R.T.F. The Modulus of Elasticity (E) Recall: Modulus of Elasticity (E) = [(F / L) x (Lo / A o)] F = F1 F2 L = L1 L2 F = F1 F1 Where: F1 = 6000 ; F2 = 4000 F = 6000 4000 = 2000 N L = L1 L2 Where: L1 = 8.242 ; F2 = 7.64 L = 8.242 7.64 = 0.602 mm Modulus of Elasticity (E) = [(F / L) x (Lo / A o)] = [ (F1 F2) / (L1 L2) ] x [ 94.8 / 2.3731 x 10 -5 ] = [ (2000 / 0.602 ] x [ 3, 994, 774.77 ] = 1.37272 x 10 10 (N/mm2) = 13.7272 G(N/mm2)

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS/GRAPHS:
Upon analysis of the results of the test conducted based on the Force-Extension curves and the calculations carried out the strength properties for the materials were determined. Brass showed the greatest amount of energy absorption relative to mild steel and aluminium, having the highest percentage elongation. This may be accounted by the fact that brass, which contains 70% copper and 30% zinc, is fairly ductile. This is so because, brass which is primarily composed of copper, whose grains are small and materials that possess or contains small crystals or grains have a high ductility and will continue to elongate as stress is applied. Since, brass and mild steel are both alloys, these components will tend to be relatively ductile in the alloy state when compared to iron (Fe) and carbon (C). As a result of the fact that intestinal atoms hinder dislocation movement, in terms of brass, the net or overall strength of the material is increased to a degree greater than their individual components. From the results obtained it shows that mild steel has the least percentage elongation thus, it is the most brittle. This result from the fact that mild steel which is composed of interstitial carbon atoms in the iron structure has impeded the movement of dislocations that is present in the material. Thus, the material has been strengthened and possesses the ability to resist elongation. In terms of the degree of yield and tensile strength through which each specimen behaved when subjected to a load, mild steel had the most load requirement to produce an extension that is relatively small. That is, the load required to produce an extension that is relatively small when compared to the same principle to that of brass and aluminum. This is as a result of similar reasons as explained above.

That is, the strength of mild steel is greater due to the interstitial carbon atoms. In aluminum the load required to produce an extension of 1 or 6 is low when compared to brass to produce the same extension. In aluminum, since it is a pure metal, it only depends on metallic bonding between aluminum atoms to provide its strength. This strength is not sufficient to resist an applied load when compared to brass or mild steel which are alloys and can withstand a relatively large amount of force to induce elastic or even plastic deformation. The Percentage Reduction in Area for that of mild steel was noticed as being the greatest when compared to aluminium and brass. This may be due to the varied width and thickness between the specimens, inconsistency in dimensions therefore this variable will offset the typical result of the reduction in area i.e. Aluminium being the largest and mild steel the smallest. In terms of the fracture mechanics (mode) involved, aluminium and brass will behave in a ductile manner and will result in a ductile fracture appearance. That is, there will be evidence of necking due to a relatively high degree of plastic deformation before fracture. That is, a high degree of slip between the grains causing plastic deformation. In terms of mild steel, since it possesses a short plastic region when compared to aluminium and brass, it showed little plastic deformation and the fracture mechanics involved is that of a brittle fracture. There was also little energy absorption in the fracturing of the material due to its relatively complex (strengthened state) and dense. In contrast, the plastic regions for aluminium and brass are large.

DISCUSSION:
Force Extension curves are an extremely important graphical measure of a materials mechanical properties. This test is termed destructive since the material becomes substantially geometrically altered during testing. In the premature stages of stress application (low strain) region of the curve, many materials obey Hookes law to a somewhat reasonable extent. That is, the stress (force in this case) is directly proportional to the strain (extension in this case) with the constant of proportionality being the modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus. The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness or a materials resistance to elastic deformation. If a specimen is loaded within this linear region, the material wills immediate recovery or return to its exact initial condition if the load is removed. As strain is increased, the materials characteristics begin to deviate from this linearity behaviour i.e. produces a non-linear response. During the deformation, the point at which there is a deviation from the near linear relationship is known as the yield point. At this point, it marks the end of elastic deformation and the start of plastic deformation. This feature is associated with stress-induced plastic flow in the specimen. At this stage of the deformation process the material experiences a reorganization of its internal molecular structure, that is, the atoms are being moved to new equilibrium positions. In crystalline material the mechanism through which there is the occurrence of for molecular mobility is the dislocation motion. Materials that are deficient in this mobility characteristic are brittle as a result of the impingement of dislocations. The stress (force) - strain (extension) curve for brittle materials is typically linear over their full range of strain, eventually terminating in fracture without a substantial amount of plastic flow. MILD STEEL On a typical Force-Extension curve the initial stages represents the Elastic Deformation and is a linear relationship between force and extension. The region circled, in the initial section of the curve represents an abnormality that was observed in the system, which was as a result of a slip of the jaws of the machine on the specimen. This showed an extension on the graph with no corresponding load. That is, since there was a slip involved it the sensors would interpret this phenomenon as an extension.

From the result of the test it was shown that mild steel has a high % Elongation and % Reduction of Area it can be said that steel is the most ductile of the samples tested. However, this factor is theoretically false; the reason for such results is because the mild steel specimen had a lesser width and thickness than of aluminium and brass. Therefore, due to its reduced area it will tend to be more ductile and than its counterparts. In addition, it would explain why the shape of the fracture indicates larger necking region. Thickness and width alters the strength of the material despite the composition of the material. BRASS, ALUMINUM AND MILD STEEL The region identified as N is most likely representative of necking. In the pending of the formation of a necking feature on the specimen the deformation is essentially uniform throughout the specimen. However, upon necking though subsequent deformation the necked region or area becomes smaller and smaller, this simultaneously results in an increase in local true stress increasing until the specimen fails. For most ductile material this necked section is noticeable, however, is very minor in brittle materials. As the neck is reduced in cross-sectional area, there is the presence of a non-uniform geometry and affects the uniaxial stress state to a complex one involving shear components as well as normal stresses. In terms of brittle material, the necked region is not noticeable because there is little plastic deformation before fracture. BRASS This material from the test indicated a ductility that was greater than that of aluminium but lesser than mild steel. That is, the property % Elongation and % Reduction of Area. Also the sample exhibited a noticeable necking region making it a moderately ductile material. A brittle substance has a %Elongation of < 5% while Brass was calculated to be 19.33 % Elongation and 57.54% Reduction in Length. As stated before, the reason for the ductility of brass being greater than that of mild steel is due to the elasticity of a material being greater; thus it would result in a greater slip region thereby inducing plastic deformation. ALUMINIUM From the results obtained it can be said the Aluminium was calculated to be a least ductile material. That is, % Elongation and % Reduction of Area. Aluminium exhibits a smalls necking region and little plastic deformation.

PRECAUTIONS: The specimen was filed to reduced any surface imperfections SOURCES OF ERROR: Errors associated with the thickness and width measurment that was taken. The jaw of the tensile testing machine slipped during the test; this resulted in a misfortune on the graph.

CONCLUSION:

Aluminium
The Ultimate Tensile Strength is 1,634.29 N Yield strength = 38.133 M (N/mm2) % Elongation of Aluminium = 8.2 % % Reduction in Area = 0.53 % Modulus of Elasticity (E) = 1.898 G (N/mm2)

Brass
The Ultimate Tensile Strength is 3,474.29 N Yield strength = 1,405.71 / (2.4119 x 10 -5 ) = 58.282 M(N/mm2) % Elongation of Brass = 19.33 % % Reduction in Area = 57.54 % Modulus of Elasticity (E) = 2.023 G(Nmm2)

Mild Steel
The Ultimate Tensile Strength is 8, 857.14 N Yield strength = 1,405.71 / (2.3731 x 10 -5 ) = 59.235 M(N/mm2) % Elongation of mild steel = 17.27 % % Reduction in Area = 56.84 % Modulus of Elasticity (E) = 13.7272 G(N/mm2) REFERENCES: 1) Callister Material Science and Engineering An Introduction 7th edition 2) www.wikipedia.com/tensile testing.com 3) Lecturers; Dr. Natasha Ramroopsingh and Prof. Chadee Persad