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Prepositions A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed

before a noun or a pronoun: as,


y

"The paper lies before me on the desk."

In that sentence, before is the preposition, me is the governed term of a preposition, "before me" is a prepositional phrase, and the verb lies is the prior term of a preposition. "On the desk" is the other prepositional phrase, and lies is its prior term. To a preposition, the prior term may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb; and the governed term may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, or a participle. Although overlooked in common speech, prepositional phrases should not be placed at the end of a question: as,
y y

"Who do I give this to?" Say, "To whom do I give this?"

Prepositional phrases can be placed at the end of a sentence: as,


y

"She did not sign up for tennis."

Some words are linked with their prepositions, e.g. compared with, similar to, and different from (possibly different than in USA). Commonly used prepositions include:
y y y y

y y y y

About In concern with; engaged in; intent on; on the point or verge of; in act of; concerning; with regard to; on account of. Above In or to a higher place; on or over; superior to; surpassing; beyond; higher in measure or degree. Across From side to side; athwart; crosswise; quite over. After Behind in place; below in rank; later in time; subsequent to; following; in search of; in pursuit of; concerning; in relation to; in imitation of; in conformity with; after the manner of; according to; in accordance with; in proportion to. Against Abreast; opposite to; facing; towards; in opposition to; counter to; in contrariety to; adverse to; by of before the time; in preparation for. Along By the length. Amid(st) In the midst or middle of; surrounded or encompassed by; among. Among Conjoined; associated with; making part of.

y y

y y y y y y

y y y

y y y

y y

Around On all sides of; encircling; encompassing; at random through; about; on another side of. At Expresses the relations of presence, proximity to, nearness in place or time, age or order, state or condition, employment or action, point or position, rate or value, source, occasion, reason, consequence or effect, direction toward an object or end; occupied with. Before In front of; preceding in space, order, rank, right, worth, or time; ahead of; earlier than; previously to; anterior to; an advance of; farther onward; in presence or sight of; face to face with; under the jurisdiction of; open for; free of access to; in the power of. Behind At the back part; in the rear; toward the back part or rear; backward; out of sight; remaining. Below Under, or lower in place; beneath; inferior to; unworthy of; unbefitting. Beneath Lower in place; under; underneath; lower in rank, dignity, or excellence. Beside(s) Over and above; separate or distinct from; in addition to; other than; else than. Between In the space which separates; betwixt; from one place to another; shared by both; affecting mutual relation; with relation to two. Beyond On the further side of; further on or away than; at a place or time not yet reached; out of the reach or sphere of; further than; greater than; exceeding or surpassing. During In the time of; as long as the action or existence of. Except With exclusion of; leaving or left out; excepting. For In consideration of; in view of; with reference to; the cause, occasion, motive or inducement of; the reason of; in favor of; in promoting which; on account of which; indicating the object of an act; toward which; in the character of; instead of which; during; in or through the space or time of; in prevention of which. From Lessening or losing proximity to; leaving behind; by reason of; out of; by aid of; indicates the point of space or time at which the action or state is regarded as setting out or beginning; the source; the cause; the correlative of to. In With reference to space or place, circumstances or conditions, a whole, physical surrounding, personal states, reach, scope, movement or tendency, limit of time. Into To the inside of; expressing penetration beyond the outside or surface; indicating insertion, inclusion, or passing to another form or condition. Of Out from; proceeding from; belonging to; relating to; concerning; about; belonging to; connected with; indicating origin, source, descent, possession or ownership, relation of subject to attribute, material, part, source of a purpose or action, distance in space or time, identity or equivalence, agent, or passage from one state to another. Off Not on; away from. On At, to or against the surface; by means of; with; adjacent to; in addition to; besides; indicating dependence or reliance; at or in the time of; during; in consequence of; toward; for; at the peril of; for the safety of; by virtue of; with the pledge of; to the account of; in reference or relation to; occupied with; in the performance of; in the

y y

y y

y y y

service of; connected with; of the number of; forward; onward; in continuance; without interruption or ceasing; adhering; not off; attached to the body; in progress; proceeding. Over Above, or higher than; across; from side to side of; on the whole surface of; throughout the whole extent of; superiority in excellence, dignity, condition, value or authority; across or during the time of; from beginning to end of; beyond; in excess of; in addition to; more than; across; crosswise. Past Beyond, in position, degree or time; further than; beyond the reach or influence of; above; exceeding; more than; by. Through From one end to the opposite; between the sides or walls of; by means of; by the agency of; over the whole extent of; among or in the midst of; to the end; to a conclusion; to the ultimate purpose. To Indicates motion, course, or tendency toward a limit; connects adjectives, nouns and verbs with their governed terms and contains less the idea of appropriation than for; a sign of the infinitive; extent; limit; degree of comprehension; inclusion as far as; effect; end; consequence; apposition; connection; antithesis; opposition; accord; adaptation; comparison; addition; union; accompaniment; character; condition of being. Toward(s) In the direction of; with respect or reference to; regarding; concerning; tending to; in behalf of; near; about; approaching to. Under Below or lower; lower than; beneath; denoting relation to some thing, condition or person that is superior, or to something that comprehends, includes or furnishes a cover. Underneath Under; beneath; below. Until To; unto; towards; up to; till; before. With Denotes relation of nearness, proximity, association, connection, opposition or hostility, connection of friendship, support, alliance, assistance, countenance, accomplishment of cause, means, instrument, simultaneous happening, immediate succession, consequence, possession or appendage; among; in the company of. Without On or at the outside of; out of; not within; out of the limits of; out of reach of; in absence of, separation from, or destitution of; not with use or employment of; independently of; exclusively of; with omission; unless; except.

A short syntax A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case, as "From whom." Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them, as "He came from Rome," except the following cases: the preposition to, as "To learn to die," and the preposition for, as "For us to learn." Conjunctions A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as,

"You and he are happy, because you are good." Murray.

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copulative and disjunctive; and a few of each class are particularly distinguished from the rest, as being corresponsive. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition: as,
y

"He and I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall readily grant it."

The copulatives: and, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so. A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning: as,
y y

"Though he were dead, yet shall he live." St. John's Gospel. "Be not faithless, but believing." Id.

The disjunctives: or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas.

The corresponsive conjunctions are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other: as,
y y

"John came neither eating nor drinking." Matt., xi, 18. "But if I cast out devils by the spirit of God, then the kingdom of God is come to you."-Ib., xii, 28.

The corresponsives: both, and; as, as; as, so; if, then; either, or; neither, nor; whether, or; though, yet; although, yet. A short syntax Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences, as "Between me and you," except the following cases: introducing a sentence, as "That you have wronged me," corresponding conjunctions, as "Neither sun nor stars," and either and neither, as "It is not dangerous neither." Interjections An interjection is a word that is uttered to indicate a strong or sudden emotion. The following are the principal interjections, arranged according to the emotions which they are intended to indicate:

y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

Of joy; eigh! hey! io! yeah! Of sorrow; oh! ah! hoo! alas! alack! lackaday! welladay! or welaway! Of wonder; heigh! ha! strange! indeed! Of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address; (often with a noun or pronoun in the nominative absolute;) O! Of praise; well-done! good! bravo! Of surprise with disapproval; whew! hoity-toity! hoida! zounds! what! Of pain or fear; oh! ooh! ah! eh! O dear! Oh, no! Of contempt; fudge! pugh! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph! fine! Of aversion; foh! faugh! fie! fy! foy! Of expulsion; out! off! shoo! whew! begone! avaunt! aroynt! Of calling aloud; ho! soho! what-ho! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy! hey! Of exultation; ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah! Of laughter; ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-hee. Of salutation; welcome! hail! all-hail! Of calling to attention; ho! lo! la! law! look! see! behold! hark! Of calling to silence; hush! hist! whist! 'st! aw! mum! shhh! zip it! Of dread or horror; oh! ha! hah! what! Of languor or weariness; heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum! Of stopping; hold! soft! avast! whoh! halt! Of parting; farewell! adieu! good-bye! good-day! see ya! Of knowing or detecting; oho! ahah! ay-ay! Of interrogating; eh? ha? hey? no?

Prepositional in Bold Over the high Coast Mountains and over the valleys the gray clouds marched in from the ocean. The wind blew fiercely and silently, high in the air, and it swished in the brush, and it roared in the forests. The clouds came in brokenly, in puffs, in folds, in gray crags; and they piled in together and settled low over the west. And then the wind stopped and left the clouds deep and solid. The rain began with gusty showers, pauses and downpours; and then gradually it settled to a single tempo, small drops and a steady beat, rain that was gray to see through, rain that cut midday light to evening. And at first the dry earth sucked the moisture down and blackened. For two days the earth drank the rain, until the earth was full. Then puddles formed, and in the low places little lakes formed in the fields. The muddy lakes rose higher, and the steady rain whipped the shining water. At last the mountains were full, and the hillsides spilled into the streams, built them to freshlets, and sent them roaring down the canyons into the valleys. The rain beat on steadily. And the streams and the little rivers edged up to the bank sides and worked at willows and tree roots, bent the willows deep in the current, cut out the roots of cotton-woods and brought down the trees. The muddy water whirled along the bank sides and crept up the banks until at last it spilled over, into the fields, into the orchards, into the cotton patches where the black stems stood. Level fields became lakes, broad and gray, and the rain whipped up the surfaces. Then the water poured over the highways, and cars moved slowly, cutting the water ahead, and leaving a boiling muddy wake behind. The earth whispered under the beat of the rain, and the streams thundered under the churning freshlets.

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